Arthur Lasenby Liberty: A Mere Adjective?

Author(s): Sarah Nichols

Source: The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts, Vol. 13, Stile Floreale Theme Issue (
Summer, 1989), pp. 76-93
Published by: Florida International University Board of Trustees on behalf of The
Wolfsonian-FIU
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Arthur Lasenby
Adjective?
SarahNicholsis Keeperof
Hall,anEdwardian
Lotherton
countryhouse,andCurator of
Ceramicsat LeedsCityArt
Galleries.Shehas an M.A.from
theWinterthur Programin Early overthe worldas Libertycolors.He finishedthe interviewby stating,"Iam
American Culture,Universityof
Delaware.
Fig.1.Arthur
SilverforLiberty
&Co.,printedcottondesign,
ca. 189. Photograph
courtesy
of Nordenfjelske
Kunstindustrimuseum,
Norway.
Trondheim,
(See page81.)
76 DAPA Summer 1989
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Liberty: A Mere
By Sarah Nichols
n 1913,ArthurLasenbyLibertyreceiveda knighthoodin recognitionof
the significantrole he hadplayedin promotingthe decorativeartsin
Britain.He was seventyyearsold andverymuchin chargeof the busi-
ness on RegentStreetwhichstillbearshis name.Theknighthoodgave
the pressa reasonto reviewhis career;andTheDaily Chroniclewrote an
article,"TheHouseof LibertyandItsFounder;" basedon an interviewwith
SirArthur.Amongothertopics,SirArthurdiscussedthe firm'ssuccessin intro-
ducingto fabricsthe delicateandsubtleshadeswhichhadbecomeknownall
afraidthatin thisandotherrespectsI havebecomea mereadjective."'
Literatureon the firm,bothmodernandcontemporaryupholdsthisstatement.
Forexample,cataloguesissuedby the companyas earlyas 1883used the term
LibertyArtFabrics,anda furniturecatalogueof around1910illustratedrooms
designatedas beingin the Libertystyle,althoughthe namewas nearlyalwaysin
invertedcommas.Theartisticandbusinesspressof 1900,who celebratedthe
passingof the centuryandthe firm'stwenty-fifthbirthday,were in no doubt
aboutthe significanceof the storeon RegentStreet,itsfounder;andhis name.
According to an article in the magazineFortunes Made in Business:Life
Struggles of SuccessfulPeople, "Libertyism,if it may be so called, is not a fad or
a fashion,it is a firmlyestablishedmovement,thattouchesthe love of the ar-
tisticwhichis born in everyone[sic]of us, the taughtandthe untaught."2
TheArt
of
Journal February1900, in its article"The
Growthof an Influence," no
was
less insistenton the importanceof Liberty:"Hehasbuiltup an influencethat
haslaidhold of almosteverysectionof society,andhasbeen responsiblefor a
radicalchangein the generalopinionon aestheticquestions.He hasmadea
styledifferentin manywaysfromanythingpreviouslyexistingandhasculti-
vatedit untilit hasgainedan authoritythatis universallyadmitted."3Modernau-
thorsareno less reticentaboutusingLiberty's nameas an adjective.Tworecent
publications,the catalogueof anexhibitionorganizedbyVictorArwasandheld
inJapanin 1983anda book by MervynLevypublishedin 1986,bothfocusing
on the period1895to 1910,haveusedLibertyStyleas theirtitles.4
1. "TheHouse of Libertyand Its Founder"reprintedfrom TheDaily Chronicle [1913],Archives
Department,WestminsterCityLibraries,London, 788/10 (hereafter cited as ADWCL).
2. "TheMakerof The House Beautiful:The Story of Liberty's," FortunesMade in Business:Life
Struggles of SuccessfulPeople, pt. 5 [1900],ADWCL788/9, p. 210.
3. "TheGrowthof an Influence,"TheArtJournal (February1900),ADWCL788/8/1,p. 46.
4. VictorArwas,LibertyStyle (Tokyo:Parco,1983), and MervynLevy,LibertyStyle (London:Weidenfeld
and Nicolson, 1986).
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 sl~~~~i
ia

I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I

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 Whatwas this style, and can it be defined? Certainly,though the press of 1900
made no attemptto do so. Can it be equated with the art nouveau movement,
as suggested by MarioAmayain his 1963 article "Libertyand the Modern Style"
and by the fact that the movement in Italycame to be known as stile Liberty?
Wasthe press of 1900 correct in proposing that the business represented a
movement that had "laidhold of every section of Society and... created an en-
tirely distinct standardof taste"and thatLibertyhad "revolutionizedthe world's
opinion on aesthetic questions"?6Only an examination of the whole scope of
the business in the period around 1900, emphasizing the key areas of fabrics,
furniture,and metalwork, and the views of SirArthurhimself, will reveal the
answers.

