01. State the possible causes of each of the various types of irregularities found in surface texture.

Show
how surfaces having the same numerical assessment may have different properties and textures.

Ans:

There are various types of irregularities that can be found in surface texture, and their
possible causes include:

1. Roughness: irregularities that occur due to small-scale variations in the surface profile,
such as tool marks, scratches, and pits. Possible causes include machining processes,
wear and tear, and surface contamination.
2. Waviness: irregularities that occur due to larger-scale variations in the surface profile,
such as tool chatter or machine vibrations. Possible causes include machine tool design,
cutting tool geometry, and workpiece material properties.
3. Form errors: irregularities that occur due to deviations from the desired shape or
contour of the surface, such as out-of-roundness, taper, or flatness. Possible causes
include machine tool inaccuracies, workpiece deflection, or thermal expansion.

Surfaces with the same numerical assessment may have different properties and
textures due to differences in the frequency and amplitude of the irregularities. For
example, two surfaces may have the same roughness value, but one surface may have
sharp, high-amplitude peaks, while the other surface may have lower-amplitude peaks
that are more rounded. The surface with sharper peaks may be more prone to wear and
fatigue, while the surface with more rounded peaks may be more resistant to wear but
may have higher friction and heat generation. Therefore, a complete characterization of
surface texture should include both numerical assessments and visual inspection to
capture the full range of irregularities present.

02. Describe briefly working principle Talysurf.

Ans:

Talysurf is a non-contact, non-destructive measuring instrument used for surface

analysis and profiling. It works on the principle of contactless optical interferometry,
which involves the use of light to measure the topography of a surface.

A light source is directed towards the surface to be measured, and the reflected light is
captured by a detector. The height information of the surface is then extracted from the
phase difference between the reference and the reflected light waves. This information
is used to create a three-dimensional profile or surface map of the sample.
 Talysurf can measure surface roughness, profile, and contour with high precision and
repeatability, making it useful in a wide range of industrial and research applications,
including quality control, surface engineering, and materials science

03. (a) Why the measurement of surface texture is important?

(b) Describe two methods to obtain a numerical value of the texture from a given graphical record.
(c) What is the difference between primary and secondary textures?

Ans:

a) Measurement of surface texture is important for various reasons, including ensuring

proper functioning of mechanical components, achieving desired aesthetic appearance,
and ensuring safety in applications such as automotive tires or road surfaces.

b) Two methods to obtain a numerical value of surface texture are stylus profilometry,
which uses a mechanical stylus to trace the surface and measure its features, and optical
profilometry, which uses light to scan the surface and measure its features.

c) Primary textures are inherent to the manufacturing process, such as tool marks or
machining lines, while secondary textures are a result of wear or damage to the surface,
such as scratches or dents.

04. (a) What is meant by roughness and waviness of machined surface? (b) Name the methods used for
measuring of surface roughness and describe them briefly. (c) What are the roughness comparison
specimens and how the assess the surface roughness. What are their limitations?

Ans:

(a) Roughness refers to the irregularities on a surface that result from the machining
process. Waviness refers to longer wavelength variations in the surface profile that are
typically caused by machine tool vibration or deflection.

(b) Methods for measuring surface roughness include:

 Contact methods: These methods involve physically contacting the surface with a stylus
or other probe to measure the surface profile. Examples include profilometry and stylus
instruments such as a surface roughness tester.
 Non-contact methods: These methods use optical, acoustic, or other non-contact
techniques to measure the surface. Examples include interferometry, confocal
microscopy, and laser scanning.

(c) Roughness comparison specimens are standard surfaces with known roughness
values that are used to calibrate measuring instruments or assess the roughness of
unknown surfaces. The most commonly used roughness comparison specimens are
known as surface roughness standards, which come in a variety of shapes and sizes with
different roughness values. Limitations of these specimens include the fact that they
may not be representative of the actual surfaces being measured, and they may not
account for factors such as wear or contamination.

05. a) Write a short note on the adverse effects of poor surface finish. b) Describe briefly any limitation
of Ra parameter of roughness measurement.

