Lecture 4

Lecture Overview
Measurement of Electrical Quantities

 Power: Wattmeter

 Resistance: Wheatstone Bridge

 Inductance: Maxwell Bridge & Hay Bridge

 Capacitance: Schering Bridge

 Frequency: Wien Bridge

(Bridge Circuits (DC and AC Bridges)

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 Power Measurement
 A wattmeter, measures electric power given to or developed by an electric
apparatus or circuit.

 A wattmeter is hardly ever required in a d.c. circuit because power (P = VI) can
be easily determined from voltmeter and ammeter readings.

 However, in an a.c. circuit, the case is different. It is because in an a.c. circuit,

power (P = VI cos θ) depends not only on voltage and current but also on the
phase shift between them.

 Therefore, a wattmeter is necessary for a.c. power measurement. There are two
principal types of wattmeters viz.,

i. Dynamometer wattmeter — for both d.c. and a.c. power

ii. Induction wattmeter — for a.c. power only

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 Dynamometer Wattmeter
 A dynamometer wattmeter is almost universally used
for the measurement of d.c. as well as a.c. power.
 It works on the dynamometer principle i.e., mechanical
force exists between two current carrying conductors
or coils.
Construction.
 When a dynamometer instrument is used as a
wattmeter, the fixed coils are connected in series with
the load and carry the load current (I1) while the
moving coil is connected across the load through a
series multiplier R and carries a current (I2)
proportional to the load voltage as shown in Fig.
 The fixed coil (or coils) is called the current coil and
the movable coil is known as potential coil.
 The controlling torque is provided by two spiral
springs which also serve the additional purpose of
leading current into and out of the moving coil.
 Air friction damping is provided in such instruments.
 A pointer is attached to the movable coil.
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 Working Principle
 When the wattmeter is connected in the circuit to measure power, the current
coil carries the load current and potential coil carries current proportional to
the load voltage.

 Due to currents in the coils, mechanical force exists between them.

 The result is that movable coil moves the pointer over the scale.

 The pointer comes to rest at a position where deflecting torque is equal to the
controlling torque.

 Reversal of current reverses currents in both the fixed coils and the movable
coil so that the direction of deflecting torque remains unchanged.

 Hence, such instruments can be used for the measurement of d.c. as well as
a.c. power.
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 Deflecting torque
 Deflecting torque is proportional to load power in a d.c. as well
as a.c. circuit.
➢ Consider that the wattmeter is connected in a d.c. circuit to
measure power as shown in Fig.
 The power taken by the load is VI1.

 Deflecting torque, Td ∝ I1I2

 Since I2 is directly proportional to V,

∴ Deflecting torque, Td ∝ VI1 ∝ Load power

➢ Consider that the wattmeter is connected in an a.c. circuit to
measure power. Suppose at any instant, current through the load
is i and voltage across the load is v.
➢ Let the load power factor be cos φ lagging.

Then, v = Vm sin θ ; i = Im sin (θ – φ)

 Instantaneous deflecting torque ∝ vi
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 The pointer cannot follow the rapid changes in the instantaneous power owing to the
large inertia of the moving system. Hence the instrument indicates the mean or
average power.

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Advantages

1. They can be used for the measurement of a.c. as well as d.c. power.

2. They have uniform scale unlike dynamometer ammeters and voltmeters

which have square law scales.

3. By careful design, high accuracy can be obtained.

Disadvantages

 At low power factors, the inductance of the potential coil causes serious
errors.

 The readings of the instrument may be affected by stray magnetic fields. In

order to prevent it, the instrument is shielded from the external magnetic
fields by enclosing it in a soft-iron case

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 Wattmeter Errors
Error due to potential circuit connections
 There are two methods of connecting a wattmeter
in a single phase a.c. circuit.
 In Fig. (i), the potential coil circuit of the
wattmeter is connected on the supply side.
 In this case, the current through the current coil is
the same as through the load but voltage applied
across the potential coil circuit is larger than the
load voltage by an amount equal to the voltage
drop across the current coil.
 In Fig. (ii), the potential coil circuit is connected
on the load side. In this case, the same voltage
acts on the potential coil circuit as on the load but
current in the current coil is greater than the load
current by an amount equal to the current taken by
the potential coil circuit.
 For either connection, the wattmeter indicates a
power greater than that actually taken by the load
due to losses in the instrument circuits. 9
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• Note. In practice, the method of connection shown in Fig. (i) is used because the loss in the
current coil is generally smaller than that in the potential coil circuit.
• The error caused is reasonably small and may be neglected.
• When needful, however, the resistance of the current coil can be ascertained and loss in the
current coil calculated 11
Error due to capacitance in potential coil circuit.

