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UNIT-I-SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR.
1.1 Introduction.
Electrical
Machines
Static
Rotating
Machines-
Machines
Transformer-
DC machines AC machines
Synchronous Asynchronous
DC Generator DC motor
machines machines
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1.3. Advantages of revolving field and stationary armature in alternator:
(i).It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for very high voltage, because insulation of stationary
armature is not subjected to mechanical stresses.
(ii).The load circuit can be connected directly with the fixed terminals of the stator.
(iii).The armature winding (kept in the stator) is cooled more easily because the stator core can be made very
large.(iv).Only 2 slip rings are required for the supply of DC to the rotor.
(v).Due to simple ,light construction of rotor, high speed of rotating DC field is possible.This results
in increased O/P from the machine for the given dimensions.
1.4. Differences between AC&DC generators.
AC generator DC generator
(i)Generates AC (i).Generates DC
(ii).No need for Commutator (ii).Commutator is required.
(iii).Used for generation of very high voltage (iii).Generates low voltage
(iv).Mainly used in Power generating stations (iv).used for electroplating, battery charging.
(v).Output is taken from stator (v).Output is taken from rotor.
1.5.Types of alternators.(based on rotor construction)-
(i).Salient pole/Projected pole/Non-Cylindrical/Rotating field alternator.
Here, the field magnets are kept in rotor. Stator is provided with 1φ/3φ
winding. When mechanical input is applied to rotator, the rotor magnetic
field cut the stator and hence emf is induced in the stator.The output is taken
from the stator. Driven by water wheel or diesel engines-Operate at low
speed-large No.of poles required to produce desired frequency-500MVA-
HYDEL PS.
(ii). Non-Salient pole/Non-projected pole/Cylindrical alternator.
Here, field magnets are kept in the stator. Rotor is provided with armature
winding. When mechanical input is applied, the rotor rotates, and hence it cuts the
field flux. Emf is induced in rotor and through slip rings, AC is taken
out.Applicable for small voltage generator(200MVA)-Driven by steam turbines
and gas turbines-operate at very high speed-THERMAL POWER STATION.
1.6. TYPES OF GENERATOR USED IN POWER STATIONS:
(i).Hydro Gr(100-1000 rpm,750MVA)(ii).Turbo Gr(3000rpm,1000MVA)
(iii).Engine driven (1500rpm, 20MVA)
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1.7 Differences between the salient pole and non salient pole type alternator.
Salient pole alternator Non salient pole
Medium speed ( 1500rpm to 100 rpm ) High speed ( 3,000 rpm to 1500 rpm )
Used in hydel power generating stations Used in thermal power generating stations.
Driven by water turbines Driven by steam turbines
Projecting pole Smooth cylindrical rotor
1.8 Constructional details of Alternators:
(i).Stator: It is an iron ring(cylindrical shape) having slots
on its periphery to accommodate stator winding. The stator
core is laminated to reduce eddy current loss. The stator
slots are of two types, namely ,open slot and semi closed
slot. The open slots are more commonly used ,as they
facilitate in removal and replacement of defective coils.But
they produce ripples in the wave form.Semi enclosed slot
types are preferred as they do not produce ripples in the
emf waves.
(ii).Rotor/Field magnet:The flux required for the generation of
alternating voltage is provided by field magnets. They are excited by
DC source(exciter).The shaft of the rotor is coupled to a prime mover
driving the alternator. The DC excitation is supplied to the rotor
through 2 slip rings/brushes. Rotors of alternators are of 2 types,
(i)Salient pole (ii).Non-salient pole.
(i).Salient pole alternator:
Used for slow and moderate speed alternators.Cheaper than cylindrical machines.
Provided with DAMPER winding to reduce oscillations.Damper winding consists of copper
bars kept in slots on the face of the pole and they are connected to each other.*The damper
winding also used to maintain balanced 3φ voltage under load conditions.
Have large diameter and short axial length.Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
They are employed with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.Speed is 100-375 rpm.
(ii)Non-salient pole alternator.
Used in high speed alternators (turboalternators).It has small diameter and long axial length.
Robust construction and noise less operation, less windage loss.
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Better in dynamic balancing and high operating speed(3000rpm).
Gives better emf waveform than salient pole alternator.
No need to provide damper winding.
1.9 Frequency of induced emf.
If the number of poles on rotor of an alternator is ‘p’, then ‘p/2’ cycles of emf are completed
in one revolution. The number of cycles per second, known as frequency, ’f’, will be equal to the
product of number of revolution made per second by the rotor and p/2.
ie,f=p/2 x n=p/2 xN/60 , ∴PN/120---Hz.;fαPNαpolesαspeed; also, N=120f/p.---(1.1).
Hence the frequency of the induced emf or current induced in stator conductors depends on the
number of poles and speed of the rotor.
Example1.1.A six pole AC generator is running and producing the frequency of 60Hz.Calculate the
revolutions per minute of the generator. If the frequency is decreased to 20 Hz, how many number of
poles will be required, if the generator is to be run at the same speed.
Data(i)p=6,f=60Hz.find N. Sol: N=120f/p=120 x60/6=1200rpm.
(ii).f=20Hz,N=1200rpm,find p Sol:N=120f/p→1200=120 x 20/p →p=20poles.
Tutorial1.1.Calculate the number of poles required for generating frequency of 50Hz using a turbine
running at (a).3000 rpm (b).1000rpm (c).300 rpm and (d) 40 rpm.[Ans:2,6,20,150].
T.1.2.A 60Hz,1200 rpm, alternator is running at 1000.Calculate the frequency of the
induced EMF.[Ans:For 1200 rpm, p=6;for 1000 rpm ,f=50Hz]
1.10 Armature winding.
The armature windings may be either closed giving delta connections or open giving
star connections.
The span of each coil must be equal to pole pitch.ie two sides of any coil must be
under adjacent poles.
The winding may be single layer (one coil side per slot) or double layer(two coil
sides/slot)
Classifications of armature winding.
(a).Single phase winding
(i).Concentrated winding:
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If all conductors or coils belonging to a phase are placed in one slot per pole, it is called concentrated
winding.
In this type of winding, the emf generated per phase is equal to the arithmetic sum of the individual
coil emf in that phase.
Gives maximum emfs,but the waveform of induced emf is not exactly of sinusoidal form.
(ii).Distributed winding:
Mostly employed.- Conductors are placed in several slots under one pole-
Disadvantage: reduction in induced emf.
Advantages: *reduction in harmonic emfs and hence improved waveform.
*reduction in armature reaction and hence armature reactance.
*Even distribution of copper results in even distribution of Cu loss and hence efficient cooling.
Terms associated with armature winding of alternator:
(i).Balanced winding: Here the number of coils per coil group is a whole number. Each pole contains
different phases.
(ii).Unbalanced winding: No.of coils per coilgroup is not a whole number. Each pole containsunequal
number of coils of different phases.
(iii).Full pitched winding:Coil Span=one pole pitch; Coil span=180°;
Pole pitch=Distance between adjacent poles.
(iv).Short pitched winding:Coil span.<180°.
Advantages:(i).reduction in harmonics, improved voltage waveform.(ii).Less copper loss due toless
coil span.(iii).Due to reduction in harmonics, eddy current and hysteresis losses are reduced.
Disadvantages : reduction in induced emf.
1.11.Pitch factor(Kp)
Kp =emf induced in short pitched coil/emf induced in full pitched coil.
=phasor sum of induced emf/arithmetic sum of induced emf.Cos(α/2)=(E R/2)/EA . ∴ER=2EA Cos(α/2);
Kp= phasor sum/arithmetic sum =2EA Cos(α/2)/2EA.
∴Kp=Cos(α/2)-----1.2.
α=short chorded angle;Kp=1 for full pitch winding; Kp=0.966
for short pitched winding.
1.12.Distribution factor:(Kd)
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Kd=emf induced in distributed coil/emf induced in concentrated coil.
Let β= slot angle 180n,
n= slots per pole
AB,BC,CD are three coils .
For Δ,AOX,sin(mβ/2)=AX/OA;
For Δ, AOY,sin(β/2)=AY/OA.
Kd=phasor sum/ arithmetic sum =AD/mAB.=2AX/m(2AY)=AX/mAY=OAxsin(mβ/2)/mxOA x sin(β/2)
Kd=sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2) ------(1.3)
Kd=1 for concentrated winding =0.966 for distributed winding.
Note:m=slots per phase=slots/poleXphase.
Ex.1.2.Calculate distribution factor for 36 slot, 4 pole, single layer, 3 phase winding.
Data:slots=36,p=4,phase=3.To find kd.
Sol: Kd=sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2);β=180°/n; n=slots/pole=36/4=9;β=180°/9=20°;
m=slots/(poleXphase)=36/(4X3)=3; ∴ Kd =0.9598.
Ex1.3.An alternator has 18 slots per pole and the first coil lies in the slots 1 and 16.Calculate the pitch
factor, for (i).fundamental (ii).3rd harmonic (iii).5th harmonic (iii)7thharmonic.
Data:The coil is placed between 1st and 16th slot. ∴ coil span=16-1=15slots; Total no. of slots per
pole=18. ∴short chorded slots=18-15=3.Kp=cos(α/2);α=180° X short chorded
slots/(slot/pole)=180X3/18=30°.
∴ Kp1=cos(30/2)=cos15°=0.966; Kp3=cos 3(30/2)=0.707; Kp5=0.259; Kp7=0.258.
T.1.3.Determine the pitch factors for the following windings.(i).36 stator slots, 4poles,coil span 1to 8;
(ii).96 stator slots,6poles,coil span 1 to 12.[Ans:0.94,0.883].
1.13. E.M.F. Equation of an Alternator
Let Z = No. of conductors or coil sides in series per phase, = Flux per pole in webers
P = Number of rotor poles.N = Rotor speed in r.p.m.
In one revolution (i.e., 60/N second), each stator conductor is cut by P webers
i.e.,d=p; dt=60/N; ∴ d/dt= P/60/N= pN/60 volts.
Since there are Z conductors in series per phase,Average e.m.f./phase = pN/60 x Z volts.
As,N=120f/p; Average e.m.f./phase = p/60 x Z x120f/p=2fZ volts.
Form factor=RMS value/Average value=1.11=Erms/Eav.
∴ Erms=1.11 x Eav=2fZ x 1.11=2.22fZ volts.∴Erms/phase=2.22fZ volts.---(i)
If Kp and Kd are the pitch factor and distribution factor of the armature winding,then,
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Er.m.s. / phase = 2.22(fZ)Kp Kd volts (ii)
Sometimes the turns (T) per phase rather than conductors/, are specified, in that case, Z=2T,
eq. (ii) becomes: Er.m.s. / phase = Eph= 4.44(fTph )Kp Kd volts ---(1.4)
The line voltage will depend upon whether the winding is star or delta connected.
For,Y connection,IL=Iph; VL=√3Vph.;for Δ connection, VL=Vph IL= √3Iph;
Note: Eph = 4.44(fTph )Kp Kd volts;Zph=3x2xTph=6Tph. N=120f/p.
Zph=No.of conductors in each slot x No.of slots.; Kp=Cos(α/2); Kd=sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2).
Ex.1.4.A 3 phase 16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors
per slot.the flux per pole is 0.03 Wb, sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375rpm.Find the
frequency, the phase and line value of induced emf.Assume full pitched coil.
Data: 3phase,p=16, star connected alternator, slots, S=144,conductors per slot Zss=10,=0.03Wb,
N=375rpm.For full pitched coil,Kp =1. Find,f,Eph,EL.
Sol: Eph= 4.44(fTph )Kp Kd volts
(i).f: N=120f/p→f=pN/120=16 x 375/120=50Hz.
(ii).Zph=6Tph;Zph=S x Zss=144x10=1440; Tph=1440/6=240.(iii) Kp=1.
(iv). Kd=sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2);m=Slots/polexphase=144/16x=3;β=180°/n;n=slots/pole =144/16 =9
β=180°/n=180°/9=20°. Kd = sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2)=sin(3x20/2)/3 sin(20/2)=0.9598.
(v). Eph = 4.44(fTph )Kp Kd=4.44 (50 x0.03x240)x1x0.9598=1534Volts.(vi)EL=√3Eph=2657Volts.
Ex.1.5.A 3 phase,8pole,750rpm,star connected alternator has 72 slots on armature. Each slot has 12
conductors and winding is short chorded by 2 slots. Find the induced emf between the lines, given the
flux per pole is 0.06Wb.
Data:3 phase,-Y- alternator, p=8,N=750rpm,S=72,Zss=12,Shortchorded slots=2.=0.06Wb.
To find :EL.
Sol: Eph= 4.44(fTph )Kp Kd volts;EL=√3Eph
(i).f: N=120f/p→f=pN/120=8 x 750/120=50Hz.
(ii).Zph=6Tph;Zph=S x Zss=72x12=864; Tph=864/6=144.
(iii) Kp=Cos(α/2) ;α=180° X short chorded slots/n, n=slots/pole=72/8=9;α=180X2/9=40°;Kp=0.94.
(iv). Kd=sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2);m=Slots/pole x phase =72/8 x 3=3;β=180°/n;n=9,
β=180°/n=180°/9=20°. Kd = sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2)=sin(3x20/2)/3 sin(20/2)=0.9598.
(v). Eph = 4.44(fTph )Kp Kd=4.44 (50 x0.06x144)x0.94x0.9598=1741Volts.(vi)EL=√3Eph=3,016Volts.
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T.1.4.A 3 phase 16 pole alternator has the following data. Number of
slots=192,conductors/slot=8,coil span=160 electrical degrees, speed of the alternator=375 rpm;
flux/pole=55mWb.Calculate the phase and line voltages.[α=180-160=20°, Eph=2928V,EL=5106V.
T.1.5.A 4 pole,50Hz,star connected alternator has a flux per pole of 0.12Wb.It has 4 slots per pole per
phase,conductors per slot being 4.If the winding coil span is 150°,find the phase and line emf.
[n=12,S=48,Zph=48,Tph=32,Eph=788V,EL=1366V.]
1.14.Harmonics in voltage waveform.
Waveforms which does not follow the fundamental frequency/non-sinusoidal
waveforms/ unwanted wave form is called harmonics.
Causes(i).Non-sinusoidal waveform of the field flux.(ii).Variation in the reluctance of
air-gap due to the slotting of the stator core.
Reduction of Harmonics.
(i) By skewing the poles
(ii).by chamfering the pole tips .
(iii).short chording the armature winding by making the coil span less than a full pole
pitch.
(iv).distributing the armature winding.
1.15.Rating of alternator.
Usually alternators are rated in KVA or MVA. Electrical machine is rated at the load, which
it can carry without overheating &damage to the insulation. The other name plate details include
voltage, current, frequency, speed, number of phases, field ampere and maximum temperature
rise.
Ex:1.6.1.A 3 water wheel generator is rated at 100MVA, unity power factor,11kV, star
connected 50Hz, 120 rpm.Determine (i)The number of poles (ii)The kW rating (iii)The current
rating (iv).The input at rated kW load if the efficiency is 97%(excluding the field loss) (v)Prime
mover torque applied to the generator shaft.
(i)p=120f/N=50. (ii).kW=KVA x cos =105 (iii).Il=KVA/√3 x11=5,249A;T=Pin/2πn=8.2 x
106Nm.
1.16.Leakage reactance.
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When current flows through the stator conductor, the flux is setup, a portion of this flux does not
cross the airgap, but complete its path in the stator .Such flux is known as leakage flux. The LF
sets up an emf (self induced).The reactance due to the LF is called leakage reactance(Xl)
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armature flux) rotate; synchronously with the rotor, the flux distortion remains the same for all
positions of the rotor.
(ii) When load p.f. is zero lagging
When a pure inductive load (zero p.f. lagging) is connected across the terminals of the alternator,
current lags behind the voltage by 90°. This means that current will be maximum at zero e.m.f. and
vice-versa.
Fig. (iii)) shows the condition when the alternator is supplying inductive load. Note that e.m.f. as well
as current in phase R1R2 is maximum in the position shown. When the alternator is supplying a pure
inductive load, the current in phase R1R2 will not reach its maximum value until N-pole advanced
90° electrical as shown in Fig. (iv). Now the armature flux is from right to left and field flux is from
left to right All the flux produced by armature current (i.e., armature flux) opposes be field flux and,
therefore, weakens it. In other words, armature reaction is directly demagnetizing. Hence at zero p.f.
lagging, the armature reaction weakens the main flux. This causes a reduction in the generated e.m.f.
(iii) When load p.f. is zero leading
When a pure capacitive load (zero p.f. leading) is connected across the terminals of the alternator, the
current in armature windings will lead the induced e.m.f. by 90°.
Obviously, the effect of armature reaction will be the reverse that for
pure inductive load. Thus armature flux now aids the main flux and
the generated e.m.f. is increased.
Fig.( v) shows the condition when alternator is supplying resistive load.Note that e.m.f. as well as
current in phase R1R2 is maximum in the position shown. When the alternator is supplying a pure
capacitive load, the maximum current in R1R2 will occur 90° electrical
before the occurrence of maximum
induced e.m.f. Therefore, maximum current in phase R1R2 will occur if
the position of the rotor remains 90° behind as compared to its position
under resistive load. This is illustrated in Fig. (vi). It is clear that armature
flux is now in the same direction as the field flux and, therefore,
strengthens it. Thiscauses an increase in the generated voltage. Hence at
zero p.f. leading, the armature reaction strengthens the main flux.
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For intermediate values of p.f, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly
weakening for inductive loads. For capacitive loads, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting
and partly strengthening. Note that in practice, loads are generally inductive.
Summary of armature reaction.
When the alternator is loaded, the armature flux modifies the air-gap flux.Its angle (electrical) w.r.t.
main fluxdepends on the load p.t. This isillustrated in Fig.(a) When the load p.f. is unity, theeffect of
armature reaction iswholly distorting. As shown in Fig(i). the armature flux is 90° electrical behind
Ac main flux. The result is that flux is strengthened at the trailing pole tips and weakened at the
leadingpole tips. However, the average flux in the air-gap practically remains unaltered.
(b) When the load p.f. is zero lagging.
The effect of armature reaction is wholly demagnetizing. In other words, the flux in the air-gap is
weakened. As shown in Fig. (ii), the wave representing the main flux is moved backwards through
90° (elect) so that it is in direct opposition to the armature flux. This considerably, reduces the air-gap
flux and hence the generated e.m.f. To keep the value of the generated
e.m.f. the same, the field excitation will have to be increased to
compensate for the weakening of the air-gap flux.
(c) When the load p.f. is zero leading, the effect of armature reaction
is wholly magnetizing. In other words, the flux in the air-gap is
increased. As shown in Fig. (iii), the wave representing the main flux is now moved forward through
90° (elect.) so that it aids the armature flux. This considerably increases the air-gap flux and hence the
generated e.m.f. To keep the value of the generated e.m.f. the same, the field excitation will have to
be reduced.
(d) For intermediate values of load p.f. the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly
weakening for inductive loads. For capacitive loads, the effect is partly distorting and partly
strengthening. Fig. (10.13 (iv) shows the effect of armature reaction for
an inductive load. In practice,
load on the alternator is generally inductive.
1.18.Alternator on Load
Fig. (i) shows Y-connected alternator supplying inductive load (lagging
p.f.). When the load on the alternator is increased (i.e., armature current Ia is increased), the field
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excitation and speed being kept constant, the terminalvoltage V (phase value) of the alternator
decreases. This is due to
(i) Voltage drop IaRa where Ra is the armature resistance per phase.
(ii) Voltage drop IaXL where XL is the armature leakage reactance per phase.
(iii) Voltage drop because of armature reaction.
(i) Armature Resistance (Ra):
Since the armature or stator winding has some resistance, there will be an IaRa drop when current (Ia)
flows through it.
(ii) Armature Leakage Reactance (XL)
When current flows through the armature winding, flux is set up and a part of it does not cross the air-
gap and links the coil sides. This leakage flux alternates with current and gives the winding self-
inductance. This is called armature leakage reactance. Therefore, there will be IaXL drop which is
also effective in reducing the terminal
voltage.
(iii) Armature reaction
The load is generally inductive and the effect
of armature reaction is to reduce the
generated voltage. Therefore, armature reaction effect is accounted for by
assuming the presence of a fictitious reactance Xa in the armature winding.
The quantity Xa is called reactance of armature reaction.The value of Xa is
such that IaXa represents the voltage drop due to armature reaction.
1.19.Equivalent Circuit of alternator.
Fig. shows the equivalent circuit
of the loaded alternator for one phase.
Here,Eo = No-load e.m.f.,E = Load induced e.m.f.
V = Terminal voltage.;
E = V + Ia (Ra + j XL );and Eo = E+ Ia ( jXa )
1.20. Synchronous Reactance (Xs)
The sum of armature leakage reactance (XL) and
reactance of armature reaction (Xa) is called synchronous
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reactance Xs . Xs = XL + Xa -----Ohms.
