Running head: THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 1

Findings

Description of the Study Sample

A total of 50 Chinese independent documentaries produced from 1990 to 2017 were

selected for this study. They ranked among the top 50 in the total number of views on the three

most viewed online video websites in China.

To study the influence of different distribution technology on how independent

documentaries are disseminated in China, this study divided them into three groups according to

different producing periods of the 50 works. Specifically, 1990 to 1998 marked the initial stage

of the development of Chinese independent films, and producers at that time used video cameras

as shooting tools. A total of 10 out of 50 independent documentary works were produced during

this period. By 1999, the first digital video work Old Man came into existence in China when

independent documentary producers started to use digital video as a shooting tool. This marked a

period of rapid development for the production of independent documentaries in China. There

was a total of 18 out of 50 independent documentaries which were produced at this stage. Since

2007, booming digital video technologies and Internet technologies have provided a brand-new

channel for the dissemination of independent documentaries in China. Among 50 independent

documentaries, 22 were produced during this period.

1990-1998: The Stage of Using Video Cameras

The period during which Chinese independent documentary creators used cameras as the

shooting devices was the initial development stage of Chinese independent documentaries. At

this stage, the creation and dissemination of independent documentaries were resisted by the

official media, which limited the communication channels (Lv, 2003).

THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 2

Interpersonal communication: Interpersonal communication is the information

spreading activity between individuals. It is also a new information spreading system formed by

two interconnected individual systems (Guo, 2011). Interpersonal communication is the most

common communicating phenomenon. It is also the main communication means of the

independent documentary at the early time, which had a direct promotion effect on the spreading

of independent documentary works. For example, the early independent documentary work,

Bumming in Beijing is a kind of interpersonal communication among friends that Wenguang Wu

adopted the form of projecting videotapes (L. Zhang, 2010).

Although the communication of independent images is mainly carried out in a very fixed

circle, its own freedom, equality, timely feedback, and the characteristic of high interaction have

a positive effect on promoting the communication and learning among independent documentary

creators (Guo, 2011). It is worth noting that interpersonal communication is not fixed on single-

line communication. It is a relational network established based on individuals (Guo, 2011).

Thus, the audience spreads and extends.

Spread through TV stations: The independent documentary in the early stage was a

revolution of image production mode because it implemented personal image production beyond

the state system and the commercial system. However, in the 1990s in China, whether or not a

director was identified as mainstream media staff was closely related to their right to use image

documentation equipment (R. Zhang, 2011). Therefore, Chinese independent documentary

creators in the early time, such as Wenguang Wu, and Yue Jiang, were all serving in the

mainstream media or once served in the mainstream media. Early Chinese independent

documentary creators' occupational identity of once working in the official TV station that made

them constrained by the concept of commodity economy and the concept of authority
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 3

represented by the TV station (Mei, 2004). Therefore, when the creation of independent

documentary works was finished, creators still hoped the works could be spread through the

mainstream TV station.

Only after corresponding adjustment and modification could documentary works enter

the channel of mass communication and were broadcasted on TV. For example, the early

independent work, Tongdao Zhang’s Four Sisters from Baima were restructured, and different

versions were produced and broadcasted on television (Mei, 2004). The creator of No. 16,

Barkhor South Street is Jinchuan Duan, who is the producer-director of China Central Television

too. However, this independent documentary still cases of deletion on the broadcasting version

somewhat (Wang, 2010).

In general, it is very difficult for the independent documentary to be spread in the official

mass communication media. Moreover, although some independent works win the right of mass

communication media, the works go against the independent creators’ desire of keeping the

work’s independence.

Spread through international film festival: At the start-up period of Chinese

independent documentary, the most important channel for public screening and issuing was to

participate in international film festival and film exhibition.

