Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549

www.elsevier.com/locate/brat

The presence of magical thinking in obsessive compulsive

disorder
Danielle A. Einstein a,b,
, Ross G. Menzies a
a
School of Behavioural and Community Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Australia
b
Anxiety Management Clinic, Westmead Health P.O. Box 533, Wentworthville, NSW 2145, Australia
Received 8 November 2002; received in revised form 27 May 2003; accepted 6 June 2003

Abstract

Two research groups have raised the possibility that magical ideation may be a fundamental feature of
obsessive–compulsive disorder. It has been proposed to underlie thought action fusion and superstitious
beliefs. In this study, the Magical Ideation scale, the Lucky Behaviours and Lucky Beliefs scales, the
Thought Action Fusion—Revised scale, the Padua Inventory, and the Obsessive Compulsive Inventory—
Short Version were completed by 60 obsessive compulsive patients at a hospital clinic. Of all the meas-
ures, the Magical Ideation (MI) scale was found to be the most strongly related to obsessive compulsive
symptoms. Large and significant relationships between MI scores and the measures of OCD were
obtained even when alternative constructs (Lucky Behaviours, Lucky Beliefs, Thought Action Fusion—
Revised scales) were held constant. No other variable remained significantly related to the Obsessive
Compulsive Inventory—Short Version when magical ideation scores were held constant. The findings
suggest that a general magical thinking tendency may underpin previous observed links between super-
stitiousness, thought action fusion and OCD severity.
# 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Obsessive–compulsive disorder; Magical ideation; Thought action fusion; Superstition; Schizotypy

1. Introduction

Magical thinking refers to beliefs that defy culturally accepted laws of causality. In Western
culture magical thinking refers to beliefs in, among other things, clairvoyance, astrology, spirit

Corresponding author. Fax: +61-2-9958-2726.
E-mail address: danielleeinstein@telstra.com (D.A. Einstein).

0005-7967/$ - see front matter # 2003 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(03)00160-8
540 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549

influences, and telepathy (Chapman, Chapman, & Miller, 1982). In OCD, magical thinking
refers to the belief that certain thoughts or behaviours exert a causal influence over outcomes
(Evans, Milanak, Medeiros, & Ross, 2002). It has been argued to be a central cognitive feature
of OCD (Amir, Freshman, Ramsey, Neary, & Brigidi, 2001; Einstein & Menzies, submitted for
publication). The Magical Ideation scale was originally designed as a measure of schizotypy. It
asks questions about the respondents’ experience of events, which would have required magic to
occur; and beliefs about the world, which reflect a general belief in psychics, conspiracies and
the supernatural. Norman, Davies, Malla, Cortese, and Nicholson (1996) administered a com-
posite of the Magical Ideation scale (MI; Eckblad & Chapman, 1983) and the Perceptual Aber-
ration scale (PA; Chapman, Chapman, & Raulin, 1978) to a clinical sample. They observed that
OC symptoms were more closely related to the composite score (r ¼ 0:60) than to either
depression (r ¼ 0:38) or anxiety (r ¼ 0:42). The results have not been replicated.
While the construct of magical ideation remains largely at the periphery of the OCD litera-
ture, the related construct of thought action fusion has been widely discussed. In the 1990s,
thought action fusion (TAF) emerged in the literature on OCD. It was divided into two compo-
nents (Rachman, 1993; Shafran, Thordarson, & Rachman, 1996). The first component focused
on the interpretation of intrusive thoughts as having a direct influence on the probability of
danger. That is, the belief that thinking about an unacceptable or disturbing event makes it
more likely to happen (i.e. TAF likelihood). The second component of TAF was the interpret-
ation of obsessional thoughts as morally equivalent to forbidden actions (i.e. TAF moral).
Recent work has implicated a possible core role for TAF likelihood within OCD. In an inter-
esting experiment, 19 participants believed that they were connected to an EEG (Rassin, Merck-
elbach, Muris, & Spaan, 1999). They were told that the EEG recordings would pick up their
thoughts with reasonable accuracy. When the word ‘‘apple’’ was detected a parallel participant
would receive an electric shock. They were also told that if they wished, they could prevent the
electric shock by pressing a button after the thought occurred. Responses were compared to a
control group. The manipulation of TAF produced an increase in discomfort, anger, number of
intrusions, and resistance towards the originally neutral thought. It was argued that the percep-
tion of a threatening consequence to ones’ thought transforms normal thoughts into obsessive
intrusions. In magical ideation terms, this research demonstrated that, when a relatively innocu-
ous thought or word (e.g. apple) is believed to have aversive and ‘magical’ consequences (e.g.
cause pain to another) OCD symptomatology increases. This is clearly consistent with threat
based accounts of the disorder (see further Einstein & Menzies, 2003).
TAF likelihood and superstitiousness may be simple manifestations of magical ideation. Both
may be derivatives of MI as two research groups have suggested (Amir, Freshman, Ramsey,
Neary & Brigidi, 2001; Einstein & Menzies, submitted for publication). Einstein and Menzies
(submitted for publication) found the Magical Ideation scale, the Thought Action Fusion (like-
lihood) scales and the Lucky Beliefs and Behaviours scales were significantly related to obsessive
compulsive symptoms in an undergraduate sample as measured by the Maudsley Obsessional-
Compulsive Inventory (MOCI) and the Padua Inventory. When magical ideation was held con-
stant, relationships between the other measures and obsessive compulsive symptoms were no
longer significant. In contrast, when each of the other scales were held constant, the correlation
between magical ideation and obsessive compulsive symptoms remained significant. This study
showed magical thinking to be the central construct underpinning the association between
 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549 541

