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IFAC PapersOnLine 53-1 (2020) 422–427

Wheel
Wheel Slip
Slip Regulation
Regulation Of
Of Electrified
Electrified Heavy
Heavy
Wheel
Wheel Slip
Slip Regulation
Regulation Of
Of Electrified
Electrified Heavy
Heavy
Road
Road Vehicles
Vehicles Using
Using Regenerative
Regenerative Braking
Braking
Road Vehicles Using Regenerative Braking
Road Vehicles Using Regenerative Braking ∗
Kesavan
Kesavan Valis
Valis Subramaniyam,
Subramaniyam, Shankar
Shankar C.
C. Subramanian
Subramanian ∗
∗
Kesavan
Kesavan
Kesavan Valis
Valis
Valis Subramaniyam,
Subramaniyam,
Subramaniyam, Shankar
Shankar
Shankar C.
C.
C. Subramanian
Subramanian
Subramanian
∗
∗
Kesavan Valis Subramaniyam, Shankar C. Subramanian ∗
∗
∗ Department of Engineering Design, IIT Madras, Chennai 600036,
∗ Department
∗
Department of
of Engineering
Engineering Design,
Design, IIT
IIT Madras,
Madras, Chennai
Chennai 600036,
600036,
∗ Department of Engineering Design, IIT Madras, Chennai 600036,
∗
Department
India
Department
India (Tel:
(Tel: of
of Engineering
+91-44-22574705;
Engineering
+91-44-22574705; Design,
Design, e-mail:
e-mail: IIT
IIT Madras,
Madras, Chennai
shankarram@iitm.ac.in).
Chennai
shankarram@iitm.ac.in). 600036,
600036,
India
India (Tel:
(Tel:
India (Tel: +91-44-22574705;
+91-44-22574705;
(Tel: +91-44-22574705;
+91-44-22574705; e-mail: e-mail:
e-mail: shankarram@iitm.ac.in).
shankarram@iitm.ac.in).
e-mail: shankarram@iitm.ac.in).
shankarram@iitm.ac.in).
India
Abstract:
Abstract: This This paperpaper proposes
proposes a a control
control scheme
scheme to to use
use regenerative
regenerative braking
braking for for Wheel
Wheel Slip Slip
Abstract:
Abstract:
Regulation
Abstract: This
This
(WSR)
This paper
paper
in
paper proposes
proposes
Heavy
proposes a
a control
control
Commercial
a control scheme
scheme
Road
scheme to
to
Vehicles
to use
use
use regenerative
regenerative
(HCRVs).
regenerative braking
braking
Typically,
braking in for
for Wheel
Wheel
HCRVs,
for Wheel Slip
Slip
WSR
Slip
Abstract:
Regulation
Regulation
Regulation This
(WSR)
(WSR)
(WSR) paper
in
in proposes
Heavy
Heavy
in Heavy a control
Commercial
Commercial
Heavy Commercial
Commercial scheme
Road
Road
Road to
Vehicles
Vehicles
Vehicles use regenerative
(HCRVs).
(HCRVs). braking
Typically,
Typically,
(HCRVs).vehicles
Typically, in
in for Wheel
HCRVs,
HCRVs,
in HCRVs,
HCRVs, Slip
WSR
WSR
WSR
is
is achieved
achieved using
Regulation
Regulation (WSR)
(WSR)
using pneumatic
in Heavyfriction
in
pneumatic Commercial
friction brakes.
brakes.Road
Road However,
However, Vehicles
Vehiclesin
in electrified
(HCRVs). Typically,
(HCRVs).vehicles
electrified Typically,
vehicles regenerative
in
in HCRVs,
regenerative braking
WSR
WSR
braking
is
is
is achieved
achieved
available
achieved using
using
and
using pneumatic
pneumatic
this can
pneumatic be friction
friction
beneficial
friction brakes.
brakes.
as
brakes. However,
However,
electrical
However, in
in electrified
electrified
machines
in have
electrified vehicles
higher
vehicles regenerative
regenerative
bandwidth
regenerative braking
braking
compared
braking
is
is
is achieved
available
available
available using
and
and
and pneumatic
this
this
this can
can
can be
be
be friction
beneficial
beneficial
beneficial brakes.
as
as
as However,
electrical
electrical
electrical in electrified
machines
machines
machines have
have
have vehicles
higher
higher
higher regenerative
bandwidth
bandwidth
bandwidth braking
compared
compared
compared
to
is
is aa pneumatic
to available
available
pneumatic and brake
and this
this can
brake system.
can be
system. In
In this
be beneficialthis as
beneficial study,
as electrical
electrical
study, aa sliding
sliding mode
machines
mode have
machines control
have
control based
higher
higher
based active
active co-operative
bandwidth
bandwidth compared
compared
co-operative
to
to a
a
braking
to a pneumatic
pneumatic
strategy
pneumatic brake
brake
is
brake system.
system.
proposed
system. for In
In
WSR
In this
this
this instudy,
study,
an
study, aaa sliding
electrified sliding
sliding mode
mode
HCRV.
mode control
control
The based
based
proposed
control based active
active
control
active co-operative
co-operative
strategy
co-operativewas
to a
braking
braking
braking pneumatic
strategy
strategy
strategy brake
is
is
is system.
proposed
proposed
proposed for
for
for In
WSR
WSR
WSR this

