Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology

ISSN: 0022-3131 (Print) 1881-1248 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tnst20

Current understanding of radiation-induced

degradation in light water reactor structural
materials

Koji Fukuya

To cite this article: Koji Fukuya (2013) Current understanding of radiation-induced degradation
in light water reactor structural materials, Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 50:3,
213-254, DOI: 10.1080/00223131.2013.772448

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223131.2013.772448

Published online: 15 Mar 2013.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 5333

View related articles

Citing articles: 39 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tnst20
Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, 2013
Vol. 50, No. 3, 213–254, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00223131.2013.772448

50TH ANNIVERSARY INVITED REVIEW

Current understanding of radiation-induced degradation in light water reactor structural materials

Koji Fukuya∗
Institute of Nuclear Safety System, 64 Sata, Mihama-cho, Fukui 919-1205, Japan
(Received 28 September 2012; accepted final version for publication 12 December 2012)

Current phenomenological knowledge and understanding of mechanisms are reviewed for radiation em-
brittlement of reactor pressure vessel low alloy steels and irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking of
core internals of stainless steels. Accumulated test data of irradiated materials in light water reactors and
microscopic analyses by using state-of-the-art techniques such as a three-dimensional atom probe and elec-
tron backscatter diffraction have significantly increased knowledge about microstructural features. Charac-
teristics of solute clusters and deformation microstructures and their contributions to macroscopic material
property changes have been clarified to a large extent, which provide keys to understand in the degradation
mechanisms. However, there are still fundamental research issues that merit study for long-term operation
of reactors that requires reliable quantitative prediction of radiation-induced degradation of component
materials in low-dose rate high-dose conditions.
Keywords: light water reactor; neutron irradiation; radiation embrittlement; IASCC; low-alloy steel;
stainless steels

1. Introduction evaluation during long-term operation, continuous ef-

Structural components located near nuclear fuel
assemblies in light water reactors (LWRs) are ex-
posed to intense radiation fields. Neutron irradiation
causes significant changes in material properties and
in some cases results in degradation of structural in-
tegrity. Among various radiation-induced degradation
phenomena, there are two major phenomena in LWRs.
One is radiation embrittlement of reactor pressure ves-
sels (RPVs) made of ferritic low alloy steels. This phe-
nomenon appears as a decrease in fracture toughness
and upper shelf energy and a shift of ductile brittle
transition temperature to a higher temperature. The
other is irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking
(IASCC) of reactor core structural components made
of austenitic stainless steels (SSs). IASCC appears as an
increase in cracking susceptibility and crack growth rate
(CGR) in high temperature water. Since both degrada-
tion phenomena become more pronounced as the neu-
tron fluence increases, these are now of increasing con-
cern for the structural integrity of aged LWRs in long-
term operations of 60 or 80 years.
There have been a large number of experimental
and theoretical studies on radiation embrittlement and
IASCC, and reviews have been already published [1–7].
However, to improve the reliability of structural integrity
forts are needed from both scientific and engineering as-
pects since experimental data and knowledge are still
scarce at higher fluences. In radiation embrittlement, it
is necessary to precisely predict changes in transition
temperature and fracture toughness at high fluences and
this requires improved understanding of mechanisms for
a physical basis. Radiation embrittlement of RPVs is
caused by microstructural changes in the material alone,
while IASCC is a more complex phenomenon than radi-
ation embrittlement since more processes relating to ra-
diation, materials, water environment and stress–strain
are simultaneously involved. Not only material damage
processes induced by neutron irradiation, but also corro-
sion and water radiolysis processes induced by neutron
and gamma radiation are involved in IASCC. Reliable
predictions of crack initiation and growth inevitably re-
quire sound understanding of mechanisms.
Recent development of microanalysis techniques
such as three-dimensional atom probe (3DAP) and elec-
tron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) techniques provides
researchers with new knowledge of microstructural and
microchemical characteristics under irradiation. Fur-
thermore such microstructural and microchemical data
are obtained from LWR-irradiated materials such as
surveillance specimens of RPVs and removed materials

