“Language acquisition”

❖ Definition
• It is the process whereby children become speakers of their native language or language .
• It started ‘ the diary studies ' The linguist or psychologist would record their own child’s
development .
• FLA is characterized by rapidity , uniformity , and systematicity.

❖ Learning conditions of LI

• The L1 is picked up at home in the most natural situations , guided and controlled by those who
are near and dear to a child .
• The learning of LI takes place along with other aspects of biological growth such as walking .
• The learning of LI is governed by the principles of proximity , usefulness , concreteness
particularity and interest .

❖ Factors Affecting L1 Acquisition

• Physical environment :
– the material surroundings of a child , eg dog house , cat tree , table .
• Social environment :
_ family and neighborhood
• Physical and economic resources :
– the economical condition of the family.
• Motivation :
– Internal the need for food , warmth , shelter , constant care , love and affection _external
social interaction , self expression . creative behavior – e.g children sometimes talk to cat ,
dog or dolls .
• An outstanding feature of the early language learning experience is egocentricity : – Children
only pick up language items that are absolutely essential for them – the earliest pronouns L.
me , my , mine .

❖ Stages of Language Acquisition

The first year of the child’s life is known as the “ prelinguistic development “ children do not
normally begin to produce words until they are a year old .

❖ Babbling Stage
Babbling :

• Sounds produced in the first few months after birth which include sounds that do and do not
occur in the language of the household which are crying sounds .

• Even deaf children babble They seem to be testing out their vocal apparatus , and perhaps
tuning the articulation to their own audition . They babble with hand gestures similar to the
vocal babbling of hearing children .

• By three months old , the child will have added to these cooing sounds , composed of velar
consonants and high vowels .

• while by six months , babbling sounds , composed of repeated syllables ( bababa , dadada .
mamama ) usually appear.

• From around nine to twelve months , intonation patterns . and some imitation of others ‘ speech
are present , and the infant’s sound production at this stage is often referred to as sound play ..

❖ Major features of babbling phase

• The acquisition of the phonological system.
• Distinguish between vowels and consonants .
• Produced sequences are not referential .

❖ One Word / Holophrastic Stage

Holophrastic :

• refers to the one – word stage in which children produce one word sentences ( usually between
12 and 18 months ) .
• At this stage , utterances are one word long , though they often contain complex messages .
Children have been shown to understand differences in word order at this stage even though
they can’t produce sentences with different word orders.

At this stage :

• There is a gap between comprehension and production : a child may be able to understand
about a hundred words .
• before it begins to produce words The child utterances do not show any structural properties ,
and their meanings appear to be primarily functional.
• Many children at the one – word and holophrastic stages have a tendency towards
overextension :
• Having learnt , perhaps , the word ball to refer to a ball . the child may use ball to refer to other
round objects.
 • The range of reference of a child’s word is called its associative complex , and it is usually
determined by such perceptual features shape , size , sound . movement , taste and texture .

❖ Two words stage

Two -words stage :

• Around the beginning of the second year children begin to produce sentences of two words
clear syntactic and semantic relations .. It is possible to distinguish clearly two separate units
produced in succession ( Tomas ‘ ‘ chair “ ) .
• Two Word Stage – Most children go through a stage where sentences seem to be limited to two
words . There can be a large variety of two – word patterns , however , and the sentences
continue to encode much more complex meanings .
❖ Characteristics of Two Word Stage
• No morphosyntactic characteristics .
• Grammatical poverty or performance poverty ?

❖ Telegraphic Speech

Telegraphic speech :

• Utterances of children after the two – word stage when many grammatical morphemes are
omitted .
• During this period , many children’s speech lack grammatical inflections and function words ,
consisting of strings like cut drink milk .
• Even if children are presented with full sentences to imitate , they tend to repeat the sentences
in telegraphic form . During this time , the child’s vocabulary grows rapidly .

❖ Parentese or baby talk

Refers to the sort of speech which children receive when they are young.