Ans:

a) Poor surface finish can have several adverse effects on a component or product.
Some of these effects include:

 Increased friction and wear: A rough surface can increase friction and wear between two
sliding or rotating components, leading to increased energy consumption and reduced
lifespan.
 Reduced sealing ability: A rough surface can compromise the sealing ability of gaskets
or other sealing elements, leading to leakage and reduced performance.
 Corrosion and contamination: Rough surfaces can trap contaminants and moisture,
leading to corrosion and other forms of degradation of the material.
 Aesthetics and ergonomics: Poor surface finish can have a negative impact on the
appearance and feel of a product, affecting its marketability and usability.

b) Ra is a widely used parameter for characterizing surface roughness, but it has some
limitations. One of the main limitations of Ra is that it only provides information about
the average roughness of the surface and doesn't provide any information about the
distribution of peaks and valleys. In other words, two surfaces with the same Ra value
can have significantly different surface textures. Additionally, Ra does not provide any
information about the spacing and height of surface features, which can be important in
some applications. Therefore, it's important to use multiple roughness parameters in
combination to fully describe the surface texture.
07. Explain the reasons for specifying the sampling length for indicating the surface roughness.

Ans:

The sampling length is specified when indicating surface roughness to ensure that the
measurement is representative of the actual roughness characteristics of the surface
being measured. Surface roughness can vary at different length scales, so measuring
over a specific sampling length allows for a more accurate and consistent comparison of
roughness values between different surfaces or measurements.

If the sampling length is too short, it may not capture the full range of roughness
features present on the surface, leading to an underestimation of the surface roughness.
Conversely, if the sampling length is too long, it may include features that are not
representative of the typical roughness of the surface, leading to an overestimation of
the surface roughness.

By specifying a sampling length, the measurement is taken over a range of length scales
that is appropriate for the surface being measured, providing a more accurate and
meaningful characterization of the surface roughness.

08. Explain briefly each of the following terms showing its importance in the measurement of surface
texture. i. Lay line ii. Center Line Average (CLA). iii. Sampling length. iv. Primary texture.

Ans:

i. Lay line: A lay line is the direction in which the fibers of a material run, such as the
grain direction in wood. It is important in surface texture measurement because it can
affect the surface roughness in certain materials, and the measurement direction must
be perpendicular to the lay line in order to accurately represent the surface texture.

ii. Center Line Average (CLA): The Center Line Average (CLA) is a measure of the
roughness of a surface that is calculated by taking the average height of the roughness
profile along a center line. It is important in surface texture measurement because it
provides a simple, single-value representation of the surface roughness that can be used
to compare different surfaces or to track changes in the roughness of a surface over
time.

iii. Sampling length: Sampling length is the length of the measurement area used to
calculate surface roughness parameters. It is important in surface texture measurement
because it affects the accuracy of the measurements. A longer sampling length will give
a more representative average of the surface roughness, but it will also increase the
measurement uncertainty.
iv. Primary texture: Primary texture is the roughness of a surface that results from the
manufacturing process, such as machining marks or other mechanical processes. It is
important in surface texture measurement because it provides information about the
surface quality and can be used to identify and eliminate sources of roughness in the
manufacturing process. The primary texture can also be used to determine the suitability
of a surface for specific applications, such as in wear resistance or fluid flow.

09. a)Draw a typical stylus section used in commercial stylus instruments. Examine its limitations, if any.

Ans: NA

b) What is the effect of stylus size on the profile recording of the surface?

c) What is the maximum force, which can be applied to a stylus? What can be the effect of stylus load

ans:

b) The stylus size can have a significant effect on the profile recording of the surface. A
smaller stylus will be able to track finer details of the record groove, resulting in higher
fidelity sound reproduction. However, a smaller stylus may be more susceptible to wear
and damage, and may not be able to track heavily modulated or damaged record
grooves as well as a larger stylus.

c) The maximum force that can be applied to a stylus depends on several factors,
including the design and material of the stylus and the cartridge. In general, most stylus
manufacturers recommend a tracking force between 1.5 and 3.5 grams for a standard
stylus. Applying too much force can result in excessive wear and damage to the stylus
and the record groove, as well as increased distortion and noise. Conversely, applying
too little force can result in poor tracking and incomplete signal pickup. It is important
to follow the manufacturer's recommended tracking force for optimal sound quality and
longevity of the stylus and the record.

10. ) What are the various types of pitch errors in threaded components? How they affect pitch
diameter of screw thread? State the causes for these errors

ANS:
There are various types of pitch errors in threaded components, including lead error,
flank angle error, profile error, and pitch diameter error. These errors can affect the pitch
diameter of the screw thread by causing it to be larger or smaller than the intended size.
Lead error occurs when the distance between the threads is not consistent along the
length of the threaded component. Flank angle error occurs when the angle between
the flank of the thread and the thread axis is not consistent. Profile error occurs when
the profile of the thread deviates from the intended shape, such as being too flat or too
sharp. Pitch diameter error occurs when the diameter of the threaded component is not
consistent with the intended size.