in
in
Rin
study,
an
an
an electrified
electrified
electrifieda sliding mode
HCRV.
HCRV.
HCRV. control
The
The
The based
proposed
proposed
proposed active
control
control
control co-operative
strategy
strategy
strategy was
was
was
programmed
braking
braking
programmed strategy
strategy in
in MATLAB/Simulink
is
is proposed
proposed
MATLAB/Simulink for
for WSR
WSR 
 in
Rinand
R an
and
an electrified
implemented
electrified
implemented HCRV.
HCRV. in
in a
aThe
The proposed
Hardware-in-loop
proposed
Hardware-in-loop control
control strategy
brake
strategy
brake was
system.
was
system.
programmed
programmed
programmed in
in
in MATLAB/Simulink
MATLAB/Simulink R and
R and implemented
implemented in
in aa Hardware-in-loop
Hardware-in-loop brake brake system.
system.
The
The
The
experimental
programmed
The experimental
experimental
experimental in MATLAB/Simulink
results
results
results
showed
MATLAB/Simulink
results showed
showed
showed
that
that
that
that
Rthe
the
the
the
and
and implemented
proposed
implemented
proposed
proposed
proposed
active
active
active
active
in
in aa Hardware-in-loop
co-operative
co-operative
co-operative
co-operative
braking
Hardware-in-loop
braking
braking
braking
brake
strategy
strategy
strategy
strategy
system.
brake reduced
system.
reduced
reduced
reduced
The
the
The
the experimental
Mean Absolute
experimental
Mean Absolute results
results showed
Percentage
showed
Percentage that
Error
that
Error the
the in
in proposed
tracking
proposed
tracking active
slip
active
slip co-operative
ratio in the
co-operative
ratio in the braking
range
braking
range of
of strategy
6.7
strategy
6.7 %
% to
toreduced
1.1
reduced
1.1 %
%
the
the
the Mean
Mean
Mean Absolute
Absolute
Absolute Percentage
Percentage
Percentage Error
Error
Error in
in
in tracking
tracking
tracking slip
slip
slip ratio
ratio
ratio in
in
in the
the
the range
range
range of
of
of 6.7
6.7
6.7 %
%
% to
to
to 1.1
1.1
1.1 %
%
%
compared
the
comparedMean to
to conventional
Absolute
conventional friction
Percentage
friction braking
Error
braking in for
tracking
for different
slip
different operating
ratio
operating in conditions.
the range
conditions. of This
6.7
This reduced
% to
reduced 1.1the
%
the
compared
compared
compared to
to
to conventional
conventional
conventional friction
friction
friction braking
braking
braking for
for
for different
different
different operating
operating
operating conditions.
conditions.
conditions. This
This
This reduced
reduced
reduced the
the
the
stopping
compared
stopping distance
to
distance in
conventional
in the
the range
range of
friction
of 3.5
3.5 %
braking
% to
to for 0.6
0.6 %. Thus,
different
%. Thus, co-operative
operating
co-operative braking
conditions.
braking provided
This reduced
provided better
the
better
stopping
stopping
stopping distance
distance
distance in
in
in the
the
the range
range
range of 3.5
of 3.5 % to
% to 0.6 0.6 %. Thus,
%. Thus, co-operative
co-operative braking
braking provided
provided better better
slip
stopping
slip
slip
slip
tracking
tracking
tracking
tracking
leading
distance
leading
leading
leading in to
to
to
to range of
thereduced
reduced
reduced
reduced
3.5
3.5 %
stopping
of
stopping
stopping
stopping % to 0.6
0.6 %.
distance.
to
distance.
distance.
distance. %. Thus,
Thus, co-operative
co-operative braking
braking provided
provided better better
slip
slip tracking
tracking leading
leading to to reduced
reduced stopping
stopping distance.
distance.
© 2020, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Keywords: electric
electric vehicles,
vehicles, hybrid
hybrid electric
electric vehicles,
vehicles, heavy
heavy commercial
commercial road
road vehicles,
vehicles, sliding
sliding
Keywords: electric
Keywords:
Keywords: electric vehicles,
electric vehicles, hybrid
vehicles, hybrid electric
hybrid electric vehicles,
electric vehicles, heavy
vehicles, heavy commercial
heavy commercial road
commercial road vehicles,
road vehicles, sliding
vehicles, sliding
sliding
mode
Keywords:
mode control,
control, regenerative
electric vehicles,
regenerative braking,
hybrid
braking, wheel
electric
wheel slip
vehicles,
slip regulation.
heavy
regulation. commercial road vehicles, sliding
mode
mode
mode control,
control, regenerative
regenerative braking,
braking, wheel
wheel slip
slip regulation.
regulation.
mode control,
control, regenerative
regenerative braking,
braking, wheel
wheel slipslip regulation.
regulation.
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Generally,
Generally, vehicles
vehicles are
are controlled
controlled by
by the
the driver
driver using
using accel-
accel-
Generally,
Generally,
erator
Generally, vehicles
vehicles
pedal, braking
vehicles are pedal
are
are controlled
controlled
controlledand by the
by the driver
the
steering
by driver
driver
wheel. using
using accel-
accel-
However,
using accel-
Generally,
erator
erator
erator vehicles
pedal,
pedal,
pedal, braking
braking
braking are controlled
pedal
pedal
pedal and
and
and by the
steering
steering
steering driver
wheel.
wheel.
wheel. using accel-
However,
However,
However,
in an
erator
erator
in an emergency
pedal,
pedal,
emergency situation
braking
braking
situationpedal
pedal such
suchand
and as
as on slippery
steering
steering
on road
wheel.
wheel.
slippery road surfaces
However,
However,
surfaces
in