Characteristics :

_ syllables
_Parsing down words to phonemes
_Highly repetitive usage
_Raising pitch
_Slowing down the pace of speaking
_Simplifying the subject matter and sentence structure .
 “Behaviorism”

❖ Definition

• It is an area of applied linguistics that studies the processes by which people develop
proficiency in a second or foreign language .
• These processes are investigated with the expectation that this information may be of use to
language teaching .

❖ Behaviorist Theory

• The theory of behaviorism was a predominant framework for explaining human and animal
learning ( behavior ) prior to the 1970s .

• It attempted to explain learning without reference to thinking or mental processes .

• Essentially , it claimed that as an organism interacts with its environment , its behavior is
conditioned .

• Over the last fifty years , several theories have been put forward to explain the process by
which children adults learn to understand and speak a language .

• Theories on second language acquisition stem from different trends and backgrounds .

• However , they should not be seen simply as conflicting theories , replacing each other in a
sequence .

• Each theory has added to our overall understanding . placing emphasis on different aspects
of the process.

❖ Classical Behaviorism : Pavlov

• Russian psychologist who conducted a series of experiments training a dog to salivate to the
tone of a bell .
• his work was termed ‘ classical conditioning The dog acquired a conditioned response by
repeted occurrences to associate the sound of the bell with salvation ( Stimulus Response ) .
• For Pavlov , the learning process consisted of the formation of associations between stimuli
and responses.
 ❖ Operant Conditioning : Skinner
• Learning occurs when the person operates on the environment as a whole , and not only on the
stimulus .
• emphasised the importance of the events that follow a response So , for him learning is the
sum of Stimulus + Response + Reinforcement .
• The reinforcement plays an important role through establishing a connection between stimulus
and response .
• For him , language is a habit and language learning is a mechanic process of habit formation .
• For Skinner , learning is based on conditioning ( a process of developing connections between a
stimulus and a response ) , and habit formation ( As the behavior is reinforced , habits are
formed ).

❖ It is a psychological approach to learning

• Learning is an observable and measurable behaviour .
• Every learning process is stimuli – conditioned learning is a response to a stimulus .
• Humans learn only when they are exposed to a stimulus .
• Social environment has a crucial role it provides stimulus and feedback on response
( reinforcement ).
• Learning occurs through imitating the stimulus provided by the social environment , repeating
it ( drill ) , and reinforcement ( positive or negative ).
• learning is perceived as a habit formation process .

➢ Learning is a mechanical process in the sense that we only imitate and repeat the stimulus until
learning occurs and the response becomes a habit .
• According to behaviorists ,
• child is born as a blank slate and the environment wirtes on it as he learns .
• Second language learners are trained to repress L1 habits and acquire 12 habits .
• Errors are a sign of failure that should be corrected immediately ..

❖ Limitations of Behaviorism

1- _Language is based on a set of structures or rules , which could not be worked out simply by
imitating individual utterances . And the mistakes made by children reveal that they are not
simply imitating but actively working out and applying rules ( Virtuous errors in over applying
a rule )
2- Children go through the same stages of language acquisition regardless of the treatment the
child receives or the type of society in which she grows up There appears to be a definite
sequence of steps . We refer to developmental milestones .
3- Children are often unable to repeat what an adult says ( long and complex utterances )
4- Few children receive much explicit grammatical correction Parents are more interested in
politeness and truthfulness How can a child develop grammar even if it is not taught directly ?
 5- There is evidence for a critical period for language acquisition Children who have not acquired
language by the age of about seven will never entirely catch up Any teaching is irrelevant
when this period is reached.

❖ Behaviorism and Second / Foreign Language Teaching

• It had a powerful influence on second and foreign language teaching between the 1940s and
the 1970s causing the development of the audiolingual method .
• Instructions is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target
stimulus, and students as passive receivers of information memorized dialogues and sentence
patterns by heart .