1.21.Synchronous impedance.
The synchronous impedance is the
fictitious impedance to account for the
voltage effects in the armature circuit
produced by the actual armature
resistance(Ra),the actual armature leakage reactance(XL) and the change in the air-gap flux produced
by armature reaction.
Zs = Ra + j Xs
∴Eo = V + IaZs = V + Ia (R + j Xs)
1.22. Phasor Diagram of a Loaded Alternator
Fig.(i) shows the equivalent circuit of the alternator per phase.
Fig.(ii) shows the phasor diagram of an alternator for an inductive load.The armature current Ia lags
the terminal voltage V by p.f. angle .The phasor sum of V and drops IaRaand IaXL gives the load
induced voltageE.It is the induced e.m.f. after allowing for armature reaction.
The phasor sum of E and IaXa gives the no-load e.m.f. Eo.
From the diagram,
Eo √(OB)2 (BC)2; OB VcosIaRa; and BC VsinIaRa
∴ Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2.----Volts. (All values are in ph)
Note:Eo=Generated emf in phase;V=terminal voltage in phase;
cospower factor of the load;Ia=armature current in Amp=IL=load
current;Q=√3VLIL;IL=Q/√3VL; Q in VA;Ra=resistance of armature winding
---ohms;Xs=synchronous reactance in ohms.
Cosθ=KW/KVA;KW=KVA Cosθ KW
Ex.1.5.A 3phase, star connected alternator supplies a load of 10MW at 0.85 θ
lagging and at 11KV.Its resistance is 0.1Ω per phase and synchronous reactance
is 0.06Ω per phase.Calculate the line value of emf generated.
Data:3phase Y connected Alternator.MW=10; cos(lagging);sin=0.527,VL=11KV,Ra=0.1Ω;
Xs=0.06Ω.Find Eo.
Sol: Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2---Volts.
(i). IL=Q/√3VL;KVA=KW/ Cosθ=10x106/0.85=11.76x106; IL=Q/√3VL=11.76x106/11x103=617Amp.
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(ii)V=VL/√3=11x103/√3=6360V.
(iii).Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2
=√(6360x0.85+617x0.1)2+(6360x0.0.52+617x0.06)2=6423V
(iv).EL=√3Eph=√3x6423=11.125KV.
1.23. Voltage Regulation of alternator.
The voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in
terminal voltage from no-load to full-load (the speed and field
excitation being constant) divided by full-load voltage.
% Voltage regulation =(No load voltage -Full load voltage) X100
Full load voltage
%VR= (Eo-V) x100.
Note: V
(i)For leading load p.f., the no-load voltage is less than thefull-load voltage. Hence voltage regulation
is negative in this case. The effects of different load power factors on the change in the terminal
voltage with changes of load on the alternator are shown in Fig. .
(ii).The regulation of an alternator depends on the load and the load power factor.
T1.6.A 3 phase star connected synchronous generator is rated at 1.5MVA,11KV.The armature
effective resistance and synchronous reactance are 1.2Ω and 25Ω respectively per phase.Calculate the
percentage voltage regulation for a load of 1.4375MVA at 0.8pf lagging and (ii)0.8pf leading.Also
find out the pf at which the regulation becomes zero.
Data:3 phase-Y-alternator;Q=1.5x106VA,VL=11000V,Ra=1.2Ω,Xs=25Ω.Load
MVA=1.4375,cosθ=0.8.
Find%VR for 0.8 lagging &leading pf.Sol:21.6%,-13.1%.,0.981(lead)
1.24. Determination of Voltage Regulation of Alternator.
The kVA ratings of commercial alternators are very high (e.g. 500 MVA). It is neither convenient nor
practicable to determine the voltage regulation by direct loading. There are several indirect methods
of determining the voltage regulation of an alternator. These methods require only a small amount of
power as compared to the power required for direct loading method. Such methods are:
1. Synchronous impedance or E.M.F. method. 2. Ampere-turn or M.M.F. method.
3.Potier triangle or zero power factor method. 4.ASA method.
For either method, the following data are required:
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(i) Armature resistance.(ii) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C.).(iii) Short-Circuit characteristic
(S.C.C.)
(i) Armature resistance
The armature resistance Ra /phase is determined by using direct current and the voltmeter-ammeter
method. This is the d.c. value. The effective armature resistance (Rac) is greater than this value due to
skin effect. It is a usual practice to take the effective resistance 1.5 times the d.c. value (Ra = 1.5
Rdc).
(ii) Open-circuit characteristic (O.C.C)
Like the magnetization curve for a d.c. machine, the (Open-circuit characteristic of an alternator is the
curve between armature terminal voltage (phase value) on open circuit and the field current when the
alternator is running at rated speed.
Fig. (i) shows the circuit for determining the O.C.C. of an alternator. The alternator is run on no-load
at the rated speed. The field current If is gradually increased from zero (by adjusting field rheostat)
until open-circuit voltage Eo.(phase value) is about 50% greater than the rated phase voltage. The
graph is
drawn between open-circuit voltage values and the corresponding values of If as shown in Fig. (ii).
(iii) Short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.)
In a short-circuit test, the alternator is run at rated speed and the armature terminals are short-circuited
through identical ammeters as shown in Fig. (iii). The field current If is gradually increased from zero
until the short-circuit armature current Isc is about twice the rated current. The graph between short-
circuit armature current and field current gives the short-circuit characteristic (S.C.C.) - Fig.(iii).
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1.25.Synchronous Impedance Method
In this method of finding the voltage regulation of an alternator, we find the
synchronous impedance Zs (and hence synchronous reactance Xs) of the
alternator from the O.C.C. and S.S.C. For this reason, it is called
synchronous impedance method.
The method involves the following steps:
(i) Plot the O.C.C. and S.S.C. on the same field current base as shown in
Fig.(i).
(ii) Consider a field current If. The open-
circuit voltage corresponding to this field
current is E1. The short-circuit armature
current corresponding to field current If is I1.
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On short-circuit p.d. = 0 and voltage E1 is being used to circulate the short-circuit armature current I1
against the synchronous impedance Zs. This is shown in Fig. (ii).E1=I1Zs;
Zs=E1(OC Voltage)/I1 (SC Current).
(ii) The armature resistance can be found as explained earlier.
Zs = Ra + j Xs; Xs =√(Zs2 –Ra2) ---Ohms.
Once we know Ra and Xs, the phasor diagram can be drawn for any load and any p.f. From the
diagram,Eo √(OB)2 (BC)2;
∴ Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2.----Volts. (All values are in phase)
1.25.Drawback of synchronous impedance method-pessimistic method:
This method gives approximate results.ie higher than actual value. This method is suitable only for
non-salient pole machines.In this method, the synchronous impedance is assumed to remain constant,
while actually it is not. At low saturation, its value is larger because the effect of armature reaction is
greater than that saturation. Now, under short circuit conditions, saturation is very low and therefore ,
the value of Zs is measured higher than in actual condition.For this reason, it is called pessimistic
method.
1.26 Ampere-Turn Method
This method of finding voltage regulation considers the opposite view to the synchronous impedance
method. It assumes the armature leakage reactance to be additional armature reaction. Neglecting
armature resistance (always small),this method assumes that change in terminal p.d. on load is
entirely due to armature reaction. The same two tests (viz open-circuit and short-circuit test) are
required as for synchronous reactance determination; the interpretation of the results only is different.
Under short-circuit, the current lags by 90° (Ra considered zero) and the power factor is zero. Hence
the armature reaction is entirely demagnetizing. Since the terminal p.d. is zero, all the field AT
(ampere turns)
are neutralized by armature AT produced by the short circuit armature current.
1.27 Procedure for AT Method
Suppose the alternator is supplying full-load current Ia at operating voltage Vand p.f. cos φ lagging.
The procedure for finding voltage regulation for AT method is as under:
(i) From the O.C.C., field current OA required to produce the operating load voltage V (=V + Ia Ra
cosφ) is determined as in Fig. (i). The field current OA is laid off horizontally as shown in Fig. (ii).
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(ii) From S.C.C., the field current OC required for producing full-load current Ia on short-circuit is
determined.The phasor AB (= OC) is drawn at an angle (90° + φ),i.e. OAB = (90° + φ) as shown in
Fig.
(iii) The phasor sum of OA and AB gives the total field current OB required. The O.C. voltage Eo
corresponding to field current OB on O.C.C. is the noload e,m.f. %VR= (Eo-V)/V x100.
This method gives a regulation lower than the actual performance of the machine. For this reason, it
is known as Optimistic Method.
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Xs = √(Zs2 –Ra2)= Xs = √(0.252 –0.12)=0.229Ω.
(ii). Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2= √ (200x0.8x0.1)2+( 200x0.6x0.23)2=222V.
Ex.1.8.From the following test results, determine the voltage regulation of a 2000V, 1φ,alternator
delivering a current of 100A at (i)UPF (ii)0.71 lagging (iii)0.8lead.Test results: Full load current of
100A is produced on short circuit by a field excitation of 2.5A.An emf of 500V is obtained on open
circuit by the same excitation. The armature resistance is 0.8Ω.
Data: 1φalternator,V=2000V,Ia=100A=Isc,E1=500V, Ra=0.8Ω=.Find %VR for
coslaglead).
Sol: %VR= [(Eo-V)/V ] x100; Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2 Xs = √(Zs2 –Ra2); Zs=E1/Isc.
(i).UPF: Zs=500/100=5Ω, Xs = √(52 –0.82)=4.93Ω,
Eo=√(2,000x1x0.8)2+( 2000x0x4.9)2=2137V
%VR=[(2137-2000)/2000]x100=6.88%.
(ii). cos=0.71 (lag),sin=0.7;
Eo=√(2000x0.71x0.8)2+( 2000x0.7x4.9)2=2415V, %VR=20.7%.
(iii).cos=0.8 (lead),sin=0.6;
Eo=√(2000x0.8x0.8)2+( 2000x0.6x4.9)2=1822V, %VR=-8.6%.
Ex1.9.A 100kVA,3000V,50Hz, 3φ star connected alternator has an effective armature resistance of
0.2Ω.The field current of 40A produces a short circuit current of 200A and open circuit emf of
1040V(line).Calculate the full load voltage regulation at 0.8 pf lagging and 0.8pf leading. Draw the
phasor diagram.
Data: 3φ star connected alternator, Q=100kVA,VL=3000V, f=50Hz,Ra=0.2Ω,Isc=200A, Eoc=1040V(l)
Find %VR for coslaglead).Draw phasor diagram.
Sol: %VR= [(Eo-V)/V ] x100; Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2 ,Xs = √(Zs2 –Ra2); Zs=E1/Isc.
(i). coslag sinV=VL/√3=3000/√3=1732V,( 3φ star connected alternator)
Q=√3VLIL;IL=Q/√3VL=100x103=19A;IL=Ia;
Zs=Eoc (phase)/Isc=(1040/√3)/200=3Ω;Xs=√(32 –0.22)=2.9Ω.
Eo √ (1732x0.8x)2+( 1732x0.6x2.9)2=1770V, %VR=[(1770-1732)/1732]x100=2.2%.
(ii).For coslead sin Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2=1701V, %VR=-1.78%.
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Ex.1.10.A 3.5MVA,star connected alternator rated at 4160V at 50Hz, has the open circuit
characteristics given by the following data.
If(Amps) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Emf(Volts) 1620 3150 4160 4750 5130 5370 5550 5650 5750
A field current of 200A is found necessary to circulate full load current on short circuit of a;ternator.
Calculate by (i).Ampere turn method (ii).Synchronous impedance method ,the full load voltage
regulation at 0.8 pf lagging. Neglect resistance. Comment on result obtained.
Data:Q=3.5MVA,star connected alternator,VL=4160V,f=50Hz,If1=150A(from table corresponding to
VL=4160, the rated voltage),If2=200A.Isc=IL=Q/√3VL=485A=Ia; cosφ=0.8,sinφ=0.6.,φ=36°.Ra=0.
To find %VR by (i)AT method (ii).EMF method.
Sol.(i).AT method:
(i).%VR= [(Eo-V)/V ] x100.—all values are in phase or in line..
(ii). If = √If12 + If22 +2 If1 If2cos(180-φ)=313A.
From table,For If=300A,Eo=5370V, If=350A,Eo=5550V, ∴(350-300)Amp→(5550-5370)Volts.
∴50Amp→180Volts. ∴1Amp→3.6Volts. ∴14A=50.4V.;314A=5370+50.4=5420V(line).
∴E0=5420V
%VR= [(Eo-V)/V ] x100=[(5420-4160)/4160]x 100 =30%.
(ii).EMF method.
Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2 ,V=VL/√3=2401V; Xs = √(Zs2 –Ra2); Zs=E1/Isc.
OC voltage corresponding to the field current of 200A is 4760V(line)=2742V(phase).
∴Zs=2742/485=5.6Ω.; Xs = √(Zs2 –Ra2)=5.6Ω; ∴E0=4583V(phase); %VR=90.8%.
Comments(i).In mmf method, the VR is independent of Ra,Xs.
(ii)In mmf method the %VR is nearer to the actual value.
T.1.5.A 3 phase, star connected alternator is rated at 1600kVA,1350V has armature resistance and
synchronous reactance as 1.5Ω,30Ω respectively per phase. Calculate voltage regulation for a load of
1280kW at 0.8 pf leading.[Ans:IL=68A,E0=6859V,%VR=-1.21%]
T.1.6.The following test results are obtained for a 6600V alternator.
If(Amps) 16 25 37.5 50 70
Emf(Volts) 3100 4900 6600 7500 8300
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A field current of 20A is found necessary to circulate full load current on short circuit of armature.
Calculate by (i).mmf (ii).emf method, full load regulation at 0.8pf (lagging).Neglect armature
resistance.
Ans(i).mmf method:%R=14.8%.(ii).38.7%.
Note: Eo √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXs)2 To findIXs:
Let the voltage of 6600V be taken as 100% and let the excitation of 37.5A required to get rated
voltage of 6600V on open circuit to be 100%.
Let 100% armature current is produced on short circuit by the field current of 20A.Then, when 37.5A
of field current is applied, the corresponding armature current will be (37.5/20)x 100.=187.5%.
∴Zs=OC voltage in %/SC current in % x100 =(100/187.5) x100
=53.5%=Xs.
∴IXs=53.3% of normal voltage=53.3 x6,600/√3 x1/100 =2031V.
1.28.Potier triangle method-Zero pf method.
Results are more accurate than emf &mmf method.
The method is based on separation of armature leakage reactance drop
& armature reaction effect.
Data required:(i).OC characteristics (ii)Full load Zero pf curve.
Zero pf curve:It is a curve of terminal voltage against field current, when armature is delivering full
load current at Zero pf.ZPF is obtained with the help of connecting the output of alternator with
anyone of the following.
(i).synchronous motor as load (ii).inductive load (iii).Three phase line with wattmeter, voltmeter
&ammeters connections at load side.
Test procedure:
(i).The motor coupled to the alternator is made to run at rated speed.
(ii).Field current is adjusted to get rated voltage of alternator.
(iii).Connect the inductive load.
(iv).Adjust the field current to circulate full load armature current.
(v).Adjust inductive load in steps so as to get zero pf shown by pf meter or wattmeter.
(vi).When zero pf condition is reached, take the corresponding readings of field current and terminal
voltage.
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Procedure for drawing Potier triangle and finding %VR of Alternator:
(i).By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC.(ii). Draw tangent to OCC (air gap line)
(iii).Mark the pointsA & B.A→(Ifl,0);B→(Ifz,Vz).; where
Ifl=field current corresponding to full load current flowing in the armature. Ifz=field current
corresponding to ZPF;Vz=terminal voltage corresponding to ZPF load.
(iv). Draw the line BH =OA.(v). Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to touch the OCC.
(vi). Draw DE parallel to voltage axis. Now,DE represents voltage drop IXL and BE
represents the field current required to overcome the effect of armature reaction.
Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and XL is the Potier reactance.
(vii). Find E01 using the expression √ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXL)2;IXL= length DE.
(viii) Find field current If1 corresponding to E01.;If2=length BE.
(ix).Find If using √If12 + If22 +2 If1 If2cos(180-/+θ).Corresponding to If, find E0.
(x).Then find %VR of Alternator.
Ex.1.11.A 3 phase, 6000V alternator has the following open circuit characteristics at normal speed.
If(Amps) 14 18 23 30 43
Emf(Volts) 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
With armature short circuited & full load current flowing, the field current is 17A. when the machine
is supplying full load of 2000kVA at ZPF, the field current is 42.5A and the terminal voltage is
6000V.Determine the voltage regulation of alternator at 0.8pf lagging using Potier triangle method.
Sol:Step-I-OCC is drawn with the help of the above table.(If-X axis,E-Y axis).
Step-II-.Tangent to OCC is also drawn.(airgap line).
Step-III-ZPF curve is drawn with the help of the points A(Ifl,0)=(17A,0V).;B(Ifz,Vz)=(42.5A,6000V).
From the point ,B, draw a horizontal line of length BH=OA. From H, draw a line parallel to
airgap line .This line intersect the OCC at D. Connect DB.
Step-IV-Potier triangle BDH is thus drawn. From the triangle,DE=I a XL=700V(line)=404V(phase).
Step –V-E01=√ (VcosIaRa)2+( VsinIaXL)2;V=6000/√3;IRa=0;cosφ=0.8;sinφ=0.6;E01=3720V.
Step-VI-Corresponding to E01,If1=25.6A(from graph),If2=BE=15.2A,
∴If=√If12 + If22 +2 If1 If2cos(180-/+θ);
θ=90+φ=90+cos-1(0.8)=126°;If =36A.
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Step-VII-Corresponding to If=36A,E0=7650V(line)=4416(phase). ∴%VR=27.5%.
1.29. Effect of Salient Poles- Two-Reactance Concept for Salient-Pole
Machines-Blondel’s two reaction theory
In a salient-pole machine, the radial length of the air-gap varies so that
reluctance of the magnetic circuit along the polar axis (called direct axis or d-
axis) is much less than the reluctance along the interpolar
axis (called quadrature axis or q-axis).
Because of the lower reluctance along the polar axis (i.e., d-axis), more
flux is produced along d-axis than along the q-axis. Therefore, reactance due to armature reaction will
be different along d-axis and q-axis. These are:
Xad = direct axis reactance due to armature reaction
Xaq = quadrature axis reactance due to armature reaction.
The effects of salient poles can be taken into account by resolving the armature current into two
components; Id perpendicular to
excitation voltage E0 and Ia along E0 as shown
in phasor diagram .If XL is the armature leakage reactance , then,
Xd = Xad + XL ; Xq = Xaq + XL
From Fig. Iq = Ia cos(δ + φ) and Id = Ia sin(δ + φ)
1.30 Power Developed in Salient-Pole Synchronous Generator.
Fig. shows the phasor diagram of the salient-pole synchronous
generator.
The per phase power output of the alternator is ,
Pout = Pd = VIa cosφ;Now Ia cosφ = Iq cosδ+ Id sin δ;
Also E0 = Vcosδ + Id Xd.
Id= (E0- Vcosδ)/Xd.; Vsin IqXq; Iq= Vsin Xq
Pd VIq cosId sin Ia cosIq cosId sin
Putting the values of Iq and Id, we have, Pd=V[Vsin Xq x cos(E0- Vcosδ)/Xd x sin
Pd=E0V/Xd x sin V2[sin cosXq - sin cosXd]= E0V/Xd x sin V2(sin2δ/xq- sin2δ/xd)/2.
Pd= E0V/Xd x sin V2(Xd-Xq)/2XdXq x sin2δ.---Watts.
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The total power developed would be three times the above power. The following points may be
noted:
(i).If there is no saliency, Xd = Xq; Pd= E0V/Xd x sin power developed by cylindrical rotor
machine.
(ii) If E0 = 0, then, Pd= V2(Xd-Xq)/2XdXq x sin2δ.---Watts.
[ power obtained with zero excitation is called reluctance power.]
The Power angle characteristic of alternator is also shown in
fig.
1.31.Slip test-for salient pole machines only.-
Tests to find Xd and Xq
(i). Energise the alternator with field unexcited and driven close to
synchronous speed by a prime mover.
(ii). Measure the line voltage and line current of the alternator.
(iii). Find Xd and Xq by the following expressions
Xd=max voltage/min current. Xq=min voltage/max current.
Note:d-axis-reluctance is low-flux is more-high value of Xd;q axis-reluctance is high,low flux,low Xq.
Xd>Xq
At d axis voltmeter shows maximum reading and at q axis it shows minimum reading.
Ex.1.12.A 3 phase star connected salient pole alternator is driven at a speed near synchronous with
field circuit open, and the stator is supplied from the balanced 3 phase supply.Voltmeter connected
across the line shows minimum and maximum reading of 2800V &2820V.The line current fluctuated
between 360A & 275A.Find the direct axis &quadrature axis reactance per phase.Neglect armature
resistance.