∗
Email: fukuya@inss.co.jp


C 2013 Atomic Energy Society of Japan. All rights reserved.
214
Figure 1. Examples of (a) intensity distribution of neutrons
and gamma rays and (b) neutron energy spectrum within the
RPV in a PWR (figures drawn using radiation transport cal-
culation data from [8]).
of in-core components. These knowledge and data en-
able elucidation of the precise role of microscopic fea-
tures on degradation mechanisms. In this paper, cur-
rent phenomenological knowledge and understanding
of mechanisms for radiation embrittlement and IASCC
in pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and boiling wa-
ter reactors (BWRs) are summarized and discussed. The
major concern is focused on Mn–Mo–Ni steels for RPVs
and type 304 and 316 SSs for core internals, with further
emphasis being placed on microscopic material changes
and their role in degradation processes.
2. Radiation environment
Figure 1 shows examples of the intensity distribution
of neutrons and gamma rays and neutron energy spec-
trum within the RPV in a PWR [8]. Neutron flux on a
structural component depends on its distance from the
reactor core as well as the reactor type and power. The
estimated maximum fluence or dose and typical tem-
perature in the RPV and core internals of BWRs and
K. Fukuya
Figure 2. Maximum fluence or dose and typical tempera-
ture for 40-year operation of a reactor pressure vessel and core
internals.
PWRs for 40-year operation are shown in Figure 2. The
dose reaches ∼100 dpa for PWR core internals, while
it is ∼0.1 dpa for the PWR RPV. The neutron doses in
BWRs are almost one or two orders lower than those in
PWRs since BWRs have lower core power densities and
larger distances between the core and components than
PWRs.
Neutron irradiation causes displacement damage
and also the generation of He atoms through nuclear
transmutation reactions of thermal neutrons mainly
with B-10 and Ni-58. The He generation rate is esti-
mated to be about 5–20 appmHe/dpa in core internals
SSs. This rate is almost two orders higher than that in the
core of fast breeder reactors (FBRs). Exposure to neu-
trons and gamma rays causes water radiolysis by decom-
posing water molecules in coolant water. The maximum
dose rate absorbed in coolant water is estimated to be
103 –104 Gy/s in the core region of LWRs.
3. Radiation embrittlement of pressure vessel steels
3.1. Radiation effects on embrittlement
The measure of radiation embrittlement is the de-
crease in fracture toughness, and in Charpy V-notch im-
pact tests for surveillance programs, the shift of the duc-
tile brittle transition temperature (hereafter transition
temperature shift) at a specific absorbed energy. It is well
known that the sensitivity to radiation embrittlement de-
pends on material variables such as the chemical com-
position and microstructural variation with thermome-
chanical treatments, and irradiation variables such as
temperature and neutron flux. Effects of these vari-
ables on the transition temperature or fracture tough-
ness are briefly summarized in this section. Figure 3
shows schematic figures depicting embrittlement trends
versus neutron fluence in BWRs and PWRs with varia-
tions of Cu and Ni contents and neutron flux.
3.1.1. Influences of material variables
Material composition. Cu, Ni, P and Mn have
been identified as solute elements that have a distinct
influence on radiation embrittlement. The impurity
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
Figure 3. Schematic embrittlement trends in (a) low-flux
BWR and (b) high-flux PWR conditions.
Cu, typical contents of 0.05–0.3% in RPV steels, has a
dominant effect on radiation embrittlement. The words
‘high-Cu’ and ‘low-Cu’ are often used in the literature,
and in this paper both are used for Cu contents higher
than 0.2% and lower than 0.07–0.08%, respectively. It
is recognized that Cu enhances the rise and saturation
of transition temperature shift (rise at a higher rate and
saturation at a lower fluence for higher Cu contents)
from model steel data with very high Cu content (up
to 0.5%), while the Cu effects become insignificant for
Cu contents lower than 0.07%. Recent surveillance data
and material test reactor (MTR) data in commercial
steels containing Cu at less than 0.2% indicate that Cu
has a clear influence even at contents less than 0.07%
[9,10]. The change in transition temperature shift per
unit fluence seems to be relatively insensitive to Cu
contents at high fluences [9–11].
Ni is an alloying element, typical contents of 0.5–
1.5% in RPV steels, and is known to enhance hardening
and embrittlement. The Ni effect is more significant for
higher Cu steels, suggesting a combined effect with Cu
[12,13]. The Ni effect seems to become less significant
for lower Cu steels [14,15] since recent data on high-Ni
commercial steel A508Cr4N (3.3%Ni) showed a similar
transition temperature shift to that of low-Ni A508Gr2
steel (<1%Ni). Data of ion-irradiated model alloys
showed that Ni enhanced hardening regardless of Cu
content [16].
215
Mn is an alloying element, typical content of 0.5–
1.5% in RPV steels, and is known from recent data to
enhance radiation hardening and embrittlement [13,17–
19]. A clear enhancement was observed in high-Cu
model steels with increasing Mn from 0.01 to 1.63%
[17]. In simple Fe–Mn alloys, significant enhancement
of hardening by Mn addition up to 1.5% was observed
after MTR irradiation [19].
P is an impurity element, typical contents below
0.03% in RPV steels, and is known to enhance radiation
hardening and embrittlement in low-Cu steels [20,21].
Since P content generally varies with Cu content in com-
mercial steels, the P effect becomes unclear for high-Cu
commercial steels in which radiation embrittlement is
dominated by Cu content. P is also known to enhance
the sensitivity to intergranular fracture if P segregation
becomes significant at grain boundaries (GBs). The in-
tergranular fracture mode causes transition tempera-
ture shift without hardening. This effect is discussed in
Section 3.2.3.
Microstructures. The sensitivity to embrittlement is
known to depend on the pre-irradiation microstructure,
which is determined by fabrication and thermomechan-
ical processes, for example, by the plate, forge, weld and
heat affected zone (HAZ). The microstructural varia-
tions include the amount and distribution of pre-existing
dislocations, carbides, other precipitates, impurity seg-
regation and so on. These microstructural variations re-
sult in differences in irradiation-induced microstructural
changes and resultant mechanical property changes. For
a similar chemical composition, the transition tempera-
ture shift is generally similar in plate and forged materi-
als, and even in base metals and weld metals. However,
for example, a relatively large shift was reported partic-
ularly in weld metals such as Linde 80. The exact rea-
son of the large shift has not been clarified yet, although
low upper shelf energy was considered as one of the pos-
sible reasons [22]. In the HAZ, the sensitivity to radia-
tion embrittlement varies with the distance from the fu-
sion line [23,24]. This generally reflects microstructural
variation with the distance due to thermal history vari-
ations. It was reported that a coarse grain HAZ showed
a higher transition temperature shift after MTR irradia-
tion than others such as a fine grain HAZ [23]. The size
distribution of fine precipitates such as Mo2 C and AlN
was found to affect transition temperature shift in low-
Cu A533B steels after MTR irradiation [25]. The transi-
tion temperature shift was smaller for steels containing
finer and denser carbides [25]. The influence of the fine
carbide distribution might be related to a recent obser-
vation under heavy ion irradiation that radiation hard-
ening was larger in near-carbide regions compared to
matrix regions without carbides [26]. Influences of the
pre-irradiation microstructure and its mechanisms are
not fully understood compared to effects of material
composition.
216 K. Fukuya

3.1.2. Influences of irradiation variables

Irradiation temperature. Radiation embrittlement
is generally lower for lower irradiation temperature. The
influence of irradiation temperature on hardening or
embrittlement is often expressed by the temperature
term FT using a linear function of temperature T: FT =
1.869 – 4.57 × 10−3 T (K). This expression was derived

Δ
from data of C–Mn steels in gas-cooled reactors over a
wide temperature range [27]. Similar linear irradiation
temperature dependence was also observed in weld met-
als and A533B steels irradiated in MTRs [25,28]. Tem-
perature dependence was clearer for higher Cu content,
while it seemed to be relatively small at temperatures
lower than 300◦ C for high-Cu steels.