Causes of these errors include manufacturing defects, wear and tear, incorrect tooling,
improper cutting parameters, and material deformation during use. Other factors such
as thermal expansion, thermal contraction, and vibration can also contribute to these
errors.

11. ) Explain how the errors in pitch and angle affect the virtual effective diameter

ANS:
The virtual effective diameter is a measure of the perceived size of an object in a virtual
environment. Errors in pitch and angle can affect the virtual effective diameter by
distorting the perspective of the object, causing it to appear larger or smaller than it
actually is.

Pitch refers to the up and down movement of the viewer's head or eye level, while angle
refers to the left and right movement. When the pitch or angle is incorrect, the viewer's
perspective of the object is altered, causing the object to be perceived as either taller or
shorter, wider or narrower than it actually is. This can affect the virtual effective diameter
of the object, making it seem larger or smaller than its true size.

For example, if the pitch is too high, the object may appear taller and more narrow than
it actually is, which can increase the virtual effective diameter. Conversely, if the pitch is
too low, the object may appear shorter and wider, which can decrease the virtual
effective diameter. Similarly, errors in the angle can also cause distortions in the virtual
effective diameter.

Therefore, it is important to ensure that the pitch and angle are accurately calibrated to
ensure that the virtual effective diameter is a reliable measure of the perceived size of
the object.

12. Derive the expression for the ‘best wire’ diameter for effective diameter measurement.

ANS:
The "best wire" diameter for effective diameter measurement is the diameter of a wire
that, when placed in contact with a cylindrical object, creates a shadow that is exactly
half the width of the wire. This method of measurement is commonly used in industrial
applications to determine the effective diameter of cylindrical objects such as pipes and
rods.

To derive the expression for the best wire diameter, we can start by considering the
shadow cast by the wire on the cylindrical object. Let d be the diameter of the wire, D be
the diameter of the cylindrical object, and L be the distance between the wire and the
cylindrical object. We can assume that the wire is perpendicular to the cylindrical object,
so the shadow cast by the wire on the cylindrical object is a chord of the circle with
diameter D.

The length of the chord is equal to the diameter of the circle times the sine of half the
angle subtended by the chord at the center of the circle. Since we want the shadow to
be exactly half the width of the wire, we can set the length of the chord equal to d/2,
giving:

D * sin(theta/2) = d/2

where theta is the angle subtended by the chord at the center of the circle.

We can solve for theta by rearranging the equation as follows:

theta = 2 * arcsin(d/2D)

The effective diameter of the cylindrical object is then given by:

Deff = D + 2L * tan(theta/2)

Substituting the expression for theta, we get:

Deff = D + 2L * tan(arcsin(d/2D))

Simplifying this expression using the identity tan(arcsin(x)) = x/sqrt(1-x^2), we obtain:

Deff = D + 2L * d/sqrt(D^2 - d^2)

This is the expression for the effective diameter of the cylindrical object in terms of the
diameter of the wire, the diameter of the cylindrical object, and the distance between
the wire and the cylindrical object. To find the best wire diameter, we can differentiate
this expression with respect to d and set the result equal to zero:
 d = D/sqrt(2)

Therefore, the best wire diameter for effective diameter measurement is equal to the
diameter of the cylindrical object divided by the square root of 2.
13. (a) Describe the three most important dimensions of a Vee thread, which control the fittings of
threads. Show in a diagram all the dimensions, which are necessary to define completely the thread.
(b) Describe in detail the types of screw threads available in ISO system and explain the principle
underlying the designation of these screw threads? (c) What does M30 x 1.5 denote?

ANS:

a) The three most important dimensions of a Vee thread that control the fittings of threads are:

1. Pitch: This is the distance from one thread crest to the next, measured parallel to the axis of the
screw. It is typically designated as "P" in thread specifications.
2. Major Diameter: This is the largest diameter of the thread, measuring from one side of the thread
crest to the other, across the axis of the screw. It is typically designated as "D" in thread
specifications.
3. Minor Diameter: This is the smallest diameter of the thread, measuring from the root of one thread
to the root of the opposite thread, across the axis of the screw. It is typically designated as "d" in
thread specifications.