In 1991, when Chinese independent documentary just emerged, Wenguan Wu took his

work, Bumming in Beijing, to take part in the Hong Kong International festival, thus starting his

journey of going to the world. In the same year, Bumming in Beijing was spread to Japan from

Hong Kong, and participated in the second Japan Yamagata’s International Documentary Film

Festival. This is the first Chinese independent documentary that participated in an overseas

exhibition (L. Zhang, 2010). Yamagata Documentary Film Festival has a very important
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 4

significance for the development of Chinese independent documentary indeed. It is because the

Yamagata Film Festival is the first showing stage for Chinese independent documentary and the

Yamagata Film Festival brings opportunities for Chinese independent documentary’s exchange,

thus greatly expanding independent producers’ horizons (Y. Zhang, 2007). Specifically, Jinchuan

Duan encountered Wiseman, who was the direct film master in the Yamagata Film Festival.

Wiseman’s works have a distinctive feature, no voiceover or commentary, which minimizes

interferences with the subject. Wiseman’s Central Park directly motivated Jinchuan Duan to film

the documentary The Square (Lv, 2003). After attending the film festival, the independent

producers put their harvests into independent documentary’s practice and started a new way of

exploring distribution. In 1993, Wenguang Wu’s 1966, My Time in the Red Guard represented

that Chinese independent documentaries won the Japan Yamagata Film Festival’s Shinsuke

Ogawa Award. In 1995 and 1997, Yue Jiang’s The Other Bank and Hong Li’s Out of Phoenix

Bridge won this award again (Y. Zhang, 2007).

In international documentary’s professional field, French Real Film Festival is an

authoritative and appealing film festival. Chinese independent documentary works often win

awards in this festival. For example, No. 16, Barkhor South Street won the award of Real Film

Festival in 1997 (Mei, 2004). The overseas festivals that paid attention to Chinese independent

documentary include Germany’s Berlin Film Youth Forum, the Netherlands’ Amsterdam Film

Festival, Korea’s Pusan International Film Festival, and France’s Marseilles Film Festival (Zhap,

Wu, & Luo, 2015).

Except for the perspective of official media, Chinese independent documentary has

become a kind of cultural medium through which the world can learn about Chinese society

(Han, 2008). Above all, it widens Chinese creators’ international horizons. After viewing,
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 5

emulating, and comparing to documentary master’s works, Chinese documentary creators put the

resulting insights into independent documentary’s practice, thus started a new round of

exploration.

1999-2006: The Stage of Using Digital Video

The emergence and popularization of digital video stirs up a trend of folk video

production (Cai, 2004). The increase in the number of independent documentaries made the

previously existing distribution channels no longer able to meet the needs of the creators. The

creators need better distribution modes to spread their works. At the same time, the adjustment of

media policies provided more modes of communication for independent documentary makers (J.

Fan, 2008). The external environment and internal demands facilitated the diversified extension

of Chinese independent documentary dissemination channels.

Spread through TV stations: In 2001, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and

Television issued The Detailed Rules for the Implementation for the License of Film Making.

This provision encouraged TV stations to promote independent films (Qian, 2002). Therefore,

some TV stations successively started documentary programs for society's independent creators.

China Central Television, which serves as the most representative official TV station, started to

devote itself to encouraging and guiding folk video development. For example, the program

Common Story started to promote folk independent films (Y. Zhang, 2005). Similar programs

include the documentary channel of Shanghai TV station's DV 365, and Beijing TV station's

Family Video. The common characteristic of these programs is that they subvert the past modes

of filming and producing ordinary people's stories by TV station's production. It made ordinary

people tell their stories through their own independent shooting and creation.
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 6

In addition, some TV station broadcasted some excellent Chinese independent

documentary works through the way of purchasing the copyright. For example, Jinghong Li’s

Sister was all purchased by the TV station and broadcasted again and again, thus attracting many

viewers. This Chinese independent documentary firstly got success in Chinese official media and

realized the win-win profit of commerce and art. Specifically, according to the survey of CSM,

during the period of broadcasting Sister by the Hunan Public Channel, its audience rating kept

No.1. The highest audience rating of Changsha area reaches 2.65 and the market share reached

up to 11.78%. Moreover, more than 40 domestic TV stations purchased this program and they all

got an outstanding audience achievement (L. Liu, 2012).