Data:3phase, star connected alternator.Max Voltage=2,820V(line),Min Voltage:2,800V(line).
Max current=360A,Min current=275A.To find Xd,Xq.
Sol:Xd=Max voltage(phase)/Min current=(2820/√3)/275=5.92Ω.
Xq= Min voltage(phase)/Max current=(2800/√3)/375=4.49Ω.
1.32.Parallel Operation of Alternators
In practice, a very large number of 3-phase alternators operate in parallel because the various power
stations are interconnected through the national grid. Therefore, the output of any single alternator
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is small compared with the total interconnected capacity. For example, the total capacity of the
interconnected system may be over 40,000 MW while the capacity of the biggest single alternator
may be 500 MW. For this reason, the performance of a single alternator is unlikely to affect
appreciably the voltage and frequency of the whole system. An alternator connected to such a system
is said to be connected to infinite busbars. The outstanding electrical characteristics of such busbars
are that they are constant-voltage, constant frequency busbars.Fig shows a typical infinite bus
system. Loads are tapped from the infinite bus at various load centres. The alternators may be
connected to or disconnected from the infinite bus, depending on the power demand on the system. If
an alternator is connected to infinite busbars, no matter what power is delivered by the incoming
alternator, the voltage and frequency of the system remain the same. The operation of connecting an
alternator to the infinite busbars is known as synchronization of alternators/parallel operation
of alternators..
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incoming alternator and the busbars can be easily checked by a voltmeter. The phase sequence of the
alternator and the busbars can be checked by a phase sequence indicator.
Differences in frequency and phase of the voltages of the incoming alternator and busbars can be
checked by one of the following two methods:
(i) By Three Lamp (one dark, two bright) method.(ii) By synchroscope
(i) Three lamp method
In this method of synchronizing, three lamps L1, L2 and L3 are
connected as shown in Fig(i). The lamp L1 is straight connected
between the corresponding phases (R1 and R2) and the other two are
cross-connected between the other two phases. Thus lamp L2 is
connected between Y1 and B2 and lamp L3 between B1 and Y2. When the frequency and phase of
the voltage of the incoming alternator is the same as that of the
busbars, the straight connected lamps L1 will be dark while cross-
connected lamps L2 and L3 will be equally bright. At this instant,
the synchronization is perfect and the switch of the
incoming alternator can be closed to connect it to the busbars.
In Fig. (ii), phasors R1, Y1 and B1 represent the busbars voltages and phasors R2, Y2 and B2
represent the voltages of the incoming alternator. At the instant when R1 is in phase with R2, voltage
across lamp L1 is zero and voltages across lamps L2 and L3 are equal. Therefore, the lamp L1 is dark
while lamps L2 and L3will be equally bright. At this instant, the switch of the incoming alternator can
be closed. Thus incoming alternator gets connected in parallel with the busbars.
(ii) Synchroscope
A synchroscope is an instrument that indicates by means of a revolving pointer the phase difference
and frequency difference between the voltages of the incoming alternator and the busbars
It is essentially-a small motor, the field being supplied from the busbars through a potential
transformer and the rotor from the incoming alternator. A pointer is attached to the rotor. When the
incoming alternator is running fast (i.e., frequency of the incoming alternator is higher than that of the
busbars), the rotor and hence the pointer moves in the clockwise direction. When the incoming
alternator is running slow (i.e.,frequency of the incoming alternator is lower than that of the busbars),
the pointer moves in anti-clockwise direction. When the frequency of the incoming alternator is equal
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to that of the busbars, no torque acts on the rotor and the pointer points vertically upwards (“12 O’
clock”). It indicates the correct instant for connecting the incoming alternator to the busbars. The
synchroscope method is superior to the lamp method because it not only gives a positive indication of
the time to close the switch but also indicates the adjustment to be made should there be a difference
between the frequencies of the incoming alternator and the busbars.
1.36. (i).Synchronizing current ,Power and torque.
When two alternators are operating in parallel, each machine has an inherent tendency to remain
synchronized. Consider two similar single-phase alternators 1 and 2 operating in parallel at no-load.
Suppose, due to any reason, the speed of machine 2
decreases.
This will cause E2 to fall back by a
phase angle of a electrical degrees as shown in Fig.
Within the local circuit formed by two alternators, the
resultant e.m.f. Er is the phasor difference E1 - E2.
This resultant e.m.f. results in the production of
synchronizing current Isy which sets up
synchronizing torque. The synchronizing torque
retards machine 1 and accelerates machine 2 so that synchronism is reestablished.The power
associated with synchronizing torque is called synchronizing power.In Fig. machine 1 is
generating and machine 2 is motoring. The power supplied by machine 1 is called synchronizing
power. Referring to Fig. we have,
Synchronizing power, Psy =E1Isy cos 1 = E1Isy cos(90° ) = E1Isy sin
E1 Isy (~ 90° ; sin = 1).
Synchronizing current,Isy =αE/2Xs.; Psy= E1 Isy=E Isy=E (αE/2Xs)=αE2/2Xs.;α=load angle.
Total synchronizing power for 3 phases, Psy=3Psy=3(αE2/2Xs.).
Synchronising torque:Tsy: 3Psy=2 πNsTsy/60.→ Tsy=3Psy x60/2 πNs.
1.37. Alternator on Infinite Busbars
In practice, generating stations do not operate as isolated units but are interconnected by the national
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grid. The result is that a very large number of alternators operate in parallel. An alternator connected
to such a network is said to be operating on infinite busbars. The behaviour of alternators connected
to an infinite busbars is as under:
(i) Any change made in the operating conditions of one alternator will not change the terminal voltage
or frequency of the system. In other words, terminal voltage (busbars voltage) and frequency are not
affected by changing the operating conditions of one alternator.It is because of large size and inertia
of the system.
(ii) The kW output supplied by an alternator depends on the mechanical power supplied to the prime
mover of the alternator. An increase in mechanical power to the prime mover increases the kW output
of the alternator and not the kVAR. A decrease in the mechanical power to the prime mover decreases
the kW output of the alternator and not the kVAR.
(iii) If the mechanical power to the prime mover of an alternator is kept constant, then change in
excitation will change the power factor at which the machine supplies changed current. In other
words, change of excitation controls the kVAR and not kW.
Note. An infinite busbars system has constant terminal voltage and constant busbars frequency
because of its large size and inertia. However, the busbars voltage can be raised or lowered by
increasing or decreasing simultaneously the field excitation of a large number of alternators.
Likewise, system frequency can be raised or lowered by increasing or decreasing the speed of prime
movers of a large number of alternators.
1.38. Effect of Change of Excitation and Mechanical Input.
(i). Effect of change of field excitation.
An overexcited alternator operates at lagging power factor and supplies lagging reactive power to
infinite busbars. On the other hand, an under excited alternator operates at leading power factor and
supplies leading reactive power to the infinite busbars.
(ii). Effect of change in mechanical input.
Increasing the mechanical input power to the prime mover will not change the speed ultimately but
will increase the power angle δ. As a result, the change of driving torque controls the output kW and
not the kVAR. When this change takes place, the power factor of the machine is practically not
affected.
1.40. Capability curve of Synchronous generator.
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Capability Curve is a plot of reactive power (Q) versus real power (P).The capability curve
of the synchronous generator defines the boundary (maximum limits ) within which it can operate
safely. Various bounds imposed on the ma chine are:
(i).MVA- loading cannot exceed the generator rating.
This limit is imposed by the stator heating.
(ii).MW-loading cannot exceed the turbine rating which is given by MVA.
(iii).The generator must operate a safe margin away from the steady state stability limit.
(iv).The maximum field current cannot exceed a specified value imposed by rotor heating.
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 30
K.L.N.College of Engineering.
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
EE6504-ELECTRICAL MACHINES-II-Sem:V
UNIT-I-SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR.
1.What is an Alternator? How it differs from the D.C.Generator?(2)
2.What are the different types of ac generators in use.? What is the essential differences in their
construction?(2)
3.Write the advantages of stationary armature and rotating field in an alternator.(2).
4.Describe , with neat sketches, the constructional details of a salient pole type alternator.(6)
5.Compare salient pole and non-salient pole synchronous machines.(2)
6.Deduce the relation between the number of poles,the frequency and the speed of the alternator.(2)
7.State the advantages and disadvantages of using short-pitched and distributed winding in an
alternator.(2).
8.Derive an expression for the pitch factor and distribution factor of an alternator.(8)
9.Derive from the first principle , emf equation of an alternator.(6)
10.What are the causes of harmonics in the voltage waveform of of an alternator?
How can these be minimized?(2)
11.What is armature reaction? Explain the effect of armature reaction on the terminal voltage of an
alternator at (i).unity power factor load (ii).lagging and (iii) leading power .
Draw the relevant phasor diagram.(12)
12.What is synchronous impedance?. (2)
13.Sketch and explain the open circuit and short circuit characteristics of of an alternator.(6)
14.What is SCR?(2)
15.What is meant by regulation of an alternator? What is its effect on Unity,lagging and leading pf
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 31
load?(2)
16.Define the term leakage reactance and synchronous reactance.(2)
17.Explain the synchronous impedance method of determination of regulation of of an alternator.
Why it is called the pessimistic method (8)
18.Describe the mmf method for predetermining the voltage regulation of alternator.(8)
19.Compare synchronous impedance and ampere-turn method of predetermining regulation of an
alternator(2)
20.Briefly explain the Potier method of finding the voltage regulation.(6)
21.Discuss Blondel’s two reaction theory applicable to salient pole synchronous machines. (8)
22.Describe a method of determining direct and quadrature –axis synchronous axis reactance of
salient pole alternator.(8)
23.Explain the terms direct and quadrature –axis reactance of salient pole alternator.(2)
24.Explain the reasons for resorting to “Two reaction theory” to predetermine the regulation of salient
pole alternators.Why it is applicable to salient pole machine only(8)
25.For a salient pole synchronous machine, neglecting the effect of armature resistance, derive an
expression for power developed as a function of load angle.**
26.What is the role of damper winding in an alternator.(2)
27.What are the losses that take place in an alternator? How the alternators are rated?(2)
28.What are the advantages of connecting the alternators in parallel?(2).
29.What conditions are required to be fulfilled for the successful parallel operation of alternators?(2)
30.What are the methods of synchronising of alternators?(2)
31.Discuss the use of synchroscope in the parallel operation of alternator.(4)
32.What is an infinite bus?(2)
33.Explain with diagrams any one method of synchronising two three-phase alternators.(8)
34.Derive an expression for synchronising power and synchronising torque when two alternators are
connected in parallel.(8)**
35.Two alternators are running in parallel sharing a load in desired proportion. Explain what will
happen if (i)the excitation of alternators are changed while their prime –mover inputs are fixed.
(ii).the prime mover inputs are varied while the excitations are kept fixed.(4)
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36.An alternator is connected to infinite bus and is running at no-load. Explain briefly how to
increase its eal and reactive power outputs?(2)
37.Explain the effect of varying the excitation of a alternator connected to an infinite bus bar on
power factor, armature current and load angle.(8)
38.What do you understand by “power angle” of alternator?(2)
39.What is meant by Hunting?What the causes ,its bad effects and methods of elimination of
hunting(6)
40.Why bright lamp method is preferred over dark lamp method for synchronisation of alternator?(2)
41.How do synchronising lamps indicate the phase variation of the incoming machine and the
running machine?(2)
42.What is synchronizing current, synchronizing power, synchronizing torque?(6)
43.A 6 pole ac generator is running and producing the frequency of 60Hz.Calculate the revolution per
minute of the generator. If the frequency is decreased to 20 Hz, how many number of poles will
be required to be run at the same speed.?(1,200 rpm,2poles).(2).
44.Calculate the pitch factor for the under-given windings.(a).36 stator slots,4 poles,coil span,1to 8,
(b).72 slots,6poles,coils span 1 to 10 and (c).96 stator slots,6poles,coil span 1 to 12.
(.94,.924,.882,BLT1412).
45.An alternator has 18 slots/pole and the first coil lies in slots 1 and 16.Calculate the pitch factor for
(i).fundamental (ii)3rd harmonic,(iii).5th Harmonic and (iv). 7th harmonic.
(0.966,.707,.259,.259, BLT1416) (2)
46.Caculate the distribution factor for a 36 slots ,4pole,single layer 3 phase winding.(.966,JBG207).
47.A 3 phase ,16 pole alternator has a star connected winding with 144 slots and 10 conductors per
slot.The flux per pole is 0.03 Wb,sinusoidally distributed and the speed is 375 rpm.Find the
frequency and the phase and line emf. Assume full-pitched coil.(1544V,2658V,BLT 1416)(8)
48.A 3 phase,8pole,750 rpm star connected alternator has 72 slots on the armature.Each slots has 12
conductors and winding is short chorded by 2 slots.Find the induced emf between lines, given the
flux per pole is 0.06 Wb.(2,988V,210 JBG).(8)
49.Find the synchronous impedance and reactance of an alternator in which a given field current
produces an armature current of 200A on short-circuit and a generated emf of 50V on open
circuit.The armature resistance is 0.1 Ω.To what induced voltage must the alternator be excited if it is
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to deliver a load of 100A at a pf of 0.8 lagging,with a terminal voltage of 200V.
(0.25Ω,0.23Ω,222V,BLT1432).(8)**
50.From the following test results, determine the voltage regulation of a2000V,1 phase alternator
delivering a current of 100A,at (i).unity pf.(ii).0.8 lead pf (iii).0.71 lead pf.Full load current of
100A is produced on short circuit by a field excitation of 2.5A.An emf of 500V is produced on open
circuit by the same excitation .The armature resistance is 0.82Ω.(8) (7%,-9%,21.6%1433BLT).(8)
51.A 100kVA,3000V,50Hz,3 phase star connected alternator has effective armature resistance of
0.2 Ω. The field current of 40A produces short circuit current of 200A and an open circuit emf of
1040V(line ).Calculate the full-load voltage regulation at 0.8pf lagging and 0.8 pf leading.Draw
phasor diagrams.(2.25,-1.8%)
UNIT-I- SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR.
1.What is an alternator ? How it is differ from D.C.Generator ?
An alternator is an electrical machines which converts mechanical energy in to electrical
energy . It generates altering EMF(AC) , whereas a D.C.Generator , generates direct
EMF(DC),requires commutator, low capacity. The other names of alternator are A.C.Generator /
synchronous Generator . They are mainly used in electrical power generating stations .
2.What is the operating principle of Alternator ?
An alternator consists of a stator and rotor . Stator has slots to accommodate three phase
windings . These windings are displaced at 120º electrical . The rotor also has slots to
accommodate field winding. Mechanical input is applied to the rotor so as to run the machine at
rated speed . Then dc excitation is applied to the rotor . The flux from the rotor cuts the
stationary armature winding .Hence, according to Faraday’s law ,EMF is induced in stator
winding .The induced EMF is taken out and is connected to the electrical load .
3.What are the two types of alternator ?
Based on the constructions , alternators are classified into ( i ) rotating armature ( ii ) rotating
field type . In rotating armature type, field winding is stationary and kept in the stator. The EMF is
induced in rotor, and through the slip rings, the output is taken outside. In the rotating field type,
the field winding is kept in the rotor , and Emf is induced in the stator , where the induced
EMF is directly connected to the load .
4.What are the advantages of stationary armature and revolving field system of alternator ?
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(i)It is easier to insulate stationary armature winding for very high voltage .(ii).There is no
mechanical stress on the stator.(iii). More space available on the stator for providing more
insulation.(iv).the load circuit can be connected directly with the fixed terminal of stator(v).
It is easier to cool the stator windings due to more space on stator side .
(vi).only two slip rings are required for supply of D.C. to rotor .
5. What are the classification of alternators , based on its rotor construction ?
Based on rotor constructions, alternators are classified into
(i).Salient pole alternator ( projecting pole ) (ii)non salient pole alternator (smooth cylindrical
rotor )
6.What are the differences between the salient pole and non salient pole type alternator?.
Salient pole alternator Non salient pole
Medium speed ( 1500rpm to 100 rpm ) High speed ( 3,000 rpm to 1500 rpm )
Used in hydel power generating stations Used in thermal power generating stations.
Driven by water turbines Driven by steam turbines
Projecting pole Smooth cylindrical rotor
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14. What are the types of rotor is adopted for high speed alternators ?Non-salient pole.
Name the types of alternator depending on the type of prime-mover ?
(i).turbo-generators (ii).hydro – generators ( or water wheel generators) (iii).diesel engine driven
generators .
15. What is maximum speed of 50 Hz alternator ? 3,000 rpm .
16.Why are the salient pole alternator more suitable for low speed and non salient pole for
high speed operation ?
The salient pole field structure is used almost entirely for low speed alternators , since
it is least expensive and provide ample space for field ampere-turns but it cannot be used
for high speed alternators on account of high peripheral speed and the difficulty of obtaining
sufficient mechanical strength . So non-salient pole field structure is used for high speed
operation .
17.What is role of damper winding in (a)synchronous generator and (b) synchronous motor
(a) In a synchronous generator damper winding is provide to suppress the negative
sequence field and to damp the oscillation when the generator starts hunting .
(b) In a synchronous motor damper winding is provide to develop the starting torque so
as to make the motor self starting and to develop and damping torque when the machine
start hunting 18.What is an exciter ? An exciter is small dc generator to supply dc
power to the field magnet system or rotor the alternator .
19.Why are distributed winding preferred over concentrated winding ?
Distributed winding preferred over concentrated winding as (i)Improved wave form of induced
emf .(ii).Provide better utilization of core . (iii).Diminished armature reaction .(iv)Facilitate
cooling .
20.What is the necessity for chording in the armature winding of a synchronous machine ?
The armature winding is chorded in order to (i).Improve the wave form of induced emf .
(ii).Save copper in the coil ends due to less span .(iii).Reduced inductance of the winding .
21.What is meant by “ armature reaction “ of a synchronous machine ?
The effect of armature flux on the main field is known as “armature reaction”. Armature
reaction has distorting effect on unity power factor , wholly demagnetizing at zero power
factor lagging and wholly magnetizing at zero power factor leading
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22.What are the effects of regulation of the alternator of power factor (a) at lagging power
factor and (b) leading power factor ?
The regulation of alternator is positive and increased with decreasing in lagging power factor
. The regulation of alternator improves first with decreasing in lagging power factor
becomes unity and further decreasing in lagging power factor makes the regulation negative
and increasing.
23.Why voltage regulation of an alternator is negative for leading power factor ?
When power factor is leading the effect of armature flux is to assist the main flux hence to
generate more emf and so to increase the terminal voltage when the alternator is loaded. Thus
the terminal voltage of an alternator decreases when the loaded of leading is thrown off the
voltage regulation is negative .
24.Why does synchronous impedance method give a poorer voltage regulation ?
In the synchronous impedance method of determination of voltage regulation synchronous
reactants is assumed to be constant while actually it varies with the saturation. Now under
sort circuit condition saturation is very low and therefore the value of synchronous
impedance measured is higher than that in the actual operating conditions and the regulations
determined is higher the actual one .
25.Which quantity is usually determined using the zero power factor characteristics of a
synchronous machine ?
Leakage reactants drop , Voltage drop due to armature reaction and armature reaction AT.
26.Two reactions theory is applied only to salient pole machine state reason ?
A multipolar machine with cylindrical rotor has a uniform air gap and therefore its
reactants remains the same , irrespective of the spatial position of rotor. But in case of
salient pole machine the air gap is not uniform and its reactants is varies with the rotor
positions. Because of non- uniformity of the reluctance of the magnetic paths the mmf of the
armature are divided into components viz.
(i).A direct acting component along the field pole axis called direct axis .(ii). Quadrature
component along the axis passing to the center of the inter-polar space called Quadrature axis
.
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These facts form the basis of the two reactants theory is applied to the salient pole
machines.
27.State the use of slip test on an alternator .
The slip test is performed on an alternator to determine Direct axis reactance-xd and Quadrature
axis reactance. Xq.
28.What are the losses that take place in an alternator
(i).Electrical losses including armature winding loss , brush contact loss ana field loss.
(ii).Core loss .(iii).Friction and winding loss .(iv).Stray power loss .
29.A 6 pole ac generator is running and producing the frequency of 60Hz.Calculate the revolutions
per minute of the generator. If the frequency is decreased to 20Hz,how many number of poles will be
required if the generator is to be run at the same speed.
Data:p =6,Alternator,f=60Hz.To find N. If f = 20Hz, p=?
Solution:Ns 120f/p =Ns =120 X60/6 =1,200rpm.Also,1,200 =120 X20/p : p =2
30.The coil span for the stator winding of an alternator is 120º.Find the chording factor of the
winding.
Data:coil span =120º.To find Kp
Kp =Cos(α/2); α =180º -coil span ==180º -120º =60º ;Kp =Cos(60/2) =0.866.
31.Calculate the distribution factor for a 36 slot,4-pole,single layer 3-phase winding.
