2 - CE & A - All Types of CE

CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
Dr. R.V.Goyal
Asst Professor
Civil Engg Dept.,
SVIT, Vasad
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Construction Equipments
HISTORY OF CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT
➢ To cater heavy demand of minerals (i.e. coal) the earth moving
equipment was first used in 1940 in open coal mine in India
➢ Shovel and dumpers were used
➢ Bhakhranagal dam started in 1950’s and used sophisticated
equipments like dozers, scrapers, shovel, draglines and dumpers
➢ Front end loaders, dozers with rippers were used for iron ore mines
➢ Due to use of heavy earthmoving equipments production of coal
increased 5 times in coal and 15 times in iron
➢ For Hydro project also many heavy earth moving equipments are used.
➢ Equipment cost may go upto 30 % with fully mechanized project.
➢ With the growing use of machinery it is necessary for civil engineer to
be familiar with application and maintenance of the modern
construction equipments
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OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN
CONSTRUCTION OF ANY PROJECT
Excavation
Digging of large quantities of earth
Moving them to distances which are
sometimes fairly long
Placement
Compacting
Levelling
Dozing
Grading
Hauling
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CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENTS BASED ON FUCTION
1. EXCAVATION AND EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT
2. HAULING EQUIPMENT
3. HOISTING EQUIPMENT
4. CONVEYING EQUIPMENT
5. AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
6. PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT
7. TUNNELING AND ROCK DRILLING EQUIPMENT
8. PUMPING AND DEWATERING EQUIPMENT
9. DREDGING EQUIPMENT
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EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENTS:
The equipment which perform excavation,
digging of large quantities of earth , moving them to
distances , placement , compacting, leveling,
dozing, grading, hauling etc., are called earth
moving equipment.
CLASSIFICATION:
❑ EXCAVATING EQUIPMENT
❑ EXCAVATING AND EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT
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FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION OF EARTH
MOVING EQUIPMENT
❖ VOLUME OF MATERIAL TO BE REMOVED
❖ HEIGHT OF THE EXCAVATION
❖ DISPOSAL OF THE EXCAVATED MATERIAL
❖ DISTANCE OF EXCAVATION SITE TO HAULING UNITS
❖ MATERIAL TO BE REMOVED FROM SITE
❖ TYPE OF SOIL TO BE EXCAVATED
❖ DUARATION OF PROJECT (FOR EXCAVATION)

TYPES OF EARTH EXCAVATION
EQUIPMENTS
1. POWER SHOVEL/FRONT SHOVEL
2. BACK HOE
3. DRAG LINE
4. CLAM SHELL
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POWER SHOVEL/FRONT SHOVEL
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▪ Useful when considerable hard digging of rock from a bank that will
stand with vertical face.
▪ Eg: Quarry work (loading of shot rock), sidehill cut.
▪ When material to be excavated is located below ground level, shovel
must dig a ramp down until digging face of desired height is obtained.
TYPES:
▪ WHEEL MOUNTED (HIGH SPEED - FIRM GROUND)
▪ CRAWLER MOUNTED (LOW SPEED - UNSTABLE SOIL)

BASIC PARTS:
* MOUNTING * CABIN
Face to be
* CABLES * DIPPER STICK excavated
* BOOM
* HOIST LINE * DIPPER / BUCKET ( Size = .375 m3 to 5 m3)
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POWER SHOVEL
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OPERATION:
CABLE CONTROLLED & IT MAKES OUTWARD STROKES WHILE DIGGING.
APPLICATIONS:
➢CLOSE RANGE OF WORK.
➢VERY HARD MATERIALS, BIG SIZED BOULDERS.
➢DIGGING IN GRAVEL BANKS, CLAY PITS, CUTS IN ROAD WORKS, ROAD SIDE BERMS
Etc.,
FACTORS CONTROLLING OUTPUT:

* CLASS OF MATERIAL * DEPTH OF CUTTING
* ANGLE OF SWING * SKILL OF OPERATOR
• SIZE OF HAULING UNITS * JOB & MANAGEMENT CONDITION
• PHYSICAL CONDITION OF SHOVEL * HAUL EXCHANGE TIME
• PRODUCTIVITY: lcm/hr
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BACK HOE
• POWER SHOVEL IS CONVERTED INTO HOE BY INSTALLING A DIPPER STICK AND A DIPPER AT THE
END OF THE SHOVEL BOOM
• ALSO TERMED AS HOE, BACK SHOVEL AND PULL SHOVEL.
• USED TO EXCAVATE BELOW THE SURFACE OF EQUIPMENT - IT CAVES INTO THE GROUND.
• ROTATE AT 360‫ﹾ‬
BASIC PARTS:
* MOUNTING & CAB * BOOM
* BOOM CYLINDER * BUCKET CYLINDER
* DIPPER STICK, * BUCKET ( DIPPER)
OPERATION:
• SIMILAR TO SHOVEL EXCEPT IT MAKES INWARD STROKES WHILE DIGGING.
APPLICATION:
• DIGGING BELOW MACHINE LEVEL LIKE TRENCHES FOR PIPELINES CANAL, FOOTINGS,
BASEMENTS.
• TO TRIM THE SURFACE (DRESSING).
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BACK HOE
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BACK HOE
OUT PUT:
▪ Moderate depth of
digging same output
as power shovel
▪ If depth increases
output decrease
▪ Most effective digging
when dipper stick is at
right angle to boom
▪ If digging is done near
machine highest
output due to less
cycle time.
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BACK HOE
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DRAG LINE
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DRAG LINE
• The drag line is so name because of its prominent operation of
dragging the bucket against the material to be dug.
• Unlike the shovel, it has a long light crane boom and the bucket is
loosely attached to the boom through cables.
• Because of this construction, a dragline can dig and dump over

larger distances than a shovel can do.
• Drag lines are useful for
digging below its track level and
handling softer materials.
Types: Crawler or wheel mounted,