Diagrammatically, these dimensions can be represented as:

[Diagram showing the dimensions of a Vee thread]

b) There are several types of screw threads available in the ISO system, including:

1. Metric Coarse Thread (M thread): This is the most common type of thread used in the ISO system,
and is characterized by a relatively coarse pitch and large crest and root radii.
2. Metric Fine Thread (MF thread): This type of thread has a finer pitch than the M thread, with smaller
crest and root radii. It is used for high-precision applications where a tighter fit is required.
3. Metric Extra Fine Thread (MEX thread): This is the finest type of thread in the ISO system, and is used
for extremely high-precision applications where a tight fit is critical.

The designation of these screw threads is based on a combination of the thread's diameter and
pitch, as well as its tolerance class. The designation for an M thread, for example, is typically given as
"M x Pitch", where "M" represents the diameter and "Pitch" represents the pitch. The designation for
an MF thread is similar, with the addition of "F" to indicate the fine pitch, and the designation for an
MEX thread is similar, with the addition of "EX" to indicate the extra fine pitch.

c) M30 x 1.5 is a screw thread designation in the ISO system. "M" stands for Metric, "30" represents
the major diameter of the thread in millimeters, and "1.5" represents the pitch of the thread in
millimeters. In this case, the screw has a major diameter of 30mm and a pitch of 1.5mm.
14. Describe a pitch-measuring machine and its working principle.

ANS:

A pitch-measuring machine is a device used to measure the pitch of an object or surface, usually in
the context of manufacturing or engineering. The pitch of an object refers to the distance between
two similar points on the surface, such as the distance between two threads on a screw or the
distance between two grooves on a gear.

The working principle of a pitch-measuring machine typically involves the use of a high-precision
linear scale and a probe that is moved along the surface of the object being measured. The linear
scale provides precise measurements of the distance traveled by the probe, while the probe itself is
typically equipped with sensors that can detect the presence and spacing of the features on the
surface.

In operation, the probe is moved along the surface of the object, and the linear scale measures the
distance traveled. As the probe encounters each feature on the surface, its sensors detect the feature
and record its location. The pitch of the surface can then be calculated by dividing the total distance
traveled by the probe by the number of features detected.

There are several types of pitch-measuring machines, including mechanical and optical devices, each
of which uses slightly different technologies to measure the pitch of an object. However, the basic
principle of using a linear scale and a probe to measure the distance between features remains the
same.
15.

a) Explain why it is essential to measure/gauge the different elements of any screw thread.

b) Name the different elements required to be measured in order to determine the accuracy of screw
threads.

c) Calculate the ‘best size’ wire for the 20 mm ISO course 2.5 mm pitch.

Ans:

a) It is essential to measure/gauge the different elements of a screw thread to ensure

the accuracy and reliability of the thread. The screw thread is an integral part of many
mechanical components and is used to transfer torque and power between different
components. If the thread is not accurate, it may result in the components not fitting
together properly, leading to problems such as stripping of the thread, leakage, and
even complete failure of the assembly. Measuring the different elements of a screw
thread ensures that the thread is within tolerance and that it will function as intended.

b) The following are the different elements required to be measured in order to

determine the accuracy of screw threads:
 Outside Diameter (OD)
 Major Diameter (D) or the Effective Diameter
 Minor Diameter (d) or the Core Diameter
 Pitch (p)
 Lead (L)
 Thread Profile
 Tolerance

c) To calculate the ‘best size’ wire for the 20mm ISO course 2.5 mm pitch, the formula to
use is: d = (nominal diameter - pitch) / 2

For a 20mm ISO course 2.5 mm pitch, the nominal diameter is 20mm and the pitch is
2.5mm, therefore: d = (20 - 2.5) / 2 = 17.5 / 2 = 8.75mm

So, the best size wire for the 20mm ISO course 2.5 mm pitch is 8.75mm

16. The following elements of a screw thread plug are to be measured i) Outside diameter. ii)
Effective diameter. iii) Core diameter. iv) Pitch. v) Thread profile.

Ans:

i) Outside diameter: The diameter of the outside circumference of the thread.

This measurement is used to determine if the thread will fit into the mating
component. ii) Effective diameter: The diameter of the imaginary cylinder that
just touches the crest and root of the thread. This measurement is used to
determine the strength of the thread. iii) Core diameter: The diameter of the
imaginary cylinder that runs through the center of the thread, this
measurement is used to determine the tightness of the fit of the thread. iv)
Pitch: The distance from a point on one thread to the corresponding point on
the next thread, measured parallel to the axis. This measurement is used to
determine the spacing of the threads. v) Thread profile: The shape of the
thread, including the angle of the flanks and the shape of the crest and root.
This measurement is used to determine the correct fit and compatibility of
the thread with its mating component.