❖ Stimulus – Response – Reinforcement

• Learners are taught the language in small , sequential steps ( the stimulus ).
• the learner responds by repeating or by substituting ( The response ) .
• This is followed by the feedback of the teacher . ( Positive or negative reinforcement ) .
• By repeating , the learner develops habits .
• Learning a language is seen as acquiring a set of appropriate mechanical habits .
• Errors are NOT tolerated because they lead to the development of “ bad habits .
• Any explanation is avoided because learning is simply habit formation NOT problem solving .
• The role of the teacher is to develop in learners good language habits .
• After a habit is formed , the rule is given inductive learning .

“ Cognitivism”
• Cognitive psychology came as a reaction to behaviorism .
• It is interested in the way the human mind thinks and learns . As well as in the cognitive
processes that are involved in learning . and how the leaner is involved in the process of
learning .
 • The learner is seen as an active participant in the learning process , using various kind of mental
strategies in order to sort out the system of the language being learnt .
• Cognitive theory mainly focuses on conceptualizing the students learning process : how
information is received , how information processed and organized into existing schema : how
information is retrieved upon recall .
• Memory plays a vital role in the learning process . The information stored in a memory in an
organized , meaningful manner (Ausubel) .
• notion of meaningful learning is stressed .
• takes place in the human organism through a meaningful process of relating new events or
items to already existing cognitive concepts or items .
• A child learner has to understand a concept before he can tall about it .
• Object permanence During the first year of life , children seem unaware of the existence of
objects they cannot see .
• theories look beyond behavior to explain brain based learning .
Information processing model :

• learning happens as a result of brain processes where knowledge is transferred from short to
long term memory .
• In order for this to happen , new information must be linked to old information , and
information and concepts must be logically organised .
➢ The role of the teacher is to help learners organize new information for later recall .

❖ Limitation of the Cognitive Theory

• It is difficult to trace links between language and intellect , as we find examples of children who
have an abnormal mental . development , but who speak fluently ( syntax is not affected ) .
• In other words , they can’t have a meaningful learning for vocabulary items , but the syntactic
items are well acquired .

❖ Cognitivism and Foreign Language

• Teaching learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based
upon their current past knowledge .
•

•
The learner selects and transforms information , constructs hypotheses , and makes decisions ,
relying on a cognitive structure to do so .

Cognitive structure ( i.e. schema , mental models ) provides meaning and organization to
experiences , and allows the individual to “ go beyond the information given .

As far as instruction is concerned , the instructor should try and encourage students to discover
principles by themselves .

• The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog .

• The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to
the learner’s current state of understanding .

• Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon
what they have already learned .

• Piaget associated cognitivism with constructivism :

• The meaning is constructed as children interact in meaningful ways with the world around

“Input interactionist theory “

❖ Limitations of Input Theories
• Stress is on the importance of the Langage input received from caretakers .

• -Since ‘ langage ‘ is ‘ communication , it can only be learned in the context of iteraction with
people.

• Language develops as a result of the interplay between children and their environment .

• Bruner names caretaker speech as Child Directed Speech ‘ CDS , and acquisition process is
described as Scaffolding .

❖ Scaffolding

• Used to describe what happens in some interactions with both first and second language
learners .
• such learners may not have the linguistic tools necessary to express their ideas , their
interlocutors may sometimes help to build the conversation or topic by providing crucial bits of
language . In this way , the more proficient speaker is providing assistance .

❖ Langage Acquisition Support System VS LAD

• LASS created by Bruner in response to Chomsky’s LAD .

– taking structure of conversation acquired through games and non- verbal assistance with the
parents comes long before words are produced .
_ i.e . Interaction and parents ‘ assistance or LASS functions before LAD .
– Stress on the existence of both .
❖ Social Constructivist Theory as part of Interactionist Theories

• Cognitive Constructivism ( Piaget )

• Social Constructivism ( Vygotsky )
– The development of human cognitive functions derives from social interactions , and the use
of language functions is done through participation in social activities .
– Knowledge is co – constructed , and individuals learn from each others .
_ Learning happens as the learner is engaged in the learning process and with the assistance of
others .
All learning or development takes place as people participate in culturally formed settings.
These settings include schools . family life , peer groups , work places , and so on .