Liberty'swas successful around 1900 because of the solid foundations laid from
the moment the store commenced trading in 1875 (initiallywith only three em-
ployees) at 218ARegent Street, grandlyrenamed EastIndia House. By this date,
Libertyhad alreadyamassed twelve years'experience in the retail import busi-
ness, the last ten as manager of Farmerand Rogers'Orientalwarehouse. He
built up his department until it became the most profitableside of the business
as well as an importantmeeting place for advocatesof the aesthetic movement.
When he was refused a partnership,he was readyto set up on his own, no nov-
ice but an experienced and well-connected retailer.7
The vogue for Orientalwares during this period was part and parcel of the
aesthetic movement. By virtue of being at the center of retailing such goods,
Libertyplayed a central role in the establishment and popularity of the move-
ment. He was the friend and, if you believe him, mentor of many key figures, as
this statement illustrates:"Whistleralwayspretended that he valued my critical
judgement, and certainlywe had a feeling of sympathyon the Japanese impres-
sionist side of things. I remember spending many hours with him when he was
engaged on the famous peacock room, and it was a pleasant pose of his to sug-
gest that I assisted him with advice."8This may be wishful thinking on Liberty's
part, although an article written by the architect,designer and key aesthetic
movement figure E.WGodwin, describing Liberty'sshop and its customers in
1876, lauds it as the meeting place of the social elite and the place to see and be
seen.9Liberty'sshop was an overnight success, and the stock immediately ex-
panded to cover many differenttypes of Orientalwares, not simply fabrics.
Soon Libertywas importing goods from other parts of the world as well.
The next stage in his rapid expansion programwas to augment, and for fabrics
eventually to substitute,the imported goods with items manufacturedin
Britain.This was a shrewd move for several reasons. Libertyknew that the
maniafor thingsJapanese,even if it could be sustained,would not keep up with
his ever-growingambitions.Withthe popularizationofJapanese taste in the
West,the inevitable happened; the quality of goods fromJapanlessened, a fact
commented on by Godwin in his 1876 article.Libertycould not hope to control
and dictateto manufacturersfrom far-flungparts of the globe.'?Also realizing

5. MarioAmaya,"Libertyand the Modern Style,"Apollo, February1963, pp. 109-115.

6. "TheMakerof The House Beautiful,"pp. 209-210.
7. See Alison Adburgham,Libertys,A Biography of a Shop (London:George Allen & Unwin Ltd.,1975),
for a general history of the firm.
8. "TheHouse of Libertyand Its Founder."
9. E.WGodwin, 'AfternoonStrolls, 1.AJapaneseWarehouse,"TheArchitect(23 December 1876),
p. 363.
10. Ibid.

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 :.

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twoswatchesof Mysoresilk.
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Photograph

ArchivesDepartment, :~~~~~~~?s~
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that Easternand Orientalfabricswere not ideally suited to everyday English

tastes and the vicissitudes of the climate, he started looking for English manu-
facturersand designers to provide his stock, initiallyusing imported plain silks
or unwoven wool. For example, Nagpore silk made in Indiawas shipped raw to
Englandand dyed by a permanent process especially for Liberty.Umritzacash-
mere, developed by Libertyfrom 1879,was made of pure Indianwool inlported
and woven in Englandto combine softness of touch with durabilityand a price
much lower than the native Indian handwoven cashmeres. Libertyfabricswere
intended for clothes and light furnishings.Tocapitalize on their potential uses,
Libertyset up an upholstery department in 1882 and, in the following year,a
furniture and design department. He did not trust others to make up his
gracefully draping materialscorrectly,so he founded a costume department in
1884. Business was expanding, but it was not an unnaturalprogression. Liberty's
entrepreneurial flairwas sowing seeds for growth not dependent onjaponisme
or an import warehouse but on fabrics,and British-producedfabrics at that.
LibertyArt Fabricswere so well established by 1887 that other manufacturers
and retailers "asdestitute of originalityas commercial honesty"were pirating
and copying them. In thatyear the firm made an application against another
London store, The Armyand Navy,to restrainit from selling fabrics manufac-
tured under the Libertybanner."It is ratherhard to be sure from extant records
what constituted LibertyArt Fabricsin the 1880s. Survivingcatalogues of this
time contain small swatches, primarilyof plain or small Indian print design
(fig. 2), implying that the varietyof colors and the characterof the materialitself
are the importantfactors.An advertisement from the late 1880s has nubile
young ladies scantilyclad in artisticallydraped flowing material,thus stressing
the inherent quality of Libertyfabricsto hang beautifully (fig. 3). Press extracts

(Dress)Fabrics andPersonal Specialties [1886-1887], ADWCL788/29/2/2, pp. 1-2.

