Shiela Mae A.

Gador BSED-English 3

1. Grammaring
 According to Larsen-Freeman, “grammaring” – the ability to use grammar
structures accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately as the proper goal of
grammar instruction. Grammaring is a dynamic process of doing grammar. A
process by which a learner acquires an ability to used or create a grammar in an
appropriate manner and correct structure. Grammaring is sometimes used to
refer to the process by which language learners use grammar to create
messages through grammaticalizing or adding grammar to a sequence of words
to create finer meaning distinctions.

2. Grammaticalizing
 Is a type of semantic change. It means that there are some changes in the
meaning of a lexical item.
 It is a process of language change by which words representing objects and
actions (i.e. nouns and verbs) become grammatical markers (affixes,
prepositions, etc.) Thus, it creates new function words by a process other than
deriving them from existing bound, inflectional constructions, instead deriving
them from content words.

3. Error correction vs feedback

 Error correction is a form of feedback given to learners on their use of language.
It is a technique to help learners correct errors by providing them with some kind
of prompting. Feedback is composed of assessment and a correction. It is
generally given for informational and/pr motivational purposes. Effective
feedback focuses on the learner’s performance and stresses both strengths and
suggestions for improvement.

4. Spoken vs. written grammar

 Spoken is more flexible in the use of words in the use of grammar and much less
strict compared to written grammar. It involves speaking and listening skills. The
written grammar is more organized and more grammatical and it conforms to the
conventional rules in grammar. It requires writing and reading skills. It should be
clear and unambiguous since it does not receive immediate feedback.

5. Grammatical assessment
 Assessment is for the Teacher to: a) assess whether learning objectives have
been met for a specified duration, b) remediate and/or enrich with appropriate
strategies as needed, and c) evaluate whether learning intentions and success
criteria have been met. (Reminder: Formative Assessment may be given before,
during, or after the lesson.)

6. 5 pedagogical issues in grammar teaching

a. Is it right to teach grammar?
 Yes! Grammar isn’t about buns, small spectacles, or red pens. It’s about
teaching students to think from creative angles. It’s about having the ability to
organize words, phrases, and sentences for maximum communication
process.

b. Fluency vs accuracy
 Fluency is the ability to produce written and/or spoken language with ease.
Accuracy refers to the production of grammatically correct spoken or written
language.

c. Grammaticality vs intelligibility
 Grammaticality is determined by the conformity to language usage as
derived by the grammar of a particular speech variety. Intelligibility is the
technical term for an understanding of speech and sounds.

d. Inductive approach vs deductive approach vs eclectic approach learning

  Inductive approach to learning allows students to ‘figure out’ the grammar
themselves. Students are encouraged to learn and develop grammar rules
for themselves by tapping into preexisting knowledge of their native grammar
rules in their brain.
 A deductive approach is an approach to learning grammar that focuses on
learning the explicit rules of grammar, focusing on accuracy and form.
 Eclectic approach is a teaching style used in teaching a second or a foreign
language. This approach combines the principles of various methods and
approaches of teaching a language depending on the lesson objectives and
individual differences of students.

e. Lack of Facilities
 The chalk – to – talk might be boring to students when learning so it must
be important to have enough tool or equipment that can be used to
discuss or present the lessons to be taught in which it involves more and
use of ICT facilities or some presentation slides either. In that way, they
would appreciate the lessons and enjoy the class all along.

Types of Grammar
a. Prescriptive Grammar
 Refers to a set of norms and rules governing how a language should or
should not be used.
 it is the traditional approach of grammar that tells people how to use the
English language, what forms they should utilize, and what functions they
should serve.

b. Descriptive Grammar
 Lay out the grammatical elements and a set of rules of language based
on how it is actually used.

c. Notional Grammar
 Is concerned with an approach to grammar which is dependent on the
definition of terminology (e.g. ‘a verb is a doing word’) as opposed to
identification of structures and processes. Notional grammar provides an
interpretation for the labels, a notional, ontologically based interpretation.

d. Generative Grammar
 It is the formal rules that set one language apart from another. It is the
way that sentences are put together and words are arranged which differ
from language to language.
 Generative grammar accepts as a basic premise that native speakers of a
language will find certain sentences grammatical or ungrammatical and
that these judgements give insight into the rules governing the use of that
language.

e. Functional Grammar
 Is the use of grammar within language. It focuses on the way language is
put together so that meaning is communicated for particular purposes,
and looks at a language as a system of meaning.

f. Traditional Grammar
 Refers to the collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the
structure of language that is commonly taught in schools.
 it is concerned with the ways words are organized within sentences and
looks at a language as a set of rules.

g. Pedagogical Grammar
 Is a description of how to use the grammar of a language to
communicate, for people waiting to learn the target language.
  Is a conception of grammar that specifically takes into account the needs
of learners of a second language.

h. Modern Grammar?
 is the study of the theories and application of English language structural
systems as developed since the onset of the Early Modern English
period.

7. Necessity of teaching grammar

 The word “grammar” has at least two meanings, according to the dictionary: (1)
study or science of the rules governing how words are combined into sentences
(syntax), as well as the forms of words (morphology). (2) A book containing a
language’s grammar rules. Language teachers typically focus on the grammar’s
former-uncountable meaning. In other words, grammar is a set of rules (or
patterns) that describe how sentences are formed in a language. Grammar is
not an easy subject. It is anything that, under specific circumstances, occurs.
It’s important to keep the product and its production method separate.

8. Why is grammar not acquired naturally?

 Grammar is base of English language. Grammar needs to be taught because it
does not come naturally. Grammar regulates the syntax or allowed word ordering in
a language at the sentence level. Language teaching heavily depends on grammar,
which is a system of rules for selecting words and arranging ideas in ways that
make sense. Language would not exist without grammar. Additionally, without
knowing English grammar, students find it challenging to speak the language
correctly.