The most important cognitive activities in which people engage are shaped by these
environments . Thus , all learning is situated and context – bound . .
•

•
• The highly knowledgeable participant can create good learning conditions for the novice learner
.

• Learners use tools such as speech and writing to mediate their social environments .

❖ Limitations of Input Theories

• All children in all cultures pass through the same stages in acquiring language . regardless of
their caretaker’s speech .

• In some cultures , adults do not adopt motherese . So , Child directed speech can be useful , but
not essential in learning .

“ Innateness / Mentalists ”
• Mentalism or innateness is a theory of language . acquisition that emerged as a criticism to
behaviorism 1957 by Noam Chomsky .

• Mentalism is the belief that the mind is important for determining human behaviour .

• Chomsky argued that what was missing from the behaviourist concept of learning was a theory
of mind a mentalist perspective .
• Chomsky argued that behaviourists failed to recognise the logical problem of language
acquisition :

• Behaviorist concepts of imitation and reinforcement could not account for typical child
utterances like “ Him don’t say it right , “ or the mispronunciation of some words which were
clearly not imitations of adult speech . .

• Children receive only impoverished language input from adults . Adults do not typically speak to
them in grammatically complete sentences . In addition , what the child hears is only a small
sample of language . So how to explain how novel utterance that was produced by the child ,
even those that were grammatically correct .

• In other words , children can produce language that they have never heard of .

• Chomsky believes that children must have an inborn faculty for language acquisition that is
biologically determnined .

• Children’s minds are not blank slates to be filled in by imitating the language they hear from the
environment . Children are born with an innate capacity for language learning which allows
them to discover for themselves the rules underlying the language .

• This innate ability is called language acquisition device ( LAD ) or black box ; later on . Chomsky
referred to this as innate knowledge of the principles of Universal Grammar ( UG ) .

Mentalism suggests that all human languages share common principles ( noun , verb . adjective
…).

The language acquisition device contains all the principles which are universal to all languages .

• . For the LAD to work , the child needs samples of natural language which activate the device .

• Once activated , the child is able to discover the structure of the language by matching the
innate knowledge of grammatical principles with the structures of the particular language .

• From the innatist perspective , children construct grammar through a process of unconscious
hypothesis testing . For example , a child may hypothesize the rule that all plural nouns end
with an – s . Thus when they come to a word such as child or man , they form the plural as “
childs or “ mans .

• Gradually , they will revise their hypothesis to accommodate exceptions to the plural rule .
•

•
• Thus , children create sentences by using rules rather than by merely repeating messages they
have heard , as assumed by behaviorists .

• Chomsky’s theory was still modified by others . While Chomsky’s original position was that the
LAD contained specific knowledge about language , Dan Isaac Slobin has proposed that it may
be
• 1- more like a mechanism for working out the rules of language .

❖ Evidence to Support Innateness Theory

• 1-The human’s anatomy is adapted to the production of speech not only on the existence of
vocal tract , but also on the existence of special areas in the brain with solely linguistic functions
.
• 2- In some specific communities , people are able to form a creole variety of a given language by
means of developing pidgins into a full language , that never before , with its own rules and
expressive range . Limitations of the Innateness Theory .

• 3- Deaf people can develop a sign language which is complex and fully grammatical with the
same stages of acquisition of normal langauges .

❖ Limitations of the innateness theory

• 1-Chomsky’s work was mainly theoretical ; he did not study real children as they interact with
parents .

• 2- The case of Jim who was only exposed to language without parents ‘ interaction . Even if he
had a LAD , he couldn’t develop a language .

Summary
• Children bring a biologically endowed abstract knowledge to learning an L1 .
• This knowledge allows them to discover the underlying rules of a language , and minimizes
guessing a hypothesis .