superstitiousness and the likelihood components of thought action fusion (TAF) and obsessive
compulsive symptoms in a non-clinical sample.
In the aforementioned study, checking and cleaning behaviours displayed distinct profiles.
Checking behaviour was significantly associated with magical ideation whereas cleaning behav-
iour was not. The nature of these behaviours may explain this association. Checking often
requires individuals to question their tactile and visual sensory experiences. For example, an
individual can stand at a door and feel and see that it is flush against the door frame and still
doubt that the door is locked. Magical thinking may be required to deny the evidence that is
obtained by touching and seeing the locked door. In contrast, cleaning behaviour may not
always require the suspension of scientific laws. The community is aware that germs are invis-
ible and numerous. A compulsive washer does not need magical thinking tendencies to imagine,
while washing her hands that some invisible germs have remained untouched. Of course it must
be acknowledged that patients with cleaning compulsions do, at times, imagine that contami-
nation can be spread in ways that defy scientific laws.
While the concept of TAF likelihood is potentially useful as a measure of MI within OCD
research, the relevance of TAF moral is less evident. In two studies comparing OC participants
and non-anxious controls, groups did not differ on ratings of TAF moral (Amir, Freshman,
Ramsey, Neary, & Brigidi, 2001). However, in a non-clinical sample, Coles, Menin, and Heim-
berg (2001) found a small but significant correlation between TAF moral and obsessive features
after controlling for the effects of worry. TAF moral may be confounded by religiosity. In the
present study TAF moral is not hypothesized to account for obsessive compulsive symptoms.
The present study aims to replicate and extend the previous study of Einstein and Menzies,
by examining whether the previously obtained relationships between magical ideation, thought
action fusion, superstitiousness, and obsessive compulsive symptoms are present within a clini-
cal sample. The Padua Inventory, the OCI-SV, the Magical Ideation Scale, the Lucky Behav-
iours and Lucky Beliefs Scales, and the TAF-R scale were given to a cohort of individuals with
OCD seeking treatment at a hospital, Anxiety Clinic. It was hypothesized that: (1) magical idea-
tion would be related to TAF (likelihood) subscales, superstitiousness scales and OCD symp-
toms; (2) TAF (likelihood) and superstitiousness would be related to OCD symptoms, by virtue
of their relationship with magical ideation, (3) TAF moral would not be related to magical idea-
tion or obsessive compulsive symptoms, and; (4) magical ideation would be significantly related
to checking, but not to cleaning symptoms.

2. Method

2.1. Participants

The participants were 61 patients with a primary DSM-IV diagnosis of Obsessive Compulsive
Disorder (mean age 33 years ranging from 17 to 62 years; 56% female). Patients presented
at a large hospital-based anxiety clinic seeking cognitive behavioural treatment for their dis-
order. Participants had two clinical interviews to establish DSM-IV (APA, 1994) diagnosis. The
initial interview was a 30 min telephone screen at which a preliminary diagnosis was made. To
confirm this diagnosis, a 90 min face-to-face assessment interview was conducted by a clinical
psychologist and intern clinical psychologist. Clinical psychologists had between 3 and 6 years
542 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549

experience specialising in the management of anxiety disorders. In accord with the practice of
Shafran, Thordarson, and Rachman (1996) participants were included in the study if they
scored above a minimum cut-off of 11 on the MOCI (Hodgson & Rachman, 1977).