9. Is grammar to be taught?
 Grammar teaching needs to be direct and contextual. Students should be
taught grammar in context utilizing activities that focus on the use of specific
sentences, like sentence extension and combining. A specific grammatical
notion should initially be taught and modeled by the teacher within the context
of a specific sentence action using the direct (explicit) teaching model. Students
should next put their newly acquired knowledge into practice in order to master
it and generalize it. With lots of guided practice at the sentence level, students
will eventually start applying the new writing principles and structures in their
own autonomous writing.

10. What is grammar?

 Grammar is a rule of a language governing the sounds, words, sentences, and
other elements, as well as their combination and interpretation.

11. Rules and syllabus of grammar?

 Rule of Context
 Rule of Relevance
 Rule of Nurture
 Rule of Use
 Rule of Appropriacy
 Rule of Economy

12. How to teach grammar by rules?

a. Presentation with Recognition
b. Demonstrating Comprehension
c. Grammar Explanation
d. Practice Exercises
e. Communicative Expression

13. Methods in teaching grammar

a. Deductive teaching/method
b. Inductive teaching/method
c. Incidental method
d. Diagramming sentences
e. Learning through writing
f. Interactive teaching
g. Diagramming Sentences
h. Situational Contexts
i. PPP (Presentation, Practice, and Production)
References:
“Grammaring”: The Fifth Skill In Language Teaching and Learning
https://www.moroccoworldnews.com/2015/06/160095/grammaring-the-fifth-skill-in-language-
teaching-and-learning
Celce-Murcia, M., and D. Larsen-Freeman. (1999). The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher's
Course. 2ded. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle. About: Grammaticalization
http://dbpedia.org
dbpedia.org
http://www.grin.com/en/e-book/155682/expanding-the-definiton-of-grammaticalization
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/professional-development/teachers/assessing-learners/
magazine/feedback-and-error-correction-it-your
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/using-feedback-error-correction-performance-george-
uduigwome
Feedback and Error Correction | PDF | Second Language| Symbols
https://www.scribd.com/document/293681619/Feedback-and-Error-Correction
The Differences between Spoken and Written Grammar in English, in Comparison with
Vietnamese1 Horowitz, R & Samuels, S. (1987). Comprehending oral and written language.
Bingley, England: Emerald Group. Townend, J. & Walker, J. (2006). Structure of language:
Spoken and written English. London: Whurr Publishers.
http://worldteacher-andrea.blogspot.com/2012/11/the-difference-between-written-
grammar.html?m=1
“Grammaring”: The Fifth Skill In Language Teaching and Learning
https://www.twinkl.com.ph/teaching-wiki/current-issues-in-the-teaching-of-grammar
Tamasi, S., Antieau, L. (2015). Language and Linguistic Diversity in the US. Chapter 2:
Grammar Standardization and Language Authority. New York: Retrieved from:
https://doiorg.argo.library.okstate.edu/10.4324/9780203154960
https://osuwritingcenter.okstate.edu/blog/2020/10/30/prescriptive-and-descriptive-
grammar#:~:text=In%20English%2C%20there%20are%20two,%3A%20prescriptive
%20grammar%20%26%20descriptive%20grammar
Hutchinson, Tom and Waters A.1987.English for Specific Purposes.London: Cambridge
University Press
https://risussite.wordpress.com/2017/05/06/functional-or-notional-grammar-discourse-analysis-
in-designing-esp-course/comment-page-1/
Li, Jian, and Qing Ming Li. “Comparative Study between Traditional Grammar and Modern
Linguistics.” Xi’an University of Technology. 2. Nordquist, Richard. “What Is Traditional
Grammar?” ThoughtCo, ThoughtCo
https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-traditional-grammar-and-modern-
linguistics/
https://www.vtaide.com/png/ERIC/Grammar.htm
https://pitjournal.unc.edu/article/professional-importance-grammar-and-how-it-should-be-taught
Hu, Ruyun. "Should Grammar Be Taught?" Theory and Practice in Language Studies 2.3
(2012): 596-604.
Ojs.academypublisher.com
http://ojs.academypublisher.com/index.php/tpls/article/viewFile/tpls0203
https://www.adda247.com/teaching-jobs-exam/methods-of-teaching-english-grammar/amp/ing
W
 Grammar Lessons
Active Voice and Passive Voice
Verbs are either active or passive in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is
straightforward: the subject is a do-er. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is not do-er.
It is shown with by + do-er or is not shown in the sentence.
Passive voice is used when the action is the focus, not the subject. It is not important (or not known)
who does not action.

 The window is broken. (It is not known who broke the window, or it is not important to
know who broke the window.)
 The class has been canceled. (The focus is on the class being canceled. It is not
important to know how to canceled it.)
 The passive voice is often used. (The focus is on the passive voice. It is not important to
explain who the writer is.)
Passive voice should be avoided when you want more clarity in writing. However, in some
cases, you need to use passive voice to stress the action, not the actor. Also, passive voice can
be considered more polite, as it sounds less aggressive or dramatic.

 That building was built in 1990.

 The car was invented about a hundred years ago.
 I was told that Mary moved to a different country.
 Your business is appreciated.
 She was elected to city council.
 It was rumored that the company would lay off a few people soon.
 It is recommended that the building process be shortened.
You can easily rewrite an active sentence to a passive sentence. The object in the active
sentence becomes a subject in the passive sentence. The verb is changed to a “be” verb + past
participle. The subject of the active sentence follows by or is omitted.

 Sam wrote a letter to Jamie.

 A letter was written to Jamie by Sam.

 The government built a new bridge.

 A new bridge was built by the government.

 I recommend that you apply for this position.

 It is recommended that you apply for this position.

Progressive and Perfect Tense

Progressive Tense
The progressive tense involves action that is, was, or will be in progress at a certain time. In the
progressive tense, verbs are formed with a “be” verb + ing.
run

 I am running a marathon right now. (present progressive)

 I was running a marathon at this time last year. (past progressive)
 I will be running a marathon next Sunday. (future progressive)
eat

 I am eating lunch now.

 I was eating lunch when you saw me.
 I will be eating lunch in the meeting.
learn
  I am learning English at my desk.
 I was learning English the last two years.
 I will be learning English then.
Cook

 I am cooking my supper now.