• In SLA , a question is whether this innate knowledge that children have for L1 is still available for
L2 acquisition ? To what extent they are similar or different ? .
“Acculturation Model and Social
Identity Theory”
❖ Acculturation Model ( Schumann )

• Success depends on the extent to which learners adapt fully to target language culture . Two
major factors are identified in acculturation :

_Social distance factors refer to those involving the relationship between the internal
characteristics of a language group and the ability for the learner to become closer ( socially ) to
them .
– Psychological distance factors refer to the extent to which individual learners cope
psychologically with learning an L2 . Among these factors are anxiety . motivation , and self –
confidence.
_When learners perceive less distance , there are more chances for learning to occur .

❖ The Social Identity Model ( Norton )

• Language and Identity are mutually linked .

• Language constructs identity , and identity affects the way we use language .
• When a learner consolidates his identity in a new community , his ability to speak and learn the
language increases . .

❖ Krashen's Theory of SLA

' The Monitor Theory ' •
It adopts the innatist perspective .

• It emphasizes the role of the comprehensible input and low anxiety situations in SLA .

• Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammar rules , and does not
require tedious drills ‘ . ( Krashen , 1981 ).

• acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the TL – natural communication- in which

speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are
conveying and understanding . ( Krashen . 1981 ).

• Early L2 production is not solicited . Students are left to produce 2 when they are ready .
• Krashen’s theory of SLA consists of five main hypotheses :
 1.The Acquisition – Learning hypothesis .

2. The monitor hypothesis .

3. The natural Order hypothesis .

4. The input hypothesis .

5. The Affective Filter hypothesis .

1.The Acquisition – Learning Hypothesis

• Acquisition results from engaging in meaningful iteraction in the second language .

• t is a sub – conscious process that takes place in a natural environment .

• The focus is on meaning not form .

• It resembles the process of L1 acquisition by a child .

• Learning is a conscious process that takes place in more or less a formal context ( Eg .
Classroom) .

• The focus is on the form ( formal rules of language ) . Learners know the rules , are aware of
using them , and are able to talk about them .

• For Krashen , Acquisition is more important than learning because in speaking , learners use
their acquired system of rules , but use the rules they have learned only to monitor utterances
initiated by the acquired system .

2. The Monitor Hypothesis

• The monitor is an editing device that operates before language is produced .
• It uses learned language to monitor utterances .

The acquired system accounts for the learner’s fluent use and intuitive judgement about language
correctness while the learned system acts as an editor to make minor changes and polish what the
acquired system produces .

• Three conditions must be fulfilled for the monitor to function :

1- Sufficient time . ( No pressure )
2- Focus on form . ( produce well – formed sentences ) 3- Knowledge of the
rules .

• Monitor use variations :

 _ Over – users : use monitor all the times like introverts .
_Under – users :use monitor to a less extent like extroverts .
_ Optimal users : use monitor appropriately .

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis

• The rules of language are acquired in a predictable sequence .
• The easiest rules ‘ are not necessarily the ‘ first ‘ acquired .
• The natural order is independent of the order in which rules are taught .

*Average order of second language acquisition , in English*

ING ( Progressive ) Plural – s Copula “ to be “

Auxiliary ( Progresive , as in “ he is going ‘ ) Article ‘ a ‘ “ the “

Irregular Past

Regular Past 3 rd person singular – s Possessive ( ‘ s )

4. The Input Hypothesis

• Language is acquired through receiving comprehensible input .

• Acquisition occurs when the content of the input just learned is one step beyond the learners ‘
level of competence . i + 1
• i + 1 is the key in designing language syllabii .
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

• The affective filter is an imaginary barrier that prevents learners from using input which is
available for them in the environment ‘ .

• A learner who is inhibited ( tense . anxious , unmotivated , with low self esteem … ) screens out
the input ( raises the filter ) and creates a mental block for acquisition .

