Language development

Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Explain the meaning of language and its use.
 Describe the process of language development.
 Explain the theories of language acquisition.
 Discuss the relationship of language development
to learning.
Language development …
What is language?
• Language may refer to ability to communicate using words.
• Language is an avenue for expression of oneself in speech.
• Language is a system of grammatical rules and meanings that make
speech meaningful.
• Language is a system for expression of thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc.
by use of spoken sounds and symbols.
• Speech is the ability to speak or to use vocalization to communicate.
• Speech is the concrete physical act of forming and sequencing the
sounds of oral language i.e. the act of speaking.
• Possessing a language is an essential human trait: all normal humans
speak, non-humans do not speak.
Language development …
• Language is the main means by which we know about other people’s
thoughts and therefore, thoughts and language are intimately related.

Activity work
*In less than 200 words describe a world where there is no
language.
*Children cry when their mother or care-taker binds them good-bye.
What comes first: thought or language?
Importance of language
1. Language is a medium of learning most skills and knowledge.
2. Language is a major part of a child’s learning: at home, at school, in
the neighborhood, mass media, etc. Learning depends on language
which is the basis of social communication.
3. Language is used to express thoughts, feelings, ideas, etc.
4. Cognitive development achievement depends closely on the
mastery of speech.
5. Language adds flavor to life: watching drama, listening to music or
poem takes away boredom and makes life interesting.
Language acquisition
Language is acquired in stages. Each stage is build on the previous
achievements.
Learning a first language is something every child does successfully, in
a matter of a few years and without the need for formal lessons.
The sequence of language development is as follows:
Crying
Cooing sounds
Babbling sounds
Holophrase
Telegraphic speech
Refined sentences
Language acquisition …
1. Crying is communication of distressing episodes by baby. It
demands action or attention.
2. Babbling is the utterance of both vowel and consonant sounds: e.g.
ba ba, ma ma, to to, ta ta, etc. Normally a string of these sounds
will eventually assist in production of meaningful words later. E.g.
baba, mama, toto, tata, etc.
3. Holophrase is one word utterance or one sound utterance which
expresses complex ideas. The meaning of the word or sound is
determined by: context, gesture of body movement, or presence of
objects referred. E.g. A baby says ‘milk’.
A baby says ‘ball’.
A baby says ‘mum’.
Language acquisition …
1. Telegraphic speech is a 2-3 word sentence, which is complete.[to the level of child].
Telegraphic speech is similar to telegram message as it omits use of words such as
conjunctions, prepositions, articles, etc.
• E.g. “mama come”, “Baby cry”, “Daddy go”.

Activity
A mother has farm work and a 10 months old baby to attend. She carries baby to farm,
lays baby under a shed at the edge of farm and begins weeding for crop. Later baby
wakes up and starts crying. Mother does not respond immediately as she is determined
to weed up to end of the portion. Baby cries next 25 minutes and suddenly goes silent.
Mother stops, checks back but can not see the baby as it has fallen in gully at the edge
of farm. Advise this mother as a psychology teacher.
Theories of language acquisition.

1. Reinforcement learning theory

• It was advanced by B F Skinner who suggested that children learn
language through the process of reinforcement.
• This theory emphasis on the influence of environment [nurture] in
learning language.
• Through reinforcement parents can condition their children to talk.
E.g. when children babble: ma ma ma, parents get excited/delighted
and talk back.
• The child so rewarded and pleased makes the same sound again. The
child who says something close to ‘milk’ does not have to cry for milk
as it will be provided. Thus the child quickly learns to say word milk.
1. Reinforcement learning theory …
• Skinner says that children learn language by repeating those behaviors
which lead to a positive results from those around them.
• The theory therefore, holds that children who are rewarded either through
smiles, excitement or verbal feedback are helped to acquire ability to speak.
• Parents may later give things like sweets to toddlers when they are
successful in making speech.
• Reinforcement learning theory has support in the fact that deaf children
eventually stop producing various sounds due to lack of reinforcement [they
fail to hear the parents or even themselves].
activity
What happens to a child who does not receive reinforcement?
2. Social learning theory
• It was developed by Bandura and suggests that children acquire
language through observation and imitation of adults around them.
• E.g. when parent says “These are baby’s clothes”. Then the baby will say
“Baby clothes”.
• Bandura says children will imitate even without reinforcement.
• According to this proposition, the parents tend to expand on children
utterances. E.g. if a child says “Mama maziwa”. The mother most likely
says, “Unataka kunyua maziwa?”[you want milk?].
• Social learning theory puts emphasis on the role of observation,
modeling and imitation in the process of acquiring language.
• It is important to expose child to models through which complex
grammar is acquired.
2. Social learning theory …
• Parents expand on children’s utterance encourages them to add more
words.
• Adults do not put a lot of emphasis on correctness of grammar but on
the meaning. E.g. “Her plait my hair.”
• There is support for social learning theory because children who stay
isolation most of the time may take longer to learn language, while
children isolated from humans may fail to acquire language.