and
in an
in an emergency
ancritical
emergency
emergency road situation
situation
maneuvers,
situation such
such aas
such as on
asdriverslippery
on slippery
on slippery
cannot road
road
road surfaces
surfaces
react very
surfaces
in
and
and
andancritical
emergency
critical
critical road
road
road situation
maneuvers,
maneuvers,
maneuvers, such a aasdriver
a on slippery
driver
driver
driver cannot
cannot
cannot road surfaces
react
react
react very
very
very
quickly
and
and
quickly and
critical
critical
and the
road
road
the drivers
maneuvers,
maneuvers,
drivers command
command a may
a driver
may not
cannot
cannot
not be
be sufficient
react
react very
very
sufficient
quickly
quickly
to control
quickly and
and
andthe the
the drivers
drivers
vehicle.
the drivers command
command
These
command may
may
situations
may not
not
may
not be
be
cause
be sufficient
sufficient
vehicle
sufficient
quickly
to control
to control
to control the
control andthe
the
the the drivers
vehicle.
vehicle.
vehicle. command
These
These
These may
situations
situations
situations not
may be
cause
may Health
may sufficient
vehicle
cause vehicle
cause vehicle
vehicle
instability
to
to control the
instability and
and thereby
vehicle.
vehicle.
thereby accidents.
These
These
accidents. The
situations
situations
The World
may cause
may Health
World Orga-
cause vehicle
Health Orga-
instability
instability
nization
instability and
and
estimated
and thereby
thereby
therebythat accidents.
accidents.
road
accidents. The
The
traffic
The World
World
injuries
World Health
are
Health Orga-
Orga-
currently
Orga-
instability
nization
nization
nization and
estimated
estimated
estimated therebythat
that
that accidents.
road
road
road The
traffic
traffic
traffic World
injuries
injuries
injuries Health
are
are
are Orga-
currently
currently
currently
the eighth
nization
nization
the eighth leading
estimated
estimated
leading cause
that
that
cause road
road of
of death
traffic
traffic
death globally
injuries
injuries
globally in
are
are
in the year
currently
currently
the year
the2016,
the
of
the eighth
eighth
eighth and leading
leading
predicted
leading cause
cause
cause that of are
of
of death
death
deathnearlyglobally
globally
3700
globally in the
in
in the year
the
fatalities year
year
on
the
of
of
of eighth
2016,
2016,
2016, and
and
and leading
predicted
predicted
predicted cause that
that
that of death
are
are
are nearly
nearly
nearlyglobally
3700
3700
3700 in the
fatalities
fatalities
fatalities year
on
on
on
the
of
of
the world’s
2016,
2016,
world’s and
and predicted
roads every
predicted
roads every that
day
that
day are
[World
are
[Worldnearly
nearly 3700
Health
3700
Health fatalities
Organization
fatalities
Organization on
on
the world’s
the world’s
world’s
(2018)].
the roads
International
roads every
roads every
everyRoad day
day [World
day [World
[World
Federation Health
Health
Health Organization
Organization
organization
Organization re-
the world’s
(2018)].
(2018)].
(2018)]. roads everyRoad
International
International
International day [World
Road
Road Federation
Federation
Federation Health Organization
organization
organization
organization re-
re-
re-
ported
(2018)].
(2018)]. that India
International
International is the most
Road affected
Federation country in the
organization world
re-
ported
ported
ported
in the
ported
that
that
that
year
that
India
India
2016,
India
is
is
is theRoad
the
India accounting
is the
the most
most for
most
most
Federation
affected
affected
affected
10
affected %
organization
country
country
country
of global
country
in
in
in
the
the
the
re-
world
in accidents.
the world
world
world
ported
in
in the
the
in the
the that
year
year
year India
2016,
2016, is the
accounting
accounting
2016, accounting
accountingmost affected
for
for
for 1010
10 %
% country
of
of global
global
10categories,
% ofof global
globalin the world
accidents.
accidents.
accidents. Fig.
Fig. 1.
1. Vehicle’s
Vehicle’s active
active safety
safety system
system layout
layout
In
in
in India,
the year
yearamongst
2016,
2016, the road
accounting vehicle
for
for 10 %
% of globalHeavy Road
accidents.
accidents. Fig.
Fig.
Fig. 1.
1.
1. Vehicle’s
Vehicle’s
Vehicle’s active
active
active safety
safety
safety system
system
system layout
layout
layout
In
In India,
India,
In India,
India, amongstamongst
amongst
amongst the
the road
road
the road
road vehicle
vehicle categories,
categories,
vehiclecontributed Heavy
Heavy
categories, Heavy
Heavy Road
Road
Road unladen Fig. 1. Vehicle’s active safety system layout
Commercial
In Vehiclesthe (HCRVs) vehicle categories, the second-
Road unladen on
on a
a dry
dry road,
road, fully
fully unladen
unladen on
on dry,
dry, wet
wet and
and
In India,
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial amongst
Vehicles
Vehicles
Vehiclesthe road
(HCRVs)
(HCRVs)
(HCRVs) vehicle categories,
contributed
contributed
contributed Heavy
the
the
the Road
second-
second-
second- unladen
unladen on
on a
a dry
dry road,
road, fully
fully unladen
unladen on
on dry,
dry, wet
wet and
and
highest
Commercial share in total
Vehicles road
(HCRVs) accident fatalities
contributed accounting
the second- unladen
snowy
unladen
snowy on
roads,
on
roads, a
a dry
the
dry
the road,
demanded
road,
demanded fully
fullybrake
brakeunladen
force
unladen
force on