Data:slots, s=36,pole,p=4,phase =3.To find Kd
Kd =sin(mβ/2)/msin(β/2);m=slots/pole .phase==36/4 x 3 =3;β =180º/n;n=slots/pole =36/4 =9;β
=180º/9 =20º
Kd =sin(3*20º/2)/3sin(20/2) =0.96
32.Write the emf equation of Alternator.
Eph =4.44fΦTphKpKd Volts;EL=√3Eph ;f=frequency in Hz,Tph =Turns per phase=Zph=6Tph,Φ=flux
inWb.
33.Draw the sketches of Salient and Non-salient pole synchronous generators.
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Whenever a current carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field, there will be a force
acting on the conductor and on the other hand, if a conductor is forcefully brought under a magnetic
field there will be an induced current in that conductor. In both of the phenomenon there is an relation
between magnetic field, electric current and force. This relation directionally determined by Fleming
Left Hand rule and Fleming Right Hand rule respectively. ‘Directionally’ means these rules do not
show the magnitude but show the direction of any of the three parameters (magnetic field, electric
current, force) if the direction of other two are known. Fleming Left Hand rule is mainly applicable
for electric motor and Fleming Right Hand rule is mainly applicable for electric generator. In late
19th century, John Ambrose Fleming, introduced these both rules and as per his name the rules are
well known as Fleming left and right hand rule.
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It is found that whenever a current carrying conductor is placed inside a magnetic field, a
force acts on the conductor, in a direction, perpendicular both to the direction of the electric current
and the magnetic field. In the figure it shown that a portion of a conductor of length L placed
vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field of strength H, produced by two magnetic pole N and
S. If i is the electric current flowing through this conductor , the magnitude of the force acts on the
conductor is, F = BiL
Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and thumb at right angle to one another.
If the fore finger represents the direction of the field and the second finger that of the current, then
thumb gives the direction of the force.
While electric current flows through a conductor one magnetic field is induced around it. This can be
imagined by considering numbers of closed magnetic lines of force around the conductor. The
direction of magnetic lines of force can be determiner by Maxwell’s corkscrew rule or right-hand grip
rule. As per these rules the direction of the magnetic lines of force (or flux lines) is clockwise if the
current is flowing away from the viewer that is if the direction of current through the conductor is
inward from the reference plane as shown in the figure.
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and magnetic lines of force due to current in the conductor are in same direction, above the conductor
and they are in opposite direction below the conductor. Hence there will be larger numbers of co-
directional magnetic lines of force above the conductor than that of below the conductor.
Consequently, there will be a larger concentration of magnetic lines of force in a small space above
the conductor. As magnetic lines of force are no longer straight lines, they are under tension like
stretched rubber bands. As a result there will be a force which tends to move the conductor from more
concentrated magnetic field to less concentrated magnetic field that is from present position to
downwards. Now if you observe the direction of current, force and magnetic field in the above
explanation, you will find that the directions are according to Fleming left hand rule.
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 42
EE6504-ELECTRICAL MACHINES-II-
Unit-II-Synchronous motor.
2.1.Introduction.
An alternator may operate as a motor by connecting its armature winding to a 3-phase supply. It is
then called a synchronous motor. A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed (Ns = 120f/P) i.e.,
in synchronism with the revolving field produced by the 3-phase supply. The speed of rotation is,
therefore, tied to the frequency of the source. Since the frequency is fixed, the motor speed stays
constant irrespective of the load or voltage of 3-phase supply. However, synchronous motors are not
used so much because they run at constant speed (i.e., synchronous speed) .
2.2. Construction
A synchronous motor is a machine that operates at synchronous speed and converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy. It is fundamentally an alternator operated as a motor. Like an alternator, a
synchronous motor has the following two parts:
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(i) a stator which houses 3-phase armature winding in the slots of the stator core and receives power
from a 3-phase supply.
(ii) a rotor that has a set of salient poles excited by direct current to form alternate N and S poles. The
exciting coils are connected in series to two slip rings and direct current is fed into the winding from
an external exciter mounted on the rotor shaft. As in the case of an induction motor, the number of
poles determines the synchronous speed of the motor:
Synchronous speed, Ns=120f/p;where f = frequency of supply in Hz,p = number of poles
An important drawback of a synchronous motor is that it is not self-starting and
auxiliary means have to be used for starting it.
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pair of stationary rotor poles (i.e., NR - SR).(ii) Suppose at any instant, the stator poles are at positions
A and B as shown in Fig.(i). It is clear that poles NS and NR repel each other and so do the poles SS
and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the anticlockwise direction. After a period of half-cycle
(or ½ f = 1/100 second), the polarities of the stator poles are reversed but the polarities of the rotor
Poles remain the same as shown in Fig. (ii). Now SS and NR attract each other and so do NS and SR.
Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the clockwise direction. Since the stator poles change their
polarities rapidly, they tend to pull the rotor first in one direction and then after a period of half-cycle
in the other.
Due to high inertia of the rotor, the motor fails to start. Hence, a synchronous motor has no self-
starting torque i.e., a synchronous motor cannot start by itself.
How to get continuous unidirectional torque? If the rotor poles are rotated by some external means
at such a speed that they interchange their positions along with the stator poles, then the rotor will
experience a continuous unidirectional torque. This can be understood from the following discussion:
(i) Suppose the stator field is rotating in the clockwise direction and the rotor is also rotated clockwise
by some external means at such a speed that
the rotor poles interchange their positions
along with the stator poles.
(ii) Suppose at any instant the stator and
rotor poles are in the position shown in Fig.
(iii). It is clear that torque on the rotor will be
clockwise. After a period of half-cycle, the
stator poles reverse their polarities and at the same time rotor poles also interchange their positions as
shown in Fig. (iv). The result is that again the torque on the rotor is clockwise. Hence a continuous
unidirectional torque acts on the rotor and moves it in the clockwise direction. Under this condition,
poles on the rotor always face poles of opposite polarity on the stator and a strong magnetic attraction
is set up between them. This mutual attraction locks the rotor and stator together and the rotor is
virtually pulled into step with the speed of revolving flux (i.e., synchronous speed).
(iii) If now the external prime mover driving the rotor is removed, the rotor will continue to rotate at
synchronous speed in the clockwise direction because the rotor poles are magnetically locked up with
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 45
the stator poles. It is due to this magnetic interlocking between stator and rotor poles that a
synchronous motor runs at the speed of revolving flux i.e., synchronous speed.
2.5. Making Synchronous Motor Self-Starting
A synchronous motor cannot start by itself. In order to make the motor self-
starting, a squirrel cage winding (also called damper winding) is provided
on the rotor. The damper winding consists of copper bars embedded in the
pole faces of the salient poles of the rotor as shown in Fig. The bars are
short-circuited at the ends to form in effect a partial squirrel cage winding.
The damper winding serves to start the motor.
(i) To start with, 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding while the rotor field winding is left
unenergized. The rotating stator field induces currents in the damper or squirrel cage winding and the
motor starts as an induction motor.
(ii) As the motor approaches the synchronous speed, the rotor is excited with direct current. Now the
resulting poles on the rotor face poles of opposite polarity on the stator and a strong magnetic
attraction is set up between them. The rotor poles lock in with the poles of rotating flux.
Consequently, the rotor revolves at the same speed as the stator field i.e., at synchronous speed.
Note: It is important to excite the rotor with direct current at the right moment.For example, if the d.c.
excitation is applied when N-pole of the stator faces N pole of the rotor, the resulting magnetic
repulsion will produce a violent mechanical shock. The motor will immediately slow down and the
circuit breakers will trip. In practice, starters for synchronous motors are designed to detect the
precise moment when excitation should be applied.
2.6. Equivalent Circuit of synchronous motor.
Fig.(i). shows the schematic
diagram for one phase of a star-
connected synchronous motor
while Fig. (ii) shows its
equivalent circuit. Referring to
the equivalent circuit in Fig. (ii).
Net voltage/phase in stator winding is Er = V – Eb ;Ia =Er/Zs; Zs= √(Ra2-Xs2)---Ohms.
Note:A synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such
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that Eb = V. If the field excitation is such that Eb < V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor
is said to be over-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V. For both normal and under
excitation, the motor has lagging power factor. However, for over-excitation, the motor has leading
power factor.
2.7. Synchronous Motor on Load
In d.c. motors and induction motors, an addition of load causes the motor speed to decrease. The
decrease in speed reduces the counter e.m.f. enough so that additional current is drawn from the
source to carry the increased load at a reduced speed. This action cannot take place in a synchronous
motor because it runs at a constant speed (i.e., synchronous speed) at all loads.
What happens when we apply mechanical load to a synchronous motor? The rotor poles fall slightly
behind the stator poles while continuing to run at synchronous speed. The angular displacement
between stator and rotor poles (called torque angle
a) causes the phase of back e.m.f. Eb to change w.r.t.
supply voltage V. This increases the net e.m.f. Er in
the stator winding. Thus,stator current Ia ( = Er/Zs)
increases to carry the load.
The following points may be noted in synchronous
motor operation:
(i) A synchronous motor runs at synchronous speed at all loads. It meets the increased load not by a
decrease in speed but by the relative shift between stator and rotor poles i.e., by the adjustment of
torque angle α.
(ii) If the load on the motor increases, the torque angle α also increases (i.e.,rotor poles lag behind the
stator poles by a greater angle) but the motor continues to run at synchronous speed. The increase in
torque angle α causes a greater phase shift of back e.m.f. Eb w.r.t. supply voltage V. This increases
the net voltage Er in the stator winding. Consequently, armature current
Ia (= Er/Zs) increases to meet the load demand.
(iii) If the load on the motor decreases, the torque angle α also decreases. This causes a smaller phase
shift of Eb w.r.t. V. Consequently, the net voltage Er in the stator winding decreases and so does the
armature current Ia (= Er/Zs).
2.7. Pull-Out Torque.
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There is a limit to the mechanical load that can be applied to a synchronous motor. As the load
increases, the torque angle α also increases so that a stage is reached when the rotor is pulled out of
synchronism and the motor comes to a standstill. This load torque at which the motor pulls out of
synchronism is called pull—out or breakdown torque. Its value varies from 1.5 to 3.5 times the full
load torque.
2.8. Motor Phasor Diagram.
Consider an under-excited star-connected synchronous motor (Eb < V) supplied with fixed excitation
i.e., back e.m.f. Eb is constant-
Let V = supply voltage/phase;Eb = back e.m.f./phase;Zs = synchronous impedance/phase
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 49
Suppose the field excitation is increased until the current Ia is in phase with the applied voltage V,
making the p.f. of the synchronous motor unity [See Fig. (iii)]. For a given load, at unity p.f. the
resultant Er and, therefore, Ia are minimum.
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whereas Fig. (ii) shows the phasor diagram for under-excitation. In both cases, the motor has lagging
power factor. Fig. (iii) shows the phasor diagram when field excitation is adjusted for
unity p.f. operation. Under this condition, the resultant voltage Er and, therefore, the stator current Ia
are minimum. When the motor is overexcited, it has leading power factor as shown in Fig. (iv). The
following points may be remembered:
(i) For a given load, the power factor is governed by the field excitation; a weak field produces the
lagging armature current and a strong field produces a leading armature current.
(ii) The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases as the p.f. becomes less either
leading or lagging.
2.11. “V” curves and inverted “V” Curves of synchronous motor.-Experimental setup.
(i).It is the curve drawn between field current, If and armature current Ia for constant supply
voltage ,V.
(ii).Upto 100% excitation, If and Ia both are
inversely proportional to each other, ie,If
α1/Ia.
(iii).After 100% of excitation, If =Ia.
(iv).If ,If decreases,φ incrases, cosφ decreases.
(v). The curve between If and cosφ is known as inverted “V” curves.
Procedure:
The synchronous machine is started by DC shunt motor and brought to its rated speed.When
the synchronous motor reaches nearly the synchronous speed, its field winding is energized.
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Synchronous machine is connected to 3 phase AC.DC supply to the DC motor is disconnected
by operating the switch S1.Now the synchronous machine is running on no load and it can
drive the DC shunt machine working as a DC shunt generator.
Keeping the synchronous motor on no load, take the reading of Ammeter,Voltmeter and
Wattmeter on AC side for different values of excitation.
Now the DC generator is loaded so that the motor is loaded to ¼ of its full load.Keeping this
load as constant, take the readings of A,V&W on AC side for different excitation.
Repeat the process for 1/2, 3/4 ,1 and 1⅜ full load on synchronous motor.The corresponding
curves are shown in fig.
With the help of V curves , pf for any value is determined from the relation,cosφ=Imin/I, where
Imin=minimum current drawn by motor at given load.
Observations:
With low value of If,Ia is large and lagging.
As If increases, pf increases and Ia decreases till it reaches a minimum value.
When Ia is minimum, pf is unity and corresponding If is as normal field current.The region in
which If is less than its normal value is known as region of under excitation or region of
lagging.
If the If is increased, pf becomes leading and begins to decrease, so Ia increases. The region in
which If is more than normal value is known as region of over excitation or region of leading.
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2.12.Different types of Synchronous motor torques:
(i).Starting torque: It is the ability of the motor to accelerate the load. It is also known as breakaway
torque .It is 10% in case of centrifugal pumps and as high as 200% of full load torque ,as in case of
loaded reciprocating compressors.
(ii).Running torque: It is the torque developed by the motor under running condition.
(iii).Pull in torque: It refers to the ability of motor to pull into synchronism when changing from
induction to synchronous motor operation.
(iv).Pullout torque: It refers to the ability of the motor to remain in synchronism under rated load
conditions. The maximum torque which the motor will develop without pulling out of step is called
pullout torque.
2.13.Phasor diagram of Synchronous motor for various pf.
Note:Er=IZs
AD2=OA2+OD2-2(OA)(OD)cos(θ +φ)
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Fig. shows the phasor diagram of an under-excited synchronous motor driving a mechanical load.
Since armature resistance Ra is assumed zero.
tan= Xs/Ra = and hence = 90°.
Input power/phase = V Ia cos
Since Ra is assumed zero, stator Cu loss (I2 Ra )will be zero. Hence input power is equal to the
mechanical power Pm developed by the motor.
Mech. power developed/ phase, Pm = V Ia cos (i)
Referring to the phasor diagram in Fig. , AB Er cosIaXs cos
Also AB Eb sin Eb sin IaXs cos→ Ia cos Eb sin Xs
Substituting the value of Ia cos in exp. (i) above;
Pm = V Ia cosV [Eb sin Xs]=VEb/Xs—for 1;3VEb/Xs—for 3.
2.14 .B.POWER DEVELOPED BY SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Let OA=V=supply voltage per phase; I=Ia=armature current in ampere;AB=Eb=back emf at load
angel α;OB=Er=resultant voltage (I Zs ≈ I Xs);I leads V by angle φ and lags behind Eb by θ .where θ
=tan -1(Xs/Ra).Line CD is drawn at an angle θ to the line AB.AC and ED are perpendicular to CD
and also to AE.
Mechanic power developed in the rotor,Pm=Eb.I cosψ ---- 1
In triangle OBD, cos ψ=BD/OB =BD/IZs; BD=IZs.cos ψ ---2; BD=CD-BC =AE-BC ------3
In triangle OAE, cos(θ- α)= AE/OA (since, OA=V), AE=V cos(θ- α).
Put AE in eqn(3), we get BD=V cos(θ- α) –BC; →IZs cos ψ = V cos(θ- α)-BC----(a)
To find BC:In triangle, cos θ=BC/AB [since AB=Eb];BC=Eb cos θ
Equation (a) becomes, IZs cos ψ =V cos(θ- α)-Eb cosθ ---(b)
I cos ψ= V cos(θ- α)/Zs - Eb cosθ/Zs ------------- 4;substitute the eqn.4 in the eqn 1
Pm=Eb.I. cos ψ=Pm= Eb.V cos(θ- α)/Zs – Eb2 cosθ/Zs
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The above is the expression for the mechanical power interms of load angle α and internal angle θ of
the synchronous motor for constant voltage.
To find maximum power developed:
To find Pmax,the above expression Pm is differentiated with respect to load angle α.
Pm= Eb.V cos(θ- α)/Zs – Eb2 cosθ/Zs ;dPm/dα = Eb.V/Zs[sin (θ- α)] =0 sin (θ- α)=0
→θ- α=0,α= θ at Pmax.
substiture in Pm,Pm= Eb.V cos(θ- θ)/Zs – Eb2 cosθ/Zs;Pm= EbV/Zs – Eb2 cosθ/Zs
from the above ,the maximum power and torque depends on V and Eb.
also the max. value of θ =90.
If Ra is neglected, θ =90 Pm= Eb.V/Xs ; [Xs=Zs].
Ex.2.1.A 50kW,400V,synchronous motor is operating at full load with efficiency of 92%.If the field
current is adjusted to make its pf 0.8 leading, estimate the armature current.
Data:Po=50kW,VL=400V,η=92%,cosφ=0.8.Find:Ia.
Sol:Pin=√3VLILcos φ;η=Po/Pin;IL=Ia.: η=Po/Pin→0.92=50x103/ Pin;Pin=54.34 x103,
Pin=√3VLILcos φ→54.34 x103=√3x400x Ia→ Ia=IL=98A.
Ex.2.2.A 2.3kV,3 φ, synchronous motor has Zs=(0.2+j2.2)Ω per phase.The motor is operating at 0.5pf
leading with the line current of 200A.Determine the generated emf per phase.
Data:VL=2.3x103V,3φ, synchronous motor,Ra=0.2Ω,Xs=2.2Ω, cosφ=0.8(lead).IL=Ia=200A.Find E.
Sol: E=√V2 +Er2 -2VEr cos(θ +φ)—Volts(phase)
V=Vph= VL/√3=2.3x103/√3=1327.9V;Er=IZs;Zs=√Ra2+Xs2=√(0.2)2+(2.2)2=2.2Ω;Er=200x2.2=441.8A.
E=√V2 +Er2 -2VEr cos(θ +φ)= √13282 +4422 -2(1328)(442) cos(85 +60)=1708Volts.(phase).
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E=√V2 +Er2 -2VEr cos(θ +φ)= √2302 +582 -2(230)(58) cos(84 +36)=265Volts.(phase).
(ii).Pin=Pmech+I2R→P mech=Pin-I2R=81 x103-1462x0.04=80.7kW.
Ex2.4.A 3φ, star connected synchronous motor has synchronous reactance of 4Ω per phase working
on 1100V busbar. Calculate the power factor of the machine when taking 90kW from the mains, the
excitation being adjusted to a value corresponding to induced emf of 1200V.Neglect armature
resistance.
Data:Star connected synchronous motor,Xs=4Ω,Ra=0,V=VL=1100V,Po=90x103,E=1200V(line).
To find cosφ.
ΔOBC,cosφ=BC/OB=BC/Er B E Ia
BC=Er cosφ----(a). Er
ΔABC,AB2=AC2+BC2. φ
AC=√AB2-BC2 θ φ
Er=IZs;Zs=√Ra2+Xs2=Xs as Ra=0;→Er=IXs→I=Er/Xs.
Pin=√3VLIL cosφ; IL cosφ=90x103/√3x1100=47A.→ IL cosφ=47A.
BC=Er cosφ= IXs cosφ= IL cosφ xXs =47x4=189V → BC=189V= Er cosφ
AC=√E2-(Er cosφ)2 ;Eph=E/√3=1200/√3=692V.; AC=√E2-(Er cosφ)2= 6922-(189)2=666V.(phase)
From the phasor diagram,AC=OC + OA →OC=AC-OA=666-V/√3=666-1100/√3=32V(phase)
OC=32V;From ΔOBC,OB2=OC2+BC2→OB=√OC2+BC2=√322 +1882=191V.=Er
Now, Er cosφ=188V, cosφ=188/Er=188/191=0.986;Icosφ=47Amp→I=47/0.986=47A.
Ex.2.5.A 2000V,3 phase ,star connected synchronous motor has an effective resistance and reactance
of 0.2Ω and 2.2Ω respectively. The input is 800kW at normal voltage and the emf(line) is
2500V.Calculate the line current and power factor of the load.
Data:Star connected synchronous motor,Xs=2.2Ω,Ra=0.2,V=VL=2000V,Pin=800x103,E=2500V(line).
To find Ia& cosφ.
ΔOBC,cosφ=BC/OB=BC/Er ; BC=Er cosφ----(a). ΔABC,AB2=AC2+BC2. AC=√AB2-BC2
AC=√E2-(Er cosφ)2 ---(b) Er=IZs;Zs=√Ra2+Xs2=2.2Ω→Er=IZs→I=Er/Zs.
Pin=√3VLIL cosφ; IL cosφ=800x103/√3x2000=47A.→ IL cosφ=230.9A.