With the popularity of digital video technology, the number of independent documentary

films rapidly rose. In 2004, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television issued some

new media policies, such as the “Notice on Strengthening the Management of Digital Video

Films,” to limit the number of independent documentaries being broadcasted on television (J.

Fan, 2008). Therefore, in order to pass official ideologies, which is to promote as much as

possible the positive aspects of society, and meet the broadcasting standards for TV programs,

independent documentary works that can be broadcasted on TV have been re-edited.

Specifically, Yue Jiang’s This Happy Life was cut into five 10-minute serial installments, and it

was broadcasted several times (Qiu, 2005).

To sum up, with the continuous adjustment of media policies, although many

independent documentary makers got opportunities to enter official spreading spaces, they had to

face the pressure of policies and make corresponding concessions.

Spread through Chinese film screenings activities: Digital video facilitates the creation

of folk documentaries. The widespread growth of independent documentary works also increased
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 7

the size of the audience (W. Zhao, 2010). In order to exchange ideas better, the creators of

independent documentaries spontaneously set up many clubs and organizations, such as

Shanghai’s 101 studio, Beijing’s Practice club, and Chongqing M Commune. In 1996, the

Shanghai Film 101 studio was established, which is regarded as the earliest folk film

organization (Jiang, 2012). These clubs and organizations often played independent

documentaries, such as The Square, 1966, My Time in the Red Guard, Out of Phoenix Bridge,

and Miner, for movie fans to appreciate and discuss. Such kind of film screening and exchanging

activities generally had a small scale. However, the large quantity, wide spreading, and high

frequency, as well as audience’s high enthusiasm, indeed played an essential role in spreading

the independent documentary works (Han & Tao, 2007).

With the rapid increase in the number and quality of Chinese independent documentaries,

some official and semi-official film exhibitions have experienced flourishing development. For

example, in March 2003, Yunnan Provincial Museum and Yunnan University worked together

with other universities’ anthropology departments, jointly held the First Yunnan Anthropology

Video Exhibition, which attracted different types and different styles documentary works. The

independent documentary works almost took up half of the quantities (Yi & Dai, 2009). The

independent documentaries shown at this exhibition included: Before the Flood, Timber Gang,

and There Is More Than One Unhappiness.

The establishment of native video exhibitions and forums has become an important

spreading channel for Chinese independent documentaries. The tolerant film screening

environment and a free discussion space provides an opportunity for creators and relevant

amateurs to intensively exchange ideas, which has a positive effect on improving the works.
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 8

Spread through international film festival: With an increasing number of independent

documentary creators using digital video to create works, the number of Chinese independent

documentaries has increased rapidly. This promotes an increase in Chinese independent

documentary works, appearing in many international documentary film festivals and many works

have won the big prizes.

Lots of excellent works emerged in 2002 and 2003. In 2002, Ying Ning’s Railroad of

Hope won the Grand Prix in France’s Real Film Festival, Lei Feng’s Falling Snow in Yili won

the France Real Film Festival’s Evans Award, Zhangke Jia’s In Public won the Best

Documentary Award of Marseille International Documentary Film Festival, Bing Wang’s West

of the Tracks won the Best Documentary Award of Portugal International Documentary Film

Festival, and Jinchuan Duan’s Interesting Times: The Secret of My Success won the Silver Wolf

Award on the Holland Amsterdam International Documentary Film Festival (Best Short

Documentary Award). In 2003, West of the Tracks won the Flaherty Award of Yamagata

International Film Festival, Qing Sha’s Wellspring won the Shinsuke Ogawa Award of

Yamagata International Film Festival, and Peng Xiao’s Ba Kuang won the France’s Real Film

Festival’s Evans Award (Wang, 2010; Q. Fan, 2013; Tang, 2009).