11."Liberty"Art

DAPASummer 1989 79

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 -4.:
"miVIM
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Fig.3. An advertisementfor in the 1887 catalogue praising the fabrics,particularlythe Umritzacashmere,

LibertyArtFabrics,late 1880s.
Photographcourtesy of the
Archives Department,
WestminsterCityLibraries.
concentrate on their softness, suppleness, serviceability,quality,price, color
range, and gracefulness of draping;no mention is made of the design of the fab-
rics.Yet,in the same year the famous peacock feather fabricdesigned by Arthur
Silver and manufacturedfor Liberty'sby the Rossendale PrintingCompanywas
shown at the ManchesterRoyalJubileeExhibition.This design has become syn-
onymous with the Libertyname, but the catalogue gives no hint of the impor-
tantrole these artsand craftsmovement fabricswere to play in the firm'sgrowth.
Dramaticchanges were taking place in the textile industryin the fourth quarter
of the nineteenth century, and Liberty'swas just one component of the volatile
scene. New manufacturers,new designers, new and revived materialsand pro-
duction processes, and new retailing and consumption patternsall contributed
to the upheaval. These various elements meant thatworking relationships be-
tween manufacturers,designers, and retailers were complex and hard to un-
ravel. There were no set rules as to who initiatedand who controlled, although
Libertywas in no doubt that he was in charge at all times and trained manufac-
turers up to his standards.However he was not the only force at work. Other
businessmen such as Thomas Wardle-a textile dyer and printerfrom Leek in
Staffordshireand, like Liberty,an active advocate of the revivalof the silk indus-
try in England-played important roles. The designers also found a voice in

80 DAPASummer 1989

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Fig.4. C.EA.Voysey,sample
strip of differentcolorways,
ca. 1895-1900.Photograph
courtesy of the Boardof
Trusteesof the Vicioriaand
AlbertMuseum.
12. See LindaParry,The Textilesof theArtsand CraftsMovement (London:Thames and Hudson, 1988).
13. Elisabet Hidemark, "EnglishWallpapersin Sweden 1892-95: The Sub RosaCollection from
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this period through the Arts and CraftsExhibition Society.Founded in 1887,
they held their first exhibition the following year and continued to mount exhi-
bitions on an intermittentbasis until 1916.The society not only gave its name to
the arts and craftsmovement in Britainbut also provided a forum for discus-
sion and a focal point for the promotion of new designs. Textiledesign at that
time can only be defined in extremely broad terms because it encompassed
such a vast range, particularlyfrom 1893 to 1903-the most innovative,diverse,
and significantperiod for fabricsof the arts and craftsmovement. This broad
spectrum was represented on the one hand by the flat,geometric, solid
color-block designs of LindsayButterfieldor C.EA.Voysey(fig. 4) and on the
other by the fluid, swirling patternsof the Silver Studio (fig. 1).Although stylis-
ticallyvaried, the one overriding theme of textiles of this period was the use of
botanical motifs, inspired by a resurgence of interest in gardening and garden
design. It is surprisinglyhard to pinpoint exactly which fabricswere or were
not retailed through Liberty's,and as a consequence, what, if anything,differen-
tiated the firm from other leading and fashionable retailers such as Heal's.
Existing evidence certainly shows that the complete sphere of modern design
was availablethrough Liberty's.12
Textileswere easily transportable,and so a ready-madevehicle for the trans-
ference of style, ideas, and the Libertyname from Britainto the Continent. Sales
were promoted and facilitatedby the Parisbranch and augmented by agents
throughout Europe. Libertyfabricswere availableand popular in many coun-
tries. For example, in deference to the graceful draping quality of Libertysilks,
in Francethe term "soieLiberty"was used for any softly draping silk. In the
1890s, ErikFolcher ran a shop specializing in the wares of the English arts and
craftsmovement in Stockholm, Sweden. He had about two thousand textile
samples to show his clients, of which more than seventeen hundred were from
Liberty's,giving some indication of the firm'sdominance of the marketplace.'3
At that time, Libertyfabricswere also acquired for museum collections. For ex-
ample, in 1896 and 1897 the Kunstindustrimuseumin Trondheim,Norway,pur-
chased several examples in Pariseither directly from Liberty'sor from Siegfried
Bing's shop, thus documenting at least a minute proportion of the designs re-
tailed by the firm. Libertyclaimed that his fabrics led the field in the 1880s as far
as quality and characterof materialwent, but by 1900, the designs he sold repire-
sented the complete spectrum of modern Britishtextile design, marketed un-
der the Libertybanner.
Throughout history,textiles have played an important role in interior decora-
tion. The late nineteenth century was no exception, and Libertyfabricswere
used in interiors as well as for clothes. Tocapture this potential and profitable
market, Libertyset up an upholstery studio in 1882.The furnishing and deco-
ratingstudio was founded in the following year to bring everything together in
a unified way to "ensurethe success of the ensemble."As far as upholstery was
concerned, the concept of a Libertystyle certainly existed by 1894, the date of a
telling cartoon in Punch (fig. 5), and it clearly represented good taste,however
defined. The firm did nothing to dispel the idea of a Libertystyle, or at least the
use of the name as an adjective,and two of its marketing and design policies ac-
tively promoted and fostered the concept. First,all the designs were marketed
anonymously Designers' names were never given. This ruling applied equally
Stockholm,"in the forthcomingJournal of the WallpaperHistorySociety.
DAPA Summer 1989 81
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186 186 PUNCh, OR THE LONDON OHARIVARI.
PUNCII, OR THE LONDON CHARIVARI.
[OcTOBER 20,
1894.
20,
[OcroBEn 1894.~