on dry,
dry, wet
corresponding
wet
corresponding and
to
and
to
Commercial
highest
highest
highest share
share
share Vehicles
in
in
in total
total
total (HCRVs)
road
road
road accident
accident
accidentcontributed
fatalities
fatalities
fatalities the second-
accounting
accounting
accounting snowy
snowy roads,
roads, the
the demanded
demanded brake
brake force
force corresponding
corresponding to
to
for 32.6
highest % of
share total
in fatalities
total road in the
accident year 2017
fatalities [Ministry
accounting of snowy
full
snowy
full roads,
brake pedal
roads,
brake pedalthe
the demanded
displacement
demanded
displacement brake
may
brake
may force
exceed
force
exceed corresponding
the maximum
corresponding
the maximum to
to
highest
for
for
for 32.6
32.6
32.6 share
%
%
% of
of
of in
total
total
total total road
fatalities
fatalities
fatalities accident
in
in
in the
the
the fatalities
year
year
year 2017
2017
2017 accounting
[Ministry
[Ministry
[Ministry of
of
of full
full brake
brake pedal
pedal displacement
displacement may
may exceed
exceed the
the maximum
maximum
Road
for 32.6 Transport
% of total & Highways,
fatalities in Transport
the year Research
2017 [Ministry Wing of full
full brake
braking
brake
braking pedal
force
pedal
force displacement
limit that can
displacement
limit that can may
be
may
be exceed
sustained
exceed
sustained the
at
the
at a
amaximum
tire-road
maximum
tire-road
for
Road
Road
Road 32.6 % of total
Transport
Transport
Transport &
& fatalities
Highways,
Highways,
& 2017.)].
Highways, in Transport
the year 2017
Transport
Transport [Ministry
Research
Research
Research Wing
Wing
Wing of braking braking force
force limit
limit that
that can
can be
be sustained at
sustained at a tire-road
a tire-road
(New
Road Delhi,
Transport India, & Highways, braking
interface. force
This limit
causes that can
wheel
canlockbe
be sustained
during at
at a a tire-road
emergency brak-
Road
(New
(New
(New Transport
Delhi,
Delhi,
Delhi, India,
India,
India, Highways, Transport
& 2017.)].
2017.)].
2017.)]. Transport Research
Research Wing Wing braking interface.
interface.
interface. force
This
This
This limit
causes
causes
causes that
wheel
wheel
wheel lock
lock
lock sustained
during
during
during emergency
emergency
emergency tire-road
brak-
brak-
brak-
(New Delhi, India, 2017.)]. interface.
ing. Wheel
interface.
ing. Wheel This
This causes
locking
causes
locking wheel
during
wheel
during lock
braking
lock
braking during
causes
during
causes emergency
loss of
emergency
loss of brak-
steering
brak-
steering
(New
Active Delhi,
safety India,
systems 2017.)].
can be used to prevent road acci- ing.
ing. Wheel
Wheel locking
locking during
during braking
braking causes
causes loss
loss of
of steering
steering
Active
Active safety
safety systems
systems can
can be
be used
used to
to prevent
prevent road
road acci-
acci- ing.
ing. Wheel
control
Wheel
control and
and locking
vehicle
locking
vehicle during
spin
during
spin braking
out.
braking
out. causes
causes loss
loss of
of steering
steering
Activeand
dents
Active safety systems fatalities.
associated
safety systems can be
can be usedused
Theseto systems
to prevent road
prevent road
use acci- control
wheel
acci- control and
and vehicle
vehicle spin
spin out.
out.
Active
dents
dentsratio
dents safety
and
and
and systems fatalities.
associated
associated
associated can be used
fatalities.
fatalities. These
These
Theseto systems
prevent road
systems
systems use
usesuch
use acci- control
wheel
wheel
wheel control and
and vehicle
vehicle spin
spin out.
out. such scenarios, an Anti-lock
slip
dents and (λ), yaw
associated rate (r)),
fatalities. drivers
These command
systems use wheel as To
To avoid
avoid wheel
wheel lock
lock during
during such scenarios, an Anti-lock
dents
slip
slip and
ratio
ratio associated
(λ),
(λ), yaw
yaw fatalities.
rate
rate (r)),
(r)), These
drivers
drivers systems
command
command usesuch
suchwheel as
as To
To avoid
avoid wheel
wheel lock
lock during
during such
such scenarios, an Anti-lock
slip
braking
slip ratio
ratio (λ),
torque,
(λ), yaw rate
steering
yaw rate (r)),
angle
(r)), drivers
and the
drivers command
environment
command such
such (tire- as
as To
Brake
To
Brakeavoid
avoid wheel
System
wheel(ABS)
System lock
(ABS) during
is
lock during
is used
used such
in
such
in aa scenarios,
scenarios,
vehicle.
scenarios,
vehicle. Data
Data
an
an Anti-lock
an Anti-lock
from Na-
Anti-lock
from Na-
slip
braking
braking
braking ratio (λ),
torque,
torque,
torque, yaw rate
steering
steering
steering (r)),
angle
angle
angle drivers
and
and
and the
the
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t , (1)
considering
condition. Fora fully
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asoperating
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partially
as partially
partially λ(t) = u(t)
u(t) (1)
condition. λ(t) = u(t)
u(t) , (1)
condition. For other operating conditions such as partially
2405-8963 © 2020, IFAC (International Federation of Automatic Control) Hosting by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. u(t)
Peer review under responsibility of International Federation of Automatic Control.
10.1016/j.ifacol.2020.06.071
 Kesavan Valis Subramaniyam et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 53-1 (2020) 422–427 423