Truck mounted or walking
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DRAG LINE
BASIC PARTS:
* BOOM * HOIST CABLE
* DRAG CABLE * HOIST CHAIN
* DRAG CHAIN * BUCKET
APPLICATIONS:
o Dragging softer material and below its track level
o It is very useful for excavating trenches the sides without

shoring.
o It has long reaches so earth can be removed from a trench or

canal pit containing water from natural ground
o Excavation for canals and depositing on the embankment
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without hauling units.
DRAG LINE
FACTORS CONTROLLING OUTPUT:
• TYPE OF MATERIAL
• DEPTH OF CUTTING
• SIZE ( Size of bucket: 1 -1.4 m3)
• TYPE OF BUCKETS ( Ligth wt Bucket: Loose soil, Medium Wt Bucket : Clay and
compacted gravel, Heavy Wt Bucket: Hard material)
• SKILL OF OPERATOR
• SIZE OF HAULING UNITS IF USED & METHOD
• ANGLE OF SWING
• LENGTH OF CRANE BOOM
• JOB & MANAGEMENT CONDITION
• TEETH CONDITION . SHARP TEETH BUCKET GIVES SPEEDY FILLING AND LESS
CYCLE TIME ( Digging + Hoisting+ swinging +dumping +returning )
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Drag Chain
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DRAG LINE
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CLAM SHELL
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CLAM SHELL
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CLAM SHELL
• This is so named due to resemblance of its bucket to a clam
which is like a shell-fish with hinged double shell.
• Used for handling loose materials
• The front end is essentially a crane boom with a specially

designed bucket loosely attached at the end through cables
as in a drag line.
• The capacity of a clam shell bucket is usually given in cubic

meters.
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Basic parts of Clamshell:
Mounting, cab , crane book,
hoist cable and clamshell
bucket
• The basic parts of clam
shell bucket: closing line,
hoist line, sheaves,
brackets, tagline, shell and
hinge.
• Sizes : Heavy duty medium and

light duty with or without teeth
• Capacity: Plate line capacity and
Heaped capacity
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CLAM SHELL
Application:
• Used for handling loose material such as crushed

stone, sand, gravel, coal etc.
• Main feature is vertical lifting of material from one

location to another.
• Mainly used for removing material from coffer dam,

sewer main holes, well foundations etc.
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CLAM SHELL
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COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF
EQUIPMENT
Power
S.No. Items of comparison Back hoe Drag line Clam shell
shovel
1
Excavation in hard soil or
Good Good Not good Poor
rock
Excavation in wet soil or Moderately Moderately

2 Poor Poor
mud good good
Distance between footing

3 Small Small Long Long
and digging
Moderately Precise but

4 Loading efficiency Very good Good
good slow
Fairly away Fairly away

5 Footing required Close to work Close to pit
from pit from pit
Digs at or
Digs at or
Digs below Digs below below footing
6 Digging level above footing
footing level footing level level
level
Shortly more More than the

More than
7 Cycle time Short than power other
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power shovel
shovel equipment
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TRENCHERS
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WHEEL TRENCHERS
➢ CONSISTS OF A PAIR OF CIRCULAR RIMS CONNECTED BY U
SHAPED BUCKETS OR CUTTERS.
➢ SELF PROPELLED.
➢ THE EXCAVATING DEVICE IS CONNECTED TO A MEANS OF

CONVEYING DEVICE.
➢ TRENCH WIDTH : 0.3 TO 1.5 M
➢ CUTTING DEPTH : 2.5 M
➢ OPERATION:
* CABLE DRIVE
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WHEEL TRENCHERS
USES:
FOR LAYING
➢ WATER, GAS, OIL PIPE LINES
➢ TELEPHONE CABLES
➢ DRAINAGE
➢ SEWERS
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WHEEL TRENCHERS
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LADDER TYPE TRENCHERS
❑ SIMILAR TO WHEEL TRENCHER EXCEPT BUCKETS ARE
PROVIDED WITH CHAIN LINKS ON LADDER TYPE FRAME OR
BOOM.
ADVANTAGES:
1. FASTER AND CHEAPER.
2. DIGS NECESSARY DEPTH.
3. CONTINUOUS PROCESS.
Output:
▪ Class of material
▪ Depth and width of trench
▪ Extent of shoring required
▪ Topography & Climatic condition
▪ Physical obstruction
▪ Extent of vegetation, trees
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TRACTOR AND RELATED
EQUIPMENT
1.TRACTORS
2.BULL DOZERS
3.SCRAPERS
4.RIPPERS
5.MOTOR GRADERS
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TRACTORS
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TRACTORS
❑ Change energy of engine into tractive energy
❑ Mainly used for pulling and pushing other machines /load
❑ Multi purpose machines
TYPES:
1. WHEEL TYPE ( Two or Four Wheel) (Light job, speed <50 km/Hr )
2. CRAWLER TYPE ( Heavy duty work , speed <12 km/Hr )
SELECTION CRITERIA:
➢ Size & Kind of job required ( Bulldozing, pulling a scrapper or wagon , ripping etc
➢ High or low tractive efficiency
➢ Firmness or smoothness as well as slope of haul road
➢ Length of haul and type of work to be done after job work
Applications:
❖ Clearing & excavating machinery
❖ Hauling & conveying machinery
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CRAWLER TRACTOR
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WHEEL TRACTOR
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COMPARISON BETWEEN CRAWLER AND
WHEELED TRACTORS
CRAWLER TYPE WHEELED TYPE
1. Slow speed 1. Greater speed
2. More compact and powerful and

2. Con handle only lighter jobs
can handle heavier jobs
3. Costly 3. Cheaper
4. Cost of operation and 4. Operational and maintenance cost
maintenance is high is less
5. Stick control for steering 5. Wheel steering control
6. Moves on rough as well as good
6. Moves on rough roads only
smooth roads
7. Used for short distances 7.Used for longer distances
8. Requires skillful operation, 8. Lesser skills required for

maintenance and repairs operations, maintenance and repairs
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BULL DOZERS:
▪ The word "bulldozer" refers only to a tractor fitted with a dozer blade.
▪ Large, motorized machine that travels on continuous tracks or large tires and is
equipped with a metal blade to the front for pushing material: soil, sand, snow,
rubble, or rock during construction work.
▪ When needed, a hook-like device (termed a ripper) can be mounted on the rear to
loosen dense materials.
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BULL DOZERS
• Versatile equipment- essentially a heavy steel blade mounted on
the front of tractor to push, shear, cut and roll the material ahead
of the tractor.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON:
POSITION OF BLADES - PERPENDICULAR BLADES ( BULLDOZER )
- BLADES AT AN ANGLE ( ANGLE DOZER)
MOUNTING - WHEEL MOUNTED
- CRAWLER MOUNTED
CONTROL OF RAISING AND LOWERING BLADES:
- CABLE CONTROL
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- HYDRAULIC CONTROL
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BULL DOZERS
CONSTRUCTION:
❖ Consist of heavy blade with concave profile.
❖ Blade is attached to the body with two arms, a supporting frame & held by two push arms
APPLICATION:
Moving earth for haul distances up to approx. 100m
❖ Clearing construction sites
❖ Opening up temporary roads in mountainous terrain
❖ Spreading & levelling earth fill
❖ Clearing the borrow pits,
❖ Back filling trenches
❖ Maintaining haul roads