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Magical Ideation Scale (MI Scale; Eckblad & Chapman, 1983)
The MI Scale consists of 30 true–false items exploring beliefs in a number of magical influen-
ces (e.g. thought transmission, spirit influences, astrology, good luck charms, psychic energy).
Sample items include: ‘‘Horoscopes are right too often for it to be a coincidence’’ and ‘‘Things
sometimes seem to be in different places when I get home even though no one has been there’’.
The scale was originally designed as a measure of psychosis proneness. It has demonstrated con-
struct validity as a measure of schizotypy (Chapman & Chapman, 1985; Chapman, Chapman,
& Miller, 1982), and adequate internal consistency (see further Norman, Davies, Malla, Cortese,
& Nicholson, 1996).

2.3. Lucky Beliefs Questionnaire (LBQ, Frost et al., 1993)

The LBQ consists of 30 items, scored on a 5 point Likert scale, concerning a variety of super-
stitious beliefs. The measure was generated from a semi-structured interview on superstitions
developed by Leonard, Goldberger, Rapport, Cheslow, and Swedo (1990). Additional items
were drawn from the Encyclopedia of Superstitions (Radford & Radford, 1969). The LBQ is a
popular measure of superstitiousness and has particularly strong internal consistency (0.95, see
further Frost et al., 1993).

2.4. Lucky Behaviours Questionnaire (LbehQ, Frost et al., 1993)

The LbehQ is a companion instrument to the LBQ. Like the LBQ, it consists of 30 items
scored on a 5 point Likert scale. Items refer to superstitious behaviours performed by respond-
ents in response to superstitious beliefs. Subjects rate the frequency with which they engage in
such behaviours. Again, internal consistency for the LbehQ is particularly strong (see further
Frost et al., 1993).

2.5. Thought Action Fusion Scale—Revised (TAF-R; Shafran, Thordarson, & Rachman, 1996)

The TAF-R Scale consists of 19 items divided into three scales. The TAF-Moral Scale
assesses the belief that experiencing an intrusive thought is as morally unacceptable as acting on
the thought (e.g. If I wish harm on someone, it is almost as bad as doing harm). The TAF-like-
lihood for Others Scale assesses the belief that an unacceptable thought about a negative event
occurring to others makes the event more probable (e.g. If I think of a relative/friend falling ill,
this increases the risk that he/she will fall ill). The TAF-likelihood for Self Scale assesses the
belief that having an unacceptable thought about a negative event occurring to oneself makes
that event more probable (e.g. If I think of myself being in a car accident, this increases the risk
 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549 543

that I will have a car accident). The measure has been demonstrated to possess adequate
reliability in student, adult and obsessional samples (Shafran, Thordarson, & Rachman, 1996).

2.6. Padua Inventory (PI; Sanavio, 1988)

The PI Scale was developed as a measure of OCD proneness for use in normal samples. It
consists of 60 items covering the full range of OCD symptomatology, measuring severity of
each symptom on a 0–4 point Likert Scale. The instrument has adequate levels of internal con-
sistency, test–retest reliability and convergent validity (Feske & Chambless, 2000; Macdonald &
de Silva, 1999). Two factor analytic studies have suggested four component scales: (1) checking
behaviour; (2) impaired control over mental activities; (3) contamination concerns, and; (4) fear
of losing motor control (Norman, Davies, Malla, Cortese, & Nicholson, 1996; Sanavio, 1988;
Sternberger & Burns, 1990). The PI includes items reflecting ruminations and impulses that are
not included in the majority of OC measures (e.g. MOCI, the Leyton Obsessional Inventory, the
CAC). Thus, despite being developed for non-clinical populations, Feske and Chambless (2000)
strongly encourage its use.

2.7. The Obsessive Compulsive Inventory—Short Version (OCI-SV; Foa et al., 2002)

The OCI–SV is an 18 item self report measure of obsessive compulsive symptoms. Respond-
ents rate the distress caused by specific activities on a 5 point Likert scale. The OCI-SV contains
6 subscales: washing, checking, ordering, hoarding, neutralising and obsessing. The OCI-SV
demonstrates excellent discriminant validity between diagnostic groups and adequate convergent
validity with other measures of OCD. The OCI-SV demonstrates high test–retest reliability and
high subscale internal consistency. The scale is moderately related to observer ratings of OCD
severity as measured by the Y-BOCS (Goodman et al., 1989) and the NIMH Global Obsessive–
Compulsive Scale (Goodman & Price, 1992).