Neutron flux or dose rate. Influence of neutron flux

or dose rate has been and is still a major concern in
the prediction of radiation embrittlement. A number of
studies on flux effects have been conducted mainly using
MTR irradiation. Knowledge and understanding ob-
tained until 1990s were discussed and summarized in
2001, the Workshop on Dose Rate Effects in Reactor
Pressure Vessel Materials [29]. Additionally, there have
been publications on kinetic modeling of microstruc-
tural evolution [30,31]. Understanding of flux effects
(dose rate effects) on transition temperature shift based
on these studies was as follows:
(1) Flux effect varies with Cu content in steels
(higher or lower than 0.1%) and flux range
(lower than 5 × 109 n/cm2 /s, higher than 1011
n/cm2 /s flux). In high-Cu steels, the flux effect
also depends on whether the fluence is larger
than the saturation fluence of embrittlement.
(2) In steels with higher Cu contents at fluences less
than the saturation fluence, the flux effect ap-
pears both at lower and higher flux ranges. The
saturation fluence is lower for lower flux in both
lower and higher flux ranges. At fluences higher
than the saturation fluence, no clear flux effect
appears.
(3) In steels with lower Cu contents, no flux effect is
observed at fluxes lower than 1012 n/cm2 /s, while
the flux effect may appear at higher fluxes de-
pending on the contents of Ni and Mn.
Recently MTR irradiation experiments on archive
materials of RPVs were conducted for direct compar-
ison with surveillance data to provide a clear under-
standing of flux effects in both low- and high-flux ranges
[32,33]. For the low-flux, low-fluence region relevant to
BWRs, MTR irradiation of A302B steel (0.24%Cu) was
conducted at a flux of 7 × 1011 n/cm2 /s and the data
were compared with BWR surveillance data at 2 ×
109 n/cm2 /s (vessel wall position) and 2 × 1010 n/cm2 /s
(accelerated position). The results clearly showed that
lower flux irradiation enhanced radiation embrittlement
Δ
Figure 4. Comparison of transition temperature shifts be-
tween surveillance data and MTR data: (a) high-Cu BWR
surveillance material and (b) low-Cu PWR surveillance mate-
rial. The data from references [32,33] are replotted and trends
are shown.
(Figure 4a). For the high-flux, high-fluence region rel-
evant to PWRs, PWR surveillance data at 1 × 1011
n/cm2 /s were compared with MTR irradiation data on
two A533B steels (0.16 and 0.068%Cu) and one A508
steel (0.03%Cu) at a flux of 7 × 1012 n/cm2 /s. The tran-
sition temperature shift was higher for MTR irradia-
tion in 0.16% and 0.068%Cu A533B steels, as shown in
Figure 4(b) for 0.068%Cu steel, while the transition tem-
perature shift was comparable in the low-Cu A508 steel.
These data demonstrate that the general understanding
of flux effects summarized in 2001 is valid in flux condi-
tions relevant to RPVs in operating BWRs and PWRs.
Such direct comparison of commercial surveillance ma-
terials at different fluxes is very effective for the confir-
mation of the current understanding.
Thermal neutrons and gamma rays. Effects of ther-
mal neutrons and gamma rays were discussed in the
1990s, in order to understand mechanisms of acceler-
ated radiation embrittlement observed in surveillance
data of the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR) [34].
Gamma rays can cause displacement damage in mate-
rials through high-energy electrons and positrons that
are produced through gamma–material interactions,
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
Compton scattering, pair production and the photoelec-
tric effect [35]. It was confirmed that electron irradia-
tion with energies of several MeV causes hardening in
low-alloy steels [36–38]. For thermal neutron effects, the
contributions to displacement damage production and
additional damage production through the nuclear reac-
tion of boron were discussed. It was shown that thermal
neutrons were almost two times more effective for caus-
ing radiation embrittlement than fast neutrons at the
same dpa [39,40]. The contributions of thermal flux and
gamma rays to radiation embrittlement of pressure ves-
sel steels were assessed for the HFIR and LWRs consid-
ering the neutron and gamma-ray spectrum, core struc-
ture and water gap between the pressure vessel and core
[34,41]. The enhanced embrittlement observed in the
HFIR was attributed to additional damage induced by
high-flux gamma rays [34]. On the other hand, the con-
tributions of thermal neutrons and gamma rays to radi-
ation embrittlement in LWRs were estimated to be neg-
ligible. The displacement damage induced by thermal
neutrons and gamma rays was less than ∼5% in pressure
vessels in BWRs and PWRs. In advanced BWRs (AB-