 I was cooking our dinner when you called me.
 I will be cooking breakfast by the time you come home.

Perfect Tense
The present perfect tense describes an action that started in the past and continues to the
present time. Use has/have + the past participle form of the verb.
The past perfect tense describes an action that started and ended in the past. Use had + the
past participle form of the verb.
The future perfect tense describes future actions that will occur before some other action. Use
will have + the past participle form of the verb.
run

 I have run several marathons this year. (present perfect)

 I had run many marathons in the past. (past participle)
 I will have run a marathon by the time I turn 30. (future perfect)
learn

 I have learned a lot about English grammar this semester.

 I had learned the basics of English grammar in elementary school.
 I will have learned a lot about English grammar when I finish college.
Know

 I have known her since I was young.

 I had known her until she passed away.
 I will have known her for 20 years next month.
cook

 I have cooked supper every night this week.

 I had cooked supper every night until the stove broke.
 I will have cooked supper every night by the time this diet ends.

Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun or noun phrase that has already been mentioned in a
text or conversation.
There are several types of pronouns. Among them are personal, possessive, demonstrative,
indefinite, reflexive and relative pronouns.
Personal pronouns stand in for nouns and noun phrases, and usually refer back in a text or
conversation to them.
E.g.

 Jane is going to watch the parade tomorrow.

She plans to leave at 4 pm.
 We are collecting old photographs for our project.
They should still be in good condition.
Personal pronouns may be categorised as follows:

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

Subject Object Subject Object
 First I me we us
(person
speaking)
Second you you you you
(person spoken
to)
Third he, she, it him, her, it they them
(person spoken
of)

He refers to a male.
She refers to a female.
It refers to a thing or animal.
Positions of Pronouns in Sentences
A pronoun can be the subject of a verb:
E.g.

 I can’t catch the mouse. It moves too quickly.

A pronoun can be the object of a verb:
E.g.

 The flowers look beautiful.

Sally arranged them just now.
A pronoun can be the object of a preposition:
E.g.

 I’m going to buy some snacks.

Make sure you keep a place for me.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
These refer to the person or animal that is the subject of the verb. The following are reflexive
pronouns.

PERSON SINGULAR PLURAL

First myself ourselves
Second yourself yourselves
Third himself, herself, itself themselves

Positions of Reflexive Pronouns in Sentences

Reflexive pronouns may be used:
As the object of a verb.
E.g.

 Meera blames herself for the mistake.

As the object of a preposition.
E.g.

 Stop looking at yourself in the mirror.

As the indirect object of a verb.
E.g.

 Tara gave herself a treat.

To emphasise a noun or personal pronoun.
 E.g.

 Jane herself baked this delicious cake.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
Examples of possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs, its.
Unlike personal pronouns, these usually stand alone and do not have to precede a noun.
E.g.

 Karen told me that she had lost her phone.

That must be hers.
 They have found their seats.
Have you spotted ours?
 The cat is looking for its master.
Note: The possessive pronoun its is different from it’s.
It’s is a contracted form of it is.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

The indefinite pronoun is used when referring to no particular person or thing.

Some indefinite pronouns refer to people,

e.g. someone, anyone, everybody, no one, everyone, nobody.

Some indefinite pronouns refer to things,

e.g. something, anything, everything, nothing.

E.g.
 Someone is at the door.
 Where is everyone?
 Has anyone seen the television remote control?

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

A demonstrative pronoun points to a specific thing or things to indicate whether they are close
or far, in space and/or time. Like possessive pronouns, demonstrative pronouns stand alone
and do not have to precede a noun.

NEAR IN DISTANCE OR FAR IN DISTANCE OR TIME

TIME
Singular this that
Plural these Those

E.g.

 Jane stopped eating rice for dinner.

This has helped her lose weight quickly.
 That was the last time I saw my colleague Matthew.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Who, whom, whose, which and that function as relative pronouns when they add further
information to the things or people mentioned in the sentence

RELATIVE PRONOUN REFERS TO

who a person or people
whom a person or people
which a thing or things
whose a person, people, a thing or things
that animal(s) or thing(s)
The difference between who and whom is that who may be the subject of a verb; it is also
often used as an object although this is frowned upon.
E.g.

 Isn’t that Shyla who objected to the proposal?

 These are candidates whom we interviewed last week.
Whom is used only as the object of a verb. Both who and whom can be the object of a
preposition but if the preposition comes before the pronoun, you must use whom. This is
illustrated in the examples below.
E.g.

 Whom/who did you speak to about this matter?

 To whom did you speak about this matter?
The relative pronoun that can often be used instead of who, whom and which.
E.g.

 The shirt that Matthew bought has some stains on it.

Note: American English favours the use of that over which while British English still uses both
that and which.

ADJECTIVES
An adjective is a word that describes people, objects, events, substances and ideas.
Do you want to add colour to your speech or writing? Try using appropriate, vivid adjectives to
express your thoughts and feelings. Adjectives describe nouns by telling us more about them,
e.g. their size, colour or shape.
Using adjectives to describe the things, people or ideas we are talking about helps our readers
and listeners form a more vivid picture of them.
E.g.

 Please bring that beautiful leather bag to me. (expresses a positive opinion)
 She was a timid, nondescript girl when she was at school. (expresses a negative
opinion)
Formation of Adjectives
Many adjectives do not have prefixes and suffixes.
E.g.

 good, tall, fat, wide, simple, gaunt.

However, adjectives may be formed by adding prefixes (before a word) or suffixes (after a
word).
E.g.

 illegal, insensitive, rusty, childish, merciless, enjoyable.

Usually adjectives are formed by adding suffixes to nouns.
E.g.

 baggy, hairy, hairless, burdensome, quarrelsome, beautiful.

Sometimes, adjectives may be formed by adding suffixes to verbs.
E.g.

 attractive, washable, expectant, complimentary, boring, disappointed.

When a negative prefix such as un, il, dis, in, im or ir is added to an adjective, it creates an
opposite or negative meaning.
E.g.

 unnatural, illogical, dishonest, infamous, immoral, irreverent.