FELICITOUS QUOTATIONS,
Hostss (of ppr Tooting, showing new hou,s to Friend). " W 'R. vetR PROtUDOr THIS ROOM, BMR. OflMINS. Ol X o(w IITTLL.
UPiOLBTRERR DID IT UVP JlST AS TOUt SFB IT, AND ALL OVPRaFRIENDS THIlNK IT WAS tiBsRrT ."
Visitor (sotto roe). "'Oi, L IBRTY, L, irTY, , Inow MANY CORIMPSARY COMITTED IN TtHY NAM I

Fig.5. CartoonfromPunch
(20 October1894).Photograph
courtesy of the Archives
Department,WestminsterCity
Libraries.
to in-house designs and those commissioned from outside or brought in from
manufacturers.Occasionally a designer's name might be attachedto a Liberty
object published in TheStudio, and the entries submitted by Liberty'sto the
Arts and CraftsExhibition Society exhibitions were required to include the
name of the designer,but these were exceptions thatproved the Libertyrule.
Other manufacturersand retailerswere less strictabout maintainingthe anony-
mity of their designers, particularlywhen they had made a name for them-
selves in other fields, such as the architectVoysey.Liberty's,however,adhered
religiously to its rule, only naming designers as a last resort. Second, no
design submitted to Liberty'swas sacred. Drawingsfrom outside designers
were altered by the in-house studio to suit the firm'srequirements.An
ArchibaldKnox pewter candlestickis a prime example of this mix-and-match
mentality.Knox'soriginal design had two cups, one on each side of the single
stick.This candlestick did appear with minor modifications,such as a plain base
or one inset with stones, but it was also produced with a third central cup, a
ratherunsuccessful Libertyadaptation.Tamperingwith designs was clearly not
unusual. In 1913,Denise Tlckfield, a student of Knox'swho worked for
Liberty's,reported back to him that she saw members of the design staff"trac-
ing the body of one design, combining this with the handle from another and
the spout from still a third design."'4Hardlysurprisingly,echoes of many of the
leading designers of the day are frequently found in Liberty'sproducts.

14.AdrianTilbrook,TheDesigns of ArchibaldKnoxfor iberty& Co. (London:Ornament Press,1976),

p. 49.