BC=Er cosφ= IZs cosφ= IL cosφ xZs =230.9x2.2=508V → BC=508V= Er cosφ
AC=√E2-(Er cosφ)2 ;Eph=E/√3=2500/√3=1443V.; AC=√E2-(Er cosφ)2=√ 14432-(508)2=1350V(phase)
From the phasor diagram,AC=OC + OA →OC=AC-OA=666-V/√3=666-2000/√3=196V(phase)
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OC=196V;From ΔOBC,OB2=OC2+BC2→OB=√OC2+BC2=√1962 +5082=544V.=Er
Now, Er cosφ=508V, cosφ=508/Er=508/544=0.933;Icosφ=230Amp→I=230/0.933=247.5A.
Ex.2.6.A 2000V, 3 phase, 4 pole, star connected synchronous motor runs at 1500rpm.The excitation
is constant and related to OCC voltage of 2000V.The resistance is negligible as compared to
synchronous reactance of 3Ω per phase. Determine the input power, power factor and torque
developed for an armature current of 200A.
Data:V=VL=E=2000V,3phase,star connected synchronous motor,p=4,N=1500rpm,Ra=0,Xs=3Ω.
Ia=200A.Find Pin,cosφ andT.Assume lagging pf.
Sol:(i). Pin: Pin=√3VLILcosφ;To findcosφ:
E=√V2 +Er2 -2VEr cos(θ +φ); E2=[V2 +Er2 -2VEr cos(θ -φ)];Er=IZs=IXs=200 x3 =600V.(phase).
E=Eph=Vph= E/√3=2000/√3=1154V;
E2=[V2 +Er2 -2VEr cos(θ -φ)]→11542=[11542 +6002 -2x11542x600 cos(θ -φ)]
→ cos(θ -φ)= [11542 +6002 -11542]/ 2x11542x600→ cos(θ -φ)=0.2598.
θ=tan-1(Xs/Ra)= tan-1(3/0)=90°; cos(θ -φ)=0.2598→ cos(90 -φ)=0.26;sin φ=0.26; φ=sin-1(0.26)=15°.
Cosφ=0.96.; Pin=√3VLILcosφ= Pin=√3x2000x200x0.96=669kW.
(iii).To find Torque:Pm=2πNT/60;Pm=Pin-3I2R=669-0=669 x103.
→T=Pmx60/2πN=669 x103 x60/2πx1500=4258Nm.
Ex.2.7.A 3phase 6600V,50Hz,star connected synchronous motor takes 50A current. The resistance and
reactance per phase are 1Ω and 20Ω respectively. Find the power supplied to the motor and induced emf for a
pf of (i)0.8pf lagging (ii)0.8 pf leading (iii).UPF. Draw the vector diagram for each case.
Data:3 phase star connected synchronous motor,f=50Hz,V=V L=6000V,Ia=50A,Ra=1Ω,Xs=20Ω.
Find Pin,E for cos φ=0.8lagging,0.8leading and UPF.
Sol:Pin=√3VLILcosφ= √3x6600x50x0.8=457kW.
E=√V2 +Er2 -2VEr cos(θ +φ);Er=IZs=1001.2V;θ=87, for leading pf ,E=4448.5V.
For lagging pf,Pin =457kW, E=3262V;for UPF,Pin=571kW,E=3891V.
Ex.2.8.A 3phase 6600V,50Hz, star connected synchronous motor takes 50A current. The resistance and
reactance per phase are 1Ω and 20Ω respectively. Find the power supplied to the motor and induced emf for a
pf of (i)0.8pf lagging (ii)0.8 pf leading (iii).UPF. Draw the vector diagram for each case.
Data:3,Y connected SM, IL =50A;VL =6,600V;Vph=3810.5V,Xs=20Ω ; Rs=1 Ω f=50 Hz
To find: Pin ,E, for cos0.8 leading and lagging and upf.
Sol:Pin=√3.VLILcos φ;for cos φ=0.8 leading and lagging
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(i).Pin=√3*6600*50*0.8=457.26 KW,for cos φ=UPF,Pin=√3*6600*50*1=571.57KW
(ii). wkt Er=ILXs => 50*20 = 1000 V;* θ=tan -1(Xs/Rs) => tan -1(20/1)→θ=87.137o
iii)for 0.8 lagging, E=√(V2+Er2-2*V*Er*cos(θ- φ))=
Eph=√3810.52+10002-2(3810.5*1000*cos(87.13-36.86))=3263.369 V
*for 0.8 leading,Eph=√3810.52+10002-2(3810.5*1000*cos(123.997))→Eph=4447.61 V
*for UPF,Eph=√3810.52+10002-2(3810.5*1000*cos(87.137))→Eph=3890.81 V
RESULT:
PF 0.8 lagging 0.8 leading UPF
Pin in KW 457.26 457.26 571.57
Eph in volts 3263.369 4447.61 3890.81
2.15. Synchronous Condenser
A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore,
behaves as a capacitor.An over-excited synchronous motor running on no-load in known as
synchronous condenser.
When such a machine is connected in parallel with induction motors or other devices that operate at
low lagging power factor, the leading kVAR supplied by the synchronous condenser partly
neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the loads. Consequently, the power factor of the system is
improved.
Fig. shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method. The 3 - phase load
takes current IL at low lagging power factor cos φL. The synchronous condenser takes a current Im
which leads the voltage by an angle fm. The resultant current I is the vector sum of Im and IL and lags
behind the voltage by an angle φ. It is clear that f is less than φL so that cosφ is greater than cosφL.
Thus the power factor is increased from cos φL to cos φ. Synchronous
condensers are generally used at major substations for pf improvement.
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Advantages
(i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be changed by
any amount. This helps in achieving control of pf.
(ii) The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents.
(iii) The faults can be removed easily.
Disadvantages
(i) There are considerable losses in the motor.
(ii) The maintenance cost is high.
(iii) It produces noise.
(iv) Except in sizes above 500 kVAr, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of the same
rating.
(v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, there-fore, an auxiliary equipment has to be
provided for this purpose.
2.16. Applications of Synchronous Motors
(i) Synchronous motors are particularly attractive for low speeds (< 300 r.p.m.) because the power
factor can always be adjusted to unity and efficiency is high.
(ii) Overexcited synchronous motors can be used to improve the power factor
of a plant while carrying their rated loads.
(iii) They are used to improve the voltage regulation of transmission lines.
(iv) High-power electronic converters generating very low frequencies enables to run synchronous
motors at ultra-low speeds. Thus huge motors in the
10 MW range drive crushers, rotary kilns and variable-speed ball mills.
2.17.Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motors
S.No. Particular Synchronous Motor 3-phase Induction Motor
1. Speed Remains constant (i.e., Ns) from Decreases with load.
no-load to full-load.
2. Power factor Can be made to operate from Operates at lagging
lagging to leading power factor. power factor.
3. Excitation Requires d.c. excitation at the rotor. No excitation for the rotor.
4. Economy Economical for speeds below 300 rpm. Economical for speeds above
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600 r.p.m.
5. Self-starting No self-starting torque. Auxiliary Self-starting
means have to be provided for starting.
6. Construction Complicated Simple
KVAL KVAL
cos ΦL= KWL/ KVAL→ KWL= KVAL cos ΦL cos Φs= KWs/ KVAs
sin ΦL= KVARL/ KVAL→ KVARL= KVAL sin ΦL sin ΦL= KVARs/ KVAs
KWT
ΦL KVAT KVARL
KVAL
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KVARL= KVART + KVARS → KVARS= KVARL- KVART
tan ΦT= KVART/ KWT →ΦT=tan-1(KVART/ KWT) ;ΦL = ΦT+ΦS→ ΦS= ΦL- ΦT;cosΦS=pf of SM.
Ex.2.9.A 3Φ sync motor absorbing 60 kW is connected in parallel; with a factory load of 240 kW
having pf 0.8 lag. If the combined load has p.f. 0.9 What is the value of leading kVAR supplied by
motor and at what p.f. it is working?
Data: 3Φ sync motor ,kWs = 60 kW; kWL = 240 kW; cos ΦL = 0.8; cos ΦT = 0.9;
To Find: kVARs, cos ΦS = ?;
Solution: cos ΦL = 0.8; sin ΦL = 0.6;ΦL = 36.86;
kVAL= kWL/ cos ΦL =240*103/0.8 =300kVA;
kVARL= sin ΦL. kVAL = .6*300k= 180 kVAR,kWT =kWs +kWL =(60 +240)k = 300kW
kVAT= kWT/ cos ΦT = 300k/0.9 = 333.33kVAkVART= sin ΦT.
kVAT = .436*333.33k= 145.3 kVAR
kVART = kVARL – kVARS = (180 – 145.3)k =34.7 kVAR
ΦT = ΦL – ΦS; ΦS = ΦL – ΦT =11.03; cos 11.03=0.98; cos ΦS = 0.98;
Result: ; cos ΦS = 0.98; kVART=34.7 kVAR
2.19.Synchronous Phase Modifiers:
Synchronous condensers are operated at pf ranging from lagging through unity leads to leading value
for voltage control. When operated in this manner, a synchronous condenser is called synchronous
phase modifier or reactor. (These are connected at the end of transmission line.
2.20.Hunting in SM:
When a synchronous motor is loaded, the rotor poles fallback by certain angle called the load angle or
Torque angle δ. If the load is suddenly removed, the rotor poles are pulled into exact position to the
poles of forward field, but due to inertia of rotor they travel too far. They are then pulled back again.
Thus an oscillation is set up above the equilibrium position corresponding to the new load. The
oscillation of the rotor about the equilibrium position is called ‘HUNTING’. It is caused by change in
load, change in excitation.
Hunting is reduced by providing a damper winding. The damper winding consists of short circuit bars
embedded in the phases of field poles of synchronous motor. When the motor is running at Ns there is
no relative motion between rotor and airgap flux and so no voltage is induced in the damper winding.
When the speed of the machine deviates from Ns, or hunting takes place, there is relative motion
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between the rotor and airgap flux. Thus an emf is induced in the winding. The current flow in the
damper winding sets up a flux, which opposes oscillations and hence hunting is prevented.
2.21.Starting Methods of SM:
(i).From DC source:
If a DC supply and DC compound motor are available, the synchronous motor is coupled and started
by means of DC compound motor. The speed of DC motor is adjusted by means of speed regulator.
The sync. motor is then excited and synchronized with AC supply. At the moment of
synchronization, the Sync motor is switched ON with AC mains. The DC motor is then disconnected
from DC mains. Now synchronous machine operates as motor , from AC supply mains and DC motor
acts as load on it.
(ii).From AC motor:
A small direct coupled induction motor called Pony motor may be used for starting the SM. The
induction motor has two poles less than SM and so is capable of raising the later to sync. speed. Then
AC supply is given to SM. After normal operation is established, the pony motor is uncoupled from
the supply.
(iii).By means of Damper Grids:
A SM is made self starting by providing a special winding on rotor poles called damper winding or
short circuit winding. The damper winding consists of SC copper bars embedded in the phase of field
poles. AC supply given to stator poles produces a rotating magnetic field, which causes the rotor to
rotate. Hence in the beginning SM provided with damper winding starts as squirrel cage induction
motor.
Advantages:
When motor is overloaded it does not stop. Continues to run as squirrel cage induction motor.
Disadvantages:
Since damper winding resistance is low, it takes larger current from supply to start.
2.22.Speed Contorl of SM:
The speed of SM is given by Ns=120f/P.
Thus by varying the no. of poles or supply frequency its speed can be varied. Voltage to Frequency
ratio control (V/f) is also used to control the speed of synchronous motor.
Questions in Synchronous motor.
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1. What is the role of damper winding in an (i) alternator (ii).Synchronous Motor.
2. Does the change in excitation affect the speed or power factor of the synchronous motor?
3. What happens when (i)the excitation of a synchronous motor connected to an infinite bus is
varied, the load torque remaining constant?(ii).the excitation of a synchronous motor is
varied at constant load.
4. Write the expression for maximum power developed by Salient and non-salient pole
synchronous motor.
5.What is a synchronous capacitor?
6.Draw the phasor diagram of a synchronous motor for leading, lagging and unity pf load
7.How will you reverse the direction of rotation of synchronous motor?
8. What is meant by hunting in (i) Synchronous motor ? (ii)Alternator.
9. Describe with neat sketches, the construction, principle of operation a 3 phase SM.
10.What could be the reasons if a 3 phase synchronous motor fails to start?
11.Why a 3 phase synchronous motor will always run at synchronous speed?
12. List any two merits ,demerits and applications of Synchronous motor.
13.Discuss the starting methods of Synchronous motor.
14. Describe briefly the effect of varying excitation upon the armature current and power factor
of a 3 phase synchronous motor when the input power to the motor is maintained constant.
15.Draw ‘V’and inverted ‘V’ curves of a synchronous motor. What happens when (i)the
excitation of a synchronous motor connected to an infinite bus is varied, the load torque
remaining constant?(ii).the excitation of a synchronous motor is varied at constant load.
16.Explain the experimental method of determining V and inverted V curves.
20.Draw the equivalent circuit of a synchronous motor.
21.Derive the expression for the power developed by a synchronous motor, interms of the load
angle. What is the condition for maximum power developed?
22.A 75kW,400V,3Φ,star connected synchronous motor has resistance and synchronous
reactance per phase of 0.04Ω and 0.4Ω respectively. Compute for full load ,0.8power factor
leading, the open circuit emf per phase and gross mechanical power developed Assume
efficiency as 92.5%. [E=226.1V,Pm =78.2kW]
23.Explain how a synchronous motor can be operated as synchronous condenser? Explain how it
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can be used for power factor improvement?
24.A 500V,50Hz,3Φ load takes 20A at 0.8pf lagging. A Synchronous motor is used to improve
the power factor to unity. Calculate the kVAR input to the motor and its power factor when
driving a mechanical load of 7.5kW.The motor has an efficiency of 85%. [kVARs=10.39.Φs=36.8º
25.How is the speed of a synchronous motor varied?
26.Why a 3 phase synchronous motor will always run at synchronous speed?
27.In what operating condition, is a synchronous motor referred to as synchronous condenser.
28. A 2.3 KV, 3 Phase star connected synchronous motor has Zs = (0.2+j 2.2) ohms per phase.
The motor is operating at 0.5 power factor leading with a line current of 200 Ampere.
Determine the generated emf per phase.
29.. A 3 phase, star connected synchronous motor has a synchronous reactance of 4 ohms per
phase and is working on 1,100V bus – bar. Calculate the power factor of this machine when
taking 90KW from the mains, the excitation being adjusted to a value corresponding to an
induced emf of 1,200V, Neglect armature resistance.
K.L.N.College of Engineering.
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.
EE6504-ELECTRICAL MACHINES-II-[C305]
Assignment-I-.[Issue: 06.07.2015,Submission: 17.8.2015 V Sem/A,B &C Sec/EEE.]
UNIT-I,II-SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR,SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.
CO Questions
CO305.1 1 to 12
CO305.2 13 to 17
1. The stator of a 3-phase,16 pole alternator has 144slots and there are 4conductors per slot
connected in two layers and the conductors of each phase are connected in series.If the speed
of the alternator is 375 rpm, calculate the emf induced per phase. Resultant flux in the air gap
is 5 X 10-2 webers per pole sinusoidally distributed.Assume the coil span as 150º electrical.
[α =30º, k p =0.966,β =20º,kd =0.96,Eph =988V]
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 64
2. A 3 phase ,8 pole,750 rpm, star connected alternator has 72 slots on the armature. Each slot
has 12 conductors and winding is short chorded by 2 slots.Find the induced emf between lines
, given the flux per pole is 0.06Wb.
[β=20º,α=20º,EL=2,998V]
3. A 3 phase, star connected alternator is rated at 1,600kVA,13,500V.The armature resistance
and reactance are 1.5Ω and 30Ω respectively per phase. Calculate the percentage regulation
for a load of 1,280kW at 0.8 leading power factor.
[IL=68.4A,Eo =6,860V,%R=-11.98%]
4. A 3 phase ,star connected ,5kVA,400V,50Hz, 4 pole, alternator has the following test data at
rated speed.
If(A) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0
Eph(V) 75 140 173 202 224 240 250 257 260 263 266
Armature resistance per phase =2.0Ω.
If(A) 1.0 2.0 3.0 RefJBG(229).Zs=38.88Ω,IL=7.217A,Eo =463.88V,
SC line current 3.6 7.2 10.8 %R=100.81%,Eo =244.5V,%R=5.844%
Draw OC and SC characteristics and then determine unsaturated value of synchronous reactance per
phase in ohms in per unit.Also determine percentage regulation at rated load at 0.8pf lag and lead by
synchronous impedance method under saturated condtion.Draw relevant phasor diagram.
5. A 3.5MVA,Star Connected Alternator, rated at 4160V,at 50Hz has open circuit characteristics
given by the following data.
Field current in Amp 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
EMF in Volts 1620 3150 4160 4750 5130 5370 5550 5650 5750
A field current of 200Amp,is found necessary to circulate full load current on short circuit of the
alternator.Calculate by (i).Synchronous impedance method (ii).Ampere Turn method, the Voltage
regulation at 0.8pf lagging. Neglect resistance.Comment on the result obtained.
[IL=486A,Zs =5.64Ω/ph,Eo=4600V,%R=91%,If1=150A,If2 =200A,Eo=3140V,%R=30.7%]
6. A 3 phase star connected salient pole synchronous generator is driven at a speed near
synchronous with the field circuit open, and the stator is supplied from a balanced 3 phase
supply. Voltmeter connected across the line gave minimum and maximum readings of
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 65
2,800and 2,820volts.The line current fluctuated between 360 and 275 amperes. Find the
direct and quadrature axis synchronous reactances per phase. [xd= 5.9Ω,xq=4.5Ω]
7. Two synchronous generators operate in parallel on a load impedance of Z ohms.Their emfs
are E1 amd E2 and their synchronous impedances are Z1and Z2.Deduce the terminal voltage in
terms of these emfs and admittances.Y,Y1,Y2.Determine the terminal voltage and kW output
of each machine if,E1=100V, E2=110V, Z=(3+j4)Ω and Z1=Z2=(0.2+j1)Ω.
[JBG336.V=(96-j3.87)Ω,I1=5.457A,I2=14.24A,kW1=442W,kW2=664.8W]
8. A 3MVA ,6pole,alternator runs at 1,000rpm,on 3.3kV,busbars.The synchronous reactance is
25%.Calculate the synchronising power and toque per mechanical degree of displacement
when the alternator is supplying full-load at 0.8 pf lag.
[JBG 336,IL=525A,IXs=476.25V,E=2,224V,Psy=502.6kW,Tsy=6,400Nm.]
9. A 10MVA,5kV,3phase,4pole,50Hz,alternator is connected to infinite bus –bars.The short
circuit current is 3.5times the normal current full load current and the moment of inertia of the
rotating systems is 21,00kg-m2.Determine its normal period of oscillation.[JBG
352,T=1.365Seconds]
10. From the following test results, determine the voltage regulation of a2000V,1 phase alternator
delivering a current of 100A,at (i).unity pf.(ii).0.8 lead pf (iii).0.71 lagging pf.
Test results: Full load current of 100A is produced on short-circuit by a field excitation of 2.5A.
An emf of 500V is produced on open circuit by the same excitation. The armature resistance is 0.8Ω.
(7%,-9%,21.6%1433BLT).
11. Two AC generators running in parallel supply a lighting load of 2,000KW and a motor load of
4,000KW at 0.8 pf lagging. One machine is loaded to 2,400KW at 0.95 lagging. What is the
output power factor of the second machine?[Ref:JBG,pp340,Ex6.7]
[3,600KW,0.8521lag]
12. Two identical 2MVA alternators operate in parallel. The governor of first machine is such
that the frequency drops uniformly from 50Hz on no load to 47.5Hz on full load. The
corresponding uniform speed drop of the second machine is 50Hz to 48Hz.How will they
share a load of 3MW.
[P1=1.333MW,P2=1.667MW ,JBG:343,344]
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 66
13. A 75kW,400V,3Φ,star connected synchronous motor has resistance and synchronous
reactance per phase of 0.04Ω and 0.4Ω respectively. Compute for full load ,0.8power factor
leading, the open circuit emf per phase and gross mechanical power developed Assume
efficiency as 92.5%.
[E=226.1V,Pm =78.512kW]
14.A 500V,50Hz,3Φ load takes 20A at 0.8pf lagging.A Synchronous motor is used to improve the
power factor to unity.Calculate the kVAR input to the motor and its power factor when driving a
mechanical load of 7.5kW.The motor has an efficiency of 85%.
[kVARs=10.39.Φs=36.8º]
15.A 3Φ,star connected synchronous motor has a synchronous reactanc of 4Ωper phase and is
working on 1,100V,bus bar.Calculate the power factor of this machine when taking 90kW fom the
mains , the excitation being adjusted to a value corresponding to an induced emf of 1,200V.Neglect
armature resistance.