Positions of Adjectives in Sentences

Adjectives may be found in three positions in a sentence:
Before a noun:
E.g.

 exciting lesson, empty room.

As a complement, after a linking verb:
E.g.

 The shop is open.

 John is sick.
After a noun or an indefinite pronoun:
E.g.

 I wrote to the person concerned.

 Is there anyone important at the meeting?

How do you use Adjectives?

You can use adjectives in the ways suggested below.
Use two or more adjectives to describe a noun in greater detail.
E.g.

 small grey cat,

 desperate, brazen thief
Show comparison and contrast using parallel phrases such as ‘not only … but also’, ‘as … as’.
E.g.

 Beatrice is not only intelligent, but also hardworking.

 Tom is as strong as his father.
Use adjectives to express opinions:
E.g.

 What a boring play! The director was unimaginative.

Adjectives describe many different things, such as size, shape, colour, quality, origin or
nationality, material, and the speaker’s or writer’s opinion.
It is common to find two or more adjectives before a noun. However, they cannot be strung
together randomly; rather, they follow a fairly strict order, from top to bottom:
Observation/Opinion : lovely, boring, beautiful, fascinating
Size : petite, gigantic, high, long
Shape : round, square, oval, circular
Age : old, new, young
Colour : red, blue, green, yellow
Nationality/Origin : Chinese, American, British, Christian
Material : gold, silver, silk, linen
E.g.

 small old wooden box

 beautiful colourful Turkish rug
Some pointers when using Adjectives
Your opinion usually precedes any other adjective.
E.g.

 Those horrible yellow chairs; a foolish young boy.

It is common to use two adjectives, but it is unusual to use three or more adjectives.
Use commas to separate adjectives from the same category, e.g. opinion.

 A handsome, charming man.

You do not have to use commas if the adjectives are from different categories, e.g. opinion and
nationality.

 A wealthy Japanese businessman.

Comparison of Adjectives
Adjectives are useful when you want to compare things. Adjectives have three degrees:
positive, comparative, superlative.
The positive merely describes a noun, e.g. a tall child.
The comparative compares one person, animal or object with another.
E.g.

 She is taller than her mother.

The superlative compares a person, animal or object with more than one other.
E.g.

 She is the tallest in her class.

How do you use adjectives to show comparison?
Words containing one or two syllables take the suffix -er in the comparative form and -est in the
superlative.
Many adjectives containing two syllables and all adjectives containing three or more syllables
have the word more or most before the adjective to convey the comparative and superlative
respectively.
E.g.

 more intelligent, most comfortable.

Here are some examples:

Positive Comparative Superlative

fast faster fastest
small smaller smallest
careful more careful most careful
generous more generous most generous

Here are some examples where the comparative and superlative do not have the -er or -est
suffix:

Positive Comparative Superlative

bad worse worst
good better best
many more most
much more most
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Singular subjects go with singular verbs while plural subjects go with plural verbs.
Match your subject with the correct verb form.
Have you ever wondered why we say She looks very pretty and not She look very pretty? The
answer lies in grammar rules on concord, or subject-verb agreement. The basic rule is that
singular verbs must agree with singular nouns, while plural verbs must agree with plural nouns.
What is a noun? It is a word to name people, places, events, things or ideas.
E.g.

 teacher, Orchard Road, party, basket, beauty.

How do you recognise a singular or plural verb?
A singular verb is one that has an s added to it in the present tense, such as writes, plays, runs,
and uses forms such as is, was, has, does. A plural verb does not have an s added to it, such
as write, play, run, and uses forms such as are, were, have and do.
E.g.

 Jack (singular noun) enjoys (singular verb) playing golf every Sunday.
 The men (plural noun) enjoy (plural verb) playing golf every Sunday.
In the case of pronouns, he, she and it take a singular verb while you, we and they take a plural
verb.
We (plural pronoun) think (plural verb) that she (singular pronoun) is (singular verb) innocent.
However, there are exceptions to the rules mentioned earlier.
If the two nouns are conjoined and represent a single idea, then the verb is singular.
E.g.

 Bread and butter is available on request.

 Fish and chips is my favourite meal.
 Law and order is the new government’s priority.
Problems also arise when the speaker or writer is faced with more than one noun or pronoun in
the sentence.
E.g.

 The quality of our students’ essays has fallen drastically.

In this case, the verb has fallen agrees with the subject (first noun mentioned) or head noun of
the noun phrase, quality.
E.g.

 The spokes of that wheel are broken.

In this case, the subject of the sentence is spokes (plural head noun), hence the plural verb
are.
When a singular and a plural noun or pronoun (subjects) are joined by or or nor, the verb should
agree with the subject nearer the verb.
E.g.

 The girls or their father collects the newspapers every morning.

In this example, the singular verb, collects, agrees with the noun closer to it, the singular noun,
father.
People often get confused when deciding whether a singular or plural verb should agree with
some collective nouns.
E.g.
Should we say
  The football team is (singular verb) ready to be photographed.
Or

 The football team are (plural verb) ready to be photographed.

Well, it all depends on whether we are thinking of the team as a single collective unit or as
individuals. If it is the former, then the verb should be singular. However, if we are considering
the team as comprising individual members who are not acting as a single unit, then we use the
plural verb.
Other examples:

 My family (considered as a collective unit) comes from Kuala Lumpur.

 The audience (considered as individuals) were clamouring for more songs but the
singer left the stage.
 The Committee is ready to present its findings this afternoon.
A point to note is that American English almost always treats collective nouns as singular,
hence a singular verb is used with it.
Nouns which have two parts such as spectacles, scissors or pants require plural verbs.
E.g.

 My spectacles are missing.

 These scissors need sharpening.
However, when regarded as a pair, a singular verb is used.
E.g.

 My pair of spectacles is missing.

 This pair of scissors needs sharpening.
There are some occasions when we should use singular verbs.
Expressions such as each of, one of, anybody, each, every and nobody must be followed by a
singular verb.
E.g.

 Each of the ladies has a designer handbag.