3. Results

The means and standard deviations for the scales are shown in Table 1. All means were
above those obtained by groups of obsessional patients in reference papers (Foa et al., 2002;
Hodgson & Rachman, 1977; Sanavio, 1988; Shafran, Thordarson, & Rachman, 1996).

3.1. Relationships between magical thinking, superstitiousness and thought action fusion

Pearson correlation coefficients were generated to explore relationships between the three con-
structs of magical thinking, superstitiousness, thought action fusion and their subscales
(Table 2). In general, scales were highly correlated with each other suggesting strong relation-
ships between these constructs.

3.2. Relationships between Belief scales and OC symptoms

Full and partial correlations were generated to explore the extent that these scales were inde-
pendently related to obsessive compulsive symptoms (Table 3). Comparisons between the size of
544 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549

Table 1
Means and standard deviations for all scales
Name of scale Mean SD
Magical ideation 6.08 4.72
TAF moral 25.68 11.76
TAF likelihood—other 6.03 5.53
TAF likelihood—self 4.95 4.17
Lucky behaviours 53.60 20.37
Lucky beliefs 52.64 23.08
Padua 96.65 41.26
OCI-SV 35.05 15.69
Note: TAF, Thought Action Fusion; OCI-SV, Obsessive Compulsive Inventory—Short Version.

correlations were conducted using Hotelling’s (1940) significance test of the difference between
non-independent means (cited by Edwards, 1960).
MI demonstrated the strongest significant relationships with the OCI-SV (r ¼ 0:50) and the
Padua (r ¼ 0:69). Large, significant correlations were also obtained between the remaining
Belief scales and the Padua Inventory (0:49  r  0:60) and between these Belief scales and the
OCI-SV (0:38  r  0:46). The correlation between MI and the Padua was significantly greater
than the next largest correlation, between Lucky Beliefs and the Padua (p < 0:05).

3.2.1. Correlations between Belief scales and OC symptoms after holding MI constant
Importantly, after partialling out magical ideation, none of the correlations between TAF,
superstitiousness and the OCI-SV remained significant. After magical ideation was held con-
stant, correlations between the three TAF scales, the Lucky Beliefs scale and the Padua Inven-
tory were no longer significant. Only the relationship between the Lucky Behaviours scale and
the Padua Inventory remained significant, and this relationship was substantially weakened.

Table 2
Correlations between magical thinking, Thought Action Fusion and superstitiousness
Scale Magical TAF moral TAF TAF Lucky Lucky
ideation likelihood likelihood for behav. beliefs
for others self
Magical ideation –

TAF moral 0.42
–

TAF likelihood 0.51
0.61
–
for others
TAF likelihood 0.54
0.58
0.81
–
for self

Lucky behav. 0.51
0.45
0.35 0.47
–

Lucky beliefs 0.57
0.51
0.40

0.46
0.94
–
Note: TAF, Thought Action Fusion; Lucky Behav., Lucky Behaviours. 0


p < 0:001.



p < 0:005.
 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549 545

Table 3
Correlations and partial correlations between Obsessive Compulsive Scales and measures of magical thinking
Padua OCI-SV Variable held con- Padua OCI-SV
stant
TAF self 0.56
0.38

MI (0.32) (0.16)
TAF other (0.24) (0.09)
TAF moral (0.40)

(0.20)
LbehQ (0.40)

(0.22)
LBQ (0.40)

(0.22)

TAF other 0.56
0.42
MI (0.33) (0.22)

TAF self (0.21) (0.20)
TAF moral (0.37)

(0.20)
LbehQ (0.46)
(0.31)
LBQ (0.43)
(0.29)

TAF moral 0.49
0.41

MI (0.30) (0.25)

TAF self (0.24) (0.25)
TAF other (0.22) (0.21)
LbehQ (0.31) (0.26)


LBQ (0.26) (0.23)

LbehQ 0.59
0.46
MI (0.37)

(0.26)

TAF self (0.45) (0.34)
TAF other (0.51)
(0.37)
TAF moral (0.48)
(0.34)
LBQ (0.11) (0.10)

LBQ 0.60
0.46
MI (0.34) (0.23)

TAF self (0.47)
(0.34)
TAF other (0.50)
(0.35)
TAF moral (0.48)
(0.34)
LbehQ (0.16) (0.09)

MI 0.69
0.50
TAF self (0.55)
(0.38)

TAF other (0.56)
(0.37)


TAF moral (0.61)
(0.40)

LbehQ (0.55)
(0.34)
LBQ (0.51)
(0.32)
Note: MI, Magical Ideation; TAF, Thought Action Fusion; LbehQ, Lucky Behaviours Questionnaire; LBQ, Lucky
Beliefs Questionnaire; OCI-SV, Obsessive Compulsive Inventory—Short Version. 0


p < 0:001.



p < 0:005.