• The filter is ‘ down ‘ when the learner is relaxed , self confident and motivated , so acquisition
takes place .
 “Interlanguage “
• It is a term coined by Larry Selinker in 1972 which intended to describe the competence of L2
learners while still learning the TL .

• The idea behind it was that although the language produced by L2 learners did not conform to
the target language , the ‘ errors ‘ made were not random , but reflected a systematic , if
incomplete knowledge of the L2 . ( Corder , 1967 ) .

• It is seen as a ‘ separate ‘ linguistics system ' , different from both the learner’s NL and TL .
• Interlanguage is related to adults not children language .

• One general conception is that an adult L2 learner never achieves full competence of L2 , SO
interlanguage is always an incomplete version of TL .

• The objective of interlanguage research is to describe and explain the development of

interlanguages , and explain their failure to reach a state of identity with TL .

• Corder ( 1971 ) calls it Idiosyncratic dialect

– Regular ( Standard )
_ Systematic ( Methodical )
_Meaningful

• Nemser ( 1971 ) calls it Approximative system . progressing towards TL , using rules .

• Richards calls it Transitional competence as it refers to the learner’s competence at a particular
time .
• Also called : Learner Language ‘ and ‘ Developing System ‘ .
• Interlanguage development is guided by three basic concepts :
( 1 ) LI transfer
( 2 ) overgeneralization from L2 patterns
( 3 ) fossilization

L1 transfer

• It is a psychological process by which learners rely on the L1 system to construct the L2 system

• . . This reliance means that the learner unconsciously assumes that the L2 is like the L1 , and
thus the mechanisms responsible for language acquisition use the LI as the starting point .
• IL research shows that learners don’t simply transfer all patterns from L1 to L2 , and that there
are changes over time as learners know more about L2 , and , therefore , don’t recognize
similarities between L1 and L2 as before .

• In SLA , there are two kinds of transfer :

_Positive Transfer : Facilitating learning .

_Negative Transfer ( Interference ) : leading to errors .

❖ Overgeneralization

• It is a concept related to regularization , it is the extension of a rule or linguistic form to domains

where it is not appropriate . It is an attested phenomenon both in first and second language
acquisition .

• Overgeneralization is not restricted to verb inflections or morphology ( rule for regular past
tense verb endings ) . Overgeneralization can happen with semantics and lexicon as well ( using
‘ Cat ‘ to refer to all four – legged creatures ) .

• Overgeneralized forms tend to drop out with additional exposure to language .

❖ Fossilization
• It is a concept that refers to the end – state of SLA , specifically that is not native – like .
• That point at which the learner’s mental representation of language , developing system , or
interlanguage ceases to develop .

• Theoretically , the term can be applied to subsystems within the learner’s IL : that is , the
phonological component can fossilize while the syntactic and semantic components continue to
develop .
Contrastive Analysis Vs Error Analysis
❖ Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis

• Was a prevalent hypothesis prior to the 1980s that predicted acquisition difficulties .

• First presented by Lado ( 1957 ) , it was rooted in behaviouristic and structural approaches .

• In essence , the hypothesis claimed that where there were similarities between an LI and an L2 .
acquisition would be easier compared with situations in which there were differences between
the L1 and the 12 .

• The principle barrier to SLA – second language acquisition is interference of LI system with the
second language system.

❖ Behaviourist Basis :

• Language learning was a question of habit formation , and this could be reinforced or impeded
by existing habits . Therefore , the difficulty in mastering certain structures in a L2 depended on
the difference between the learners ‘ mother language ( L1 ) and the language they were trying
to learn .

❖ Structural Basis :

• The scientific structural analysis of two languages would yield a taxonomy of linguistics that
contrasts between them , which would help the linguist to predict areas of difficulties a learner
would encounter .

• Two main Versions of this hypothesis were .

• The strong position : claimed that all L2 errors could be predicted by analyzing the differences
between the L1 and the target language . The real and only “ problem in acquisition was
Interference .