 Anybody is allowed to enter this hall.
 Nobody is disappointed with the results.
A singular subject with attached phrases introduced by with or like or as well as is followed by a
singular verb.
E.g.

 The boy, with several others, was late for school.

 Meiling, like Johan, is tall for her age.
 Tom, as well as Fred, is on the first shift.
Two singular nouns or pronouns separated by either ... or or neither ... nor take a singular verb.
E.g.

 Either he or she has eaten the cake.

 Neither Meera nor Gopal knows anything about the accident.
Amounts, even if plural, have a singular verb.
E.g.

 Sixty dollars is too much to pay for that dress.

 Ten kilometres is too long a distance for me to walk.
 Five kilogrammes of flour is all that I need for my baking.
There are some occasions when we should use plural verbs. When two or more plural subjects
are connected by and, the verb is plural.
 E.g.

 The officers and their men were patrolling the area.

 Domestic cats and dogs need adequate care and attention.
Plural subjects separated by either ... or or neither ... nor, both ... and, and all but take a plural
verb.
E.g.

 Either the boys or the girls are to blame.

 Neither the contestants nor the audience were aware of the fire.
 All but Sam are going to the cinema.
 Both the twins and their parents are attending their graduation ceremony.
Another problem that users of English face is this: does the verb in a sentence agree with the
noun (subject) before it or the noun or adjective after it (subject complement)?
The answer is that it should agree with the subject – the noun before it.
E.g.

 The thing (subject) we need at this moment is (verb) more eggs.

 The greatest benefit (subject) is (verb) the opportunities presented to our staff.

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between an object – a noun or pronoun –
and other words in a sentence.
Memorise how prepositions are to be used. There is no easy way out. Our notes here may help
too!
The preposition is placed before a noun or pronoun. It shows the relationship between nouns
and pronouns in the same sentence. It may be used to indicate position, place, direction or time.
Prepositions of Position
With regard to place, in tends to be used with larger or enclosed areas such as cities, countries
and tunnels, whereas at tends to be used for smaller places, points on a journey, or for activities
typically associated with a place.

E.g.

 The couple will spend their money in London. (large area)

 Their train stops at London Paddington. (point on a journey)
 The boys are running around in the library. (enclosed area)
 They boys are at the library, reading. (reading is associated with libraries)
When talking about heights or levels, you use below, over or under.
E.g.

 The dog is sleeping under the bed.

 The plane flew over the hills.

Prepositions of Directions
These prepositions indicate a movement towards a goal.
E.g.

 Let’s go to the market.

 The swimmers walked into the sea.
 The students eagerly ran towards the campsite.
Prepositions of Time
On is used for days and dates.
E.g.

 The wedding will be on Saturday.

At is used to indicate a specific time.
E.g.

 I’ll see you at six o’clock.

From ... to and during are used to indicate a period of time.
E.g.

 The tulip festival is from March to May.

 During the school holidays, students engage in community projects.
Other prepositions indicating time are before, until, after, since and by.
E.g.

 My wife exercises before breakfast.

 You can visit her after office hours.
 You must submit the forms by 1st July.
 Until now, I’ve always thought that she was a meticulous officer.
 She has been making a lot of progress since she started her exercise programme.
Troublesome Prepositions
There are times when we are unsure which preposition we should use. These are some
troublesome prepositions.
Beside and Besides
Beside means “next to”.
E.g.

 She sits beside me in the office.

Besides means “other than” or “apart from”.
E.g.

 Besides enjoying cooking, I like reading a book when I’m free.

Between and Among

Between is used when referring to two people, places or things.
Among is used for three or more people, places or things.
E.g.

 Divide the cake among the five of you.

 The twins shared the sweets between themselves.
‘Differ with’ and ‘Differ from’
When you differ with someone, you disagree with that person’s opinion or idea.
When you differ from someone, it means that you are unlike that person.
E.g.

 The form teacher differed with the English teacher on the boy’s abilities.
 Mr. Chan differed from his predecessor in terms of management style.
Sometimes you may find it hard to decide which preposition you should use with a word.
This is a list to help you.

 according to
 angry with
 ashamed of
 bored with (something)
 comment on
 disagree with
 disappointed in (something)
 disappointed with (somebody)
 disgusted at (something)
 disgusted with (somebody)
 pride oneself on (something)
 protest against
 rely on
 similar to
 write about (something)
 write to (somebody)
Phrasal verbs – verbs used with a preposition or adverb. Phrasal verbs are never
hyphenated.

 back away – to retreat

 back down – retract or withdraw (from a position or argument)
 back out – fail to keep an agreement
 back up – make a copy of computer data
 back (someone) up – to support someone
 fall apart – break into pieces (literally) or become emotionally disturbed (figuratively)
 fall behind – make little progress
 fall out – have a bad relationship with someone
 (something) fall through – be unsuccessful
 get across – communicate successfully
 get ahead – make progress
 get along – have a good relationship with someone
 get around to – finally manage to do something
 get back at – take revenge
 put across – communicate
 put (someone) down – insult someone
 put forward – suggest or nominate
 put up – allow someone to stay at your house for a few days
 put up with – tolerate

Adverbs
An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions.
While adjectives tell you more about a noun or pronoun, adverbs do the same for verbs.
Adverbs tell you, among other things, how (manner), when (time) or where (place) an action
took place.
E.g.

 She sang beautifully. (manner)

 She came early for the interview. (time)
 I stayed here when I visited Hanoi. (place)
Some adverbs also moderate or intensify adjectives or adverbs.
E.g.

 That was an extremely entertaining performance.

 I wouldn’t recommend it. It was a very bad show.
 I went to the market rather early on Saturday.
  She danced remarkably well.

Possible Positions of Adverbs in a Sentence

At the beginning of a sentence (usually to emphasise a point).

 Finally, we found our way back to the camp.

In the middle of a sentence.

 The philanthropist rarely reveals his identity when he makes his donations.
At the end of a sentence, after a verb.

 She screamed loudly.