where u is the longitudinal vehicle speed, Rt is the tire
radius and ω is the wheel angular speed. To utilize the
maximum braking force that can be generated by the
tire, it is necessary to maintain the slip ratio in the
desired region as shown in Fig. 2. The desired slip ratio
can be achieved by controlling the braking torque or
pressure during braking application. In literature, different
tire model used in this study are explained in section 2.
In section 3, SMC based wheel slip ratio control algorithm
is presented. The proposed co-operative braking control
strategy is discussed in section 4. In section 5, experimen-
tal setup and results are discussed and concluding remarks
are presented in section 6.
2. VEHICLE SYSTEM MODELS

Since the study focused on the regulation of wheel slip

ratio, a vehicle’s wheel dynamic model and tire model are
discussed below.

2.1 Vehicle’s Wheel dynamic model

Fig. 2. Longitudinal force Vs Slip ratio

methodologies were proposed to regulate the wheel slip
ratio to avoid wheel lock during braking. For example,
Bhandari et al. (2012) developed slip control algorithms for
a conventional passenger car based on PID (Proportional-
Derivative-Integral) control and sliding mode control. The
results conveyed that the sliding mode control reduces
the braking distance by 4 % compared with PID control.
Batayneh et al. (2018) reported that a fuzzy controller
reduced the wheel slip tracking error on various road
surfaces compared to the PID controller for conventional
passenger car during braking. Kumar and Subramanian
(2016) developed a co-operative braking control for a
rear-driven electric vehicle. Savitski et al. (2016) proved
experimentally that the continuous ABS control strategy
reduced braking distance by 20 % compared with rule-
based control strategy for an electric car.
From literature, it was observed that most of the WSR
methods exist for conventional passenger car. Their suit-
ability needs to be investigated for electrified vehicles,
given the presence of regenerative braking response. Fur-
ther, this study was motivated by the challenges involved
in designing active braking systems for HCRVs compared
to passenger cars. They include the slow response of
pneumatic brake system, high load transfer from rear to
the front during braking and a significant load variation
between fully laden and fully unladen of the vehicle [Trigell
Fig. 3. Forces acting on the wheel during longitudinal
motion
Figure 3 gives the forces acting on a vehicle’s wheel during
straight line braking, where Fb is the braking force, Fr is
the rolling resistance force, Fz is the normal load acting on
the wheel and Tb is the braking torque. Considering Fig.
3, wheel dynamic model can be represented as
I ω̇(t) = Tb (t) − (Fb (t) + Fr ) Rt , (2)
where I is the wheel inertia. From (1) and (2), the
derivative of wheel slip ratio can be represented as
Rt ω(t)u̇(t) Rt
λ̇(t) = − (Tb (t) − Rt Fb (t) − Rt Fr ) . (3)
u2 (t) u(t)I
2.2 Tire model
Pacejka’s Magic Formula tire model (tire size: 315/80 R
22.5) was used in this study. Figure 4 shows the longitudi-
nal characteristic curve of the truck tire considered [IPG
Automotive GmbH (2017)]. From Fig. 4, it can be observed
104
4
Longitudinal force (N)