In other years, the awards won by Chinese independent documentaries include: In 1999,

Lina Yang’s Old Man and Chuanming Zhu’s Beijing Tan Jiang, won the Asia New Wave’s

Excellent Award on Yamagata International Documentary Film Festival. In 2001, Fen Wang’s

There Is More Than One Unhappiness won the same award again. In 2004, Weijun Chen’s To

Live Is Better Than to Die won the British National Best Documentary Award. In 2005, Yifan Li

and Yu Yan’s Before the Flood won the Flaherty Award of Yamagata International Film
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 9

Festival. In 2006, Haiwen Huang’s Dream Walking won the Grand Prix of France’s Real Film

Festival (Wang, 2010; Q. Fan, 2013; Tang, 2009).

The development of digital video technology has enabled an increasing number of

independent creators to participate in international film festivals. Chinese creators communicate

with foreign creators through film viewing and other interchange activities to broaden their

horizons, update their creative concepts and improve their creative skills.

2007-2017: The Stage of Using High-Definition Camera and Smartphone

The continual advancement of digital video technology enables it to be used to shoot

high-definition videos. The rapid improvement of smartphone technology has also made phones

become new shooting tools (X. Zhang, 2017). The continuous improvement of filming

equipment has provided a new distribution mode for Chinese independent documentaries.

Spread through internet: Because of rapidity, universality, compatibility, and openness,

internet spreading has become the most common media at present (J. Chen, 2012). The advent of

the internet enabled everyone to distribute videos quickly and simply, which broke the monopoly

of television channels for video distribution.

With the rapid development of Web 2.0 technology that takes blogs, podcast, and P2P as

the core concept, just a computer can help everybody issue his or her own video works on the

internet (J. Chen, 2012). Meanwhile, the independent documentary creators can easily shoot,

produce their video, and upload their works on the internet because of more popularization of

mobile phones and other mobile terminals. In addition, they can have real-time exchange with

the audience, thus elaborating on their views better (Y. Zhang, 2015). In general, as for

documentary creators who lack the audience exchange and total viewers, the internet provides a

wider potential audience group.

THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 10

Based on the convenience of the internet, many independent creators upload their

personal works on it, which are spread by the means of free watching. For example, Tong Xun

has uploaded his works Fortune Teller, Wheat Harvest, and Shattered to the internet, and they

have received many clicks. Fu Chen’s Border Girl is another independent documentary spread

through the internet, it reflects the Sino-Burmese border area, Kokang people's real-life stories.

After this documentary was distributed on the web, it attracted great attention. Border Girl is

very hot on the internet, which shows that the internet could become the new channel for

independent documentary’s development and spread (Gu, 2015). The independent documentary

works produced by Fanhall Films and Paddy Farm Film also adopt the network propagation

method mentioned above. The most representative of them are: Noise produced by Wo Wang;

Queer China, and We are the … of Communism by Zien Cui; Doctor Ma’s Country Clinic by

Feng Cong; Not a Bodhisattva, and Triumph of the Will produced by the Chenyu Mao (Gu,

2015).

It is like J. Chen (2012) said, through computer’s connection to the internet, the people

who have an information processing machine and a modem can send a message. Therefore, the

emergence of video websites and other means of distribution makes the individual become both

the supplier and spreader of the media contents. Moreover, personal works have a wide

distribution space because of the internet.

Spread through international film festival: Dissemination on the internet has gradually

become the mode of choice for an increasing number of Chinese independent documentary

producers targeting domestic audiences. However, participating in international film festivals

continues to be their important channel for publicity and learning.

THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 11

Since 2007, the awards won by independent documentaries from China in representative

international film festivals are as follows: In 2007, Jing Guo and Dingding Ke’s Circles School

won the 29th France Real Film Festival’s SCAM Award, Yan Feng’s Bing Ai won Yamagata

International Documentary Festival’s Shinsuke Ogawa Award, Bing Wang’s He Fengming won

the Flaherty Award of Yamagata International Film Festival, Ke Ma and Zhangke Jia’s Useless

won Venice Film Festival’s Horizon Line Unit’s Documentary Award, Guangyi Yu’s Timber

Gang won the First Korean Seoul’s Digital Film Festival’s Director Award and Film Critics

Award, and Liang Zhao’s Crime and Punishment won Golden Montgolfiere of Festival of the 3

Continents. In 2009, Chenyu Mao’s Ximajia Universe won the New Wave Unit Special Award

on the Yamagata International Documentary Film Festival. In 2011, Tao Gu’s Yuguo and His

Mother won the Ogawa Shinsuke Award on the Yamagata International Documentary Film

Festival. In 2016, Still Tomorrow by Jian Fan won the Grand Jury Prize on the twenty-ninth

Amsterdam International Documentary Film Festival. In the Yamagata International

Documentary Film Festival of 2017, Lone Existence by Qing Sha won the Excellence Award of

the International unit, and Deyi Zhao’s City of Jade won the New Wave Unit Special Award. In

addition, the independent documentary Chian’s Van Goghs by Haibo Yu and Tianqi Yu won the

Best Record Long Film Award at the Los Angeles Chinese Film Festival in 2017 (Wang, 2010;

Q. Fan, 2013; Tang, 2009).

The aforesaid analysis shows that among the 50 Chinese independent documentary films

studied, there is one disseminated through interpersonal communication, seven through Chinese

film screenings activities, ten through TV station, 30 through international film festival and ten

through internet. It can be seen that although some independent documentaries are distributed in
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 12

more than one-way; international film festivals are the most important mode of transmission of

Chinese independent documentaries.

The Factors Affecting the Marginalization of Distribution Modes

With the progression of filming equipment, the distribution modes of Chinese

independent documentaries are constantly changing. However, due to the characteristics of the

Chinese independent documentaries and the special media policies in China, the distribution

modes used in Chinese independent documentaries have always been marginalized (Q. Li, 2009).

The factors that cause this marginalization are very complex.

Factors of communication theory: Communication is the transmission of social

information or the operation of a social information system. Lasswell (1948), the traditional

communication school researcher, put forward the linear motion pattern of the 5W model, which

is Who, Says What, In Which Channel, To Whom, and With What Effect. It can be seen that

during the spread of information, the effect of the final transmission is influenced by the three

aspects: the disseminator, the content of the communication, and the recipient. By analyzing

these factors and the existing literature, this research analyzed the reasons for the marginalized

communication modes of Chinese independent documentaries from the perspective of

communication theory.

First, from the perspective of the disseminator. In the definition of mass communication,

the disseminator must not only be a professional disseminator in a specialized institution but also

a person or group with specialized knowledge of the production and dissemination of

information (McQuail, 2010). However, the creator of an independent documentary has their

own sense of independence. Individualization and autonomy are their main characteristics.

Specifically, although independent documentary creators in the early stage, such as Jinchuan
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 13

Duan, Yue Jiang, and Jianning Kang, were all the professional directors of TV stations, the

awakening of personal consciousness and the desire for self-expression enabled them to pursue

their thoughts and awareness independently, and finally made them get rid of professional

identity in the system (Wang, 2010). Then as the creator group continues to expand, there is a

diversity of qualities emerging. Their identities are more complex, which are far from the

identities of the professional communicators. For example, Lina Yang, the creator of the

representative work Old Man, was a dancer (Cai, 2004). Chinese independent creators have no

professional identity, and their personalized expression in their works, are not compatible with

the unified requirements in the official agencies. Official agencies require film and television

works to represent the positive aspects of society as much as possible. Chinese independent

documentaries tend to express the problems in Chinese society. So, the works are marginalized

by the television media.

Second, from the perspective of the content of the communication. Chinese independent

documentaries are mainly concerned with the underlying reality and social status that the

mainstream media evades (Q. Li, 2009). In the image-text, most of the people involved are the

disadvantaged groups in society, which may create legitimate problems. For example, in China,

sex workers themselves are illegal professional groups. Thus, the documentary that involves such

a subject is certainly questionable in its legitimacy. Chinese radio and television industry is a

cultural undertaking subject to the system of the state, which is governed by the power of the

state and the mainstream ideology. The publicity and presentation of TV programs must be in

line with the national policy and ideology (W. Cao, 2002). Therefore, Chinese independent

documentaries are not well-accepted by television media.

THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 14

Third, from the perspective of the recipient. In China, entertainment is the audiences’ first

demand for TV programs. After that, they will ask for the show to be ornamental (Xiao, 2001).

However, most of the independent documentaries are not entertaining and storytelling. No. 16,

Barkhor South Street is a classic example of direct film, which has also been recognized by the

international professional documentary organization. However, it is still unable to be effectively

disseminated on TV media. Part of this is because the film records the reality in a bystander’s

calm attitude, which is without dramatic plot contradictions and transformations (Y. Li, 2011).

Hence, this way of expression does not conform to the traditional receptive psychology of the

Chinese audience to the film and television programs. In addition, most Chinese viewers think

products with entertainment properties, films, and TV programs need to bring aesthetic

enjoyment to the audience both in visual and hearing aspects (Xiao, 2001). In this respect, the

qualities of independent documentaries are uneven due to the nonprofessional factors of the

creators and the restrictions on the capital and equipment. The pursuit of documentary practices

also makes the creators overlook the requirements of the technical and aesthetic method, some of

the works are even rough and blurred (Mei, 2004). The independent documentary The Square,

the more than 50-minute film used the technique of one shoot to an end without any scene

scheduling and post production (Mei, 2004). To sum up, it is difficult for Chinese independent

documentaries to meet the demand of Chinese viewers for films or TV programs, which has

made it difficult for them to spread through the mass media.

Factors of media policy: Guo (2011) stated that mass communication is generated by

industrial production activities of large organizations. The policies and professional norms of

such production organizations exist in the social political, economic, and legal structure.
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 15

Therefore, the media system influenced by the social system has a great influence on the

development and dissemination of the independent documentary in China.

In Mainland China, the film and television industries are always closely linked to the

propaganda of the state ideology. However, independent documentaries, which advocate

individualized expression and independence, have a certain resistance to the mainstream

ideology of the state in the narrative discourse tendency. Its creative themes are full of

personality and spiritual rebellion. Especially after the advent of digital video, the Chinese

independent documentary has made great strides both in number and influence. Based on this

background, to advocate a positive cultural atmosphere and guidance of public opinion, on May

24, 2004, the State Administration of Radio, Film, and Television issued the Notice on

Strengthening the Management of Digital Video Films, such as Film and Television

Broadcasting Institutions, and the Internet to regulate and limit the spread of digital video

images (J. Fan, 2008). The notification requirements are as follows: all kinds of digital video

films produced by social organizations and individuals must follow The Regulations on Radio

and Television Management, and The Regulations on Film Management. These policies stated

that, the video film, which broadcasts through TV stations and cinemas, must be reviewed for

content. Review of content includes, video content cannot tamper with classic historical figures

and stories, cannot have anti-social plots, and cannot promote violations of law and ethical

behavior. In addition, the digital video film, which is played on the internet and other

information networks, must obtain a radio and audio-visual program license (J. Fan, 2008).

Based on the above rules, the mass media has been repellent to independent

documentaries. Those works that depict the lives of the bottom characters and the marginal

figures or show the sharp contradictions and conflicts in the real society, as well as the works
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 16

with the tendency of criticizing the social reality, all lose the chance to enter the mainstream

communication channels. For example, the documentary West of the Tracks, which has artistic

and historical value recognized by the intellectual community, is one of the best works in current

domestic independent documentary. However, it was identified by an official film review agency

as having a serious content problem, because this film promoted unethical behavior. The entire

film reflected the workers' ambiguity for tomorrow, extreme coldness and selfishness when they

talked about money, and all the people who appeared in the film are almost coarse and foul-

mouthed. Therefore, the film review agency thought that this film not only damaged the

rejuvenation process of the old industrial base in Liaoning and the policy of building a

harmonious society, but also greatly damaged the global image of Shenyang and Liaoning (Q.