❖ Clearing of vegetation and trees
❖ Assisting scrapers
❖ Removal of thin layer of material
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BULL DOZERS
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BULL DOZERS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4J8-
wXomcZ4
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DOZER PARTS AND FUNCTIONS
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TYPES OF DOZER ATTACHMENTS
AND BLADES
•A straight blade: Also called an S-blade, this kind is short with no side
wings. An S-blade is ideal for handling fine-grain, medium or hard materials,
making it a useful blade for light grading.
•A universal blade: Known alternatively as a U-blade, this type is tall and

wide. The curved shape and side wings make a U-blade useful for pushing
materials, even over long distances.
•A semi-universal blade: The SU blade combines qualities of an S- and U-

blade. An SU blade isn’t as wide or curved as a U-blade. While an SU blade
has smaller side wings, it’s still suitable for pushing soft to medium sand,
soil and materials.
•A Variable Pitch Angle Tilt (VPAT) blade: This kind lets you adjust the lift,
angle and tilt of your dozer’s blade. It brings flexibility to your job site,
helping you complete various tasks.
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BULLDOZER
OUTPUT (
PRODUCTIONRATE)
(a) Blade types
(b) Type and condition
of material
(c) Cycle time: Time
required to push,
backtrack and
maneuver the
position to push
represents the
complete dozer
cycle
Dozing is generally
performed at slow
speed 1.5 to 2 kmph
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TYPES OF BULL DOZERS BLADE
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TYPES OF BULL DOZERS BLADE
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BLADE ADJUSTMENT & SIZE OF
DOZER
TILTING: Vertical movement of a blade end
PITCHING: Movement of the top of the blade towards or away from the
tractor
ANGLING: Turning the blade so that it is not perpendicular to the
direction of the tractor’s travel
Operating weight of small Dozer 20000 pounds medium dozer is of 20,000
to 60,000 pounds & Large dozer is of 60,000 to 150,000 pounds
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Source: https://www.quinncompany.com/how-to-choose-the-right-dozer-for-your-job/
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SCRAPERS
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SCRAPERS
❑ Capable of excavating, hauling and dumping material over
medium to long haul distances
❑ Greatest advantage – versatility.
❑ Compromise between best loading and best hauling machines
❑ Tractor pulled scapers are used for scraping the ground, loading
scraping soil, transporting the loaded soil and dumping and
spreading it to distant area and return to complete cycle
❑ Multipurpose : it digs, hauls, deposit the materials in uniform

thick layers
❑ Used for wide range of material as well as hual length and

conditions
❑ Unique for long distance hauling upto 100 to 1000m
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SCRAPERS
TYPES:
• Towed type
• Self-propelled or motorized or conventional
• Self-loading or elevating scrapper
• Tendon scrappers
• Twin Engine scrappers
• Multiengine multi bowl scrappers
TOWED TYPE SCRAPER
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BASIC PARTS:
➢ BOWL: SCRAPERS
• Pan for holding scrapped earth.
Whose size decides size of scrapper
• It is hinged at the rear corners to the

real axle inside the wheels
• Can be tilted for digging or ejecting
➢ CUTTING EDGE: Attached to the

bottom of bowl to make cut
➢ APRON: Wall in front of bowl which can move up and down to regulate flow of
earth in/out
➢ EJECTOR (TAIL GATE): At rear of the bowl and which can be moved forward
or backward inside the bowl . Remains at rear end during loading and moves
forward to eject soil while dumping
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SCRAPERS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=el_Nox6DZ3s
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CAPACITY:
• HEAPED CAPACITY (m3) OF THE BOWL.