et al. (2017)]. Typically, most of the HCRVs are rear

wheel driven vehicles. Hence, this study focused on rear
wheel driven electrified HCRVs. Further, amongst electric 2
and hybrid electric vehicle configurations, the demanded
motor power for Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Series Hybrid 0 =0.8
max
Electric Vehicles (SHEVs) is the same (for the same gear =0.5
max
transmission ratio, gross vehicle weight and performance -2 =0.35
max
specification). Hence, this analysis focused on EVs and =0.2
max
SHEVs. -4
-100 -50 0 50 100
Sliding Mode Control (SMC) based brake torque regula- Slip ratio (%)
tion was demonstrated in this study to achieve the desired
slip ratio during vehicle braking. An important advantage Fig. 4. Longitudinal tire characteristic curve
of SMC is its robustness to uncertainties and disturbances
[Fan et al. (2019)]. The organization of the remaining that the tire can generate maximum braking force for a
paper is as follows. The vehicle wheel dynamic model and particular range of wheel slip ratio. However, the range
424 Kesavan Valis Subramaniyam et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 53-1 (2020) 422–427
of slip ratio (desired region) for the maximum braking
force varies according to the road surface. An important
parameter that affects braking performance of the vehicle
is the maximum tire-road friction coefficient (µmax ) and
it varies with respect to different road surfaces. In this
study, 0.8, 0.5, 0.35 and 0.2 were considered as different
µmax values and the corresponding desired slip region was
identified as (0.15-0.2), (0.1-0.15), (0.06-0.1) and (0.04-
0.06) respectively from the considered truck tire data.
3. SLIDING MODE CONTROL (SMC)
Reaching law based sliding mode controller design was
introduced by Huh et al. (1999). In this control method,
the system consists of two modes of operation namely,
reaching mode (non-sliding mode) and sliding mode. In
reaching mode, the system initial state moves towards the
sliding surface (defined by the user) in a finite duration.
In sliding mode, the system tracks the desired trajectory
(sliding surface) and thereby ensures the robustness to
uncertainties and disturbances.
In this study, the sliding surface is defined as
S(t) = e(t) = λa (t) − λd (t),
where λa (t) is the actual wheel slip ratio, λd (t) is the
desired wheel slip ratio, and e(t) is the tracking error of
wheel slip ratio during active braking. In this study, WSR
was evaluated by considering Constant rate Reaching
Law (CRL) and Power Rate Exponential Reaching Law
(PRERL) [Devika and Thomas (2017)].
In CRL, the desired control input was obtained by
Ṡ(t) = −KCRL sign (S(t)) ,
where KCRL is the controller gain. Now, considering (3) as
the actual wheel slip ratio rate, from (3)-(5), the desired
braking torque to achieve desired slip ratio is given by
Iω(t)u̇(t)
Tb,CRL (t) = Rt (Fb (t) + Fr ) +
u(t)
u(t)I λ̇d (t) u(t)IKCRL sign (S(t))
− + . amount of regenerative braking is applied for a constant
Rt Rt
In PRERL, the desired brake torque was obtained by
−KP RL | S(t) |β sign(S(t))
Ṡ(t) = , (7)
δo + (1 − δo )e−α|S(t)|p
where KP RL is the controller gain, β, α, δ0 and p are the
controller parameters. Considering (3), (4) and (7), the
desired braking torque to achieve desired slip ratio through
PRERL is given by
Iω(t)u̇(t) u(t)I λ̇d (t)
Tb,P RL (t) = Rt (Fb (t) + Fr ) + − (8)
u(t) Rt
β
u(t)I) KP RL | S(t) | sign(S(t))
+ .
Rt δo + (1 − δo )e−α|S(t)|p
Since the desired slip ratio is constant for a particular
road surface, λ̇d (t) is considered as zero. Now, the desired
braking torque (6) and (8) can be written as
Tb (t) = Tb,cont + Tb,discont , (9)
where Tb,cont and Tb,discont are continuous braking torque
and discontinuous braking torque respectively. In both
CRL and PRERL based SMC, the continuous braking
torque input is given by
Iω(t)u̇(t)
Tb,cont = Rt (Fb (t) + Fr ) + . (10)
u(t)
The discontinuous braking torque of SMC with CRL and
PRERL respectively are
u(t)IKCRL sign (S(t))
Tb,discont,CRL = , (11)
Rt
and
u(t)I) KP RL | S(t) |β sign(S(t))
Tb,discont,P RL = . (12)
Rt δo + (1 − δo )e−α|S(t)|p
Here, the discontinuous braking torque ensures that the
system state reaches the sliding surface, whereas the
continuous braking torque is responsible for tracking the
desired sliding surface. The sharing of desired braking
torque between regenerative braking and friction braking
is discussed below.
(4) 4. PROPOSED CO-OPERATIVE BRAKING
CONTROL STRATEGY
The electrified vehicle brake system consists of both fric-
tion brakes and regenerative brakes. The sharing of brake
force between regenerative braking and friction braking
is called co-operative braking. Since regenerative braking
is applied only on driven wheels, the total brake force
on driven wheels is shared by regenerative braking and
friction braking, whereas non-driven wheels are always
(5) subjected to friction braking only.
The ratio at which the total brake force is distributed
between the front and rear wheels is called Brake Force
Distribution (BFD) ratio. Most of the road vehicles fol-
low a linear BFD between the front and rear wheels.
Assuming symmetric load distribution between right and
left wheels, the linear BFD ratio was obtained by taking
(6)
into account dynamic load transfer during braking and
rolling resistance force. Typically, in linear BFD, a fixed
braking demand. In this study, the amount of regenerative
braking applied on driven wheels is varied to maintain
the desired slip ratio. The proposed co-operative brak-
ing strategy (sharing of braking force between friction
braking and regenerative braking) is as follows: In order
to get desired wheel slip ratio, the continuous control
input and discontinuous control input are provided by
friction braking and regenerative braking respectively as
explained in Fig. 5. Here, λf,d and λf,a indicate the desired
and actual slip ratio of the front wheels respectively. λr,d
and λr,a indicate the desired and actual slip ratio of the
rear wheels respectively. Tbff ric , Tbrf ric , Tbrreg indicate the
front wheels friction torque, rear wheels friction torque and
rear wheels regenerative torque respectively. Moreover, the
process followed to obtain the driver’s brake demand and
the linear BFD ratio is explained in [Subramaniyam and
Subramanian (2019b)].
The reasons for regulating discontinuous torque through
regenerative braking are as follows: (i) Regenerative brak-
ing torque alone cannot deliver sufficient torque to get
 Kesavan Valis Subramaniyam et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 53-1 (2020) 422–427 425