Li, 2009). Therefore, this documentary was confiscated and banned nationwide by an official

film review agency.

In general, the severity of the censorship system has always been an important reason for

hindering the normal development of Chinese independent documentary. It is precisely because

of the requirements and limitations of the censorship system that it is difficult for Chinese

independent documentaries to be broadcast through the mainstream channels after their creation.

They can only seek a relatively marginalized mode for propagation.

Discussion

Marginalization is one of the most vital features of Chinese independent documentary.

By investigating the influence of different filming equipment on how independent documentaries

are disseminated in China, this research studies the change of dissemination mode of the

independent documentary in China, and then to further determine the reasons for its

marginalization.
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 17

Based on the analysis of the 50 most-watched independent documentaries in China, this

study divided them into three groups based on the distribution technology they use. The

distribution technology they used is video camera, digital video, and high-definition camera

respectively. Through the analysis of the research literature concerning these 50 Chinese

independent documentaries, this study found that while the way of dissemination of independent

documentaries varied in different stages, there are some similarities.

First, from the emergence of the independent documentary in China in 1990 to the rise of

internet dissemination platform in 2007, most of the producers of Chinese independent

documentaries have been constantly trying to broadcast documentaries on television. Although

the number of independent documentaries broadcast on television has increased with the

relaxation of Chinese television program management policies, each film can only be broadcast

after it has been modified to varying degrees. By 2007, with the prevalence of mobile networks,

Chinese independent documentary producers gradually abandoned the use of television as a

platform for dissemination of independent documentaries. They tried to broadcast and promote

independent documentary works through the internet. Therefore, none out of the 50 selected

independent documentaries was broadcast on television after 2007.

Independent documentary producers who have been constantly seeking unofficial,

marginalized modes of dissemination for independent documentary works were severely

restricted in mainstream media. Specifically, due to the very limited number of producers and

audiences in the early stage of the development of Chinese independent documentaries,

producers often used simple interpersonal communication as a mode of dissemination. With the

advent of digital video, independent documentaries have gradually entered the development

stage of popularization (Q. Li, 2009). Therefore, to realize wider dissemination, independent
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 18

documentary producers and fans began to organize some small-scale folk organizations or

exhibitions organized officially or semi-officially as a way of disseminating independent

documentaries, which have lasted until now. In addition, the International Film Festival has

always been an important platform for the dissemination of Chinese independent documentaries,

regardless of the equipment used by independent documentary producers.

Based on the study of the changes and characteristics of how independent documentaries

are disseminated in different stages in China, this study found that the dissemination mode of

independent documentaries in China is influenced by the identity of producers, the contents of

the videos, the audiences of the videos, and the media policies. All these factors have together

contributed to the marginalization of how the independent documentaries are disseminated in

China.

This study, of course, has some limitations. This study analyzed the causes for specific

manifestations of marginalization and the reasons for its marginalization only from the

perspective of investigating the ways in which Chinese independent documentaries are

disseminated. The marginalization of Chinese independent documentaries, however, is also

reflected in the marginalization of the production system, as well as that of the target audience

(Q. Li, 2009). Therefore, future research can be studied from the standpoints of both the

production system and the target audience of the Chinese independent documentary to explore

the detailed comprehensive reasons for the marginalization of independent documentaries in

China.

Conclusion

Overall, although different distribution technology would prompt Chinese independent

documentary producers to choose different modes of dissemination, such modes are almost
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 19

always marginalized. This is because, due to the identity of Chinese independent documentary

producers, the sensitivity of the themes of their works, the Chinese audience needs, and the

specific characteristics of Chinese media management policies, it is difficult to disseminate

Chinese independent documentaries through official media, such as television. Therefore,

Chinese independent documentaries have been trying to be disseminated through media other

than the mainstream. As a result, compared to officially-produced documentaries, the spread of

Chinese independent documentaries has always been marginalized.