OPERATION:
Three stages: Loading, Hauling (Transporting) and Unloading (
dumping and spreading)
• While digging cutting edge enters the ground by lowering the bowl,
• The front apron is raised
• Edge is raised, apron is lowered while hauling.
• While dumping ejector is used.
INCREASING CAPACITY OF SCARPER:
Ripping , prewetting the soil, loading down grade and supervision
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SCRAPERS
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RIPPERS
Single
Shank
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RIPPERS
▪ Relatively narrow, curved and very sharp device fitted at the
rear end of dozer
▪ Penetrates the earth and loosen and split the hard ground, weak
rock or old pavements and bases
▪ Rippabilities of rocks depend not only on the rock properties, but
also machine or dozer properties
▪ It can push 0.5 m to 1m in ground
▪ Rocks that propagate the sound waves at velocities less than 2.12
km/sec are rippable
▪ Rocks that propagate the sound waves at velocities greater than 3
km/sec are not rippable
▪ Effectiveness of ripper depends on:
➢ Properties of material to be ripped
➢ Level of stratification,
➢ Pressure at tip of ripper shank
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Multiple
shank
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mPsGTHwCF1U
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TYPES ( RIPPER ATTACHMENTS)
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MOTOR GRADERS
➢ Motor grader is one of the pieces of construction machinery that is used to create
a well smooth, wide-ranging, and level surface.
➢ Most commonly motor graders are used for the maintenance of road.
➢ It spread the soil and then flattens that soil.
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MOTOR GRADERS
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k1Ypmu
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Construction Equipments HXhU4
MOTOR GRADERS
o They may be either towed or motorised.
CONSTRUCTION:
• Front of the grader frame is supported on a pair of front wheels &
rear on tandem wheels.
• Curved blade is supported on the circle and be turned through
360 degree.
• Blade has replaceable edges.
• Cutting depth - 2 – 4 cms.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=em0ZqnWdbPc
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Components motor grader
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MOTOR GRADERS
SPEED:
✓ LIGHT DUTY - 6-10 km/hr
✓ HEAVY DUTY - 2-3 km/hr
✓ NORMAL DUTY- 4-6 km/hr.
USES:
*Grading & spreading * finishing and levelling
* gravel road repairing * road shoulder reshaping
* Bank cutting * ditch digging/filling
* Base course spreading * material mixing
* Snow, land clearance * frozen top soil, asphalt breaking
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MOTOR GRADERS
OUTPUT OF MOTOR GRADERS:
Output of grader is indicated by the area covered by it per hour
It depends on
• SIZE OF MOTOR GRADER (range in size from 120 horsepower and operating weight
around 13,000 pounds, to more than 500 horsepower weighing in at more than 150,000
pounds.)
• Size & type of blades
• Speed of travel
• Characteristics of soil being handled
• Efficiency of operator
• Area covered by grader = effective width of blade x avg speed x efficiency
TIME REQUIRED TO COMPLETE JOB (HRS) = No of passes Distance in Km
Avg speed (km/hr) X Efficiency factor
Efficiency factor may be taken for normal condition as 0.7.
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A paver (road paver finisher, asphalt finisher, road paving
machine) is a piece of construction equipment used to lay
asphalt on roads, bridges.
Asphalt Paver Machine
Concrete pavers
Source:
https://www.constructionequipment.com/concrete-
pavers
ASPHALT PAVER:
➢ It lays the asphalt flat and provides minor
compaction before it is compacted by
a roller.
➢ The asphalt is added from a dump truck or
a material transfer unit into the paver's
hopper. The conveyor then carries the
asphalt from the hopper to the auger. The
auger places a stockpile of material in
front of the screed.
➢ The screed takes the stockpile of
material and spreads it over the width
of the road and provides initial
compaction.
➢ In order to provide a smooth surface the paver should proceed at a constant speed
and have a consistent stockpile of material in front of the screed.
➢ Increase in material stockpile or paver speed will cause the screed to rise resulting
in more asphalt being placed therefore a thicker mat of asphalt and an uneven final
surface. Alternatively a decrease in material or a drop in speed will cause the screed
to fall and the mat to be thinner
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➢ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yCzZilHtVM0&t=3s
Concrete paving:
➢ Large freeways are
often paved with
concrete and this is
done using a slipform
paver.
➢ Trucks dump loads of
readymix concrete in
heaps along in front of
this machine and then
the slipform paver
spreads the concrete out
and levels it off using
a screed.
Source: https://www.constructionequipment.com/concrete-pavers
Types of paver machines for road construction:
https://www.constrofacilitator.com/different-types-of-paver-machines-for-
road-construction/
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Patel Infra sets world record in daily
paving
➢ Patel Infrastructure Ltd created a world
record on February 2021, for laying the
most ever road pavement on a four-lane
concrete road at one project site within
a day.
➢ National Highways Authority of India
(NHAI): The contractor finished laying
approximately 10.32 km of road (2,580 m
x 4 lanes) in a day on the Delhi-Mumbai
greenfield expressway.
➢ With a width of 18.75 m, as much an area as 48,711 sq m of concrete
was laid for the expressway in 24 hours
➢ In a first, a 19 m single concrete paver was used for road construction,
which signifies that the paver can lay concrete on five lanes at any
given time, accelerating expressway construction in India.
➢ https://www.constructionworld.in/transport-infrastructure/highways-and-
roads-infrastructure/patel-infra-sets-world-record-in-daily-paving/25599
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Plastering Machines:
➢ Plastering machines can be used for flooring, masonry and rendering and are
much more advanced now than previously.
➢ Some plastering machines are built with certain advanced features, such as the
ability to cover almost all kinds of surfaces.
➢ small electricity movable cement spray plastering machine for house wall
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FW-DSGQoO7Y
➢ Automatic wall plastering machine
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_YHMkXa4rB4
Prestressing jacks:
➢ The tensioning of the steel strand (or individual
wires) is usually done by means of hydraulic jacks.
➢ In pre-tensioning, single strand jacks may be used.
➢ In post-tensioning the strands are often grouped to
form tendons.
➢ These may be stressed by large, multi-strand jacks.
➢ The load induced into the strand is determined from
the pressure in the hydraulic oil supplied to the jack
or from the extension of the strand.
Multi-strand jacks
Grouting
❑ Injection under
pressure
of fluid material
into fractures
and cavities in
rock, soil or
artificial
structures.
❑ Grout is
generally a
mixture of
water, cement,
and sand and is
employed in
pressure
grouting
❑ main purposes:
stabilization,
strengthening,
sealing.
Guniting
▪ The most effective
process of repairing
concrete work which
has been damaged due
to inferior work or other
reasons.
▪ It is also used for
providing an impervious
layer.
▪ The gunite is a mixture
of cement and sand,
the usual proportion
being 1:3.
▪ Extensively used to
rehabilitate concrete
bridges, dams, spillways,
buildings, marine
structures,
Shotcreting equipments
➢ Shotcrete is a method of applying concrete projected at high velocity

primarily on to a vertical or overhead surface. The impact created by the
application consolidates the concrete.
➢ Shotcrete equipment allows for the projection of a concrete mixture at high

pressure.
➢ Shotcrete equipment includes a mixer, an additive pump, compressor, sprayer
arm and control system, and is usually found on a motorized chassis.
➢ This equipment is used in trenchless installation.
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EQUIPMENTS FOR
HOISTING , CONVEYING
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HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
▪ Hoisting is the lifting a weight from one location and moving it to

another location which is at a reasonable distance
▪ Used for big projects like dam , industrial building
▪ Widely used hoisting equipments are:
▪ Jacks
▪ Winches
▪ Chain hoists
▪ Crane
▪ Crane is the only single machine which as a single piece is capable
to provide 3D movement of weight
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CRANES ARE BROADLY
CLASSIFIED AS :
i. Stationary or derrick cranes
ii. Mobile cranes
iii. Overhead or gantry cranes
iv. Traveller cranes
v. Tower cranes
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DERRICK CRANES/STATIONARY CRANE
PARTS:
* MAST * BOOM * BULL WHEEL ON WHICH THE BOOM ROTATES
ABOUT A VERTICAL AXIS AND * GUYS OR SUPPORTING MEMBERS.
TYPES:
* GUY-DERRICK * STIFF LEG DERRICK.
*ELECTRICALLY OPERATED, *DIESEL OPERATED OR * DIESEL-ELECTRICALLY
OPERATED.
OPERATION:
• THE BOOM CAN REVOLVE THROUGH 360 DEGREE.
• IT CAN CARRY LOADS UPTO 200 TONS.
• WHEN THE LOAD IS LESS THAN 50 TONS GUY ROPES ARE REPLACED BY
TRUSSED STRUCTURE.
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• STIFF LEG DERRICK CAN CARRY 7- 50 TONS.
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DERRICK CRANES
USES:
• LOADING AND UNLOADING CARGOES AT PORTS.
• TO HANDLE LOOSE MATERIALS LIKE SAND, BALLAST, COAL.
• IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS, INDUSTRIAL, MULTISTOREYED