Adverbs may be categorised into the following classes:
Manner : gracefully, sadly, slowly, well
Time : before, now, since, eventually
Place : here, there, everywhere, nowhere
Degree : almost, quite, very, rather
Number : once, twice
Interrogative : where, when, how

Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner tell you the way an action is performed. They answer the question how?
Usually, the adverb follows the verb.
E.g.

 The students cheered enthusiastically when they were told that they were getting a
holiday.
Sometimes, the adverb is placed before the verb to emphasise the manner of the action.
E.g.

 He deliberately tripped the rude boy.

 She suddenly appeared out of nowhere.
Although many adverbs of manner end in -ly, not all do.
E.g.

 She’s trying hard to impress the judges.

Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of time answer the questions when? how long? and how often?
E.g.

 Lunch will be ready soon.

 Jenny visited us twice last year but we haven’t seen her since.
 Harold rarely visits his grandparents.
Possible Positions of Adverbs of Time in a Sentence
At the beginning of the sentence, usually for emphasis.
E.g.

 Frankly, the job is not worth doing for the money alone.
After the verb or at the end of a sentence.
 E.g.

 The school looked very different then.

Before the verb.
E.g.

 The neighbours now realise what had happened.

Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of degree answer the question how much? or to what extent? They increase or
reduce the force of the word they describe.
They are usually used with adjectives and are placed before the adjective that they describe.
E.g.

 The students put up a totally entertaining performance.

They are used with other adverbs and are placed before the adverb they describe.
E.g.

 The young man walked incredibly slowly.

When used with verbs, they come before the verb.
E.g.

 The audience absolutely hated the show.

Adverbs are used to indicate comparison in the same way as adjectives. They generally form
the comparative or superlative by adding more and most to the positive adverb.

Positive Comparative Superlative

early earlier earliest
long longer longest
bravely more bravely most bravely
carefully more carefully most carefully
greedily more greedily most greedily

Expectations:

Positive Comparative Superlative

badly worse worst
well better best

Confusion between Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Using adjectives to modify verbs, adverbs or other
adjectives is not Standard English.

E.g.

 He behaves strange. (not Standard English)

 He behaves strangely. (Standard English)
 After a few lessons Tom sang real well. (not Standard English)
 After a few lessons Tom sang really well. (Standard English
Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that connects similar words or group of words such as phrases, clauses
and sentences.

Conjunctions are connectors that link words, phrases, clauses or sentences. There are two
main types of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join equivalent word classes, phrases or clauses. Joined words
and phrases should be of the same class or type, and joined clauses should be main clauses.

Coordination can take place between two or more main clauses.

E.g.

 Emily went to see a doctor and was given two days’ medical leave but went to work
anyway.

The main coordinating conjunctions are and, but and or.

Conjunctions are useful as they help avoid unnecessary repetition of words or phrases.

E.g.

 It is a small kitchen. It is a practical kitchen.

→ It is a small but practical kitchen.
 John will inform you of the results. John’s assistant will inform you of the results.
→ John or his assistant will inform you of the results.
 They gave their opinions. I gave my opinions.
→ They gave their opinions and I gave mine.

Coordinating conjunctions may be used in several ways.

Addition

The conjunction and connects words and phrases that are linked in some way.

E.g.

 Sam and I will not be attending the meeting.

The conjunctions both … and are used as a pair for emphasis.

E.g.

 Both the girls and I were eager to participate in the competition.

Contrast

The conjunctions but, though and so link words, phrases or clauses that have contrasting
meanings. In the case of clauses containing a contrasting idea, whereas and while are used.

E.g.

 Slowly but surely the ancient temple was painstakingly rebuilt.

 Jane, though looking better, is still feeling weak after the operation.
 Alex ate too much at the buffet lunch, so he skipped dinner.
  Mrs. Gopal is firm with her students whereas Mrs. Chan tends to be more lenient.
 While Stanley tended the garden, his wife baked a cake.

A Choice or Alternative

You use the conjunction or to link words, phrases or clauses that present a choice or
alternative.

E.g.

 Would you like to have dinner now or later?

 I’ll contact you by phone or email.

The pairs either … or and neither … nor are used to lend greater emphasis to the alternatives.

E.g.

 Neither the boys nor Sally believes her story.

 Either Meiling or Sharon is going to the airport today.

Cause and Effect

The coordinating conjunctions so and therefore link a cause to its effect.

E.g.

 He had worked hard, so his success was not unexpected.

 They heard the announcement on the radio and therefore took another route to avoid
the traffic jam.

Unlike coordinating conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions join an independent clause to a

dependent clause.

The dependent clause cannot stand on its own and often does not make sense without the main
clause.

Most subordinating conjunctions are single words, e.g. although, as, because, since, when.

 Although the journey to the disaster site was difficult, the volunteers want to continue to
support the project.
 Since they refused to obey the school rules, the boys were suspended from school for a
week.
 Sarah was waiting for the bus to arrive when she fell.

Interjections

Interjections is a big name for a little word. Interjections are short exclamations like Oh!, Um or
Ah! They have no real grammatical value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking
than in writing.
When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical connection to the
sentence. An interjection is sometimes followed by an exclamation mark (!) when written.
Here are some interjections with examples:
Interjection Meaning example
expressing pleasure “Ah, that feels good.”
 ah expressing realization
expressing resignation
expressing surprise
alas expressing grief or pity
dear expressing pity
expressing surprise
asking for repetition
eh
expressing enquiry
expressing surprise
inviting agreement
er expressing hesitation
expressing greeting
Hello, hullo
expressing surprise
hey calling attention
expressing surprise, joy, etc.
hi expressing greeting
hmm expressing hesitation, doubt
or disagreement
expressing surprise
Oh, o expressing pain
expressing pleading
ouch expressing pain
Uh expressing hesitation
Uh-huh expressing agreement
Um, umm expressing hesitation
well expressing surprise
introducing a remark
“Ah, now I understand.”
“Ah well, it can’t be helped.”
“Ah! I’ve won!”
“Alas, she’s dead now.”
“Oh dear! Does it hurt?”
“Dear me! That’s a surprise!”
“It’s hot today.” “Eh?” “I said
it’s hot today.”
“What do you think of that,
eh?”
“Eh! Really?”
“Let’s go, eh?”
“Lima is the capital
of...er...Peru.”
“Hello John. How are you
today?"
“Hello! My car’s gone!”
“Hey! Look at that!”
“Hey! What a good idea!”
“Hi! What’s new?”
“Hmm. I’m not so sure.”
“Oh! You’re here!”
“Oh! I’ve got a toothache.”
“Oh, please say ‘yes!”
“Ouch! That hurts!”
“Uh… I don’t know the
answer to that.”
“Shall we go?” “Uh-huh.”
“85 divided by 5 is…um…
17?”
“Well, I never!”
“Well, what did he say?”