criticism
Imitation does not explain language acquisition because in most cases
children do not actually repeat what adults say.
Both observation and imitation play role in speech production do not
sufficiently account for language learning.
3. Innate (inborn) theory
• It was proposed by Noam Chomsky and it stresses on the influence of
nature.
• Chomsky suggested that the human brain is programmed to enable
individuals to create and understand language.
• The human brain is equipped with a language acquisition device [LAD]
which is not specific to any language, but it gives capacity to convert
sounds one is exposed to as well as generate new sounds not heard
before.
• The LAD depends on mature cells in the cerebral cortex of the brain.
• Ability to generate new sounds [words] enables children to describe
situation/objects not encountered before.
• The theory also says there is an aspect of genetics in learning language.
3. Innate (inborn) theory …

• Observed that children all over the world learn language in the same
way i.e. crying, cooing, babbling, holophrase, telegraphic and refined
sentences.
• Any child can learn any language they are exposed to as their first
language.
• People whose left side of the brain [location of cerebral cortex] is
damaged have language problems.
• Language problems will occur if brain cells fail to mature.
3. Innate (inborn) theory …
• Chomsky observed the following in children:
a. Children begin by vocalizing or making sounds at random.
b. This vocalization is universal.
c. Children exposed to good models or other children learn faster.
d. Comprehension of language is five times wider than production i.e.
children will know word meanings before they are able to say them.
e. There is link between language and intelligence; children of normal
intelligence speak faster than those with retard intelligence. Severe
mentally retard children do not acquire a language.
f. True expressive language starts at age two years.
g. There is sex difference in language acquisition. Girls learn faster and
have a wider vocabulary than boys at the same level. The difference
ends by age of six years.
Factors that may influence acquisition of language.
a) Level of intelligence. Child of normal intelligence will speak faster
than a child of below average intelligence.
b) Encouragement. A child whose babbling is reinforce repeats it again
and later can string a word easily.
c) Exposure to meaningful verbal experience. When
parents/caretaker attaches child’s holophrase to right/correct
meaning to the object/situation, it motivates baby to repeat
holophrase.
d) Degree of maturity of nervous system, the brain and muscles
concerned with speech [tongue, vocal cord, larynx]
e) Practice. Language is an art. The more a child practices speaking
the better the speech flow.
Factors that may influence acquisition of language…
a) Quality of hearing. A child with hearing challenges will have
language problems because they may fail to hear all words in a
sentence, hence alter meaning of speech.
b) Age. Young people may fail to express their feelings appropriately
or fail catch the right mood in an unusual situation while older
people will successfully express their thoughts and act according to
situation prevailing.
c) Ordinal position. Second born may learn language faster than first
born because 2nd child is assisted a lot by 1st child.
Language development and its implication to learning .

a) Verbal mediation is necessary in all intellectual activities and verbal

mediation depends on the individual’s language development.
b) Language is connected with thought. Thus learner uses words and
sentences to express their thoughts to teachers.
c) Teacher should be sensitive to diversity of learners’ language
development and differences among individual learners.
d) Encourage use of language by talking, listening, reading and writing.
e) Teacher should repeat instructions using different words [in other
words …], ask learners to give examples as a way of establishing if
they have understood.
f) Encourage conversation where parent/teacher introduces new
words as a way of enriching meaning and vocabulary.
Language development and its implication to learning
…
a) Children continue to generate “incorrect language until a stage
when they can remember the correct pattern. Teacher should be
patient with learners while teaching certain things. E.g. young
children may not benefit from corrective feedback: child may
continue to say ‘nobody don’t like me’ even after being corrected
‘No body likes me’
b) Adults should expand on words usage and meaning.