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 Withthe foundation of the furnishing and decorating studio, the next major
area Libertylaunched himself into was furniture.In 1900, he gave a lecture to
the Society of Arts.Although primarilyan outline of the history of furniturebe-
fore 1800,with very little comment on the contemporary,this lecture provides
a good insight into Liberty'sphilosophy about furniture'sform, decoration, and
purpose. Manyof his abstractideas carryover into other media. Libertybe-
lieved furniturewas not made to be looked at but to be used: "Bettera Windsor
chair with comfort than a chaise a la Louis Quinze which makes one's back ache
.... Utilitywhich means fitness is in itself beauty if rightlyunderstood."However,
Libertydid allow that furniture could be decorated provided that the decora-
tion was controlled: "Inlayof all kinds ought to be strictlykept within bounds.
Likecarving it is a good servant but a bad master,good marquetrynever at-
tempts to suggest a picture."Libertywas very scathing about the "unspeakable
rococo,"although he did approve of the ormolu workers of the LouisXVpe-
riod. He clearly liked the use of metalwork on furnitureprovided it fulfilled the
three criteriahe laid down: having a distinctpurpose which could not be ful-
filled by wood alone, showing its purpose plainly,and being good in itself.
Good outline and good proportion were essential to produce excellence in
form and sound construction: "Thecurved line is only admissible as an adjunct
to these and should always be subordinate."15 He did not comment on modern
furniture,but no doubt would have wholeheartedly agreed with the review in
TheStudio of Hector Guimard'sfurniture shown at the Salon du Champsdu
Marsin 1897,classing it as an example of the worst possible taste,fit only for
cannibals.This was not an isolated view. The consensus of Britishopinion was
on Liberty'sside; furniture should be vertical and horizontal ratherthan
curved, and not overly decorated. In general, the furniture retailed by Liberty,
whether in the arts and craftsframeworkor straightreproduction, followed his
ideas on form, decoration, and fitness for use.
One of Liberty'smost famous furniture designs was the Thebes stool, based
on an Egyptianform, which was availablein a three- and a four-legged version.
Designed in 1884, it was made until 1907 and illustratesanother characteristic
of Liberty'sfurniture designs, longevity The Thebes stool was sold extensively
throughout Europe and stocked by Bing in his Parisshop. Althoughthe
three-legged version with its curved legs appealed to art nouveau taste,it
really owed its success to the same interest in the exotic and Orientalthat popu-
larized Moorish octagonal tables and chairs with Arabfretworkbacks, both of
which were availablethrough Liberty's.The origins of the business as an
Orientalwarehouse had not been totally abandoned.

Philosophically,Libertywas a great advocateof the machine, but stylistically,the

firm produced furniture in the arts and craftstradition.It was angularand fre-
quently had projecting cornices or extended vertical elements, motifs that
echoed earlier designs of the CenturyGuild and Voysey(fig. 6). At the top of the
market,the furniturewas made of mahogany and strikinglyinlaid, not only
with lighter woods but sometimes mother-of-pearland abalone shell as well,
creating a richer and more varied surface than the plain, ratheraustere oak fur-
niture Liberty'salso sold. The oak furniture harked back to pre-industrialmedi-
eval and Renaissancesources, reflecting Liberty'sbelief that the accession of
James I marked the beginning of the finest period of Britishtaste. It is occa-
sionally hard to tell where a modern arts and craftsinterpretationleaves off
and a reproduction style takes over,particularlyin the sideboard designs

15. [Arthur]L.Liberty,"EnglishFurniture,"Journalof the Society of Arts(23 March1900), pp. 374-376.

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Fig.6. "Josephine"from

Liberty'sdress and decoration ,

catalogue,ca. 1905.Photograph al

courtesyof theArchives

Westminster
Department, City : a
Libraries.

(figs. 7 and 8). Unadulteratedreproduction furniture completed the range re-

tailed by Liberty's.
As well as providing furniture in a multiplicityof styles, Liberty'scould also
supply the appropriateinteriors.Two catalogues in the LibertyArchive at
WestminsterCityLibrariesshow furniture in room settings. Neither catalogue
is dated, but the earlier one, TheLibertyHandbook of Sketches,probably dates
from 1890 to 1895 and the later one, Furniture by Liberty& Co., from around
1905 to 1910.'6The differences and similarities between the two catalogues are
telling. Both illustrateseveral of the same sideboard designs, with only minor
alterations,though possibly twenty years had elapsed. In the earlier catalogue,
several interiors are labeled "recentdevelopments and adaptations."The texts
accompanying these illustrationsare descriptive and do not elucidate the
esthetics of recent developments or enumerate the changes. However;they per-
colate with arts and craftsovertones, focusing on construction points and fitness

16.LibertyHandbook of Sketches,Part II, ADWCL788/36/2, and Furniture by Liberty& Co.,ADWCL

788/36/6.