Verbals

In one sense, the three verbals – gerunds, infinitives, and participles – should not be covered in
this section on verbs. Although formed from verbs, verbals are never used alone as the action
words in sentences; instead, they function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. These verbals are
important in phrases.

Verbals are words that seem to carry the idea of action or being but do not function as a true
verb. There are sometimes called “non-finite” (unfinished or incomplete) verbs. Because time is
involved with all verb forms, whether finite or non-finite, however, following a logical Tense
Sequence is important.

Sequence of Tenses: The relationship between verbs in a main clause and verbs in dependent
clauses is important. These verb tenses don’t have to be identical as long as they reflect,
logically, shifts in time and meaning: “My brother had graduated before I started college.” “My
brother will have graduated before I start.

Kinds of Verbals

1. Gerund: a verb form, ending in -ing, which acts as a noun.

 Running in the park after dark can be dangerous.

Gerunds are frequently accompanied by other associated words making up a gerund

phrase (“running in the park after dark”).
2. Infinitive: the root of a verb plus the word to.
 To sleep, purchase to dream.

A present infinitive describes a present condition: “I like to sleep.” The perfect infinitive
describes a time earlier than that of the verb: “I would like to have won that game.

3. Participate: a verb form acting as an adjective.

 The running dog chased the fluttering moth.

A present participle (like running or fluttering) describes a present condition; a past

participle describes something that has happened. “The completely rotted tooth finally
fell out of his mouth. “The distinction can be important to the meaning of a sentence;
there is a huge difference between a confusing student and a confused student.

1. Gerunds
Gerunds are sometimes called “verbal nouns”.
When a verb ends in -ing, it may be a gerund or a present participle. It is important to
understand that they are not the same.
When we use a verb in -ing form more like a noun, it is usually a gerund:
 Fishing is fun.

When we use a verb in -ing form more like a verb or an adjective, it is usually a present
participle.

 Anthony is fishing.
 I have a boring teacher.

Functions of Gerund

In this lesson, we look at the different ways in which we use gerunds, followed by a quiz
to check your understanding.

Many grammarians do not like to use the expression “gerund”. That is because there is
sometimes no clear difference between a gerund and a present participle.

1. Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

2. Gerunds after Prepositions
3. Gerunds after Certain Verbs
4. Gerunds in Passive Sense

1. Gerunds as Subject, Object or Complement

Try to think of gerunds as verbs in noun form.
Like nouns, gerunds can be the subject, object or complement of a sentence:
 Smoking costs a lot of money.
 I don’t like writing.
 My favourite occupation is reading.

But, like a verb, a gerund can also have an object itself. In this case, the whole
expression [gerund + object] can be the subject, object or complement of the sentence.

 Smoking cigarettes costs a lot of money.

 I don’t like writing letters.
  My favourite occupation is reading detective stories.

Like nouns, we can use gerunds with adjectives (including articles and other
determiners):

 pointless questioning
 a settling of debts
 the making of Titanic
 his drinking of alcohol

But when we use a gerund with an article, it does not usually take a direct object:

 a settling of debts (not a settling of debts)

 Making “Titanic” was expensive.
 The making of “Titanic” was expensive.

2. Gerunds after Prepositions

This а good a good rule. It has no exceptions!
If we want to use а verb а preposition, it must be a gerund. It is impossible to use
an infinitive after a preposition. So for example, we say:

 I will call you after arriving at the office.

 Please have a drink before leaving.
 I am looking forward to meeting you.
 Do you object to working late?
 Tara always dreams about going on holiday.
Note that you could replace all the above gerunds with “real” nouns:

 I will call you after my arrival at the office.

 Please have a drink before your departure.
 I am looking forward to our lunch.
 Do you object to this job?
 Tara always dreams about holidays.

3. Gerunds after Certain Verbs

We sometimes use one verb after another verb. Often the second verb is in the
infinitive form, for example:
 I want to eat.

But sometimes the second verb must be in gerund form, for example:

 I dislike eating.

This depends on the first verb. Here is a list of verbs that are usually followed by
a verb gerund form:

Admit, appreciate, avoid, carry on, consider, defer, delay, deny, detest, dislike,
endure, enjoy, escape, excuse, face, feel like, forgive, give up, can’t help,
imagine, involve, leave off, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practice, put off,
report, recent, risk, can’t stand, suggest, understand

Look at these examples:

 She is considering having a holiday.

  Do you feel like going out?
 I can’t help falling in love with you.
 I can’t stand not seeing you.

Some verbs can be followed by the gerund form or the infinitive form without a
big change in meaning: begin, continue, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, propose,
start

 I like to play tennis.

 I like playing tennis.
 It started to rain.
 It started raining.

4. Gerunds in Passive Sense

We often use a gerund after the verbs need, require and want. In this case, the
gerund has a passive sense.
 I have three shirts that need washing. (need to be washed)
 This letter requires signing. (needs to be signed)
 The house wants reporting. (needs to be repainted)

2. INFINITIVES
An infinitive is an uninflected form of a verb usually introduced by ‘to’. An infinitive can
server either as a noun, adverb, or adjective. Examples:
As a noun:
 To Love is Divine.

As an adverb:

 Artists love to create art.

As an adjective:

 He has many tales to tell.

Infinitive is the base form of the verb. The infinitive form of a verb is the form which
follows “to”.