activity
Give your comments on a student who makes spelling mistakes in every
sentence they write in their composition, even simple words.
Welcome to next lesson
• Creativity, play and learning
Creativity, play and learning
• Definition of creativity.
• Development of creativity.
• Factors that may influence creativity.
• Ways of enhancing creativity.
• Hindrances to creativity.
• Definition of play.
• Importance of play.
• Implications of creativity and play to learning.
Creativity.
• Creativity is the process of coming up with something new. It may be a product
or idea. It may be verbal or non-verbal, concrete or abstract.
• Creativity is the ability to see things in a new and unusual light, to see problems
that no one else may realize exist, and to come up with new, unusual and
effective solutions.
• Creativity is the capacity to produce compositions, products or ideas that are new
and previously unknown to the producer.
• Creativity is motivated and goal oriented, and does not always happen by chance.
• Creativity involves a combination of new and old, hence it may not always be
unique.
• Creativity is divergent and considers several options. Creative individuals think
outside the box, compared to convergent thinkers who produce regular
outcomes.
Creativity …
• Although creativity requires intelligence, it does not rely on its
presence.
• Heredity has a role to play in creativity, but it is not a determinant.
Individuals have to acquire basic information and knowledge to build
on it.
Development of creativity
• Creativity begins early in life as shown in child’s play. It gradually
spreads to other spheres of ones life.
• Studies indicate that creativity gets to its peak in the thirties, where it
remains on a plateau or begins to decline. This depends on the
individual’s experiences and effort.
Factors that may influence creativity
1) Socio-economic status.
Children from well up families may show more creativity due to
exposure and more democracy compared to children from poor
families where parents tend to be authoritarian.
2) Gender.
• Boys tend to be more creative. This may be as a result of the more
opportunities available to them. Boys have more freedom and enjoy
independence.
• Stereotyping also contribute to this. E.g. girls cannot be engineers,
Science technology engineering and mathematics (STEM) is for boys.
Factors that may influence creativity…
3) Family size
• Children from smaller families are more creative compared to those
from large families.
• This may be due to lack of opportunities and materials. The style of
family interactions can influence creativity.
4) Position in the family
• First born tend to be the least creative (with exceptions).
• This is because of pressure to conform to parental expectations.
5) Encouragement.
• Learners are encouraged by teachers at school and by parents at
home. It leads to persistence, trying/attempting again and again.
Factors that may influence creativity…
6) Personality.
• Curious people are creative as well as risk-takers. They are divergent
thinkers. Divergent thinkers consider several options.
• Convergent thinkers produce regular outcomes and hence least creative.
7) Willingness of field to accept new knowledge.
• Certain fields of study deal with what is known (history) while others deal
with discovery of knowledge (research).
8) Necessity.
• Necessity is said to be the mother of all inventions. i.e. when an
individual is faced with need/problem/challenge, he/she is forced to look
for solution (invention).
Factors that may influence creativity…
9) Thinking skills.
• Thinking occurs during problem solving activities. Thinking skills are
influenced by the level of mental development. High mental
development can sustain creativity.
• 10) Lack of inhibition.
• Living in an environment which offers freedom to explore and
discover encourages creativity as opposed to restrained environment.
Ways of enhancing creativity