WRs), a large contribution (∼50%) from gamma rays
was expected because of the larger water gap between the
core and pressure vessel. However, the flux in ABWRs is
very low and would cause negligible embrittlement [41].
Tensile stress. Stress during irradiation is one of the
potential factors that can cause changes in radiation em-
brittlement. Stress effects are an issue related to the dif-
ference between surveillance irradiation without stress
and pressure vessels under static tensile stress during op-
eration. Data collected in the 1960s showed that the ten-
sile stress had no effects or a suppressing effect on the
transition temperature shift [42–44] For example, no ef-
fects for a stress of 75% yield strength were observed in
A350 (0.08%Cu) and A302 (0.15%Cu) steels irradiated
to (2–3) × 1019 n/cm2 [42], while the transition temper-
ature shift was smaller for a tensile stress of 20% yield
strength in A302B steels irradiated to 5 × 1019 n/cm2
[44]. In order to understand the mechanisms of stress
effects, heavy ion irradiation experiments under stress
were recently conducted on A533B steels [45,46]. The
results showed that the tensile stress reduced radiation
hardening and produced smaller solute clusters.
3.2. Microstructural evolution and embrittlement
mechanisms
Understanding of radiation embrittlement mech-
anisms is directly connected with understanding mi-
crostructural features formed under irradiation and
their role in hardening and the transition temperature
shift. Application of advanced microanalysis techniques
such as small-angle neutron scattering (SANS), 3DAP,
positron annihilation (PA) and transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) has provided significant improve-
ment for mechanistic understanding [3]. Microstructural
217
features having dominant roles in radiation embrittle-
ment have been recognized as Cu precipitates and ex-
tended secondary defects such as microvoids in the 1980s
[47]. Odette and Lucas [1] have categorized microstruc-
tural features causing hardening and embrittlement and
noted Cu-rich precipitates (CRPs) and matrix damage
(MD) as major features. The Mn–Ni precipitate (MNP)
was proposed as the late blooming phase, which was
thought to be thermodynamically formed after long-
time irradiation of low-Cu, high-Ni steels. MD is divided
into two types: stable MD (SMD) such as interstitial
clusters and unstable MD (UMD) such as small vacancy
clusters that may redissolve at irradiation temperatures
[48], although the exact nature of MD has not been
identified. Radiation-enhanced segregation at GBs and
its influence on intergranular fracture were discussed in
the 1990s [49]. Further improvement of analysis tech-
niques such as local electrode atom probe and PA with
coincidence Doppler broadening (PA-CDB) [50] and ap-
plication of these techniques to surveillance specimens
have brought detailed information on microstructural
evolution.
At present, it is widely believed that there are three
major microstructural features causing embrittlement:
solute precipitates or clusters, MD and GB segregation.
The first two features cause embrittlement through ma-
terial hardening. The MD is a concept including all mi-
crostructural features other than CRPs. However, recent
3DAP analyses show that solute aggregates containing
Fe, Mn, Ni, Si, Cu and P are commonly formed in com-
mercial and model low-alloy steels regardless of the Cu
content. The aggregates exhibit diffused images and have
a wide range of Cu fractions, and are now often called
‘clusters’, rather than ‘precipitates’, in the recent liter-
ature. In this paper, thus, ‘solute cluster’ is used as a
general term. ‘Cu-rich cluster’ is used for clusters with
high Cu fraction formed in high-Cu steels and ‘Mn–Ni–
Si cluster’ for clusters containing Mn, Ni and Si atoms
with very low Cu fraction formed in low-Cu steels. Mn–
Ni–Si clusters are not included as MD described in this
paper, although their clusters with no or very low Cu
fractions are sometimes treated as MD in the literature.
3.2.1. Solute clusters
Recent observations in surveillance materials. Re-
cent 3DAP observations of surveillance materials have
provided key data for understanding microstructural
evolution in actual vessel materials under operating con-
ditions. In surveillance specimens (16MND5 steels with
0.09 and 0.044%Cu) irradiated in French PWRs at 2
× 1011 n/cm2 /s, fine clusters (3–4 nm in diameter) were
detected and the cluster density increased with fluence
up to 1.7 × 1020 n/cm2 [51,52]. The averaged compo-
sition in the 0.044%Cu steel was Fe–6Mn–10Ni–8Si in
at% and did not change with fluence up to 7.6 × 1019
n/cm2 . The clusters were uniformly formed in the ma-
terial although some clusters were present along line
218 K. Fukuya