Appendix A

Viewing
Name Year Director Distribution Mode
Time
Haibo Yu,
Chian's Van Goghs 2016 791,839 International film festival
Tianqi Yu
Border Girl 2012 Fu Chen 383,549 Internet
Ke Ma,
Useless 2007 299,238 International film festival
Zhangke Jia
Interpersonal communication;
Bumming in Beijing 1990 Wenguang Wu 261,724
International film festival
TV station;
Miner 1993 Yue Jiang 254,443
Chinese film screenings activities
No. 16, Barkhor TV station;
1996 Jinchuan Duan 252,032
South Street International film festival
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 20

Fortune Teller 2009 Tong Xu 217,913 Internet

Four Sisters from
2003 Tongdao Zhang 210,118 TV station
Baima
Jing Guo,
Circles School 2007 199,980 International film festival
Dingding Ke
1966, My Time in International film festival;
1993 Wenguang Wu 198,613
the Red Guard Chinese film screenings activities
Queer China 2009 Zien Cui 196,873 Internet
Sister 2004 Jinghong Li 195,114 TV station
The Other Bank 1995 Yue Jiang 192,209 International film festival
This Happy Life 2002 Yue Jiang 156,134 TV station
He Fengming 2007 Bing Wang 156,006 International film festival
The Blind
2014 Zhiqiang Bai 149,541 TV station
Storytellers
Falling Snow in Yili 2001 Lei Feng 147,884 International film festival
Fancier 1993 Yue Jiang 136,983 TV station
To Live Is Better
2003 Weijun Chen 120,334 International film festival
Than to Die
In Public 2001 Zhangke Jia 116,235 International film festival
Bing Ai 2007 Yan Feng 112,609 International film festival
West of the Tracks 2003 Bing Wang 112,582 International film festival
Ximajia Universe 2008 Chenyu Mao 108,983 International film festival
Ba Kuang 2003 Peng Xiao 103,638 International film festival
Dream Walking 2006 Haiwen Huang 100,319 International film festival
Noise 2007 Wo Wang 100,298 Internet
Wellspring 2004 Qing Sha 100,270 International film festival
Yifan Li, International film festival;
Before the Flood 2005 100,112
Yu Yan Chinese film screenings activities
The Square 1994 Jinchuan Duan 98,783 Chinese film screenings activities
Old Man 1999 Lina Yang 98,014 International film festival
International film festival;
Timber Gang 2006 Guangyi Yu 98,458
Chinese film screenings activities
Crime and
2007 Liang Zhao 98,389 International film festival
Punishment
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 21

Shattered 2011 Tong Xu 97,128 Internet

Still Tomorrow 2016 Jian Fan 96,827 International film festival
Wheat Harvest 2008 Tong Xu 90,941 Internet
Railroad of Hope 2002 Ying Ning 89,034 International film festival
Lone Existence 2016 Qing Sha 81,338 International film festival
Out of Phoenix International film festival;
1997 Hong Li 78,870
Bridge Chinese film screenings activities
City of Jade 2016 Deyi Zhao 75,192 International film festival
Doctor Ma's Country
2007 Feng Cong 74,623 Internet
Clinic
The Heroic Trio 1993 Yue Jiang 74,312 TV station
Interesting Times:
The Secret of My 2002 Jinchuan Duan 74,111 International film festival
Success
Beijing Tan Jiang 1999 Chuanming Zhu 70,019 International film festival
Yuguo and His
2010 Tao Gu 52,045 International film festival
Mother
Triumph of the Will 2010 Chenyu Mao 51,418 Internet
Not a Bodhisattva 2010 Chenyu Mao 46,240 Internet
There Is More Than International film festival;
2000 Fen Wang 45,993
One Unhappiness Chinese film screenings activities
Go to Work 1993 Yue Jiang 45,008 TV station
We are the … of
2007 Zien Cui 42,004 Internet
Communism
Be A Soldier 2000 Jianning Kang 41,962 TV station
THE MARGINALIZATION OF CHINESE DOCUMENTARIES 22

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