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.
• PLANT ERRECTION.
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DERRICK CRANE
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DERRICK CRANE
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MOBILE CRANE
➢ THEY ARE EITHER CRAWLER MOUNTED OR WHEEL MOUNTED.
➢ CRAWLER MOUNTED ARE SLOW AND OPERATE ON UNMADE

GROUND.
➢ SUITABLE FOR ROUGH TERRAINS.
➢ OPERATE IN A LIMITED AREA.
➢ TRUCK MOUNTED CRANES HAVE HIGH MOBILITY.
➢ SPEED - 70-75 KM/HR.
➢ LOAD – 3 TO 160 TONS.
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MOBILE CRANE
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MOBILE CRANE
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OVERHEAD OR GANTRY CRANE
✓ USED FOR HANDLING LOADS OVER A LONG RECTANGULAR AREA.
✓ FREEDOM FROM FLOOR OBSTRUCTIONS
✓ TWO MAIN PARTS: (1) BRIDGE AND (2) CRAB
✓ IT CONSISTS OF BRIDGE WHICH IS FIXED BY TWO GANTRY GRIDERS AT

THE ENDS SUPPORTED BY TRAM WHEELS.
✓ THE CRAB CONSITS OF HOISTING GEAR MOUNTED ON FRAME OF BRIDGE.
✓ FRAME ITSELF MOUNTED ON ANOTHER SET OF WHEELS TO MOVE ALONG

MAIN GRIDERS.
✓ WIDELY USED IN ERECTION, FOUNDRY, STEEL PLANTS , STORAGE YARDS

AND DIFFERENT TYPES OF INDUSTRIAL WORKS
126
127
OVER HEAD CRANE
128
OVER HEAD CRANE
129
OVER HEAD CRANE
130
TRAVELLER CRANE
❖ THESE HAVE THEIR CRABS MOVING ON GIRDERS SUPPORTED
ON LEGS INSTEAD OF GRATRY TRACKS AS USED IN THE
OVERHEAD CRANES.
❖ THE LEGS ARE CAPABLE OF MOVING ON TRACKS LAID ON THE
FLOOR.
❖ USED IN DUMPING YARDS, CASTING YARDS, ERECTION
INDUSTRIES ETC.,
131
TRAVELLER CRANE
132
TRAVELLER CRANE
133
134
135
136
137
TOWER CRANE
138
TOWER CRANE
139
TOWER CRANE
140
141
142
CONVEYING EQUIPMENT
• Transporting material from one place to another over a
stationary structure.
• Caries material in continuous stream with its distinct
feature such as endless chain or belt.
• Can be done horizontally, vertically or inclined
.• When the equipment does horizontal conveying, it is
known as conveyor
• When it does vertical, it is known as elevator.
• Conveying are mainly used in mining, construction and in
some of the industries.
• In construction industry, conveyors are mainly used for
143
concreting purpose.
ADVANTAGE OF USING
CONVEYORS
1. It increases the output.
2. It facilitates continuity in operation.
3. It results in time saving.
4. There are no waiting periods.
5.Some of the popular conveyors are as follows:-
➢ Belt conveyor
➢ Screw conveyor
➢ Bucket conveyor
144
BELT CONVEYOR
* MOST POPULAR
* CONSISTS OF A BELT RUNNING OVER A PAIR OF END DRUMS

SUPPORTED BY A SERIES OF ROLLERS CALLED IDLERS
* MIDDLE SAG IS PROVIDED TO PREVENT THE SPILLING OF

MATERIALS
ADVANTAGES:
* CAN HANDLE LIGHT,HEAVY, DRY, WET, SOFT, COARSE
MATERIALS
* CONVEY SEVERAL THOUSAND TONS OF MATERIAL PER HOUR
AND FOR DISTANCES OF SEVERAL KILOMETERS.
* CARRIES HORIZONTALLY AND INCLINED
* LIGHTER IN WEIGHT
* CONTROLLED DISCHARGE ( SPEED CAN BE CONTROLLED BY
SPEED OF BELT)
145
146
COMPONENTS OF BELT CONVEYOR
➢ Belt: Costliest component made from rubber, steel or wire mesh
➢ Pulleys: Located at terminal of belt conveyor. It supports the belt and

transfer power to belts
➢ Belt support system (idlers): Three roll type with central roll being
horizontal and other two inclined ( 20° with horizontal ) to form a trough
➢ Driver: Electric motor
➢ Motor and control: Squirrel cage and wound rotor type motor
➢ Conveyor belt take ups: To adjust the increase in length of belt due to
elongation when put in operation (1) Screw (2) Weighted pulley type
➢ Hold backs: mechanical device allows pulley to rotate in forward direction