dislocations. In high-Cu weld surveillance specimens

from Belgian PWRs, Doel-1 (0.13%Cu, 5.9 × 1019
n/cm2 ) and Doel-2 (0.30%Cu, 5.1 × 1019 n/cm2 ), the
formation of Cu-rich clusters was clearly identified [53].
The composition of the clusters, which varied with the
distance from the cluster center, was found to be 40Cu–
3Mn–2Ni–1Si–1P in at% at the center of the clusters.
The Cu content in the bulk rapidly decreased and sat-
urated at less than 0.1wt% in both steels at 1 × 1019
n/cm2 . The number density of the clusters decreased,
while the diameter increased with fluence. These data in-
dicated that the Cu-rich clusters rapidly nucleated at low
fluences and were coarsened at high fluences. These be-
haviors were well correlated with the results of PA-CDB
measurements. Positron lifetime measurements showed
that vacancy clusters with—three to four vacancies ap-
peared and accumulated with fluence. In VVER surveil-
lance specimens, formation of Mn–Ni–Si clusters was
found. Mn–Ni–Si clusters were formed in high-Ni, low-
Cu steels (0.03Cu–1.89Ni weld and 0.04Cu–1.0Ni plate)
[54], while Mn–Si clusters were found in low-Ni steels
(0.06Cu–0.07Ni) [55]. These findings indicated that the
clusters without Cu were commonly formed.
Systematic analyses were conducted on surveillance
Figure 5. Examples of 3DAP atom maps showing (a) Cu-rich
specimens from Japanese PWRs [0.03–0.16%Cu, 1 × clusters and (b) Mn–Ni–Si clusters in A533B steels irradiated
1011 n/cm2 /s, (3–6) × 1019 n/cm2 ] and BWRs (0.24%Cu, with heavy ions to 1 dpa at 290ºC (courtesy of Katsuhiko Fujii
1 × 109 n/cm2 /s, 1 × 1018 n/cm2 ) [32,33,56–59]. The of the Institute of Nuclear Safety System, Inc.). It should be
clusters containing Fe, Cu, Mn, Ni and Si were com- noted that Mn–Ni–Si clusters are also found in (a).
monly formed. The density, volume fraction and com-
position depended on the Cu content, while the clus-
ter diameter was not sensitive to it. In PWR surveil- case, at the same hardening level, Cu-rich clusters were
lance specimens [59], the number density and averaged dominant in the surveillance specimens at 4.2 × 108
atomic composition of the clusters were 23 × 1022 /m3 n/cm2 /s, while no clusters were found in MTR-irradiated
and 6Cu–10Ni–6Mn–7Si for 0.12%Cu steels, 12 × 1022 specimens at 3.6 × 1012 n/cm2 /s.
/m3 and 2Cu–11Ni–5Mn–9Si for 0.07%Cu steels, and
2 × 1022 /m3 and 0Cu–12Ni–6Mn–12Si for 0.04%Cu Characteristics of solute clusters. In addition to the
steels, respectively. In this range of Cu contents (0.03– surveillance specimen data mentioned above, a large
0.12%Cu), Cu atoms were not dominant in the clusters, sample of data from 3DAP, SANS and PA measure-
while the Cu content still had a strong effect on clus- ments have been reported on cluster formation in com-
ter density. In the clusters, the Si fraction increased as mercial steels and model alloys irradiated in MTRs and
the Cu fraction decreased, while the fractions of Ni and with charged particles [62–87]. Summaries of recent ob-
Mn remained unchanged. It was found that the clus- servations of solute cluster formation in low-alloy steels
ters in PWR surveillance specimens were larger and less are given below.
dense than those for MTR irradiation regardless of the
Cu content [33,56]. (1) The solute clusters are commonly formed in
In high-Cu BWR surveillance specimens [32,58], Cu- low-alloy steels regardless of alloy compositions.
rich clusters with an average composition of 11Cu–9Ni– Figure 5 shows the examples of 3DAP atom
7Mn–3Si in at% were formed at a density of 43 × 1022 maps indicating clusters formed by heavy ion
/m3 . This density was higher than densities in a higher irradiation in high-Cu and low-Cu steels [87].
flux surveillance specimen (1 × 1010 n/cm2 /s) and an The clusters identified by 3DAP generally have
MTR-irradiated specimen (7 × 1011 n/cm2 /s), indicat- neither a clear interface with the matrix nor a
ing a clear enhancement effect of flux on cluster for- specific lattice structure. The clusters are com-
mation. The enhancement of Cu-rich cluster formation posed of Fe, Mn, Ni, Si, Cu and occasionally P
in low-flux surveillance irradiation compared to high- atoms and the composition of the clusters de-
flux MTR irradiation was also reported in other high- pends on material composition. Although the
Cu BWR surveillance specimens (0.22%Cu weld) [60] composition of the clusters from 3DAP analysis
and high-Cu gas-cooled reactor surveillance specimens largely depends on the cluster definition method
(0.14–0.19%Cu C–Mn steels, 240◦ C) [61]. In the latter [76,88], data analysis based on a recursive search
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
Figure 6. CDB spectra in 0.12%Cu A533B steels irradiated
in a MTR at 290◦ C [37].
algorithm shows that Fe is the major element
and that the Fe atomic fraction often exceeds
50%. The fraction of Cu depends on the Cu con-
tent and is typically less than 20% in commer-
cial steels. The typical fractions of Ni, Mn and
Si in the clusters formed in commercial steels are
around 10%, 10% and 5%, respectively.
(2) Cu-rich clusters (Cu-enriched clusters in some
references) are formed in Cu-containing steels
and alloys. The Cu-rich clusters also contain
Mn, Ni, Si and P, and are composed of the core
of Cu atoms and the surrounding shell region en-
riched in Mn, Ni and Si. The formation of Cu-
rich clusters, measured as the number density of
the cluster, is enhanced by Cu content. The frac-
tion of Cu atoms in the clusters increases with
increasing Cu content. It is recognized that the
formation of Cu-rich clusters is governed not by
Cu content, but by solute Cu content. The Cu
content is decreased with dose, due to Cu-rich
cluster formation, and tends to saturate at 0.05–
0.15%. The formation of Cu-rich clusters was
detected at fluences of the order of 1017 n/cm2
by using the PA-CDB technique. Figure 6 shows
an example of CDB spectra in 0.12%Cu A533B
steel irradiated in a MTR at 290◦ C, showing the
rise of the Cu peak at 1 mdpa (∼5 × 1017 n/cm2 )
[37]. The coarsening of Cu-rich clusters (increase
in size and decrease in density) is known to occur
in high-Cu model alloys, and was also recently
reported in surveillance specimens (0.3%Cu) at
high fluences [53]. However, detailed conditions
such as dose and dose rate for coarsening have
not been given.
(3) Mn–Ni–Si clusters without Cu atoms or with
a low Cu fraction are now recognized as com-
mon microstructural features formed under ir-
radiation since they have been widely observed
in steels and alloys with very low Cu and also
in Cu-free model alloys. The clusters are com-
posed of Fe, Mn, Ni and Si atoms in commercial
Mn–Mo–Ni low-alloy steels. Mn–Ni and Mn–Si
219
Figure 7. 3DAP data of density and diameter for solute clus-
ters in MTR-irradiated A533B steels with various Cu and Ni
contents [77]. Reprinted, with permission, from the Journal of
ASTM International, Volume 6, Issue 7, copyright ASTM In-