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Fig.7.TheCulloden
dining

roomfromTheLiberty

Handbook
of Sketches,

ca. 1890-1895.
Thissideboard,

ina slightlymodified
form,was

still beingproduced
bythefirm

nearlytwentyyearslater.

courtesyofthe
Photograph

ArchivesDepartment,

Westminster
CityLibraries.

Fig.8. Sideboard
endof a

JacobeandiningroomfromThe

of Sketches,
Handbook
Liberty

includinga Jacobean

sidechair,ca. 1890-1895.

courtesyofthe
Photograph

ArchivesDepartment,

CityLibraries.
Westminster

DAPASummer 1989 85

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 ,t tsoTJ-
?S?LIIrJ,Ve,1:r_.,;,,
.......-.-.---?-?-???'?'-'LLC14
-?-?
-C,"*? ;??u* Z
????
-rz.

''
- ~~ ~ _ I' -it r~~ ~!;,-r.~'"..r.i..:.,::...
~~~~~~~~~.:. .;. .:.
c.:? . ::~ ..:
'""5'""
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~.:,,::.:'j,- ~:. ,
,-"-~~-f;~'/,;
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-~ .~:,.c - ... ......., ?

Fig.9. Bedroom
fromThe for use, and the sketches give a sense of the Libertystyle coming together
in an interior.A good example is the bedroom with its suitable motto, standard
LibertyHandbook of Sketches, motifs (such as a ship in full sail and trees and birds) recurring in different
an interiorinthe"recent guises, and plain oak arts and craftsfurniturewith decorative and structuralele-
ments repeated in different pieces (fig. 9). The same unity and strong sense of
developments andadaptations" style, as well as an emphasis on fabrics,is seen in a bedroom designed by
Liberty'sand displayed in the Regent Street shop in 1897 (fig. 10).The early
style,ca. 1890-1895.
Photograph
twentieth-century catalogue titles certain interiors as being in the Libertystyle,
but these, including the bedroom (fig. 11),appear ratherlacklusterby compari-
courtesyof theArchives
son to previous interiors.The cutting edge seems to have gone. Judging from
Department, WestminsterCity this catalogue, the balance between the arts and craftsand reproduction styles
shifts, and the reproduction side takes command. As this later catalogue states,
Libraries. "Torealise how beautiful a modern reproduction can be, you mustgo to Liberty's."
Even the arts and craftsmodels, based on designs of possibly twenty years
earlier which seemed fresh and new then, were lacking in sparkle by 1910.
The next stage in the expansion program after interiors and furniturewas
metalware.Libertyhad been selling silver and pewter from various sources for
some time before he considered organizing its production himself. In 1899,
a small exhibition of wares specifically commissioned by Libertyand made in
London was held at the Regent Street shop. This was the startof the new Cymric
silver line. In 1900, Libertyintroduced a pewter line marketed as Tudric.These
two established and popularized the Celtic revivalstyle in Britain.

86 DAPASummer 1989

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Fig.10.Bedroomdesigned by
Liberty'sand displayed at the
RegentStreet shop in 1897.
Photographcourtesy of the
NationalMonumentsRecord.
Fig.11.Bedroomin the Liberty
style fromthe catalogue
Furnitureby Liberty& Co.,
ca. 1905-1910.Photograph
courtesy of Leeds CityArt
Galleries,TempleNewsam
House.
17.ArthurLasenbyLiberty,"Pewterand the Revivalof its Use,"Journal of the Society of Arts(10June
18.Tilbrook, "Designs of ArchibaldKnox,"pp. 25-29.
19. Now in the collection of the Carnegie Museum of Art, Pittsburgh,Pa.Illustratedin Museum of Art,
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In 1904, Libertydelivered another lecture to the Society of Arts.The topic this
time was "Pewterand the Revivalof its Use."The presentation was rathertechni-
cal and historicallybased, but odd glimpses of Liberty'sideas on style and work-
manship emerged. Libertyproposed that he alone was behind the revivalof the
pewter industry in Britainand the revivalof the Celtic style. He did not mention
Archibald Knox,the most interesting and innovative of his metalwork designers
and one of the key proponents of the Celtic revivalstyle."
Born and bred in the Isle of Man,a Celtic haven, Knox also went to art school
there and expressed his heritage by choosing to make a special study of Celtic
design for his final exam in historical ornament.'8Knoxwas not the only de-
signer in this period fascinatedby interlaced Celtic strapwork.OwenJones pub-
lished three plates of Celtic ornament in The Grammar of Ornament in 1856,
and L.C.Tiffanyused Celtic knots to decorate a covered silver beaker in 1878.19
In 1899, the same year the Cymricline was launched, TheStudio ran a series of
articles on early Scandinavianwood carvings urging the reader to study extant