 The potential coil circuit of the wattmeter may possess capacitance in

addition to inductance.

 This capacitance is mainly due to the inter-turn capacitance of the series

resistance (i.e., multiplier).

 The effect of this capacitance is to reduce angle α and thus reduce error

due to inductance of the potential coil circuit.

 Efforts are made to design the multiplier in such a way that errors due to

inductance and capacitance of the potential circuit neutralise each other.

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Error due to eddy currents.
 Another important source of error in wattmeters is that due to the eddy currents

induced by the alternating flux in the metal parts of the instrument or in the thick

current coils.

 These eddy currents will create a flux that lags the main flux produced by the current

in the current coils (i.e., load current).

 Since this flux lags the load current, it will produce an error opposite in sign to the

inductance-error of potential coil.

 The wattmeter will read low for lagging p.f. and high for leading p.f.

 Great care should therefore be taken to avoid metal case or supports for the coils

unless they are of specially chosen metals of high resistivity or are laminated or

otherwise arranged so that no appreciable eddy currents are induced in them.

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Error due to potential-coil inductance.
 While discussing dynamometer wattmeter, it was assumed
that potential coil does not possess any inductance so that
current I2 (= V/Rp + R) drawn by it is in phase with load
voltage V as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig. (i).
 The phase angle between I1 and I2 is equal to the load p.f.
angle i.e., θ = φ.
 However, in actual practice, the potential coil of the
wattmeter possesses some inductance so that I2, instead of
being in phase with load voltage V, will lag behind it by an
angle α as shown in the phasor diagram in Fig.(ii).
 Consequently, the phase angle between I1 and I2 is
decreased and becomes θ = φ – α.
 The result of this phase error is that wattmeter indicates
power higher than actually taken by the load.
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Error due to stray magnetic fields.

 Since the dynamometer wattmeter has a relatively weak operating

field (as no iron is used in the magnetic circuit), it is easily affected
by stray magnetic fields and must be shielded.

 Laminated iron shields are used in portable instruments and steel

cases sometimes provide shielding in switchboard instruments.

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 Practice Question
 A dynamometer type wattmeter with its voltage
coil connected across the load side reads 192 W.
The load voltage is 208V and the resistance of
the potential coil circuit is 3825 Ω. Calculate

i. true load power and

ii. percentage error due to wattmeter

connection

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 Practice Question
 The potential coil of an electrodynamic
wattmeter has an inductance of 8 mH
and a resistance of 2000 Ω. What is the
percentage error of the instrument
when measuring power in an inductive
load having a p.f. of 0·707 lagging at
50 Hz? Neglect the impedance of
current coil and assume the current
drawn by potential circuit to be
negligible.

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Solution

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 Practice
 The inductive reactance of the pressure coil circuit of a
dynamometer wattmeter is 0.4% of its resistance at normal
frequency and the capacitance is negligible. Calculate the
percentage error and correction factor due to reactance for
loads at

i. 0.707 p.f. lagging and [0.996; 0.4%]

ii. 0.5 p.f. lagging [0.993; 0.7%]

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Measurement of Quantities using Bridge Circuits

 Bridge circuits operate on the method of comparison i.e. a known

(standard) value is adjusted until it is equal to an unknown value.

 Both null and deflection types of bridge exist

 Null types are mainly employed for calibration purposes

 Deflection types are used within closed-loop automatic control

schemes.

 Bridge circuits are normally classified according to the elements

that they are used to measure as shown:

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Bridge Circuits

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 Null-Type, DC Bridge (Wheatstone Bridge)
 Suitable for measurement of medium resistance values i.e. 1Ω to 10MΩ.
 Consists of four resistive arms together with a source of e.m.f. and a null
detector (galvanometer) as shown.

 The arms consisting of the resistances R1and R2 are called ratio arms.
 The arm consisting of the resistance R3 is called the standard arm.
 The resistance R4 is the unknown resistance to be measured
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 When the bridge is balanced, there is no potential difference across
the galvanometer (points B and D are at the same potential & no
current flows across the galvanometer)

❖ At balance no current flows through the galvanometer which implies

I1 = I3 and I2 = I4. This means:
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The following points can be observed
• It depends on the ration of R1 and R2 hence these arms are called ratio
arms
• The standard resistance R3 can be varied to obtain the required balance
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 Bridge under unbalanced condition
❖ Apply circuit analysis to find current through the galvanometer

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Example:
❖ The figure below shows a bridge circuit with values of the
circuit elements. The battery voltage is 5V and the internal
resistance is negligible. The galvanometer has a current
sensitivity of 10mm/µA and an internal resistance of 100Ω.
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by the
5Ω unbalance in arm BC

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Solution:

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 Application - It is extensively used in industrial applications like quality control
of resistance wires, determination of resistance of transformers, motor winding,
relay coils and solenoids, calibration of sensors

 Advantages of a Wheatstone Bridge

 It is a low cost device which does not require skilled operation.
 With the use of high quality standard resistors, high accuracies of ± 0.5% can
be achieved leading to this being the preferred type when sensors are being
calibrated.