only
➢ Feeders: Deliver material at uniform rate
147
COMPONENTS OF BELT CONVEYOR
148
TROUGHED 3 ROLLER IDLER
149
150
BELT CONVEYOR
151
BELT CONVEYOR
BARROSO, BRAZIL - 7.2 KILOMETER - LONGEST BELT CONVEYOR
152
SCREW CONVEYOR
* USED FOR HANDLING GRANULAR OR PULVARISED MATERIALS
* QUANTITY IS LESS COMPARED TO BELT CONVEYOR.
* LOW COST
• CONSISTS OF A HELIX MOUNTED ON A BEARING AT THE ENDS AND AT
INTERMEDIATE POINTS AND IS DRIVEN BY MOTOR FROM ONE END
• MATERIAL ENTERS FROM ONE END AND CARRIED TO OTHER END BY
SCREWING ACTION OF HELIX
• LENGTH IS 65 M
• INCLINATION UPTO 35 DEGREES
153
SCREW CONVEYOR
154
SCREW CONVEYOR
155
BUCKET CONVEYORS
➢ MATERIAL IS TRANSFERRED THROUGH A
SERIES OF V SHAPED BUCKETS OPEN AT TOP.
➢ THEY MAY BE FEEDER LOADED OR MAY DRAG
IN A VERTICAL MOVEMENT OF ALONG AN
INCLINED
➢ * LENGTH IS LIMITED TO 25M ( DUE TO
WEIGHT OF THE CONVEYOR AND AND THE
STRENGTH OF CHAINS)
156
➢ * MAINLY USED FOR HANDLING COAL.
BUCKET CONVEYORS
157
BUCKET CONVEYORS
158
AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENTS
&
MIXING AND PLACING OF
CONCRETE
159
AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE
PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT
• Aggregate has to be produced at the site, if the quantity
needed is very large.
• Therefore, in any project where concrete requirement is very
high, an aggregate preparation and processing plant is
essential to complete the concreting operations.
• Aggregate production consists of two stages is recovery and
processing.
• Basic material, such as stone, is recovered from a rock
quarry or from the river bed and processing is done which
consists of crushing, grading, washing and stock piling of
aggregate.
160
Crushers: Used mainly to reduce the size of large
stone or rock to smaller uniform sized aggregates
required for concrete mix.
• Crushing consists of
➢ Pressure,
➢ Impact,
➢ Attrition
➢ A combination of these operations
TYPES:
➢ Jaw crushers
➢ Gyratory crusher
➢ Cone crusher
➢ Roll crusher
➢ Hammer mill
161
➢ Rod mill and ball mill
JAW CRUSHERS
➢ It is one of the primary crushers
➢ It operates by allowing stone to flow into the space between
two jaws, one of which is stationary and other is movable,
which together constitute the crushing surfaces.
➢ The distance between the two jaws decreases as the stone
travels downward under the effect of gravity and ultimately
passes through the lower opening.
➢ The moveable jaw is capable of exerting a pressure
sufficiently high to crush the hardest rock.
➢ The movable jaw is suspended from a shaft mounted on
bearings on the crusher frame.
➢ The jaw plates are made of manganese steel which can be
removed, replaced or reversed.
162
JAW CRUSHERS
163
GYRATORY CRUSHER
➢ This is another type of primary crusher.
➢ This type of crusher comprises a hardened steel head has
a long conical shape, with a trough shaft suspended in a
bearing at the top, and an eccentric base connection
connected to gears.
➢ Thus, as the cone is rotated, the gap between itself and the
walling changes from a maximum to minimum for each
cycle.
➢ The rock is feed into the chamber at the top and as it
moves downward, crushing is done and finally emerges
through the bottom gap.
➢ The size of this type of crusher is the width of the receiving
opening measured between the concaves and the crushers
head.
164
➢ It is available in sizes varying from 20cm to 200cm.
GYRATORY CRUSHER
165
CONE CRUSHER
➢ Cone crusher are used as a secondary or
tertiary crusher.
➢ These crusher are capable of producing
large quantities of uniformly fine crushed
stone.
➢ It has a shorter cone with smaller inlet and
outlet openings as compared to the gyratory
crusher.
166
CONE CRUSHER
167
ROLL CRUSHER
➢ Roll crushers are also one of the secondary or
tertiary crushers.
➢ This crusher consists of a heavy cast iron frame
equipped with two counter rotating rollers mounted
on a separate horizontal shaft.
➢ The crushed rock from the primary crusher is feed
through the gap between the two rollers for
crushing further.
➢ Usually one roller has a fixed axis while the other
can be adjusted to give the required setting.
➢ The crusher is compact, light weight and low in
cost.
168
169
HAMMER MILL
➢ Hammer mill is one of the impact crushers mostly
used as primary or secondary crusher.
➢ It consists of a housing frame, a horizontal shaft
extending through the frame, number of frames and
hammers attached to the frame and one more hard
steel breaker plates.
➢ As the stone is feed to the mill, the hammers,
which are driven by a motor, move at the high
speed and brake the stone into pieces and driving
them against the hard plate, further reduce their
size.
170
HAMMER MILL
171
HAMMER MILL
172
ROD MILL AND BALL MILL
➢ This are the tertiary crushers.
➢ A rod mill consist of a circular steel shell.
➢ The interior of the shell is lined on the inside with a hard
material wearing surface.
➢ The shell contains a number of steel rods.
➢ The length of these rod is slightly less than the length of the
shell.
➢ Crushed stone is feed through the inlet and fine aggregate of
the size of sand is discharged at the other end.
➢ If the rods are replaced by steel balls to provide the impact
required the grind the stones, the crusher is known as the
ball mill crusher.
173
➢ The size of the balls generally used is 50 mm dia.
ROD MILL AND BALL MILL
174
175
CONCRETE BATCHING PLANTS /BATCHERS
✓ Function: Batching + Mixing the concrete ingredients
✓ Batching: Proportionating the ingredients of concrete for a
particular mix separately for each batch.
✓ Types : Static, fully mobile or transportable and having capacity up
to 300 m3/hr
✓ Weigh batching is commonly used.
✓ Arrangements for
➢ Accepting all aggregates
➢ Weighing all aggregates and cement
➢ Measuring water quantity
➢ Mixing of all ingredients
✓ It consists of
➢ Storage bins for storing materials like cement ( cement silo) and
admixtures.
➢ Aggregate feeder
➢ Water measuring devices
➢ Mixing unit
176
TYPES:
1. MANUAL BATCHING
2. SEMI - AUTOMATIC BATCHING
3. AUTOMATIC BATCHING
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mnGzm2rqx_c)
https://www.indiamart.com/proddetail/concrete-batching-plant-automation-
4585766291.html?pos=3&pla=n
177
CONCRETE BATCHING PLANT
Aggregate
178
179
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WWtXT-
Construction Equipments Wc4ts
180
181
CONCRETE MIXERS
❑ Mixing all the ingredients of concrete to make a mix of specified
consistency
FACTORS GOVERNING MIXING:

❖ Correct setting of machine
❖ Proper cleaning of blades
❖ Sequence of material charged
❖ Timely supply of water
❖ Direction of in - flow
❖ Speed and time of mixing
182
CONCRETE MIXERS
TYPES:
(1) ACCORDING TO OPERATING CONDITIONS:
▪ Batch mixer & Continuous mixer
(1) ACCORDING TO PRINCIPLE OF MIXING:
▪ Gravity type & Forced mixing
(1) ACCORDING TO CONDITION OF USE:
▪ Stationary & portable
Major Types:
➢ HAND FEED DRUM TYPE MIXERS - TILTING & NON - TILTING
➢ BUCKET AND HYDRAULIC BUCKET LOADER
➢ PAN TYPE MIXERS
183
HAND FEED DRUM CONCRETE MIXERS
184
CONCRETE
BUCKET
185
HYDRAULICALLY DRIVEN
CONCRETE MIXER BUCKET
186
PAN TYPE CONCRETE MIXERS
187
PAN TYPE CONCRETE MIXERS
188
CONCRETE PLACERS
❑ Usually done through buckets carried on rail roads or
tracks.
❑ Dump trucks and belt conveyors are also used.
❑ Cable ways can be used or
❑ The hoisting of buckets may be done with the help of
cranes.
❑ Concrete Placement with Pump Truck
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wzb1i9hrUrc)
189
CONCRETE PLACERS
190
191
192
193
194
EARTH COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
➢ Most construction sites need a stable ground to do their work on.
➢ The soil needs to be compressed so there aren’t any pockets of air
underground that can disrupt the process.
➢ For this to work, special construction equipment is needed to properly compact
and smooth the ground.
➢ One of the most common types of compaction equipment is the road roller.
SMOOTH – WHEEL ROLLERS
SHEEP – FOOT ROLLERS
➢ Ordinary sheep – foot roller

➢ Convertible roller
➢ Turn foot roller
PNEUMATIC TYRED ROLLERS
VIBRATORY ROLLERS
195
SMOOTH WHEELED OR STATIC ROLLERS
➢ Plain steel rollers
➢ Self – propelled (5 to 25 tonnes)
➢ No deep compaction
➢ One front and two rear wheels
➢ Rear wheels are larger in diameter and the front ones are wider
➢ Diesel engine type
➢ Compaction is by static weight of roller
➢ Weight of the rollers may be increased by filling water or sand ballast in hollow
cylinder.
SUITABILITY:
➢ GRANULAR SOILS SUCH AS
▪ Sand
▪ Gravel
196
▪ Crushed stones
SMOOTH WHEELED OR STATIC
ROLLERS
There are generally two types of smooth wheeled rollers: single and double drum
roller.
197
DOUBLE DRUM OR TANDEM
The tandem, or double drum roller, has one steel drum in the
front and one in the back. As the two drums move, this
moves the roller. The efficiency of the tandem roller comes
from the two drums — entire sections of a highway can be
flattened and paved quickly and efficiently.
These rollers are great for flat or gradual surfaces like
asphalt, but because they have very little traction, they’re not
recommended for anything specialized.
➢ Has one steel drum in the front and one in the back.
➢ As the two drums move, this moves the roller. The efficiency of the tandem roller
comes from the two drums — entire sections of a highway can be flattened and
paved quickly and efficiently.
198
➢ These rollers are great for flat or gradual surfaces like asphalt, but because
they have very little traction, they’re not recommended for anything specialized.
SINGLE DRUM OR THREE-WHEELED
➢ They typically have a steel drum in the front and two special wheels in the back
➢ Single drum rollers can work in tighter spaces and more specialized projects due
to their smaller size.
➢ They’re great for creating foundations for buildings and paving highways or
199
sidewalks, but because of the extra weight in the front, they won’t roll over some
surfaces.
SMOOTH WHEEL ROLLER
200
Construction Equipments https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nimH9utnKe0
SMOOTH WHEEL ROLLER
201
SMOOTH WHEEL ROLLER
202
203
204
Sheepsfoot rollers, also known as padfoot or tamping rollers, are rollers with many
rectangular-shaped lugs, or “feet.” They’re great for compacting soil and silty clay
in road construction work.
The sheepsfoot drum’s weight can be increased by ballasting it with water,
damp sand, or mounting steel sections onto it, providing a more efficient
compacting job.
❑ Compacting earth work in embankments and canals ( where compaction
deep into the layer of earth is required)
❑ Hollow steel drum with projected feet mounted at 100 to 200 mm c/c
❑ Weight - 15 tonnes
❑ Speed - 25 km/hr
❑ Compaction is by kneading action
❑ In convertible rollers the foot plate can be removed
❑ In turn foot rollers the individual sheep foot can be changed
SUITABILITY:
205
Clay, predominantly cohesive and impervious soil
Construction Equipments https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q7Ck7BMtSPs
206
PNEUMATIC TYRED ROLLER
207
➢ Pneumatic rollers, sometimes called pneumatic tyred
rollers, are a type of large, ride-on roller with several
rows of rubber tires on the front or rear end instead
of steel tyred or drums .
➢ The rubber tires provide an 80% coverage area and
uniform pressure throughout the width of the tires.
➢ The tyres are mounted in pairs that can oscillate,
so tyres can move down into soft spots that would
be the barrier for a steel drum.
➢ They are typically used for pavements and can help
smooth out and polish a project, but are also great for
cold-laid bituminous or cold mixed pavements and
layers of loose soil.
➢ Ideal for compaction and leveling of asphalt-
surface, cohesive and non-cohesive base layers
as well as sub-base layers of various materials.
➢ Weight or width of the wheel can be suitably
increased
208
✓ Major advantages are the ability to control the ground
contact pressure by:
❖ Altering the weights of machine
❖ Increasing the number of wheels
❖ Increasing the tyre width
❖ Changing the contact area of the tyre by altering the