where Pbp and Pc indicates the brake chamber pressure and

contact pressure respectively, ηb indicates the pneumatic
brake system efficiency, Abc indicates the area of the brake
chamber, Dbd indicates the diameter of the brake drum,
Lsa indicates the slack adjuster length, Bf indicates the
brake factor and Rs indicates the S-cam radius.
Since motor is not available as hardware in the HiL plat-
form, it have been simulated through appropriate mathe-
matical model and integrated with the friction brake sys-
tem components and the TruckMaker R
vehicle simulation
software through the real-time rapid prototyping hard-
ware. A three-phase induction motor was considered in
this study to derive the appropriate dynamic motor model
and the regenerative braking torque was regulated using
the same [Subramaniyam and Subramanian (2019a)].
Fig. 5. Proposed co-operative braking control

adequate deceleration during braking. That is, during full

braking (heavy braking), the required braking torque is
much larger than the regenerative braking torque. (ii) The
pneumatic braking has significant time delay (around 0.05
s) [Limpert (1999)] compared to regenerative braking. The
larger time delay of the pneumatic brake system limits
its bandwidth [Bu and Tan (2007)], thereby affecting the
braking performance of the HCRV during ABS applica-
tion. (iii) Regenerative brake system time constant (in the
range of one-hundredth of a second) is very much less than
the pneumatic brake system (around 0.6 s) [Crolla and Cao
(2012)], [Limpert (1999)].
Further, the regenerative braking is withdrawn from driven
wheels when the longitudinal vehicle speed (u) goes be-
low the threshold speed (longitudinal vehicle speed corre-
sponds to base speed of the motor (uth )) and if the battery Fig. 6. Hardware-in-Loop brake system experimental setup
State of Charge (SOC) reaches its higher threshold level.
The regenerative braking is not recommended below uth
due to low energy regeneration efficiency. If the battery 5.2 Experimental Results and Discussion
SOC reaches its higher threshold level then it is not possi-
ble to store the regenerated electrical energy in the battery. The maximum energy regeneration and thereby change in
When the regenerative braking is not applied on the driven the battery SOC during one full (hard) braking process
wheels during braking, the desired brake force is attained is very small. Hence, in this study, it was assumed that
through friction braking only. during braking the battery SOC does not reach its higher
threshold value. In addition to this, it was assumed that
the battery SOC is not near to its higher threshold value
5. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION during initiation of braking. With this assumption, in this
study, it was considered that the extent of regenerative
5.1 Hardware-in-Loop Experimental setup and Realization braking was decided by only vehicle longitudinal speed.
of Regenerative braking To implement the proposed co-operative strategy with
SMC in HiL brake system experimental setup, parame-
A 4x2 truck brake system hardware experimental setup ters such as vehicle’s longitudinal speed, longitudinal ac-
was considered in this study (Fig. 6). An Electro- celeration and actual wheel angular speed are required.
pneumatic Regulator (EPR) was used to activate the S- These parameters were assumed as readily available and
cam foundation brake system. The EPR input voltage were considered from TruckMaker R
commercial vehicle
regulates the pressure inside the brake chamber and this software. Further, it was assumed that the vehicle was
pressure was transformed to brake torque. The pressure running straight on the symmetric road surface (right and
sensor was mounted near the brake chamber to measure left wheels of the vehicle running on road of same µmax ).
the brake chamber pressure. Further, the experimental The vehicle parameters considered in the study are shown
setup consists of a driving module console. A load cell in Table 1.
was mounted along with the brake pedal to measure the
driver’s brake pedal force. For a given brake chamber Initially, SMC with CRL and PRERL were compared by
pressure, the brake torque (Tb ) is calculated as considering a fully unladen vehicle on the road surface
which has µmax of 0.8 with the braking speed of 20 m/s.
(Pbp (t) − Pc ) ηb Abc Dbd Lsa Bf Since a rear wheel driven electrified HCRV was considered
Tb (t) = , (13) in this study, during braking, the total brake force on rear
2Rs
426 Kesavan Valis Subramaniyam et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 53-1 (2020) 422–427