• Creativity can be encouraged at home, school and at work places by

accepting unusual and imaginative responses to situations, and by
eliminating negative attitudes towards creativity which makes a
person to label others as bad, silly, wild, uncouth, dare devil, etc.
• A teacher may enhance creativity in class by any of the following:
1) Accept and encourage divergent thinking.
2) Encourage expression of curiosity by asking questions.
3) Organize for exploratory activities that promote discovery.
4) Encourage improvisation of play materials.
5) Recognize both academic and other types of achievements.
6) Provide a conducive environment and adequate materials.
Ways of enhancing creativity…
7) Encourage students to trust their own judgement and provide rewards
for creativity.
8) Encourage discussion, research and project based learning.
9) Organize for tours and excursions for more exposure [they provoke
thinking].
10) Emphasis that everyone is capable of creativity of some form.
11) Allow differing opinion/radical ideas/criticism.
12) Do not over emphasize togetherness/allow individualism.
13) Provide practical toys [items].
14) Allow room for imaginations. E.g. suppose we do this. What would
happen? [suppose the sun does not rise from the East one day. What
would happen?]
Hindrances to creativity
• Creativity is greatly inhibited by social expectation and authority. E.g.
very strict rules and regulations reduce creativity.
• Conformity reduces creative behavour. E.g. peer approval especially
of opposite sex during adolescence inhibits creativity.
• Specific training of adults into specific career reduces creativity.
• Age factor; too old to learn new things ; too young therefore, ideas
not respected.
• Peers ridicule.
• Family not encouraging.
Who is a creative teacher.
• A creative teacher does the following:
1. Uses imaginative approach to make learning of content and
evaluation more interesting, exciting and participatory.
2. Gives room for use of imagination i.e. open-expression.
3. Encourages discussion, research and project based learning.
4. Organizes for tours and excursions for more exposure because tours
provoke students to think.
Possible indicators of creativity in learners.
• A creative learner may have some of the following features:
a. Playfulness
b. Independence
c. High concentration level
d. Curiosity
e. High adaptability skills
f. Non-conformity
g. High energy level
h. Risk-taking
i. Attracted to complex and mysterious things
j. Willingness to fantasize and day-dream
Importance of creativity to learning
• Creativity helps learners to internalize the knowledge hence it becomes
more permanent.
• Creativity encourages democracy, hence creating a more conducive
environment for learning [reduces stress and boredom].
• Creativity produces positive outcomes i.e discovery of new things.
• It encourages problem-solving skills [transfer of knowledge from one
subject to another].
• Creativity helps learners to make independent judgement.
• Creativity improves student’s motivation to learn [intrinsic motivation]
Role of play in learning.
• Play is an activity engaged in for enjoyment without consideration of
the end result. It is voluntary: has no external forces or compulsion.
• Play is an activity for amusement only, especially among young
children as they explore their environment and learn new skills.
• Play may be active or passive.
• Active play involves one doing or taking part in an activity or game. It
requires expending some large amount of energy or effort
• Passive play involves enjoyment derived from the activities of others,
or activities that require minimal expense of energy, such as: watching
others play, watching TV, reading books, etc.
The importance of play.
• Learning occurs when experience causes a relatively permanent
change in an individual’s knowledge and behavior.
• From infancy onwards play becomes an important factor for the
developing child and a form of education. A child thus should be given
plenty of opportunity for play. Why?
1. It instills a sense of co-operation in the child which helps them
appreciate the role played by others [what others have to offer].
2. Play helps to lift self-esteem of child because they feel in-charge i.e.
play what they want.
3. Play stimulates creativity. A child is able to exercise the power of
imagination and reasoning and hence acquire certain skills like:
commanding, boldness, domineering, assertiveness, etc.
The importance of play …
4. Play is therapeutic: it heals children both physically and mentally. It
provides children with means to express their feelings and overcome
fears. E.g. wishful play like: playing parents may make children behave
naughtily. This will help child get rid of rebellion. Frightening or strange
activities may be reproduced during play for child to get rid of anxiety
connected with these experiences.
5. Play helps children to learn moral values such as fairness, tolerance,
honesty, self-control, love, truthfulness etc.
6. Play enhances communication skills because play requires a large
amount of communicating with others. Thus it improve language
development.
7. Play enhances the relationship between teachers and the learners.
Importance of play …
1. What are the types of play that teenagers engage in?
2. What is the role of play among adult learners?
3. If you are in-charge of timetable, would you schedule for break in
between learning session at college level? Why?
Implication to learning.
• Play improves readiness (physical, social and emotional) which is crucial
for effective learning.
• Play is an effective way of enhancing learning because children naturally
love to play, it is an effective way to teach. It can be used to learn critical
thinking among older learners.
• During middle childhood, acting out helps in better understanding. This
can be applied in history and literature.
• Although visual aids are important, children learn best by doing things
themselves.
• Teaching through practical activities should be applied whenever possible
during the early years of primary schooling.
• Handling practical problems helps in the development of reasoning
power.
End of lesson.
• Thank you

activity
A parent of grade 3 learner complained to you that their school is not
serious with academic progress of their children. Why? Because the school
has bought a lot of play materials for pp1 & pp2, grades : 1,2&3 have three
break session between 8.00am & 12.45 pm. Parent wishes that school can
charge money for teachers to offer early morning tuition, after classes and
week-end lessons for all pupils in the school. Advise this parent.