3.2.2. Correlations between MI and OC symptoms after holding alternative Belief scales constant
With regard to the Padua, after partialling out each of the belief variables, all correlations
with MI remained significant and very strong (p < 0:001). On the OCI-SV, after partialling out
the TAF Scales, correlations with MI remained significant (p < 0:005). Only when the Lucky
546 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549

beliefs/behaviour scores were held constant did the relationships between MI and OCI-SV
scores fail to reach significance.

3.3. Presence of MI within subtypes of OCD

In these analyses, the relationships between magical ideation (but no other construct) and
subtypes of OCD were examined. Magical ideation was chosen because: (1) it demonstrated the
highest correlations with OC symptoms; (2) on the Padua Inventory, it was the only variable
that remained significantly related to symptoms when other variables were held constant, and;
(3) on the OCI-SV three of the five relationships with MI remained significant when alternative
mediators were held constant. In comparison only one of the remaining 25 relationships with
the OCI-SV was significant, when other variables were held constant. More importantly, none
of the alternative constructs remained correlated with the OCI-SV when MI was held constant.
Correlations between magical thinking and the subtypes of OCD on the Padua and the OCI-
SV are presented in Table 4. MI correlated highly with impaired control over mental activities
(r ¼ 0:64; p < 0:001), and urges and worries about losing control over motor behaviours
(r ¼ 0:63; p < 0:001). It also attained positive correlations with the checking subscales on the
Padua (r ¼ 0:47; p < 0:001) and on the neutralising (r ¼ 0:46; p < 0:001), obsessing (r ¼ 0:39;
p < 0:005), and hoarding (r ¼ 0:36; p < 0:005) scales of the OCI-SV. Neither the Padua nor the
OCI-SV contamination/washing scales were significantly correlated with MI.

4. Discussion

Consistent with the first hypothesis, magical ideation was related to the TAF (likelihood) sub-
scales, superstitiousness scales and OCD proneness. Of all Belief scales, MI was found to be the
construct most closely related to obsessive compulsive symptoms. It obtained the highest corre-

Table 4
Correlations between obsessive compulsive subscales and magical ideation
Scale Subscale Magical ideation
Padua Impaired control over mental activities 0.64

Becoming contaminated 0.26
Checking behaviours 0.47

Urges and worries about losing control over motor behaviours 0.63

OCI-SV Washing 0.20

Checking 0.21
Ordering 0.36
Hoarding 0.36


Neutralising 0.46

Obsessing 0.39

Note: TAF, Thought Action Fusion; OCI-SV, Obsessive Compulsive Inventory—Short Version. 0


p < 0:001.