Table 1. Vehicle parameters term in PRERL, the chattering in the slip ratio was
reduced. Figure 8 shows the comparison of rear-wheel
Parameter Laden Unladen slip ratio during conventional braking and co-operative
Vehicle mass 16200 kg 4700 kg
braking for PRERL based control input. Here, the MAPE
Wheel base 5.4 m 5.4 m
was 15.43 % and 8.73 % for conventional and co-operative
Height of Centre Gravity (CG) 1.3 m 1m
The distance between
braking respectively. It can be observed that the SMC
3.4 m 2.7 m with PRERL minimizes the chattering effect and thereby
the front axle and CG
reduces the slip ratio tracking error compared to SMC with
wheels was shared by regenerative braking and friction CRL.
braking, whereas the front wheels were always subjected to
friction braking only. In case of conventional braking, both
front and rear wheels were subjected to friction braking
only. Figure 7 gives the comparison of the performance of
the rear wheel slip ratio during conventional braking and
co-operative braking for CRL based control input.
It can be observed that the SMC with CRL introduces
chattering (oscillation) in the wheel slip ratio during
braking because of the ‘sign’ term present in the reaching
law. Further, it was noticed that the co-operative braking
introduces more oscillation on slip ratio compared to
conventional braking because of the high bandwidth of
regenerative braking compared to conventional braking. Fig. 8. Comparison of co-operative braking and conven-
As mentioned earlier, once the longitudinal vehicle speed tional braking with PRERL
reaches uth during braking, the regenerative braking is
withdrawn from driven wheels and the demanded brake Further, the CRL and PRERL performance were evaluated
force is applied through friction braking only. This process by considering the vehicle’s stopping distance. The stop-
is called braking blend-out and the same can be observed ping distance for SMC with CRL and PRERL were 29.94
in Fig. 7. m and 29.13 m respectively with a proposed co-operative
strategy for a fully unladen vehicle on µmax = 0.8 road
surface with an initial braking speed of 20 m/s. Here,
it can be observed that the SMC with PRERL reduces
the stopping distance by 2.7 % compared to SMC with
CRL due the reduction of chattering in wheel slip ratio
and thereby in vehicle deceleration during co-operative
braking. The comparison of vehicle deceleration during
braking with CRL and PRERL is shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 7. Comparison of co-operative braking and conven-

tional braking with CRL

The performance of reaching law was evaluated by cal-

culating the Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE)
between the desired slip ratio and actual slip ratio. MAPE
is defined as
N  Fig. 9. Comparison of deceleration with CRL and PRERL
1  |λd − λa |
M AP E = 100%, (14)
N i=1 λd
where N is the number of samples. For a fully unladen
vehicle on µmax = 0.8 road, the MAPE with CRL for
conventional and co-operative braking are 24.8 % and
15.22 % respectively. High tracking error was noticed with
conventional baking compared to co-operative braking.
This was due to high response time and lower bandwidth of
conventional brake system compared to regenerative brake
system.
To reduce the chattering during WSR, SMC with PRERL
was introduced. Due to the presence of the exponential
during co-operative braking
The sensitivity analysis was carried out with respect to
µmax value and longitudinal vehicle speed for the proposed
co-operative strategy with PRERL based control input.
The minimum initial braking speed for different µmax road
surfaces was decided as per the Federal Motor Carrier
Safety Administration (FMCSA) recommendation. In or-
der to evaluate the performance of SMC with PRERL,
a fully laden electrified HCRV was considered. During
braking, the dynamic load transfer from rear to front is
higher for a fully laden vehicle compared to fully unladen
vehicle. The slip ratio MAPE and stopping distance for
different operating conditions are shown in Table 2.
 Kesavan Valis Subramaniyam et al. / IFAC PapersOnLine 53-1 (2020) 422–427 427

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braking can be attributed to the quicker response of re- IPG Automotive GmbH (2017). IPG TruckMaker R
Ref-
generative braking. Further, the maximum and minimum erence Manual Version 6.0.5.
reduction in stopping distance with co-operative braking Kumar, C.N. and Subramanian, S.C. (2016). Cooperative
are 3.5 % and 0.6 % on µmax = 0.5 road surface and µmax control of regenerative braking and friction braking for a
= 0.2 road surface respectively. As the demanded braking hybrid electric vehicle. Proceedings of the Institution of
torque on µmax = 0.2 road surface was low to begin with, Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile
no significant improvement was achieved with co-operative Engineering, 230(1), 103–116.
braking. Limpert, R. (1999). Brake design and safety. SAE.
Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Transport Re-
search Wing (New Delhi, India, 2017.). Road accidents
6. CONCLUSIONS
in india. Technical report, Office of Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways.
Reaching law based SMC was developed to regulate the Savitski, D., Ivanov, V., Augsburg, K., Shyrokau, B.,
wheel slip ratio of an electrified HCRV during braking Wragge-Morley, R., Pütz, T., and Barber, P. (2016). The
by exploiting the advantages of regenerative braking. The new paradigm of an anti-lock braking system for a full
impact of reaching law on WSR was studied by considering electric vehicle: experimental investigation and bench-
CRL and PRERL. The experimental results conveyed that marking. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
the SMC with PRERL reduces the chattering in wheel Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering,
slip ratio and thereby stopping distance compared to SMC 230(10), 1364–1377.
with CRL. Further, a sensitivity analysis was carried out Subramaniyam, K.V. and Subramanian, S.C. (2019a).
for different values of µmax and longitudinal vehicle speed. Analysis of cornering response and stability of electri-
It was observed that co-operative braking reduces the slip fied heavy commercial road vehicles with regenerative
ratio tracking error and thereby stopping distance com- braking. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
pared to conventional braking. The investigation of inter- Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering,
action between regenerative braking and friction braking 0954407019890157.
on split traction road surfaces and during cornering (where Subramaniyam, K.V. and Subramanian, S.C. (2019b). Im-
the right and left wheel rotation speeds are different) will pact of regenerative braking torque blend-out character-
be considered as future work. istics on electrified heavy road vehicle braking perfor-
mance. Vehicle System Dynamics, 1–26.
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