[Er =191.56V,IL=47.88A,CosΦ =0.98]
16.A 2,000V,3Φ,4pole Y connected synchronous motor runs at 1,500rpm.The excitation is constant
and corresponds to an open circuit voltage of 2,000V.The resistance is negligible as compared to
synchronous reactance of 3Ω per phase. Determine the power input, power factor and torque
developed for an armature current of 200A.
[cosΦ=0.966,Pin=669kW,T=4,259Nm.]
17.A 3Φ,150kW,2,300V,50Hz,1,000rpm,salient pole synchronous motor has Xd =32Ω/phase and
Xq=20Ω/phase.Neglecting losses, calculate the torque developed by the motor if field excitation is so
adjusted as to make the back emf twice the applied voltage and torque angle =16º.
[BLT1505,Pm=1,17,425W,Tg=1120Nm]
[BOYS-Roll No.end with odd No&0:1,3,8,9,14], [BOYS-Roll No.end with Even No:2,4,7,12,15],
[GIRLS-Roll No.end with odd No&0:1,5,6,10,11], [GIRLS-Roll No.end with Even
No:2,4,7,,13,15]
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 67
UNIT-III-THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR.
3.1.Introduction
The three-phase induction motors are the most widely used electric motors in industry. They run at
essentially constant speed from no-load to full-load. However, the speed is frequency dependent and these
motors are not easily adapted to speed control. We usually prefer d.c. motors when large speed variations
are required. The 3-phase induction motors are simple, rugged, low-priced, easy to maintain and can be
manufactured with characteristics to suit most industrial requirements.
3.2. Three-Phase Induction Motor
Like any electric motor, a 3-phase induction motor has a stator and a rotor. The stator carries a 3-phase
winding (called stator winding) while the rotor carries a short-
circuited winding (called rotor winding). Only the stator winding is
fed from 3-phase supply. The rotor winding derives its voltage and
power from the externally energized stator winding through
electromagnetic induction and hence the name. The induction motor
may be considered to be a transformer with a rotating secondary and
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it can, therefore, be described as a “transformertype” a.c. machine in which electrical energy is converted into
mechanical energy.
3.3.Advantages
(i) It has simple and rugged construction.(ii) It is relatively cheap.(iii) It requires little maintenance.(iv) It has
high efficiency and reasonably good power factor.
(v) It has self starting torque.
Disadvantages
(i) It is essentially a constant speed motor and its speed cannot be changed easily.
(ii) Its starting torque is inferior to d.c. shunt motor.
3.4. Construction
A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts (i) stator and (ii)
rotor. The rotor is separated from the stator by a small air-gap which
ranges from 0.4 mm to 4 mm, depending on the power of the motor.
1. Stator
It consists of a steel frame which encloses a
hollow, cylindrical core made up of thin
laminations of silicon steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current
losses. A number of evenly spaced slots are provided on the inner
periphery of the laminations . The insulated connected to form a balanced 3-phase star or delta connected
circuit. The 3-phase stator winding is wound for a definite number of poles as per requirement of speed.
Greater the number of poles, lesser is the speed of the motor and vice-versa.
When 3-phase supply is given to the stator winding, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude
is produced. This rotating field induces currents in the rotor by electromagnetic induction.
2. Rotor
The rotor, mounted on a shaft, is a hollow laminated core having slots on its outer periphery. The
winding placed in these slots (called rotor winding) may be one of the following two types:
(i) Squirrel cage type (ii) Wound type
(i) Squirrel cage rotor. It consists of a laminated cylindrical core having parallel slots on its outer
periphery. One copper or aluminum bar is placed in each slot. All these bars are joined at each end by
metal rings called end rings . This forms a permanently short-circuited winding which is
indestructible. The entire construction (bars and end rings) resembles a squirrel cage and hence the
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 69
name. The rotor is not connected electrically to the supply but has current induced in it by transformer
action from the stator.
Those induction motors which employ squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage induction motors.
Most of 3-phase induction motors use squirrel cage rotor as it has a remarkably simple and robust
construction enabling it to operate in the most adverse circumstances. However, it
suffers from the disadvantage of a low starting torque. It is because the rotor bars are permanently
short-circuited and it is not possible to add any external resistance to the rotor circuit to have a large
starting torque.
(ii) Wound rotor. It consists of a
laminated cylindrical core and carries a
3- phase winding, similar to the one on
the stator . The rotor winding is
uniformly distributed in the slots and is
usually star-connected. The open ends of
the rotor winding are brought out and
joined to three
insulated slip rings mounted on the rotor shaft with one brush resting on each slip ring. The three
brushes are connected to a 3-phase star-connected rheostat as shown in Fig. At starting, the external
resistances are included in the rotor circuit to give a large starting torque. These
resistances are gradually reduced to zero as the motor runs up to speed.
3.5. Rotating Magnetic Field Due to 3-Phase Currents
When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is produced. This field
is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position on the stator but go on shifting their positions around the
stator. For this reason, it is called a rotating field. It can be shown that magnitude of
this rotating field is constant and is equal to 1.5 m where m is the maximum flux due to any phase.
To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole,
3phase winding as shown in Fig.(i). The three phases X, Y and Z are
energized from a 3-phase source and currents in these phases are indicated as Ix,
Iy and Iz [See Fig. (ii). Referring to Fig. (ii), the fluxes
produced by these currents are given by:
x= mSinωt ; y= mSin(ωt-120°) ; z= mSin(ωt-240°)
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Here m is the maximum flux due to any phase. Fig. shows the phasor diagram of the three fluxes. We shall
now prove that this 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant magnitude equal to 1.5 m.
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At instant 1, ωt = 0°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;
x= 0 y= mSin(-120°) =-√3/2; z= mSin(-240°)=√3/2
The phasor sum of y and z is the resultant flux r . It is clear
that:
Resultant flux, r=2 x √3/2m cos(60/2)= 2 x √3/2m x √3/2=1.5m
(ii) At instant 2, the current is maximum (negative) in phase Y and
0.5 maximum (positive) in phases X and Z. The
magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 m as proved under:
At instant 2, ωt = 30°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;
x= mSin30°=m/2; y= mSin(-90°) =-m; z= mSin(-210°)=m /2
The phasor sum of x, - y and z is the resultant flux r
Phasor sum ofx andz,r=2 x m/2 Cos 120/2= m/2
Phasor sum ofr and - y, r = m/2 + m=1.5 m.
Note that resultant flux is displaced 30° clockwise from position 1.
(iii) At instant 3, current in phase Z is zero and the currents in phases X and Y are equal and opposite (currents
in phases X and Y arc 0.866 ´ max. value). The magnitude of resultant
flux is 1.5 m as proved under:
At instant 3, wt = 60°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;
x= mSin60°=m √3/2; y= mSin(-60°) =-m √3/2;
z= mSin(-180°)=0.
The phasor sum of x, - y ( z=0) is the resultant fluxr ,
r = 2 x m √3/2 cos 60/2=1.5m
Note that resultant flux is displaced 60° clockwise from position 1.
(iv) At instant 4, the current in phase X is maximum (positive) and the currents in phases Y and Z are equal
and negative (currents in phases V and Z are 0.5 ´ max. value). This establishes a resultant flux downward as
shown under:
At instant 4, wt = 90°. Therefore, the threefluxes are given by;
x= mSin=90°=m ; y= mSin(-30°) =-m /2; z= mSin(-150°)=-m /2.
The phasor sum of x, - y and - z is the resultant flux r
Phasor sum of -z and - y, ’r =2 ´m /2 x cos120/2=m /2
Phasor sum of 'r and x, r=m /2 +m =1.5m
Note that the resultant flux is downward i.e., it is displaced 90° clockwise from position 1
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It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply produces a rotating field of constant value (= 1.5 m,
where fm is the maximum flux due to any phase).
3.6. Speed of rotating magnetic field.
The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is called the synchronous speed (Ns). It is
given by, Ns=120f/p; Ns=Synchronous speed in rpm,f=supply frequency in Hz, p=No.of poles.
3.7.Direction of rotating magnetic field
The phase sequence of the three-phase voltage applied to the stator winding is R-Y-B. If this
sequence is changed to R-B-Y, it is observed that direction of rotation of the field is reversed i.e., the
field rotates counterclockwise rather than clockwise. However, the number of poles and the
speed at which the magnetic field rotates remain unchanged. Thus it is necessary only to change the
phase sequence in order to change the direction of rotation of the magnetic field. For a three-phase
supply, this can be done by interchanging any two of the three lines. As we shall see, the rotor in a 3-
phase induction motor runs in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field. Therefore, the
direction of rotation of a 3-phase induction motor can be reversed by
interchanging any two of the three motor supply lines.
3.8. Principle of Operation
Consider a portion of 3-phase induction motor as shown in Fig. The
operation of the motor can be explained as under:
(i) When 3-phase stator winding is energized
from a 3-phase supply, a
rotating magnetic field is set up which rotates
round the stator at synchronous speed Ns (=
120 f/P).
(ii) The rotating field passes through the air
gap and cuts the rotor conductors, which as
yet, are stationary. Due to the relative speed
between the rotating flux and the stationary rotor, e.m.f.s are induced in the rotor conductors. Since
the rotor circuit is short-circuited, currents start flowing in the rotor conductors.
(iii) The current-carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator.
Consequently, mechanical force acts on the rotor conductors. The sum of the mechanical forces on all
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 73
the rotor conductors produces a torque which tends to move the rotor in the same direction as the
rotating field.
(iv) The fact that rotor is urged to follow the stator field (i.e., rotor moves in the direction of stator
field) can be explained by Lenz’s law. According to this law, the direction of rotor currents will be
such that they tend to oppose the cause producing them. Now, the cause producing the rotor currents
is the relative speed between the rotating field and the stationary rotor conductors. Hence to reduce
this relative speed, the rotor starts running in the same direction as that of stator field and tries to
catch it.
3.9. Slip
The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator field and the actual rotor
speed N is called slip. It is usually expressed as a percentage of synchronous speed i.e.,
%S=(Ns-N)/Ns x 100;Ns=120f/p;N=speed of the rotor or motor, in rpm. Also.N=Ns(1-s)
Note:(i) The quantity Ns - N is sometimes called slip speed.
(ii) When the rotor is stationary (i.e., N = 0), slip, s = 1 or 100 %.
(iii) In an induction motor, the change in slip from no-load to full-load is hardly 0.1% to 3% so that it
is essentially a constant-speed motor.
3.10. Rotor Current Frequency
When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of rotor current is the same as supply frequency. When the
rotor started revolving, then the frequency depends on the relative speed between stator and rotor flux
given by,
f΄=relative speed in rpm /(120/p)→f΄=(Ns-N)/ (120/p); but S=(Ns-N)/Ns→(Ns-N)=SNs
Also,SNs=S(120f/p)= (Ns-N);→f΄=s(120f/p)/(120/p);f΄=sf---------(1).
T 3.1.A six pole induction motor is fed from 50Hz supply. If the frequency of the rotor emf at full
load is 2Hz,find the full load speed and slip.
Data:p=6,3IM,f=50Hz,f΄=2Hz.Find s.
Sol:f΄=sf→2=s x50→s=4%;N=Ns(1-s);Ns=120f/p=120 x 50/6=1000rpm;N=1000(1-0.04)=960.
T 3.2.A 3 IM,has 2 poles and is connected to 400V, 50Hz supply. Calculate the actual rotor speed
and rotor frequency when the slip is 4%.
Data: 3 IM,p=2,VL=400V,f=50Hz,s=4%=0.04.Find N,f΄.
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Sol:N=Ns(1-s);Ns=120f/p=120x 50/2=3000rpm.;N=3000(1-.0.04)=2880rpm.f΄=sf=0.04x50=2Hz.
3.11.Rotor emf(E2).
When the rotor is at stand still,the motor is equivalent to a 3 transformer with short circuite
secondary,So, induced emf per phase in the rotor E2, when it is at stand still ie at the instant of starting
is given by,E2=(N2/N2)x E1.Where E1=Supply voltage per phase.,N1,N2= turns per phase in stator and
rotor.
3.12.Rotor current and Pf:
(a).At standstill: (b).At running:E2 =sE2; X2=sX2;
I2=E2/Z2=E2/(√R2 2 +X22). –(2a) I2=sE2/Z2=sE2/(√R2 2 +(sX2) 2).—(2c)
cos2=R2/Z2=R2/(√R2 2 +X22) --(2b) cos2=R2/Z2=R2/(√R2 2 +(sX2) 2) --(2d).
T.3.3.In a 6pole,3,50Hz motor with star connected rotor, the rotor resistance per phase is 0.3Ω, the
reactance at standstill is 1.5Ω per phase and emf between the slip rings on open circuit is
175V.Calculate the slip at a speed of 950rpm and rotor emf per phase, rotor frequency and reactance
at a speed of 950rpm.
Data:3IM,p=6,f=50Hz,R2=0.3Ω,X2=1.5Ω.E2=175V(line).N=950rpm.Find,s,E2,f΄.
Sol:S=(Ns-N)/Ns;Ns=120f/p=1000rpm,s=5%;E2=E2(line)/√3=101V;f΄=sf=2.5Hz,X2΄=sX2=0.075.
3.13.Rotor torque.
It depends on (i).rotor current I2 (ii).Stator flux ( αE2).(iii).Power factor of rotor circuit.
T αE2I2cos2 ------(3a)
3.14.Rotor torque under running condition:
We have, T αE2I2cos2 –(1).
Torque under running condtion:I2=sE2/√(R22+(sX2 )2) ; cos2=R2/Z2=R2/(√R2 2 +(sX2) 2).
→ T αE2I2cos2 α E2 x sE2/√(R22+(sX2 )2) x R2/(√R2 2 +(sX2) 2) =ksR2E22/[R2 2 +(sX2) 2]
Tr = ksR2E22/[R2 2 +(sX2) 2] ---(3b)
3.15.Torque under starting condition:
At the start, the rotor is stationary,ie N=0;s=1.Tst is obtained by putting s =1 in (3b).
Tst = kR2E22/[R2 2 +(X2) 2] ---(3b).
3.16.Condition for maximum torque of induction motor under running.
We have, Tr = ksR2E22/[R2 2 +(sX2) 2] = Tr = ksR2E22/[R2 2 +s2 X2 2]
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For Tmax(running),dTr/ds =0;d/ds[ksR2E22/[R2 2 +s2 X2 2] =0;
[R2 2 +s2 X2 2][ kR2E22] –[[ksR2E22][2sX22] =0 .
[R2 2 +s2 X2 2]2
→[R2 2 +s2 X2 2][ kR2E22] –[ksR2E22][2sX22] =0→[R2 2 +s2 X2 2][ kR2E22]= [ksR2E22][2sX22]
→R2 =sX2. ----(3c);Slip corresponding to maximum torque is s=R2/X2.---(3d)
Now, Tr = ksR2E22/[R2 2 +(sX2) 2]; for Tmax, R2 =sX2;Tmax(running)= ks(sX2)E22/[(sX2) 2 +(sX2) 2]
Tmax(running)= kE22/2X2.---(4a)→ Tmax(running)αE22/X2.
It is evident from the above equations that:
(i) The value of rotor resistance does not alter the value of the maximum torque but only the
value of the slip at which it occurs.
(ii) The maximum torque varies inversely as the standstill reactance. Therefore, it should be kept
as small as possible.
(iii) The maximum torque varies directly with the square of the applied voltage.
(iv) To obtain maximum torque at starting (s = 1), the rotor resistance must be made equal to
rotor reactance at standstill.
3.17.Condition for maximum starting Torque .
We have, Tst =KR2E22/[R22+X22]=KR2/[R22+X22] [Differentiatew.r.t R2, and equate to zero, we get
R2=X2] or at start, s=1.Sub in (3c),
Condition for maximum starting torque,R2 =X2----(4b).
3.18.Effect of change in supply Voltage.
Tst =KR2E22/[R22+X22];At standstill ,E2ααV;TαV2.
Therefore, the starting torque is very sensitive to changes in the value of supply voltage. For example,
a drop of 10% in supply voltage will decrease the starting torque by about 20%. This could mean the
motor failing to start if it cannot produce a torque greater than the load torque plus friction torque.
3.19. Torque-Slip Characteristics
The motor torque under running conditions is given by;
Tr = ksR2E22/[R2 2 +(sX2) 2] = Tr = K2sR2/[R2 2 +s2 X2 2]
If a curve is drawn between the torque and slip for a particular value of rotor resistance R2, the graph
thus obtained is called torque-slip characteristic. Fig. shows a family of torque-slip characteristics for
KLNCE/EEE/SMK/EM-II-EE6504-June2017 Page 76
a slip-range from s = 0 to s = 1 for various values of rotor resistance.The following points may be
noted.
(i) At s = 0, T = 0 so that torque-slip curve starts from the origin.
(ii) At normal speed, slip is small so
that s X2 is negligible as compared to
R2.TαsR2 αs.
Hence torque slip curve is a straight line
from zero slip to a slip that corresponds to
full-load.
(iii) As slip increases beyond full-load
slip, the torque increases and becomes
maximum at s = R2/X2. This maximum torque in an induction motor is called pull-out torque or
break-down torque. Its value is at least twice the full-load value when the motor is operated at rated
voltage and frequency.
(iv)With further increase in slip or drop in speed due to increase in speed, due to increase in load,
beyond the point of Tmax, the torque decreases, and motor slows down.i.e ,Tα1/s.
Thus the torque is now inversely proportional to slip. Hence torque-slip curve is a rectangular
hyperbola.
(v) The maximum torque remains the same and is independent of the value of rotor resistance.
Therefore, the addition of resistance to the rotor circuit does not change the value of
maximum torque but it only changes the value of slip at which maximum torque occurs.
3.20.Effect of rotor resistance on Torque –Slip characteristics.
Tr = KsR2/[R2 2 +s2 X2 2];For low value of R2,(sX2)2>>R22;& hence R22 is neglected.
TrαsR22E22/(sX2)2; TαR2.
For low value of R2, torque is directly proportional to the rotor resistance R2.
For high value of R2,(sX2)2<<R22;& hence (sX2 )2 is neglected.
TrαsR22E22/R22; Tα1/R2.
For high value of R2, torque developed in a motor decreases.
3.20.Relation between Maximum and Full load torque.(Tf/Tmax).
W. k.t, Tr = KsR2E22 /[R2 2 +s2 X2 2];Tf=full load torque;sf=full load slip.
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Tf= Ksf R2E22/[R2 2 +s2 X2 2];Also,Tmax=KE22/2X2 ;Tf/Tmax=2sfR2X2/[R2 2 +s2 X2 2]
Divide both Dr &Nr by X22; Tf/Tmax=2sf (R2 /X2 )/[(R2 2/X2 2 )+sf 2].
Let,a=R2/X2; Tf/Tmax=2asf /[a2+sf 2].
3.21. Relation between starting and Full load torque.(Tst/Tmax).
Tst αR2/[R2 2 +X2 2];Tmax α1/2X2 ; Tst/Tmax=2 R2 X2/[R2 2+X2 2].
Divide both Dr &Nr by X22; Tst/Tmax=2 (R2/ X2 )/[(R2 2 /X2 2 )+1]
Let,a=R2/X2; Tf/Tmax=2a /[a2+1].
T.3.4.A 6 pole,50Hz,3,slip ring induction motor has a resistance and reactance of 0.5Ω and 5Ω per
phase respectively. Calculate (i).at what speed the torque is maximum?(ii).The ratio of maximum to
starting torque.(iii).What must be external resistance per to be added so that the starting torque is half
the maximum torque.
Data:3,Y connected IM,p=6,f=50Hz,R2=0.5Ω,X2=5Ω.To find(i).N for Tmax(running) .(ii)Tmax/Tst
(iii).r for Tst=0.5Tmax.
Sol:(i). For Tmax(running),R2=sX2→s=R2/X2=0.5/5=0.1;N=Ns(1-s);Ns=120f/p=1000rpm;N=900rpm
(ii).Tst/Tmax=2a/1+a2;a= R2/X2=0.1; Tmax/Tst=5.05.
(iii). Tst =0.5Tmax.; Tst /Tmax=0.5=2a/1+a2→0.5a2-2a+0.5=0;a=3.72.
(R2 +r )/X2= 3.72 r=18Ω.
T 3.5.A 746kW,3,50Hz,16 pole IM has a rotor impedance of (0.2+j1.5)Ω at standstill.Full load
torque is obtained at 360rpm.Calculate (i).Ratio of maximum to full load torque.
(ii).speed for maximum torque.(iii).Rotor resistance to be added to get maximum starting torque.
Data: 3,IM,p=16,f=50Hz,R2=0.2Ω,X2=0.15Ω,Po=726kW,N=360rpm.
To find (i).Tmax/Tf (ii).N for Tmax (iii).r for Tmax(st)
Sol: (i).Tmax/Tf:Tf/Tmax=2asf /[a2+sf 2];sf=(Ns-N)/Ns ;Ns=120f/p=375rpm;sf=0.04;a=R2/X2=0.133.