ternational, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA
19428.
clusters are also reported in a Mn–Ni model steel
and a very low Ni steel, respectively [53]. The
formation of Mn–Ni–Si clusters was detected at
fluences of the order of 1019 n/cm2 in low-Cu
commercial steels by using 3DAP. Small Mn–
Ni–Si clusters coexist with Cu-rich clusters in
high-Cu commercial steels, and the relative den-
sity of the Mn–Ni–Si clusters to Cu-rich clusters
increases with dose under high dose ion irradia-
tion in high-Cu commercial steels [87].
(4) The clusters observed in commercial steels are in
the ranges of 2–4 nm in average diameter and of
1022 –1023 /m3 in number density. The cluster size
and density increase with increasing dose in most
cases. Figure 7 shows the 3DAP data of the den-
sity and size of solute clusters formed in A533B
steels with various Cu and Ni contents irradi-
ated in a MTR [77]. The Cu content has weak
influence on the size but strong influence on the
density. The density and volume fraction are al-
most linearly dependent on the Cu content in a
wide range of 0.02–0.25%. Obtained 3DAP and
SANS data indicate Ni enhances the formation
of Cu-rich clusters, higher in density and smaller
in size. This effect is more significant for higher
Cu materials. Some SANS data suggest that P
and Mn enhance ‘precipitation’ in high-Cu steels
[62,82], while more recent 3DAP data show no
such enhancement of cluster formation [77].
220 K. Fukuya
(5) The clusters are homogeneously formed in the
matrix and also heterogeneously formed along
dislocations and GBs. The latter suggests that
the cluster formation is related to cascade for-
mation and point defect flow near sinks. In high-
P steels, which often contain high Cu content,
the clusters often contain P atoms. Since P seg-
regates on dislocations and GBs, the cluster on
such areas contains both Cu and P.
(6) Recent 3DAP studies on surveillance speci-
mens comparing MTR irradiation provide clear
knowledge on dose rate (flux) effects on the
cluster formation. The Cu-rich clusters have a
higher number density with a larger size and a
larger volume fraction at lower fluxes in high-
Cu steels under irradiation conditions relevant
to BWR surveillance specimens [32,60]. On the
other hand, the clusters have a lower num-
ber density with a larger size at lower fluxes
in medium- to low-Cu steels (0.03–0.15%Cu)
under irradiation conditions relevant to PWR
surveillance specimens [33]. Previous knowledge,
mostly from MTR irradiation, is that Cu-rich
clusters formed in high-Cu steels and model al-
loys are larger and less numerous with higher
volume fraction for lower flux [64]. Recent data
seem to be consistent with previous knowledge
in terms of volume fraction, while the forma-
tion of Cu-rich clusters is enhanced at very low
fluxes (108 –109 n/cm2 /s) and low fluences (<1018
n/cm2 ). At high fluxes (1011 –1013 n/cm2 /s) and
high fluences (>1019 n/cm2 ), the formation of
both Cu-rich clusters and Mn–Ni–Si clusters is
enhanced for higher flux irradiation. Such en-
hancement of solute cluster formation at higher
fluxes is not consistent with the previous knowl-
edge that Cu-rich cluster formation is enhanced
at lower fluxes. This suggests that there may be
different mechanisms in solute cluster formation
in the high-flux region.
(7) Data on effect of irradiation temperature on
cluster formation are rare. However, a compila-
tion of various data shows that the cluster size
is insensitive to an irradiation temperature less
than 300◦ C, while the cluster size rapidly in-
creases with temperature above 300◦ C [89].
Contribution to mechanical property changes. The
solute clusters act as obstacles for gliding dislocations
and cause hardening (increase in yield strength σ y ).
It is well known that the transition temperature shift
(T) is proportional to the increase in yield strength
(T = (0.5–0.7)σ y ) [1]. For Cu-rich clusters, based on
knowledge from Cu precipitates in Fe–Cu model alloys
that have a lower shear modulus than the matrix, the
Russell–Brown model is used to correlate σ y with clus-
ter size and density [90]. The ratio of shear modulus val-
ues (G1/G2) between the cluster (G1) and matrix (G2)
Figure 8. Relationship between cluster volume fraction
(Vf 1/2 ) and transition temperature shift (RTNDT ) in surveil-
lance specimens [59]. Reprinted, with permission, from the
Journal of ASTM International, Volume 7, Issue 3, copy-
right ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Con-
shohocken, PA 19428.
is estimated to be 0.6–0.8 in Cu-rich clusters which can
explain the hardening in medium- and high-Cu commer-
cial steels [56,63,78]. For Mn–Ni–Si clusters, the suitable
hardening model is unclear.
On the other hand, it is known that the cluster vol-
ume fraction has a good correlation with radiation hard-
ening and transition temperature shift. The root of the
volume fraction determined by 3DAP analysis is pro-
portional to the transition temperature shift and the in-
crease in hardness or yield strength. This relationship is
widely found in surveillance data [59,69,71], MTR irra-
diation data [77,79] and also various changed particle
irradiation data [37], and is irrespective of the Cu con-
tent and irradiation conditions. Figure 8 shows an exam-
ple of the linear relationship between the cluster volume
fraction and transition temperature shift [59]. This re-
lationship supports the belief that the cluster formation
is the dominant factor in hardening and embrittlement.
It also suggests that the contribution of the clusters to
hardening is insensitive to the composition of the clus-
ters, namely that Cu-rich clusters and Mn–Ni–Si clus-
ters have almost the same hardening efficiency. How-
ever, some difference in relationship is found between
surveillance data and MTR data, suggesting that there
are some differences in cluster nature and/or there is a
contribution from microstructural features other than
clusters [33]. It was suggested that the Mn–Ni phase in
irradiated low-Cu, high-Ni model alloys might have dif-
ferent hardening efficiencies from those of Cu-rich clus-
ters [2]. Influence of the cluster composition on the hard-
ening efficiency is still an issue to be investigated and it is
also related to experimental techniques for quantifying
diffuse clusters in 3DAP measurements.
Formation processes of solute clusters. Recent
3DAP observations on solute clusters suggest that the
distinction between Cu-rich clusters and Mn–Ni–Si
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
clusters might be expediential and that it might be rea-
sonable to consider them as the same type of clusters.
This is mainly because the clusters have similar ranges
of size and number density in spite of wide variations
in material compositions and irradiation conditions,
and they have compositions that change continuously
with chemical composition. The cluster number density