contact pressure
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3-WsT2UK0T0
209
VIBRATORY ROLLERS
Vibratory rollers are almost identical to smooth wheel rollers (including the single
and double drum) except for one major difference:
210
they come with a specialized vibrating component.
As the roller compacts and flattens the surface, it will vibrate.
VIBRATORY ROLLERS
➢ Since soil, asphalt, and concrete have natural empty spaces, they
can cause a building to warp and sink, causing damage to the
structure.
➢ Using a vibratory roller on your construction project can help
keep the building’s structural integrity.
➢ Other types of soil that vibratory rollers are great at compacting
are crushed rock or gravel.
211
HAULING EQUIPMENTS
❑ Hauling is defined as movement of matreials from one place to
another place.
❑ Equipments used for this process is hauling equipments/haulers.
❑ Used for transpiration of building materials, carriage and disposal
of excavated earth, haulage of heavy construction equipments
❑ The hauling capacity depends on volume carried by it in one trip
and no of trips made in one hour.
❑ CYCLE TIME: LOAD TIME+HAUL TIME + DUMP TIME + RETURN
TIME
TYPES:
❖ DUMP TRUCKS ( SIDE OR REAR DUMP TRUCKS, BOTTOM DUMP
TRUCKS)
❖ DUMPERS
212
DUMP TRUCKS
Heavy duty truck with strongly built body which is hinged on the
truck chassis at the rear end or side .
▪ Dumping is through the sides of the truck
▪ Suitable for hauling wet clay, sand, gravel, quarry rocks.
TYPES: CLASSIFIED BASED ON METHOD OF DUMPING THE LOAD
1. DUMP TRUCK
➢ SIDE/REAR DUMP TRUCK
➢ BOTTOM DUMP TRUCKS
213
SIDE DUMP TRUCKS
214
SIDE DUMP TRUCKS
215
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=riC0ZiQkGjY
REAR DUMP TRUCKS
216
217
BOTTOM DUMP TRUCK:
▪ These are similar semi trailers in which their front is

supported on the rear of the hauling tractor and their
rear is resting on their own wheels
▪ The body of the truck remains in the same position and

the discharge of the materials takes place through its
bottom after opening two longitudinal gates
▪ Gates are hinged to the side of the body
▪ Suitable for free flowing materials such as sand, gravel,

dry earth, hard clay.
218
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCEaw-FzHDM
219
DUMPERS
Dumpers are distinguished from dump trucks by configuration: a dumper is
usually an open 4-wheeled vehicle with the load skip in front of the driver, while
a dump truck has its cab in front of the load.
❖ High speed pneumatic wheeled trucks
❖ short chasis ( Base frame)
❖ Strong bodies.
❖ Loading , hauling and dumping is done very fast as compared to other
equipments
❖ Suitable for short hauls on rough roads and specially where a shuttle
movement is required.
220
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C4k_Dw55OUI
221
REFERENCES
❑ Purushothama Raj.P “Construction Techniques Equipment and
Practices”, Sri Krishna Hitech Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd,
Chennai, June 2016.
❑ Seetharaman.S , Chinnamsamy.M “Construction Techniques,
Equipment and Practices”, Anuradha Publictions, Chennai, 2015.
❑ Sharma S.C. “Construction Equipment and Management”, Khanna
Publishers New Delhi, 2002.
222

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CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS

5. AGGREGATE AND CONCRETE PRODUCTION EQUIPMENT

6. PILE DRIVING EQUIPMENT

7. TUNNELING AND ROCK DRILLING EQUIPMENT

8. PUMPING AND DEWATERING EQUIPMENT

❖ HEIGHT OF THE EXCAVATION

❖ DISPOSAL OF THE EXCAVATED MATERIAL

❖ DISTANCE OF EXCAVATION SITE TO HAULING UNITS

❖ MATERIAL TO BE REMOVED FROM SITE

❖ TYPE OF SOIL TO BE EXCAVATED

❖ DUARATION OF PROJECT (FOR EXCAVATION)

1. POWER SHOVEL/FRONT SHOVEL

▪ WHEEL MOUNTED (HIGH SPEED - FIRM GROUND)

▪ CRAWLER MOUNTED (LOW SPEED - UNSTABLE SOIL)

* HOIST LINE * DIPPER / BUCKET ( Size = .375 m3 to 5 m3)

➢VERY HARD MATERIALS, BIG SIZED BOULDERS.

FACTORS CONTROLLING OUTPUT:

* ANGLE OF SWING * SKILL OF OPERATOR

• SIZE OF HAULING UNITS * JOB & MANAGEMENT CONDITION

• PHYSICAL CONDITION OF SHOVEL * HAUL EXCHANGE TIME

• ALSO TERMED AS HOE, BACK SHOVEL AND PULL SHOVEL.

* MOUNTING & CAB * BOOM

* BOOM CYLINDER * BUCKET CYLINDER

* DIPPER STICK, * BUCKET ( DIPPER)

• SIMILAR TO SHOVEL EXCEPT IT MAKES INWARD STROKES WHILE DIGGING.

• TO TRIM THE SURFACE (DRESSING).

• Because of this construction, a dragline can dig and dump over

• Drag lines are useful for

digging below its track level and

handling softer materials.

Types: Crawler or wheel mounted,

o Dragging softer material and below its track level

o It is very useful for excavating trenches the sides without

o It has long reaches so earth can be removed from a trench or

o Excavation for canals and depositing on the embankment

• SIZE ( Size of bucket: 1 -1.4 m3)

• SIZE OF HAULING UNITS IF USED & METHOD

• LENGTH OF CRANE BOOM

• JOB & MANAGEMENT CONDITION

• Used for handling loose materials

• The front end is essentially a crane boom with a specially

• The capacity of a clam shell bucket is usually given in cubic

• Sizes : Heavy duty medium and

• Used for handling loose material such as crushed

• Main feature is vertical lifting of material from one

• Mainly used for removing material from coffer dam,

Excavation in wet soil or Moderately Moderately

Distance between footing

Moderately Precise but

Fairly away Fairly away

Shortly more More than the

➢ THE EXCAVATING DEVICE IS CONNECTED TO A MEANS OF

➢ TRENCH WIDTH : 0.3 TO 1.5 M

➢ CUTTING DEPTH : 2.5 M

➢ WATER, GAS, OIL PIPE LINES

❑ Mainly used for pulling and pushing other machines /load

❑ Multi purpose machines

2. CRAWLER TYPE ( Heavy duty work , speed <12 km/Hr )

➢ High or low tractive efficiency

➢ Firmness or smoothness as well as slope of haul road

➢ Length of haul and type of work to be done after job work

❖ Clearing & excavating machinery

❖ Hauling & conveying machinery

Grading & spreading finishing and levelling

ELECTRICALLY OPERATED, DIESEL OPERATED OR * DIESEL-ELECTRICALLY