Tf/Tmax=0.55; Tmax/Tf =1.82.
(ii). N for Tmax;For Tmax(run),R2=sX2;s=R2/X2=0.133;N=Ns(1-s)=331rpm.
(iii). r for Tmax(st): for Tmax(st),R2=X2(without external resistance);
R2 +r=X2(with external resistance).→r=0.13Ω.
3.22. Power Stages in an Induction Motor
The input electric power fed to the stator of the motor is converted into mechanical power at the shaft
of the motor. The various losses during the energy conversion are:
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1. Fixed losses:(i) Stator iron loss.(ii) Friction and windage loss
The rotor iron loss is negligible because the frequency of rotor currents under normal running
condition is small.
2. Variable losses:(i) Stator copper loss(ii) Rotor copper loss
Fig. shows how electric power fed to the stator of an induction motor suffers losses and finally
converted into mechanical power. The following points may be noted from the diagram:
(i) Stator input, Pi = Stator output + Stator losses = Stator o/p + Stator Iron loss + Stator Cu loss
(ii) Rotor input, P2= Stator output .It is because stator output is entirely transferred to the rotor
through airgap by electromagnetic induction.
(iii) Mechanical power available, Pmech = P2 - Rotor Cu loss.
This mechanical power available is the gross rotor output and will produce a gross torque Tg.
(iv) Mechanical power at shaft, Pout = Pm - Friction and windage loss
Mechanical power available at the shaft produces a shaft torque Tsh.
Clearly, Pm -Pout = Friction and windage loss
Stator input Stator Cu Rotor input(P2) Rotor Rotor O/P F&W loss Gross rotor O/P
& Cu loss (Pg)
(Pmech)
Iron loss
Efficiency =Output Power/input Power= Output Power/Output Power +Losses
= Output Power/[Output Power +Stator cu loss+Stator iron loss +Rotor cu loss+FW loss].
η =Pmech/[Pmech+ Stator cu loss+Rotor cu loss+constant loss].
(i).Rotor output of IM:
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Input to rotor,P2=2πNsT/60-Watts -(a).Mechanical power developed in rotor,Pmech=2πNT/60-W.
Rotor Cu loss=P2-Pmech.= 2πNsT/60 -2πNT/60 =2πT(Ns –N)/60=2πTSNs /60=SP2.
Rotor Cu loss= SP2.=slip X Rotor input.
Now,Pmech=Rotor input-Rotor cu loss.=P2-SP2=P2(1-S). Pmech= P2(1-S).
Now, Rotor Cu loss= SP2; Pmech= P2(1-S) Rotor Cu loss/Rotor o/p=SP2/P2(1-S).
Pmech/Rotor cu loss=(1-S)/SRotor cu loss:Pmech:S:(1-S).
Also,Power input to rotor: Mechanical power developed: rotor cu loss=1:(1-s):s.
3.23.Synchronous Watts.
It is defined as the torque which develops a power of 1W at the synchronous speed of motor.
When we say that the motor is developing a torque of 100Watts, we mean that the rotor input is
100Watts and that torque is such that power developed would be 100Watts.the above is true, provided
the rotor is running synchronously and developing same torque.
Rotor input =2πNsTsy/60→Tsy=Rotor input/(2πNs/60).----Synchronous Watts.
T3.6.The power input to rotor of a 440V,50Hz,3, 6pole IM is 60kW.It is observed that the rotor emf
make 90 complete cycles per minute. Calculate (i).slip (ii).The rotor speed (iii).rotor Cu loss.
(iv).mechanical power developed.
Data:3IM,VL=440V,f=50Hz,p=6,P2=60kW,f’=90cycles/minute=90cycles/60second=1.5Hz.
To find:(i).s.(ii).N.(iii).Pcu(rotor).(iv).Pmech.
Solution.(i).f’=sf →s=f’/f=1.5/50=0.03.
(ii).N=Ns(1-s);Ns=120f/p=120x50/6=1000rpm.N=1000(1-0.03)=970rpm.
(iii).Rotor cu loss=sP2=0.03 x 60kW=1800Watts.
(iv).Pmech=P2(1-s)=60kW(1-0.03)=58.2kW.
EX.3.7.A 3, 6 pole,50Hz,IM develops 3700W at 950rpm.What is the stator input if the stator loss is
300W.
Data:3 IM, p=6,f=50Hz,N=950rpm,Pmech=3700W, stator loss is 300W.To find Stator input.
Sol: Refer power stages in IM:
Stator input –stator cu loss &iron loss→ rotor input(P2)-rotor cu loss→Pmech.
WKT, Rotor cu loss/Pmech =s/(1-s).;s=(Ns –N)/Ns;Ns=120f/p=120x50/6=1000rpm.
s=(1000-950)/1000=0.05;Rotor Cu loss=Pmech[s/(1-s)]=3700[0.05/(1-0.05)]=194Watts.
Rotor cu loss=sP2→P2=Rotor cu loss/s=194/0.05=3894Watts.
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Stator input=P2+stator loss=3894+300=4194W.
η=Pmech/(Pmech+Pcu+Pconstant)=3700/(3700+194+300) x100 =88%.
Ex.3.8.The power input to a 500V, 50Hz,6 pole 3, squirrel cage IM running at 975rpm is 40kW.The
stator losses are 1kW and the friction and windage losses are 2kW.Calculate (i).slip (ii).rotor cu loss
(iii).efficiency (iv).BHP.
Data:3SCIM,VL=500V,f=50Hz,p=6,N=975rpm,stator input=40kW,Stator loss=1kW,
FW loss=2kW.Find (i).s (ii)rotor cu loss (iii).η (iv).BHP.
(i)s=(Ns-N)/Ns;Ns=120f/p=1000rpm;s=0.025.
(ii).P2=stator input-stator loss=40kW-1kW=39kW.;Pcu=sP2=975W.;Pconstant=PFW+Pstator=3kW.
(iii).η=Pmech/(Pmech+Pcu+Pconstant);Pmech=P2(1-s)=38.025kW.η=38/(38+0.975+3)=90%.
(iv).BHP=Pmech/746=38,025/746=50HP.
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As shown in Fig. (ii), we now have a rotor circuit that has a fixed reactance X2 connected in series
with a variable resistance R2/s and supplied with constant voltage E2. Note that Fig. (ii) transfers the
variable to the resistance without altering power or power factor conditions.
The
quantity R2/s is greater than R2 since s is a fraction. Therefore, R2/s can be
divided into a fixed part R2 and a variable part (R2/s R2) i.e.,
R2/s= R2 + R2 [(1/s)-1].
(i) The first part R2 is the rotor resistance/phase, and represents the rotor Cu loss.
(ii) The second part R2 [(1/s)-1] is a variable-resistance load. The power delivered to this load
represents the total mechanical power developed in the rotor. Thus mechanical load on the induction
motor can be replaced by a variable-resistance load of value
R2 [(1/s)-1]. RL = R2 [(1/s)-1].
The equivalent circuit, referred to primary is drawn as
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Note: Total power supplied to rotor,P2=3I22R2/s. Rotor Cu loss =3I22R2
Referring to the equivalent circuit of IM, R’L= R’2 [(1/s)-1] ; R’2 =R2/K2.
The condition for maximum power output can be obtained by differentiating the above equation and
equating the first derivative to zero.
The result is R’L=√[(R01) 2+(X01)2=Z01.
Sub. R’L =Z01, in Pg, we get, Pg(max) =3V2 Z01 /[(R01+ Z01)2 +(X01)2].
= 3V2 Z01/[(R01)2+(X01)2+(Z01)2+2 R01Z01]= 3V2 Z01/[(Z01)2+(Z01)2+2 R01Z01].
=3V2 Z01/[2(Z01)2+2 R01Z01]= 3V2 Z01/2(Z01)[ R01 + Z01]= 3V2/2[ R01 + Z01].
Pg(max)= 3V2/2[ R01 + Z01].
The slip corresponding to maximum gross mechanical power output will be
Z01= R’L= R’2 [(1/s)-1] ; R’2 =R2/K2; s= R’2/[ R’2+Z01].
Note:
I1=I0+I1’; I1’ =I2’’.
I0=Vph/Z0;Z0=√(R02+X02).
I1’=Vph/(R01+R’L)+jX01.
R01=R1+R2’;R’L=R2’ [(1/s)-1]
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X01=X1+X2’;X2’=X2/K2.
3.9.Estimate the stator current ,pf and efficiency at slip of 5% for a motor having the following data.
Stator impedance =(1+j3)Ω. Rotor standstill impedance=(1+j2)Ω. No load shunt
impedance=(10+j50)Ω. Voltage per phase=250V.
Data:s=0.05,R1=1Ω,X1=3Ω,R2=1Ω,X2=2Ω,R0=10Ω,X0=50Ω.V1(ph)=250V.let, k=1,V1(ph)=250V.
To find:(i).I1.(ii)cos(iii).η.
Sol:
I1=I0+I1’; I1’ =I2’’.
I0=V1ph/Z0;Z0=(R0+jX0).
I0=V1ph/Z0=0.96-j4.8=4.9at( -78°).
I1’=V1/(R01+R’L)+jX01.
R01=R1+R2’;R2’=R2/k2 =1Ω,R01=2Ω;R’L=R2’ [(1/s)-1]=19Ω;X01=X1+X2’ ; X2’=X2/K2 ;X01= 5Ω.
I1’=11.26-j2.68=11.58 at (-13.4°).I1= I0+I1’=12.221-j7.488=14.33 at (-31.5°).
(ii)Pf=cos=cos(-31.5)=0.853.
(iii)η=Pmech/Pin;Pmech=3 (I1’ )2R’L=3 x 11.58 x 19 =7643W.;Pin=3VI1cos=9167W.η=83%
3.10.A 25HP, 6 pole,50Hz induction motor has stator/rotor phase voltage ratio of 6/5.The stator
&rotor impedance per phase are (0.25+j0.75)Ω and (0.173+j0.5)Ω respectively. Find the starting
torque developed by the motor when external resistance of 1Ω inserted in each phase. The motor
being started directly on the 400V supply system. Assume Y-Y connection.
Data:Po=25HP,p=6,f=50Hz,3Y-Y IM,E1/E2=5/6→E2/E1 =k=5/6, R1=0.25Ω, X1=0.75Ω,
R2=0.173Ω,X2=0.5Ω.r=1Ω,V1(line)=400V.To find:Tst.
Sol:P2=2πNsTst/60;Pcu=sP2; for standstill condition,s=1,Pcu=P2; Pcu=3I22R2;I2=E2(ph)/Z02.
Z02=√[(R02+r)2+X022];R02=R2+R1’;R2=R1’=k2 R1. X02=X2+X1’;X2=X1’=k2 X1.
Now, Pcu=3I22R2;I2=E2(ph)/Z02;E2/E1=k=5/6 →E2(ph)=E1(5/6)=400/√3 (5/6)=192V.
Z02=√[(R02+r)2+X022];R02=R2+R1’;R1’=k2 R1 R02=0.35Ω.X02=1.04Ω,Z02=1.7Ω.
I2=E2(ph)/Z02.=113.1A; Pcu=3I22R2=6.6kW;Ns=120f/p=1000 rpm, P2=2πNsTst/60→Tst=63Nm.
3.25.Induction motor tests.
The tests which are performed
on a 3IM for the determination of
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its efficiency and other characteristics are (i).Stator resistance test (ii). No load test (iii). Blocked
rotor test.
(i).Stator resistance test: The stator winding resistance is measured between any two terminals using
dc supply. This gives resistance of 2 phases in series, this must be divided by 2 to obtain stator
winding resistance per phase. →Re=1.6Rdc.
(ii).No load test: It is performed with different values of voltages applied, below and above rated
voltage while the motor is running on no load.
This test is performed to determine Io,coso, noload core loss ,R0,X0.The no load test readings
are V0,I0 and W0 measured from Voltmeter, Wattmeter and ammeter respectively.
W0=√3V0I0cos→ cosW0/√3V0I0.Note:V0=Voltage per phase.
Also core loss component, Il=Iocoso;Magnetising component, Im=Iosin0;I0=√(Im2 +Il2).
I0=√(Im2+Il2),R0=V0(ph)/Il;X0=V0(ph)/Im.
(iii).Blocked rotor test:
In this test the rotor is stopped from running and stator is connected across the supply.Rated
current is applied .The readings are Vsc,Isc,Wsc.
Wsc=√3VscIsccoss→ cossWsc/√3VscIsc;Wsc=3Isc2R01→R01=Wsc/3Isc2;Z01=Vsc/Isc;X01=√(Z012-R012).
Note:For finding pf alone ,all the values may be expressed as given.
3.11.A 400V,3,delta connected induction motor gave the following results on no load and short circuit (line
values).No load test:400V,3A,645W;Short circuit test :200V,12A,1660W.The friction and windage losses
amount to 183W.Determine energy and magnetizing components of no load current ,no load pf,no load
resistance and reactance per phase referred to primary, pf on short circuit and short circuit current with normal
voltage applied of 400V across the stator. Stator resistance may be assumed to be 5Ω.
Data:3,Δ connected IM,VL=400V(line),V0=400V(line),I0=3A(line),W0=645W,Vsc=200V(line),
Isc=12A(line),Wsc=1660W,PFW=183W,VN=400V(line).To find:Il,Im,cos0,R0,X0,coss,Isc.
Sol:Note:For 3,Δ connection,VL=Vph,IL=√3Iph.V0(ph)=400V, Vsc(ph)=200V,I 0(ph)=3/√3,Isc(ph)=12/√3.
From no load test,W0=Piron+Pcu(stator)+PFW→ Piron= W0 -Pcu(stator)-PFW.
Pcu(stator)=3I0(ph)2R1=45W;Piron=417W,PIron=√3V0I0cos→ cosPiron/√3V0I0→ cos
Energy component,Il=I0(ph)cos0 =0.346A;Magnetising component, Im=Iosin0=1.7A.
R0=V0(ph)/Il =1156Ω;X0=V0(ph)/Im=235Ω.
Short circuit test:
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Wsc=√3VscIsccoss→ cossWsc/√3VscIsc =0.4;Wsc=3Isc(ph)2R01→R01=Wsc/3Isc(ph)2 =11.5Ω.
Z01=Vsc(ph)/Isc(ph)=28.8Ω.;X01=√(Z012-R012)=26.5Ω.
short circuit current with normal voltage applied of 400V across the stator,
ISN=(VN/Vsc)Isc=(400/200) x12=24A.
3.26.Circle
diagram of
3Inductio n
motor.
For RLC
series
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line.This line will intersect O’X’ at the point “C”(centre of the circle).With “C” as centre and O’C as
radius, draw a semicircle. Line O’A=Output line;OO’=No load input[core loss,FW&stator Cu
loss].AG is drawn perpendicular to OX, where AG=input power .
Step-3:EF is the line which separates the stator and rotor Cu loss. When rotor is blocked, all the
power supplied to the motor to be core loss and cu loss in the stator and rotor winding.
From the diagram, AG=Power input;FG=Fixed loss;AF=sum of Stator and rotor Cu loss.
The point ‘E’ is located such that AE/EF=Rotor Cu loss/Stator Cu loss.
Location of the point’E’:
(i).Squirrel cage rotor:
Wsc=stator cu loss +rotor cu loss=3Isc2R1+Rotor cu loss.→ Rotor cu loss= Wsc -3Isc2R1.
AE/EF=Rotor Cu loss/Stator Cu loss= [Wsc -3Isc2R1]/ 3Isc2R1.
Where R1=stator resistance per phase.Note:Usually ststor cu loss=Rotor Cu loss/2.
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Join 0’ and A by a dotted line .Draw perpendicular bisector line for 0’A line.This line will intersect
0’X’ at the point “C”(centre of the circle).With “C” as centre and 0’C as radius, draw a semicircle.Line
0’A=Output line;.AG is drawn perpendicular to OX, where AG=input power .
Assume Stator cu loss=Rotor cu loss.Point ‘E’ is located middle of the line AF.
To find power scale:Input power=PSN=√3VoISNcoss=28554W.=AG=8.2cm→1cm=3482Watts.
Corresponding to 14,9kW,the rated power output ,the length in cm is given by 14.9/3.48=4.3cm.
Line AG is extended at top such that AS=4.3cm.From the point ‘S’, draw a parallel line to O’A, such
that it intersects the semi circle at the point ‘L’.Connect ‘OL’.Lentgh OL=Full laod current.
From the circle diagram,OL=4.8cm x5=24A;pf=angle OVL=LK/OL=0.866.
Slip,Rotor cu loss=sxrotor input.→s=MN/NL=6%,η=LM/LK=82.5%.
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3.13. Draw the circle diagram for a 5.6KW,400V,3phase,4pole,50Hz,slip ring IM from the following
data.No load readings-400V,6A,pf = 0.087.SC test- 100V,12A,720watts. The ratio of primary to
secondary turns is 2.62,stator resistance per phase is 0.67 ohm and of the rotor is 0.185ohm.calculate
(i)full load current (ii).full load slip (iii)full load pf,(iv).maximum torque (v) maximum power.
Data:3SRIM,VL=400V,p=4,f=50Hz,V0=400V,I0=6A,cosФ0=0.087,Vsc=100V,Isc=12A,
Wsc=720W, 1/k=2.62,R1=0.67,R2=0.185 ohm.To find:I,S,cos,Tmax, Pmax.
Soln:cosФ 0=0.087 → o=85°,cosФsc=Wsc/√3.Vsc.Isc = 720/√3*100*12,cos Ф sc=0.346,Ф sc=69°
To find current scale:
ISN=VN*Isc/Vsc =400*12/100=48A.let us take 1cm=3A.
1. Draw IO ,ISN at an angle of Ф O and Ф SN→IO=6A∟85º = 2 cm∟85º=OO’
ISN = 48A∟69.73º = 16cm∟69.73º=OA’.
2. Draw a horizontal line parallel O’ parallel to X-axis.3. Join O’A. This is output line.
4. Draw a perpendicular bisector of O’A to meet horizontal of O’X’ at point C.
5. Take C as center O’C as radius Draw a semi circle.
6. Draw a vertical line from A which meets X-axis at G.
POWER SCALE
Psn = √3 Vsn * Isn * cosΦs =√3*400*48*0.346=11,506.36W;Length AG= 5.5 cm;
5.5cm = 11506.36W ;1 cm = 2092W
To locate point ‘E’:
For slip ring Induction motor, (rotor cu loss/stator cu loss) = (r2/r1) * (1/k2)
But, (I2/I1) = (1/k), AE/EF= (r2/r1) * k2 =(0.185/0.67)*2.622,AE/EF= 1.9,AE = 1.9 EF
From the graph, AF= 5.3 cm, total cu loss= stator cu loss+ Rotor cu loss
Given stator cu loss= Rotor cu loss/1.9,Total cu loss = (Rotor cu loss/1.9)+Rotor cu loss
5.3 cm= Rotor cu loss*1.526,Rotor cu loss= 5.3 / 1.526 = 3.47 cm
*Draw a line of length 3.47cm from the point A to locate point E and connect O’E (torque line)
AS=rating of motor/power scale →5.6*103/2092.1,AS=2.7cm
*Line AG is extended such that AS=2.7cm.Draw parallel line to output line from ‘S’,to meet
semicircle at ‘L’. Then Draw a vertical line from L.
(i) Line current=L(01) X current scale=4.6cmX3=13.8A
(ii) Slip=MN/NL =0.2/36.3 X100 = 6.06%
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(iii) η = LM/LK=301/307X100 = 83.8%
(iv) cosφ = cos 37⁰ =0.799
(v) Tmax =JS X Power scale =6.5cm x 2092.1 = 13598.65 synchronous watts
Draw a line parallel to torque line meet the circle at point ‘J’ and draw a vertical
line from J to torque line at point ‘S’.
(vi)Pmax=5cmX2092.1 = 10460.5 watts…
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running conditions. However, such a procedure cannot be adopted for a squirrel cage motor because
its cage is permanently short-circuited. In order to provide high starting torque at low starting current,
double-cage construction is used.
Construction
As the name suggests, the rotor of this motor has two squirrel-cage windings located one above the
other as shown in Fig.
(i) The outer winding consists of bars of smaller cross-section short-circuited by end rings.
Therefore, the resistance of this winding is high. Since the outer winding has relatively open slots and
a poorer flux path around its bars , it has a low inductance. Thus the resistance of
the outer squirrel-cage winding is high and its inductance is low.
(ii) The inner winding consists of bars of greater cross-section short-circuited by end rings.
Therefore, the resistance of this winding is low. Since the bars of the inner winding are thoroughly
buried in iron, it has a high inductance . Thus the resistance of the inner squirrel cage
winding is low and its inductance is high.
Working
When a rotating magnetic field sweeps across the two windings, equal e.m.f.s are induced in each.