and composition variations can be attributed to the
effects of the Cu content. However, this does not mean
that the clusters are formed through one common
mechanism. Since the solubility of Cu in Fe is very
low, it is widely accepted that Cu atoms form clusters
or precipitates through radiation-enhanced vacancy
diffusion. The aggregation mechanism of Mn, Ni and
Si atoms with Cu atoms in Cu-containing steels has
been proposed as Cu-catalyzed precipitation of Mn and
Ni, based on thermodynamical considerations [48]. The
clustering process was well simulated by kinetic Monte
Carlo calculations based on vacancy diffusion [91,92].
A similar calculation was also conducted considering
both vacancy and interstitial diffusion mechanisms [93].
These calculations gave dilute cluster compositions and
cluster structures of the Cu core and Mn–Ni–Si shell
which were very similar to the actual composition and
structure of the clusters in commercial steels observed
by using 3DAP.
Influences of the dose rate and temperature on Cu-
rich cluster formation were discussed through radiation-
enhanced diffusion and diffusion controlled growth
[1,48]. This consideration predicts that the formation of
Cu-rich clusters in high-Cu steels is suppressed at higher
flux, while the flux effects disappear at fluxes lower than
5 × 1011 n/cm2 /s, and it is also expected that thermal dif-
fusion becomes important at very low fluxes. The dose
rate effect on vacancy-driven clustering in a wide range
of dose rates was reproduced by using the total num-
ber of vacancy jumps calculated from kinetic Monte
Carlo calculations considering both radiation-induced
and thermal vacancies, as clearly shown in Figure 9 [94].
For Mn–Ni–Si clusters in very low Cu or no
Cu steels, an aggregation mechanism other than the
vacancy-driven thermodynamical process is important.
In 3DAP maps, Ni, Mn and Si often segregate along pre-
existing line dislocations and GBs in commercial steels
regardless of the Cu content [52,58,75,76]. It was re-
ported that the composition of Mn–Ni–Si clusters near
dislocations was very similar to that of a segregated
region along a GB in a low-Cu surveillance specimen
(0.044%Cu) [52]. These observations suggest that Ni,
Mn and Si segregate to sinks during irradiation and that
a non-equilibrium segregation process can be a poten-
tial mechanism for aggregation of Mn, Ni and Si atoms
to form Mn–Ni–Si clusters. Migration mechanisms of
these solute atoms have been discussed [95–97]. Si and
Ni atoms are supposed to have strong binding with self-
interstitials and migrate as mixed dumbbells. Disloca-
tion loops formed due to irradiation are expected to
be segregation sites of Mn, Ni and Si atoms and then
221
Figure 9. Effect of dose rate on the number of vacancy jumps
from kinetic Monte Carlo calculations [94].
nucleation sites of Mn–Ni–Si clusters. If this process is
dominant in low-Cu steels, the observed enhancement
of Mn–Ni–Si cluster formation at higher fluxes might
be explained by this process since the formation of dis-
location loops (self-interstitial clusters) is expected to be
enhanced for higher fluxes [94]. This process of Mn–Ni–
Si formation is expected to occur after the Cu content in
the bulk becomes very low due to Cu-rich cluster forma-
tion in high-Cu steels. Such an example is seen in Figure
5(a) showing both Cu-rich clusters and Mn–Ni–Si clus-
ters in 0.16%Cu steels after high-dose ion irradiation.
However, neither data nor an understanding on the so-
lute behavior is sufficient in low-flux and high-fluence
conditions.
3.2.2. Matrix damage
Dislocation loops. MD is microstructural feature
including point defect cluster, clusters with point de-
fects and solute atoms and fine precipitates such as
carbides and nitrides [1] Full understanding of the ex-
act nature of MD has not been obtained yet. How-
ever, recent microstructural analyses have provided new
knowledge mainly from TEM observations and PA mea-
surements. TEM observations with improved specimen
preparation techniques using focused ion beam tech-
niques confirmed that dislocation loops are commonly
formed in irradiated commercial steels [58,59,77,98–
101]. Figure 10 shows example TEM images indicat-
ing interstitial dislocation loops in A533B steels ir-
radiated with heavy ions [98]. The Burgers vector of
the loops in A533B steels was reported to be b = a
<100> and the loops were thought to be of inter-
stitial type since they did not dissociate by anneal-
ing at 450◦ C [98]. The dislocation loops tend to form
preferentially near pre-existing line dislocations. In the
literature, the diameter of loops is in the range of
222
Figure 10. TEM images showing interstitial dislocation
loops in A533B steels irradiated with heavy ions to 1 dpa at
290◦ C: weak-beam images with diffraction vectors (a) g = 011
and (b) g = 200 close to the [011] pole [98].
2–10 nm. The number density is of the order of 1021 –
1022 /m3 , which is almost one order lower than the num-
ber density of clusters. However, since the minimum size
of the dislocation loops is almost comparable to the res-
olution limit of TEM (∼1 nm), the reported size and
density should be recognized as the values for ‘visible’
dislocation loops. As the dose increases, the number den-
sity shows a clear increase, while the size shows a very
slow increase [100].
The influence of material composition on disloca-
tion loop formation has been examined in simple model
alloys, but data in commercial steels have not yet been
reported in the literature. Compared to pure Fe, dislo-
cation loop formation was reported to be enhanced by
Ni and Mn addition [16,21,102], but it was reported to
be suppressed by Mn, Ni and Cu [103]. A few refer-
ences have studied influences of irradiation conditions
such as flux and temperature on dislocation loop for-
mation in low-alloy steels, and enhanced formation for
a higher flux and a lower temperature may occur. In-
terstitial dislocation loops are thought to be one of the
microstructural features of SMD. It was pointed out in
several papers that the contribution of visible disloca-
tion loops to hardening estimated using an Orowan-type
hardening model was smaller than that of solute clusters
[77,100,104]. However, since the estimated contribution
of dislocation loops to hardening or transition temper-
ature shift exceeded 10% of the total value, dislocation
loops might have non-negligible contribution to radia-
tion embrittlement.
Vacancy components. Vacancy components such as
vacancies and microvoids can be examined by using
PA techniques. Several studies using positron lifetime
measurements showed that microvoids containing more
than 10 vacancies were formed in binary or ternary
model alloys [105,106]. A recent study showed that only
vacancies and divacancies existed in irradiated Fe–Mn–
Ni and Fe–Mn–Ni–Cu model alloys, while vacancy clus-
ters containing more than 10 vacancies were formed in