artifacts.Yet,it is through Knox'sdesigns for the Cymricand Tudriclines and his
jewelry designs for Liberty'sthat the Celtic revivalis manifest at its best.
Manyof the pieces designed by Knox are decorated with Celtic strapwork,from
one simple strandto highly complex interlaced patterns impossible to unravel.
Not satisfied with strapworkbeing merely ornamental, he also used it as part of
the structuralconfiguration of objects. However;Knoxwas not simply a regurgi-
tator of Celtic motifs, having too much integrityand vision to be a mere copyist,
as attested by his metalwork designs (fig. 13). He produced extremely innova-
tive shapes reminiscent of bullets or rockets, anticipatingthe streamlining of
the machine age by thirtyyears. He used enamel as decoration, and Liberty's
craftsmenwere able to produce blue-greens of unbelievable richness that have
hardly been paralleled since, enhancing the metal surface with both color and
texture. The semi-precious stones he frequently advocated using produced the
same effect. In keeping with the arts and craftsspirit, a number of his pieces,
1904), pp. 637-638.
Carnegie Institute, Collection Handbook (Pittsburgh,1985), p. 187.
DAPA Summer 1989 87
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 6861 JauWWuns
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Fig.12.ArchibaldKnox,design
fora silver and enamel clock
case, ca. 1904.Photograph
courtesy of the Boardof
Trusteesof the Victoriaand
AlbertMuseum.
Fig.13.ArchibaldKnox,design
fora presentationcup and
cover,ca. 1903-1904.
Photographcourtesy of the
Boardof Trusteesof the
20. These designs are now availableas fabricsand wallpaper and are produced by Alexander
Victoriaand AlbertMuseum.
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particularlythe clocks, contain a thought-provokingmotto (fig. 12). Knox
produced fabric/wallpaperdesigns as well as ones for metalware.They were
based on botanical motifs, like most fabricsof the day,but managed to combine
a high degree of abstraction-much more than that achieved by Voyseyor
Butterfield-with great flow and movement (fig. 14). Needless to say,they were
so far from the mainstreamthat they were never produced in Knox'slifetime.20
It would be interesting to know if he ever submitted them to Liberty's,and if so,
what their reaction was.
Likemany people from humble backgroundswho make good, Libertybecame
a pillar of the community,combining civic duty with continued hard work in
business. Following his move to the country estate of Lee Manor,Buckinghamshire,
Libertyled a conventional country squire'slife. His personal taste,judging ad-
mittedly from only one photograph of the drawing room at Lee Manor appears
ratherconservative (fig. 15).Although there is a Thebes stool in the foreground
and a hint of whimsy in the bronze stork, the furniture is extremely traditional.
On the piano there is an overupholstered lamp, reminiscent of the interior in
the 1894 Punch cartoon (fig. 5). Perhapsthe ratherpointed aside in the cartoon
would have fallen flat if the truth as to his personal tasteswere known. But
clearly,Liberty'sown taste is not the way to define the style. It is the business
that bears his name that has become the adjective,not the man.
Beauchamp,Gloucestershire.
DAPA Summer 1989 89
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Fig.14.ArchibaldKnox,fabric/ .
.?

wallpaper
design.Photograph

courtesyoftheManxMuseum.

Even in key areas like fabrics,metalwork, and furniture,pinpointing the Liberty

style visually is difficult.In the 1880s, the name "Liberty"attachedto fabrics de-
noted quality and color range. By 1900, Libertysold the best in British design
and manufacture.But the stylistic diversity of the fabricsof the arts and crafts
movement and the complex interrelationshipsof the many significantde-
signers and manufacturersmean that an all-embracingdefinition is impossible
to come by.Metalworkpresents a much more cohesive picture, especially if
one concentrates on the designs of ArchibaldKnox.The firm was clearly direct-
ing both design and manufactureand making a strong stylisticstatement due to
the brilliance and single-mindedness of Knox.However,his work was not the
whole picture. A 1910catalogue from Liberty'sManchesterbranch illustrated
pewter objects copying eighteenth-century silver designs as well as contempor-
ary shapes decorated with Celtic strapwork.2The traditionaland the modern

21. The World-FamedLibertySpecialtiesfor Dresses and Furnishing (Manchester:Liberty& Co. [1910]),

p. 17,ADWCL788/31/2.

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 roomat Lee