(i) At starting, the rotor frequency is the same as that of the line (i.e., 50 Hz), making the reactance of
the lower winding much higher than that of the upper winding. Because of the high reactance of the
lower winding, nearly all the rotor current flows in the high-resistance outer cage winding. This
provides the good starting characteristics of a high-resistance cage winding.
Thus the outer winding gives high starting torque at low starting current.
(ii) As the motor accelerates, the rotor frequency decreases, thereby lowering the reactance of the
inner winding, allowing it to carry a larger proportion of the total rotor current At the normal
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operating speed of the motor, the rotor frequency is so low (2 to 3 Hz) that nearly all the rotor current
flows in the low-resistance inner cage winding. This results in good operating efficiency and speed
regulation.
Fig. shows the operating characteristics of double squirrel-cage motor.
The starting torque of this motor ranges from 200 to 250 percent of full-load torque with a starting
current of 4 to 6 times the full-load value. It is classed as a high-torque, low starting current motor.
3.28. Equivalent Circuit of Double Squirrel-Cage Motor.
Fig. shows a section of the double squirrel cage motor.
Here Ro and Ri are the per phase resistances of the outer cage
winding and inner cage winding whereas Xo and Xi are the
corresponding per phase standstill reactances. For the outer
cage, the resistance is made intentionally high, giving a high
starting torque. For the inner cage winding, the resistance is
low and the leakage reactance is high, giving a low starting
torque but high efficiency on load. Note that in a double squirrel cage motor, the outer winding
produces the high starting and accelerating torque while the inner winding provides the running
torque at good efficiency.
Fig. shows the equivalent circuit for one phase of double cage motor referred to stator. The two cage
impedances are effectively in parallel. The resistances and reactances of the outer and inner rotors are
referred to the stator. The exciting circuit is accounted for as in a single cage motor. If the
magnetizing current (I0) is neglected, then the circuit is simplified to that shown in Fig. .
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From the equivalent circuit, the performance of the motor can be predicted.
Total impedance as referred to stator is
Zeq=Z1 +Zo Zi/( Zo+ Zi);Z1=R1+jX1;Z0=(Ro/s)+jXo; Zi=(Ri/s)+jXi.
3.13.In a double cage IM, the outer cage has impedance of (2+j1.2)Ω, determine the slip at which the
2 cages develops equal torques,if the inner cage has an impedance of (0.5+j3.5)Ω at standstill
Data:Ro=2Ω,Xo=1.2Ω, Ri=0.5Ω,Xi=3.5Ω.,To=Ti.To find s.
Sol:PoαTo; PiαTi;Po/Pi=To/Ti;Po=Io2(Ro/s);Pi= Ii2(Ri/s);Io=E2/Zo; Ii=E2/Zi.;Zo=√[( Ro/s)2+Xo2]
Zi=√[( Ri/s)2+Xi2]→ (Po/Pi)= (To/Ti)→To=Ti→s=0.25.
3.14.If the standstill impedance of outer cage of a double cage machine is (0.3+j0.4)Ω and of the
inner cage is (0.1+j1.5)Ω, compare the relative currents and torques of the outer and inner cages at
(a).standstill (b).at a slip of 5%.
Data: Ro=0.3Ω,Xo=0.4Ω, Ri=0.1Ω,Xi=1.5Ω., Compare I1/I2&T1&T2.for(a)s=1(b)s=0.05.
Sol: (a)s=1,Z0=√[(Ro/s)+Xo]=0.5Ω;Io=E2/Zo=2E2;Po= Io2(Ro/s)=1.2E22 Watts;Pi=0.044E22Watts.
Given ,Po/Pi=To/Ti.→To=27.13Ti.
(b).for s=0.05, Z0=√[(Ro/s)+Xo]=6Ω;Io=E2/Zo=0.166E2;Po= Io2(Ro/s)=0.166E22 Watts;
Similarly,Pi=0.32.E22Watts. Po/Pi=To/Ti→To=0.5187.
3.29.HARMONIC INDUCTION TORQUE:
Unwanted waveform present in the motor or generator
is called harmonics. Harmonics are developed in the
winding due to irregularity in the slots, magnetic,
saturation, airgap length ,etc. A 3phase winding
carrying sinusoidal current produces harmonics in the
order of n=6m +-1 where ‘m’ is an integer .The
movement of harmonics is with or against the
direction of rotation for +ve and -ve sign respectively.
Such a harmonics will affect the torque developed by the induction motor .It also affect the torque -
slip characteristics of IM as shown in fig.
3.30.MERITS AND DEMERITS OF 3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
MERITS (SQUIRREL CAGE) DEMERITS
Cheaper than SRIM 1)low starting torque ,low power factor
simple and rugged construction 2) speed control not possible
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less conductor than SRIM ,low cu loss ,high 3) sensitive to change in supply voltage(torque
efficiency directly proportional to the V2)
no slip rings ,brushes , no maintenance 4)more energy loss during starting
no risk of sparking
constant speed , high overload capacity ,simple
starting methods
3.31.MERITS AND DEMERITS OF SLIP RING IM
MERITS DEMERITS
1)high starting torque Tmax can be varied by 1)high maintenance cost.(slip rings ,brushes)
adjusting the resistance 2)low efficiency
2)better speed control 3)sensitive to change in supply voltage
3)high overload capacity . 4)low pf at light loads
4)nearly constant speed
3.32.APPLICATIONS OF 3 IM.
SCIM: 1)printing machinery 2) flour mill
SRIM: 1)lifts, pumps,cranes,hoists,winding machines,compressors
3.33.COMPARISION BETWEEN SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR AND IM
SM IM
1)_no self starting torque 1)self starting motor
2)speed is constant 2)speed falls slightly with increase in load
3)can be operated under lagging ,leading , 3)can be operated at lagging p.f only
unity power factor 4)speed control is possible
4)no speed control is possible 5)dc excitation is not required
5)requires DC excitation 6)used for supplying mechanical load only
6)used for supplying mechanical load as well 7)more sensitive to change in supply voltage
as power factor improvement
7)less sensitive to change in supply .
3.34.INDUCTION GENERATOR:
Principle of operation.
Induction generators and motors produce electrical power when their rotor is rotated faster than the
''synchronous frequency''. For a typical four-pole motor (two pairs of poles on stator) operating on a
60 Hz electrical grid, synchronous speed is 1800 rotations per minute. Similar four-pole motor
operating on a 50 Hz grid will have synchronous speed equal to 1500 rpm.
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In normal motor operation, stator flux rotation is faster than the rotor rotation. This is causing stator
flux to induce rotor currents, which create rotor flux with magnetic polarity opposite to stator. In this
way, rotor is dragged along behind stator flux, by value equal to slip.
In generator operation, a [[prime mover]] (turbine, engine) is driving the rotor above the synchronous
speed. Stator flux still induces currents in the rotor, but since the opposing rotor flux is now cutting
the stator coils, active current is produced in stator coils, and motor is now operating as a generator,
and sending power back to the electrical grid.
When running faster than its synchronus speed an IM runs as a generator called induction generator.
Note.(i)IM coupled to petrol engine (prime mover).(ii)it will operate at –ve slip.(iii)the machine
delivers electrical energy to the supply.(iv)it receivers
reactive currents from the supply. for this purpose capacitor
banks are used .
Application:Wind turbines.
3.34.SYNCHRONOUS INDUCTION MOTOR:
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A machine which is capable of running both as IM and SM is called synchronous induction
motor,the machine will run at IM during starting and it will run SM during normal running.,
For the operation of synchronous motor dc excitation will be supplied and for the operation of
IM ,dc supply will be disconnected.
APPLICATION(i)connected along with 3 phase IM. to improve overall p.f of the system…
PART-A-
1.What are the two types of Induction Motor? Which type is generally preferred?
2.Why the slots of induction motor rotor are usually skewed?
3.Which type of induction motor develops high starting torque?
4.How can the direction of rotation of the 3-φ IM be reversed?
5.What is the slip of induction motor
6.What is the condition for maximum torque developed in an IM (i)at starting (ii)at running
7.What are the losses in a 3-φ IM?
8.What is meant by cogging & crawling? How to avoid it?
9.How will you improve the starting torque of a 3φ IM?
10.What are the main advantages of cage IM?
11.What are the main disadvantages of cage IM?
12.What is meant by single phasing?
13.Compare 3φ IM with synchronous motor.
14.Compare 3φ Squirrel cage IM and Slip ring IM.
15.Draw the equivalent circuit of double cage IM.
16.Draw the Torque –slip characteristics of Double cage IM.
17.Draw the performance characteristics of 3φ IM.
18.What is meant by harmonic induction Torque? Draw the torque-Speed characteristics due to such
effects.
19.What is a circle-diagram?
20. How will you measure the slip of IM using stroboscopic method?
21. Write the expression for power input to output in terms of slip.
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22.Write the expression for (i)starting torque to maximum torque (ii)Full load torque to maximum
torque
23. What is the effect of change in supply voltage on torque and slip of IM?
24.Draw the torque – slip & torque –speed characteristics of a 3φ IM.
25. Distinguish between SCIM & SPIM.
PART-B-
26. Explain the construction and working of 3φ IM.
27.Explain with the help of suitable diagrams how rotating magnetic field is produced.
28. Explain the terms slip, slip frequency, wound rotor, cage rotor.
29. Derive an expression for toque developed in a 3 φ IM and find the condition for maximum
torque (i)starting (ii)running
30.Derive an expression for rotor frequency in terms of main supply frequency and slip.
31.Draw the torque –speed characteristics of poly phase IM and clearly indicate the effect of
change in rotor resistance.
32. For an IM derive a relationship between (i)starting torque and maximum torque (ii) Full load
torque and maximum torque
33.Prove that the ratio of actual speed of rotor of an IM to its synchronous speed is given by
rotor i/p to rotor o/p.
34.Show that the Pg: rotor ohmic loss: Pm =1: s: (1-s)
35.Derive the equivalent circuit of a 3φ IM. From the approximate equivalent circuit ,find the (i)
rotor i/p (ii) o/p power (iii) o/p torque. Also find slip @ maximum torque.
36.Describe double cage IM.
37. Describe the No-load test and Blocked rotor test of an IM
38. Explain how the parameters of 3φ IM can be obtained from the test results.
39.What is the effect of variation of supply frequency and supply voltage on starting torque,
synchronous speed, % slip and load current?
40. Explain the procedure for drawing Circle Diagram.
41. A 6 pole induction motor is fed from 50 Hz supply. If the frequency of rotor emf at full load
is 2Hz, Find the full load speed and slip. (ans: s=0.04,N=960 rpm).
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42. A 3 phase induction motor has 2poles is connected to 400v, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the
actual rotor speed, rotor frequency when slip is 4 %( ans: f’=2Hz, N=2880 rpm)
43. In a 6pole, 3phase, 50Hz induction motor with star connected rotor, the rotor resistance per
phase is 0.3Ω, the reactance at stand still is 1.5Ω/ph & emf between the slip rings on open
circuit is 175v. Calculate slip at the speed of 950 rpm, rotor emf /ph, rotor frequency &
reactance at this speed. (ans: s=5%, f’=2.5Hz, x2’=.075Ω)
44. In a 6pole, 3phase, 50Hz slip ring induction motor has a resistance & reactance of .5Ω &
5Ω /ph.Calculate a. At what speed torque is maximum. B. the ratio of Tmax to Tst. c. What
must be the external resistance per phase to be added so that the starting torque is half of the
maximum torque? (ans: N=900 rpm,r=18.16Ω, ratio of Tmax to Tst =5.05)
45. In a 16pole, 3phase, 50Hz, 746 kw induction motor has a rotor impedance of 0.02+j .15Ω at
stand still. Full load torque is obtained at 360 rpm. Calculate a) ratio of maxi to full load
torque b). Speed for maxi torque c). Rotor resistance to be added to get maxi starting
torque.(ans: ratio of Tmax to Tf =1.81,N=325.125 rpm,r=.13Ω)
46.The power input to a rotor of 440v,50Hz,3ph,6pole induction motor is 60 kw. It is observed
that the rotor emf makes 90 complete cycle per minute. Calculate slip, rotor speed, rotor cu
loss, Pmech .(ans: s=3%, N=970 rpm, p2=1800 w, Pmech=58.2kw).
47. In a 6pole, 3phase, 50Hz induction motor develops 3700 watts at 950 rpm. What is the stator
input, if the stator loss is 300 watts. (ans: stator input=4194.7 watts).
48. The power input to 500v, 6pole, 3phase, 50Hz squirrel cage induction motor running at 975
rpm is 40 KW. The stator losses are 1kw & friction- windage losses are 2kw. Calculate slip,
rotor cu loss,efficiency (ans: s=2.5%, p2=0.975 watts, n=90%)
49. Estimate the stator current, power factor, efficiency at the slip of 5% for a motor having
statorimpedance 1+3jΩ, rotor stand still impedance=1+2jΩ, No load shunt
impedance=10+j50Ω,voltage/ph=250v. (ans: pf=.85, η=83.6%, I1=14.33A)
50. A 25 hp, 6 pole, 3phase, 50Hz induction motor has stator/rotor ph voltage ratio of 6/5. The
stator and rotor impedance/ph are (.25+j.075) Ω & (.173+j.52 )Ω respectively. Find the
starting torque developed by the motor when external resistance of 1 Ω is inserted in each
phase, the motor being started directly on the 400v supply system. Assume star-star
connection. (Ans: Tst=63.5 Nm)
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51. A 400V ,3ph delta connected I.M gave the following results on no load and short circuit
(line ) values No load test- 400v,3A,645W Short circuit test-200v, 12A,1660 w. The friction
& windage losses among two 183 W. Determine energy magnetizing components, no load
current, no load power factor , no load resistance &reactance, equivalent resistance
&reactance/ph referred to primary, power factor on S.C and S.C with normal applied voltage
of 400v across the stator. Stator resistance may be assumed to be 5 Ω. (ans: pcu=45W,
pi=417W, cosø=0.2, R01=11.11 Ω,x01=26.63 Ω)
52. A 400V ,3ph I.M gave the following results on no load and short circuit (line ) values No
load test- 400v, 9A, 1250W Short circuit test-150v, 38 A, 4000 w. Draw the circle diagram if
the normal rating is 14.9kW. Find from the circle diagram the full load value of current,
power factor, slip &efficiency. (ans:n=82%, ø=30, S=5.12%,Il=26A).
53.Draw the circle diagram of a 3ph, 14.92kW, 400v, 6 pole I.M from the following test results
No load test- 400v, 11A, pf=0.2 Short circuit test-100v, 25 A, pf=0.4 Rotor cu loss at stand
still=half the total cu loss. Find line current, slip, efficiency, power factor at full load & Tmax
(ans: Tmax=26.04syn w, S=6.12%,pf=0.84, n=79%, Il=33.5 A)
54. Draw the circle diagram of a 3ph, 5.6kW, 400v, 4 pole , 50 Hz slip ring I.M from the
following test results No load test- 400v, 6 A, pf=0.087 Short circuit test-100v, 12 A, 720W.
The ratio of primary to secondary turns=2.620, stator resistance/ph=.67Ω/ph. Rotor resistance
per phase=0.185 Ω/ph. Calculate full load current, full load slip, power factor, maxi torque &
max power.
55. In a double cage I.M if the outer cage has impedance at stand still of (2+j1.2 )Ω/ph.
Determine the slip at which the two cages develop equal torques if the inner cage has an
impedance of (0.5+j3.5) Ω at stand still. (ans: S=25%)
56. If the standstill impedance of outer cage of double cage machine is 0.3+j0.4Ω & of the inner
(0.1+j1.5 )Ω. Compare the relative current torque of the outer & inner cages at standstill & at
a slip of 5%.
57.Write short notes on (i).Synchronous induction motor.(ii)Induction generator.
Note : The method can be applied to both squirrel cage as well as wound rotor induction motors.
One important aspect about plugging is production of very high heat in the rotor. While plugging,
the load keeps on revolving and rotor absorbs kinetic energy from the revolving load, causing speed
to reduce. The corresponding gross mechanical power is entirely dissipated as heat in the rotor.
Similarly as stator is connected to supply, rotor continues to receive power from stator which also
gets dissipated as heat in the rotor. This is shown in the Fig. 1.
We have seen that there must exist two fluxes separated by some angle so as to produce rotating
magnetic field. According to cross field theory, the stator flux can be resolved into two components
which are mutually perpendicular. One acts along axis of the stator winding and other acts
perpendicular to it.
Assume now that an initial push is given to the rotor anticlockwise direction. Due to the rotation,
rotor physically cuts the stator flux and dynamically e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. This is called
speed e.m.f. or rotational e.m.f. The direction of such e.m.f. can be obtained by Fleming's right hand
rule and this e.m.f. in phase with the stator flux Φs. The direction of e.m.f. is shown in the Fig. 2. This
e.m.f. us denoted as E2N. This e.m.f. circulates current through rotor which is I2N. This current
produces its own flux called rotor flux Φr. This axis of Φr is at 90o to the axis of stator flux hence this
rotor flux is called cross-field.Due to very high rotor reactance, the rotor current I2N and Φr lags the
rotational e.m.f. by almost 90o .
Thus Φr is in quadrature with Φs in space and lags Φs by 90o in time phase. Such two fluxes
produce the rotating magnetic field.
(i).Capacitor-start motor.
The circuit diagram of this
motor is given in Fig. A
capacitor along with a
centrifugal switch is connected
in series with the auxiliary
winding, which is being used
here as a starting winding. The
(i) In Fig.(i), the brush axis is parallel to the stator field. When the stator winding is energized from
single-phase supply, e.m.f. is induced in the armature conductors (rotor) by induction. By Lenz’s law,
the direction of the e.m.f. is such that the magnetic effect of the resulting armature
currents will oppose the increase in flux. The direction of current in armature conductors will be as
shown in Fig.(i). With the brush axis in the position shown in Fig.(i),current will flow from brush B
to brush A where it enters the armature and flows back to brush B through the two paths ACB and
ADB. With brushes set in this position, half of the armature conductors under the N-pole carry
Part-A-
1.Is single phase induction motor self starting? Why?
2.What is the use of shading coil in the shaded pole motor?
3.Name the motors used in ceiling fan and in lathes.
4.Which type of single phase IM is to be selected for driving fans and blowers and why?
5.Draw the equivalent circuit of single phase induction motor.
6.Why centrifugal switches provided on many single phase induction motor?
7.Explain how the single phase induction motor is made self starting?
8.What is stepper motor?
9.What type of motor is used in computer drivers?
10.Determine the step angle of a single stack,4phase,6 pole stepper motor.
11.What are the classification of stepper motor?
12.Name the two theories regarding single phase induction motor.
13.What is the effect of increasing rotor resistance in a single phase induction motor?
14.What is split phase motor?
15.How is the direction of rotation of single phase induction motor reversed?
32.Explain why a single phase induction motor does not self start. Discuss its operation based on
double revolving field theory. Sketch and explain its torque –slip characteristics.
33.Explain the constructional details and principle of operation of single phase induction motor.
35.Find the mechanical power output at a slip of 0.05 of the 185 W,4 pole ,110V,60HZ,single phase
induction motor whose constants are given below.
1. In a 6pole, 3phase, 50Hz induction motor with star connected rotor, the rotor resistance per
phase is 0.3Ω, the reactance at stand still is 1.5Ω/ph & emf between the slip rings on open
circuit is 175V. Calculate slip at the speed of 950 rpm, rotor emf /ph, rotor frequency &
reactance at this speed. (Ans: s=5%, f’=2.5Hz, x2’=.075Ω)
2. An alternator of 8-pole runs at 750rpm and supplies power to a 6-pole induction motor which
has full-load slip of 3%.Find the full-load speed of induction motor and the frequency of its
rotor emf.(Ans:970rpm,1.5Hz)
3. A 3-phse star connected, 220V(line to line),50Hz,4-pole induction motor has the following
constants in ohm per phase referred to stator.
r1=0.29,r2=0.14,x1=0.5,x2=0.21 and magnetizing reactance xm=13.25.The core loss may be
assumed to be constant at 400Watts.For a slip of 2%,compute(i).speed(ii).output torque (iii).stator
current of the motor .Neglect frictional and windage losses. (Ans:1,470rpm, 40Nm,21.5A)
4. A 3-phase, 400V induction motor gave the following test readings.
No-load:400V,1250W,9A;short circuit:150V,4kW,38A.Draw the circle diagram. If the normal rating
is 20.27hp,find from the circle diagram, the full load values of current, power factor and slip.
[Ans:15A,0.83,180%]
5. An induction motor has a double cage rotor with equivalent impedances at standstill of
(1.0+j1.0)and (0.2+j4.0).Find the relative values of torque given by each cage (a) at
starting (b)at slip of 5%.[Ans:40:1,0.4:1]
6. Determine the starting torque of an induction motor interms of its full-load torque when
started by means of (i).star-delta starter and (ii) by an auto-transformer starter with 50% taps.