p < 0:005.
 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549 547

lation with both the Padua (r ¼ 0:69) and the OCI-SV (r ¼ 0:50). The TAF likelihood scales
were significantly correlated with OC symptoms (0:56  r  0:38). Similarly, large and signifi-
cant correlations were obtained between the superstitiousness scales and OC symptoms
(0:60  r  0:46).
Consistent with the second hypothesis, TAF (likelihood) and superstitiousness were found to
be related to OCD symptoms largely by virtue of their relationship with magical ideation. Par-
tial correlations demonstrated a consistent pattern. On the OCI-SV, neither TAF nor super-
stitiousness were able to account for a significant amount of variance on the symptom scale
when MI was partialled out. Similarly, after holding MI constant, correlations between the re-
maining Belief scales and Padua scores generally failed to reach significance (the correlation be-
tween the Lucky Behaviours scale and Padua scores was the only exception). Thus, as predicted
by Amir, Freshman, Ramsey, Neary, and Brigidi (2001) and Einstein and Menzies (submitted
for publication), magical thinking appears to be a core feature underlying other OC features.
The third hypothesis was not supported, as TAF moral was correlated with magical ideation
and with obsessive compulsive symptoms. In fact, TAF moral was significantly correlated with
all other Belief scales. This was interesting as TAF moral was not found to be significantly cor-
related with MI in our previous non-clinical sample (Einstein & Menzies, submitted for publi-
cation). Thus, within a group of people with OCD, the tendency to engage in superstitious or
magical thinking relates, as Rachman (1993), (1998) suggested, how bad one feels (on a moral
level) about having entertained the intrusive thought. Importantly, however, when magical idea-
tion is held constant, the significance of the correlation between TAF moral and OC symptoms
on both the OCI-SV and Padua falls away. In contrast, as previously discussed, MI remains sig-
nificantly related to the Padua and OCI-SV when TAF moral was held constant. These findings
support the notion that magical thinking is the central construct which underlies the relation-
ship between TAF moral and obsessive compulsive symptoms.
The fourth hypothesis was partially supported. The hypothesis that washing would not be
associated with MI was supported on both OC scales (Table 4). The severity of washing behav-
iour does not appear to be related to magical thinking. The relationship between checking and
magical thinking was less clear-cut. In contrast to findings from the non-clinical sample, MI was
not significantly correlated with OCI-SV checking. However, the correlation between Padua
checking and MI was significant and of similar magnitude (0.47) to that observed in our pre-
vious sample.
High correlations were observed between MI and several subscales of the OCI-SV and the
Padua Inventory. To explain these associations, it is necessary to return to the item composition
of each subscale. All three items of the Neutralising scale (OCI-SV) pertain to counting rituals.
The correlation (r ¼ 0:46) suggests that magical thinkers are more likely to exhibit counting
compulsions. This is consistent with the definition of magical thinking as beliefs, which defy
scientific laws of causality. Counting numbers in one’s head cannot by any law of science influ-
ence the outcome of events in the external world. The Obsessing scale of the OCI-SV refers
solely to the concept of having difficulty controlling ones thoughts (a central complaint of most
obsessive compulsive patients). The moderate correlation (r ¼ 0:39) suggests that magical think-
ers are more likely to report being disturbed by intrusions.
Compared to the other scales, the impaired control over mental activities scale is a more het-
erogeneous subscale. It incorporates a range of concerns including pathological doubt, responsi-
548 D.A. Einstein, R.G. Menzies / Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 539–549

bility, lateness, aggressive worries (e.g. concern of hurting someone), the occurrence of intrusive
thoughts, a tendency to catastrophise, difficulties in concentrating and making decisions. The
strong correlation with magical thinking (r ¼ 0:64) suggests that MI may be involved in the oc-
currence of these symptoms. The urges and worries of losing control over motor behaviours scale
contains six items relating to aggressive urges (e.g. a need to break or damage things, throw one-
self under a train, or out of a window, steal, drive into a person or object) and one item relating
to atypical behaviours (e.g. a need to make special gestures or walk in a certain way). The high
correlation with this scale (r ¼ 0:63) suggests that magical thinking is related to aggressive urges.
The difference in the size of correlations observed on the Padua Inventory and the OCI-SV
also deserves attention. Correlations obtained between MI and the PI were larger than those
obtained between MI and the OCI-SV. The OCI-SV is a new instrument, composed of six
evenly balanced subscales. These measure washing, checking, hoarding, ordering, neutralising
and obsessing. The Padua Inventory is heavily weighted towards impaired control over mental
activities. Individuals demonstrating high scores on this subscale also reported elevated levels of
magical thinking (Table 4). Thus, in assessing OCD, the Padua Inventory may give more weight
to a subtype of individual who exhibits high levels of magical ideation compared to the OCI-
SV. Alternatively, stronger relationships with the Padua Inventory may reflect this measure’s
general relationship with worry. Wells and Papageorgiou (1998) suggest the Padua Inventory
may measure worry more generally and it is possible that magical thinking is involved to some
extent with worry.
In summary, MI appears to be strongly related to OCD severity. The subtype results suggest
that magical thinking may be particularly pertinent for individuals with aggressive and atypical
symptoms. These groups are not well identified by current self-report measures of OCD. Based
on the present results, the only OCD patients who are not expected to exhibit magical thinking
are compulsive washers with contamination concerns. The present findings suggest that within
individuals with obsessive compulsive disorder, superstitious beliefs and TAF are derivatives of
MI. MI is an indicator of schizotypy (Chapman & Chapman, 1985; Eckblad & Chapman,
1983), and in studies of OCD, individuals with schizotypal personality disorder have been
shown to demonstrate a poor response to treatment (Jenike, Baer, Minichiello, Schwartz, &
Carey, 1986). Future research needs to investigate whether MI is a belief system, which main-
tains OC symptoms. One way of investigating this is to see whether MI is altered with improve-
ment in OC symptoms.

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