Fig.15.Drawing co-existed. Furnitureand interiors present the least cohesive view of a Liberty
style. The arts and craftsmovement, the reproduction styles, and the
Manor,
Buckinghamshire. middle-class concern for surface richness and decoration existed in conflict
ratherthan harmony until 1900,when reproduction styles appear to have won.
courtesyofthe
Photograph
Furnitureand interiorswere not as easily transportableas fabricsand metal-
Archives Department, ware, so Europe was spared some of this confusion. A Libertystyle, visually
speaking, only exists if one is ratherselective and uses a broad brush to define
Westminster
CityLibraries. it. Such a definition does not do justice to the comprehensive nature of the
business and Liberty'sachievement, for by the early years of the twentieth cen-
tury,everything for the modern home, from electrical generators through
wooden paneling and plasterworkceilings to cushions and thimbles, could be
purchased from Liberty's.
The best representation of this selective Libertystyle is provided by the firm it-
self in a dress and decoration catalogue from around 1905 which contains beau-
tiful colored plates of elegant ladies languishing in interior settings (fig. 6).
Furniture,fabrics,and even metalwork come together. The brief introductory
text by ArthurFish mentions the role Libertyplayed in "theemancipation from
slavish subjection to passing fashion."Fish was referring specifically to dress,
but the notion can be expanded to include all aspects of interior decoration.
This emancipation meant that Liberty'scould offer artisticchoice, which per-
haps explains the wide range of styles availablein all the products retailed by
the firm. However;Fish sounded a note of caution, for artisticfreedom was a
dangerous commodity: "Individualitycan formulategeneral ideas and taste
control them within the right bounds but there is needed the deeper knowledge

DAPASummer1989 91

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 that can only be acquired by the specialist to ensure the success of the en-
semble."22 Thatspecialist was obviously Liberty.He encouraged his customers
to look afresh at their domestic surroundings and "togratifyin their own
homes the love of colour and of the beautific in form and fabricwhich is inher-
ent in us all,"3whether in theJacobean, LouisXVI,arts and crafts,or Liberty
style. If such a thing as the Libertystyle exists, and the name is used as an adjec-
tive, the key to understandingits meaning is not through selected individualob-
jects retailed by the firm but through Liberty'sown vision of the role of his store
in educating consumers and manufacturersalike by imposing certain standards
across a wide range of goods, services, and styles. n

22. Dress and Decoration Catalogue (London:Liberty& Co., n.d.), ADWCL788/45/5.

23. "TheMakerof The House Beautiful,"p. 210.

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InSummary

In 1913SirArthurLibertydeclared, "Ihave become a mere adjective,"and the

business and art press, as early as 1900,were in no doubt thatLiberty"had
made a style different in many ways from anythingpreviously existing."But
what was this style and what does the word Libertyas an adjectivereally mean?
Only by focusing on the key areas of fabrics,furniture and interiors,metalwork
in the period circa 1895-1905, and on Liberty'sown views of his role in revolu-
tionizing public taste can an attemptat a definition be made. This examination
shows that ratherthan merely introducing another passing fad, Libertysuc-
ceeded in establishing a new consciousness of artisticvalues, emancipatingthe
consumer from "slavishsubjection to passing fashion."

Nel 1913SirArthurLibertydichiaro:"ormaisono diventato solo un aggettivo."

I giornali e le rivistedi artee di affaridall'iniziodel secolo andavanosostenendo
che Libertyaveva indubbiamente "creatouno stile per molti versi diverso da
qualsiasi cosa preesistente."Main che cosa consisteva questo stile e che cosa
vuole veramente dire il termine 'liberty'adoperato come aggettivo?Un tenta-
tivo di definizione si puo fare solo prendendo in esame aree chiave quali i tes-
suti, l'arredamentoe i metalli nel periodo che va grosso modo dal 1895 al 1905,
cercando anche di chiarire come lo stesso Libertyconcepisse il proprio ruolo
nel rivoluzionare il gusto del pubblico. Questo esame dimostrache Libertynon
si limit6 a introdurre una voga fugace come tante altre,ma riusci a creare una
nuova coscienza artisticanei consumatori, emancipandoli dalla "schiavitudelle
mode passeggere."

DAPASummer 1989 93

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