17. What are the elements of spur gears which are checked for accuracy? Describe a gear-tooth
Vernier calliper and discuss how it is used for checking gears?
 Ans:
17. The elements of spur gears that are checked for accuracy are:
 Tooth thickness (or addendum)
 Tooth spacing (or pitch)
 Tooth profile (or involute)
 Tooth alignment (or runout)
 Tooth spacing along the circumference of the gear (or backlash)

A gear-tooth Vernier calliper is a measuring instrument used for checking gears. It

consists of two arms with a calibrated scale, one arm is used to measure the pitch
diameter of the gear, while the other arm is used to measure the tooth thickness. The
Vernier calliper is used to accurately measure the pitch diameter and tooth thickness of
the gear, which are important parameters for ensuring proper meshing and correct
function of the gears.

18. Describe a method for inspecting the involute profile of a spur gear tooth.

Ans:
18. A method for inspecting the involute profile of a spur gear tooth is by using a profile
projector. The gear is mounted on a spindle and rotated, while a light source projects
the image of the tooth onto a screen. A profile template is superimposed on the image
of the tooth, and the involute profile can be compared to the template to determine if it
is within tolerance.

19. Write a short note on optical method of gear inspection.

Ans:

Optical method of gear inspection involves the use of optical instruments such as profile
projectors or optical comparators. These instruments use light and lenses to project an
enlarged image of the gear onto a screen. The image can then be compared to a master
gear or template to determine if the gear is within tolerance. The optical method of gear
inspection is fast and accurate and can detect even small deviations from the desired
profile.
 20. What are the different elements of a spur gear which are checked for accuracy? Name
the instruments used for checking of the profile and base pitch of gear.

Ans:The different elements of a spur gear which are checked for accuracy are:
 Tooth thickness
 Tooth spacing
 Tooth profile
 Tooth alignment
 Tooth spacing along the circumference of the gear

The instruments used for checking the profile and base pitch of gear are:

 Gear tooth Vernier callipers

 Profile projectors
 Optical comparators

21. Explain the principle of operation of a rolling gear tester. State the errors that can be
detected by rolling gear tester. Explain how the graphical recordings taken on such tester may
be interpreted?

Ans:

A rolling gear tester operates on the principle of rolling two gears together and
measuring the force between the gears. The tester consists of two gears mounted on
shafts, which are rotated and allowed to mesh. The force between the gears is
measured and used to calculate errors such as gear tooth spacing, profile, and
alignment.

The errors that can be detected by a rolling gear tester are:

 Tooth spacing error

 Profile error
 Alignment error
 Backlash error

The graphical recordings taken on a rolling gear tester can be interpreted to determine
the type and magnitude of the error present in the gear. For example, the magnitude of
tooth spacing error can be determined from the magnitude of the force between the
gears, while the type of profile error can be determined from the shape of the force
curve.
 22. a) Explain briefly the reasons for inspecting the dimensional aspects of a gear. b)
Name and define the various gear elements, which are checked for the accurate
functioning of the gear.

Ans:

a) The reasons for inspecting the dimensional aspects of a gear are to ensure that the
gear is within tolerance, that it will function properly, and that it will have a long service
life. Inspection is necessary to identify any manufacturing defects or deviations from the
desired profile, which can lead to problems such as gear failure or reduced performance.

b) The various gear elements that are checked for accurate functioning of the gear are:

 Tooth thickness
 Tooth spacing
 Tooth profile
 Tooth alignment
 Tooth spacing along the circumference of the gear

23. Describe the gear tooth Vernier callipers. Calculate the setting for a straight gear having
40 teeth of module 3 pitches.

Ans:

Vernier calipers are precision measuring instruments that are commonly used to
measure the thickness, diameter, or length of an object. They consist of two main parts:
a main scale, usually fixed, and a sliding Vernier scale that is moved along the main scale
to make the measurement.

In the case of gear tooth Vernier callipers, they are specifically designed to measure the
number of teeth and the module (pitch) of a gear. The main scale is graduated in gear
modules, and the Vernier scale is used to measure the number of teeth.

To calculate the setting for a straight gear with 40 teeth and a module of 3 pitches, we
need to determine the pitch diameter of the gear. The pitch diameter of a gear can be
calculated as follows:

Pitch diameter (d) = Number of teeth (N) * Module (m) / π

For a gear with 40 teeth and a module of 3 pitches, the pitch diameter can be calculated
as:

d = 40 * 3 / π = 25.13

The setting on the Vernier calipers would be 25.13, rounded to the nearest increment on
the main scale.