• The weak position : was formulated since some of the errors predicted by the Contrastive
Analysis Hypothesis did not occur in the speech analyzed by researchers . Therefore , this
position emphasized the importance of analyzing learners ‘ recurring errors as only some could
be traceable to interference.
 ❖ Problems with the CAH

• 1 – CA predicted some errors but did not anticipate all : L2 data exhibit other real errors beyond
those predicted by CA .
• 2- Some errors it predicted were not true : Errors that CA predicted do not occur .
• 3- Patterns of interference hold for some cases but not others.
• 4- How to determine difficulty is not always possible : there are problems inherent in comparing
languages and the hierarchy of difficulty.

❖ Error Analysis
• It is a research tool characterized by a set of procedures for identifying describing and
explaining 12 learners errors .
• It was called for by S. Pit Corder , back in the late 1960s .

• It emerged as a reaction to the CAH and the associated theory of behaviorism .

• Much of the early work in error analysis focused on determining whether SLA was the result of
LI transfer or creative construction ( i.e , something similar to the processes L1 learners used to
acquire language ( Creative Construction Hypothesis , by Dulay and Burt ).

• According to EA , not all errors could be attributed to LI influence and that L2 learners were
active creators of linguistic systems .

• CA was given away and replaced by EA which has the ability to describe and analyze the errors
that are not caused by L1 . but caused by L2 or by any other factor .

❖ Learner / Individual Differences

• Every learner brings a set of personality and psycho – emotive characteristics to the task of
learning something .
• Those characteristics have the potential to influence learning , specifically how learners
explicitly go about learning , how quickly they learn and how far they get in their learning.

➢ Some include the following :

• Aptitude or particular talents or abilities related to the learning in question .
• Language aptitude can be defined as a learner’s propensity / tendency to learn an L2 and is one
of the many factors researched in the field of individual differences
• Motivation : willingness to do something and the source of that willingness .
 _ Integrative motivation refers to the internal impetus that learners have to relate to , identify
with , or integrate into another L2 culture .

_Instrumental motivation is related to purposeful use of language , such as learning language for
educational . economic or other benefits .
• Learning styles ( cognitive styles ) : the different ways in which learners perceive , absorb ,
process , and recall new information and skills .
• They are preferences about how people go about learning and acquiring new information .

_ Some people like to see things written down .

_ some people are fine with abstraction .
_ others need things to be concretely presented .
_some people tolerate ambiguity more than others .
_ people like interaction in order to learn , while others less do .

• Learning strategies : efforts by learners to enhance or assist their language – learning

experience . ( e.g .. repeating things over and over in one’s head to memorize them ) .

❖ Neuro – linguistic Programming Revell and Norman ( 1997 )

• Some people are better at some things than others , and their responses to the same stumili
differ because there are differences in the ways brains work .

• We use a number of Primary Representional Systems to deal with things . ( VAKOG )

1 – Visual : prefer reading , drawings and graphic information .

2 – Auditory : Prefer listening to lectures and audios .
3 – kinaesthetic : Prefer to learn through movement .
4 – Olfactory : ( Smell )
5 – Gustatory : ( Taste )

❖ . Multiple Intelligence Theory Gardner ( 1983 )

➢ Humans do not possess a single intelligence , but many .

1- Musical / Rhythmic : To learn better by music , rhythm and melody .

2- Verbal / Linguistic: To learn through reading , writing , speaking , memorizing . To do better
with words ( Left – brain dominants ) .
3- Visual / Spacial : To learn through drawing , pictures , movies , maps , charts , visualizing .
4- Bodily / kinaesthetic : To learn through movement , touching and to talk using body
language .
5- 5- Logical / Mathematical : to learn Through experiments ,figuring things out , using
numbers , exploring patterns classifying .
6- Intra personal ( Introverted ) : To learn alone , persuing their own interests , and being
original mediating .
7- Interpersonal ( Extroverted ) : To learn through socializing , having a lot of friends , joining
groups , leading others , conflicts.