 Disadvantages of a Wheatstone Bridge

 A null-type bridge is somewhat tedious to use since careful adjustment of the
variable resistance is needed to get exactly to the null point.
 Not possible to measure with reasonable accuracy low values of resistance
below 1 Ω, as well as high values of resistances above 100 kΩ
 Small errors are caused due to the resistance of connecting wires and contact
resistances.
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AC Bridge Circuits

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 Comparison Bridges
❖ They measure an unknown inductance or capacitance by
comparing with a known inductance or capacitance.

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 Maxwell’s Bridge
 It is a AC bridge that employs a standard capacitor to
determine the value of unknown inductance
 The opposite arm of the bridge containing unknown
inductor has a standard resistor and a standard capacitor in
parallel.
❖ The positive phase angle of an inductive impedance may
be compensated by the negative phase angle of a
capacitive impedance put in the opposite arm.
❖ The unknown inductance then becomes known in terms
of this capacitance.
 It may be noted that Rx is the internal resistance of the
inductor.

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Maxwell’s Bridge

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Advantages of Maxwell’s Bridge
 The bridge balance equations are independent of frequency.
 The bridge yields simple equations for unknown values of
inductances and its associated internal resistances.
 The Q-factor of any coil can be determined conveniently using this
bridge.
 The bridge is suitable for the measurement of an unknown
inductance with an accuracy of ± 2% in the low values range of Q-
factor ranging between 1 and 10.
Disadvantages of Maxwell’s Bridge
 The bridge is difficult to achieve with very large Q factor (greater
than 10) and for very small Q factors (less than 1).
 The bridge requires a standard capacitor of high accuracy and this is
quite expensive.
 The resistance in parallel to capacitance is generally of high value
and resistance boxes of high value are costly.
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Hay’s Bridge

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  The four arms of a Hay’s a.c.
bridge are arranged as shown
below. If the supply frequency is
50 Hz, determine the Inductance
and the resistance at the
balance condition.

 2C4 2 R4 R2 R3 (2  50) 2  (0.38 10−6 ) 2 1000 16800  883

R1 = =
1 +  2C4 2 R4 2 1 + (2  50) 2  (0.38 10−6 ) 2  (883) 2
211.416
= = 209 
1.0111

R2 R3C4 16800 1000  0.38 10−6

L1 = =
1 +  2C4 2 R4 2 1 + (2  50) 2  (0.38 10−6 ) 2  (883) 2
6.384
= = 6.3 mH
1.0111
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Schering Bridge

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Advantage of Schering Bridge
 Can be used to measure capacitances between 100
pF - 10µF with ±2% accuracy.

Disadvantages of Schering Bridge

 In high voltage Schering bridge circuit, stray
capacitances in bridge elements may introduce
errors.
 The standard capacitor required is quite expensive.

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 In a test on a sample at 20 kV, 50 Hz by a Schering bridge, having a
standard capacitor of 106pF , balance was obtained with a
capacitance of 0.35µF in parallel with a non-inductive resistance of
318 Ω, the non-inductive resistance in the remaining arm of the
bridge being 130 Ω.
 Determine the capacitance, the p.f. and equivalent series resistance of
the specimen.
Here C3 = 106 pF, C1 = 0.35 μF , R1 = 318 Ω , R2= 130Ω

C1 0.35 10−6
RX = R2 =130  −12
= 0.429M 
C3 106 10
R 318
C X = C3 1 = 106 pF  = 259.3 pF
R2 130
RX
pf = D = =  RX C X
XX
= 2  50  0.429 106  259.3 10−12
= 0.035
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Wein Bridge

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Here C3 = 1μF, C1 = 2μF, R2 = 1000Ω , R3= 200Ω ,R4=
400Ω .
R2 R1 C3 1000 R1 1
= + → = +
R4 R3 C1 400 200 2

R1 5 1
= − =2
200 2 2

R1 = 400 

1 1
f = =
2 C1C3 R3 R1 2 (1 10−6 )  (2 10−6 )  200  100

= 796 Hz

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