For example:

(to) go, (to) be, (to) ask, (to) fight, (to) understand, (to) walk.

Infinitives may occur with or without the infinitive marker “to”. Infinitives without
“to” are known as “bare infinitives”.

For example:

 Help me open the door.

after: the first, the last, the next

 Gagarin was the first to fly in a spaceship.

 Peter was the last to watch the film.
  He is the next to get his passport.

after: adjectives

 I’m happy to be here. It’s better not to smoke.

after: certain verbs (agree, choose, forget, hope, learn, promise, regret, want,
….)

 I learn to drive a car.

after: question words

 I don’t know what to say.

 Can you tell me how to get to the bus stop?

after: want/would like

 I want you to help me.

Verb + object + to-infinitive

 I helped my dad to clean the car.

3. PARTICIPLES
A participle is a word formed from a verb that can function as part of a verb phrase.
There are two participles: The present participle and the past participle. They can both
be used as adjectives.
A. Present Participle
The present participle is formed by adding “-ing” to the base form of a verb. It is
used in:
Continuous or Progressive verb forms
 I’m leaving in five minutes.
 The girl is swimming.

As an adjective

 A dying man
 Your mother is a charming person

As a gerund

 He is afraid of flying.

B. Past Participle
The past participle is formed by adding “-ed” to the base form, unless it is an
irregular verb. It is used:
As an adjective
 A tired group
 Spoken words cannot be revoked.

With the auxiliary verb “have” to form the perfect aspect

 The gas station has closed

  They’ve just arrived.

With the verb “be” to form the passive

 He was robbed a couple of days ago.

 The letter was written.
 A LESSON PLAN IN GRAMMAR FOR GRADE 8 ENGLISH

I. OBJECTIVES: The learning

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to: objectives shows the
a. engage in an interactive activity through writing active focus on the most
important and
or passive voice sentences;
essential learning that
b. appreciate writing active and passive sentences needs at the end of the
through interactive activity; class. However,
c. write sentences in active to passive and passive to there’s an error about
active. the objectives of this
lesson plan. In writing
an objective, you must
only describe specific
tasks (such as
‘describe,’ ‘analyse’,
or ‘evaluate’) NOT
vague tasks (like
‘engage’, ‘appreciate’,
‘understand’ or
‘explore,).

II. SUBJECT MATTER In subject matter, it

Topic: Active and Passive Voice includes the sources of
Reference: English Expressways pp 247-248 information or
references from where
Materials: CAI
the topic gets. Also,
the material which is
the computer-aided
(assisted) instruction.

III. PROCEDURE In the procedure, there

A. Preparatory Activities are some steps or
1. Prayer methods of activities
that are not detailed.
2. Checking of Attendance
Especially, on the part
B. Motivation of evaluation and
1. Let the students see the pictures on the board reflection which it
and then ask them these questions: wasn’t included on
a. What do you prefer? A player? or An this lesson plan. The
Audience? procedure is an in-
b. What is the difference between the depth explanation of
how the lesson will
two?
progress in the
C. Presentation classroom. It must be
1. Video Presentation step-by-step
2. Show more examples and then analyze the instructions that walk
sentences with the students. you through
everything from the
Active (Present) Passive time students enter the
classroom until the
She collects stamps. Stamps are collected
bell rings at the end of
by her. the period.
Dora explores the The city is explored
city. by Dora.

Active (Past) Passive

Batman saved Robin was saved by
Robin. Batman.
 The manager The proposal was
rejected the rejected by the
proposal. manager.
Active (Future) Passive
Frank shall buy the The tickets shall be
tickets. bought by Frank.
Barbie will use the The room below
room below. will be used by
Barbie.

3. Voice is the quality of a verb that shows

whether the subject is the doer or receiver of the
action. The Active Voice is used to indicate that
the subject of the sentence is the doer of the
action while the Passive Voice indicates that the
subject is the receiver of the action. Why use the
passive voice? (If the doer is unknown, if the
doer is not as important as the action carried out
and for the element of surprise.)

4. Ask the students

a. What are the subjects in each
sentence?
(These subjects were the ones doing
the action in the sentence.)
b. What verbs were used?
(Those verbs are transitive verbs with
direct objects, thus when the subject
of the sentence does the action and the
verb has a direct object, we say that
the verb is in the active voice.)
5. To change the sentences from active to passive
we just make the direct object the subject of the
sentence. Show S-V_O pattern change. (The
pronoun I is not used.) Notice how the verbs
were written. (Be verb + past participle of the
main verb) Do you see the difference from the
previous verbs? In changing a sentence from
active to passive, the direct object becomes the
subject and/or the doer is place d with the “by-
phrase”/ “by-agent”.

D. Activity: PICTURE IT OUT, WRITE IT OUT!

1. The teacher will divide the class into five (5)
groups.
2. The game will be played by group. It will be in
the context of writing a sentence based from the
picture displayed in the monitor. However, each
picture requires either an active/passive voice or
the time is only limited for (ten) 10 seconds per
display.
3. The group who earns most of the correct
sentence wins the game.
 GRAMMAR TEST

1. I’d like ________ information, please.

a. an c. piece
b. some d. a piece

2. He’s interested _________ learning Spanish.

a. on c. in
b. to d. for

3. Tim ________ work tomorrow.

a. isn’t going c. isn’t going to
b. isn’t d. isn’t to

4. The guests enjoyed _________ at the party.

a. herself c. yourselves
b. himself d. themselves

5. I’m fed up _________ this exercise.

a. with doing c. to doing
b. to do d. for doing

6. You _________ the cleaning. I would have done it tonight.

a. needn’t have done c. can’t have done
b. couldn’t have done d. wouldn’t have done

7. How long _________ English?

a. do you learn c. have you been learning
b. are you learning d. you learn

8. These aren’t _________ people here.

a. much c. a lot
b. many d. some

9. He told me that he ________ in Spain the previous year.

a. has been working c. has worked
b. had been working d. had been worked

10. The tree ________ by lightning.

a. was flashed c. was struck
b. struck d. flashed