Fe–Cu alloys [104]. Vacancy clusters or microvoids con-
taining more than one vacancy were not reported in
K. Fukuya
Figure 11. Positron lifetime data in weld surveillance speci-
mens (0.13%Cu for Doel-1 and 0.30%Cu for Doel-2) [53].
commercial steels [37,77,106–108]. Recent data on weld
surveillance specimens (0.13, 0.3%Cu) showed that va-
cancy clusters containing—three to four vacancies were
formed and that their density increased gently with in-
creasing dose, as shown in Figure 11 [53]. These vacancy
clusters are formed after initial Cu-rich cluster forma-
tion and their contribution to hardening might be small.
From experiments on binary model alloys, it is known
that the formation of vacancy clusters is enhanced by P
addition [109]. However, the influence of material com-
position on vacancy cluster formation is unclear in com-
mercial steels.
The combination of post-irradiation annealing
(PIA) and PA measurements (change in the shape pa-
rameter that is proportional to the amount of positron-
trapping sites) can provide indirect information about
the contribution of vacancy components on hardening.
Data in several references [37,57,58,108,110] showed
that vacancy components with short lifetimes have a
negligible contribution to hardening since the anneal-
ing temperature where the recovery of hardening oc-
curs is not coincident with that of vacancy components.
Comparisons of PIA responses between surveillance ir-
radiation and higher flux MTR irradiation showed that
vacancy components in the MTR irradiation started
to recover at lower temperatures with a larger amount
of recovery than in surveillance irradiation in 0.12%Cu
and 0.06%Cu A533B steels [57,110,111]. This suggests
that the vacancy components formed at higher fluxes
are more thermally unstable and that these might cor-
respond to UMD.
Interrelationship between matrix damage and solute
clusters. As mentioned above, knowledge on disloca-
tion loops has been significantly expanded. Dislocation
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
loops, mostly the interstitial type, are formed as a stable
microstructural feature in commercial steels regardless
of the material composition and irradiation conditions.
The dislocation loops have a definite but smaller contri-
bution to radiation hardening than solute clusters. The
detailed nature of vacancy-type MD is still unknown in
commercial steels. From current data by PA measure-
ments, it is reasonable to conclude that vacancy clus-
ters containing more than one or two vacancies are not
formed, which make a definite contribution to harden-
ing. However, it is necessary to carefully consider inter-
actions between point defects and solute atoms. It is ev-
ident that Cu-rich clusters in high-Cu model alloys are
formed in a manner that Cu atoms cover the inner sur-
face of microvoids [84,105]. Some fraction of vacancies
must be assumed for explaining SANS data (mass den-
sity of the clusters) of the clusters formed in commer-
cial steels [3]. These facts suggest that vacancies are con-
tained in the clusters and involved in cluster formation
processes.
Dislocation loops can be sinks for point defects.
Thus, dislocation loops are expected to be decorated
with segregated solute atoms such as Ni, Si and Mn
and therefore can act as nucleation sites of clusters. En-
hanced formation of both dislocation loops and solute
clusters was observed along pre-existing line disloca-
tions. Unfortunately, no analytical methods are available
which can directly identify the state and distribution of
point defects and solute atoms at the same time. Detailed
correspondence of solute clusters with dislocation loops
or vacancy clusters is still unknown. Vacancy clusters, if
they exist as UMD, might act as point defect sinks and
change the concentration of point defects, resulting in a
change in the diffusion coefficient of solute atoms and
nucleation of solute clusters. Furthermore, the interre-
lationship between MD and solute clusters might relate
with hardening processes. In the case that enhanced for-
mation of dislocation loops and solute clusters near pre-
existing line dislocations is dominant, source hardening
might be a dominant hardening process. Continuing re-
search efforts to identify MD and its relation to solute
cluster evolution and hardening are essential to under-
stand embrittlement mechanisms.
3.2.3. Grain boundary segregation
GB embrittlement due to P segregation was initially
examined for understating effects of long-term thermal
ageing on embrittlement of weld HAZ [112]. Since in-
tergranular fracture was found in an irradiated high-P
C–Mn weld [112], the influence of irradiation on P segre-
gation and GB embrittlement has been studied. Knowl-
edge on the segregation behavior and its influence on
embrittlement, obtained until the early 2000s, has been
summarized in the literature [49,114], and new studies
have increased understanding of the critical condition
for embrittlement due to P segregation. Major points are
summarized below.
223
(1) P segregation occurs both during post-weld heat
treatment of the fabrication process and dur-
ing service at operation temperatures and under
neutron irradiation. P segregation at GBs dur-
ing thermal ageing is treated as thermal equilib-
rium segregation. Model estimation shows that
the P concentration at GBs remains almost un-
changed due to thermal aging alone for 60 years
at around 300◦ C in commercial low-alloy steels
[49,115].
(2) Neutron irradiation significantly enhances P seg-
regation at GBs. This was confirmed by a sample
of data in irradiated commercial steels [113,116–
121] and model alloys [122,123]. The enhance-
ment is thought to be caused by accelerating
thermal segregation due to radiation-enhanced
diffusion (vacancy dragging) and also radiation-
induced diffusion (mobile P-interstitial dumb-
bells) [114,124–126]. P segregation at GBs be-
comes higher for higher P content. In com-
mercial Mn–Mo–Ni steels, P segregation seems
to saturate at high fluences and the saturation
level seems to be about 0.2 monolayer coverage
at 1 × 1020 n/cm2 in steels containing P less
than <0.02%. P segregation in C–Mn steels and
VVER-type vessel steels is found to be higher
than that in Mn–Mo–Ni steels [114] although
the reason is unclear.
(3) Segregation of other elements, C, Ni, Mn, Si, Mo
and Cu, is also known to exist at GBs both be-
fore and after irradiation in commercial steels
[57,121]. Irradiation enhances segregation of Ni,
Mn and Si at GBs [52,57,121]. C desegregation
during irradiation has been discussed since P and
C are competitive segregants in steels and C en-
hances the GB cohesion [57,121–123]. The in-
crease in P coverage is expected to cause a de-
crease in C coverage. However, in commercial
A533B steels which typically contains less than
0.03% P, changes in C concentration at GBs due
to irradiation are so small that the trend is not
clear [121]. The influence of segregation of other
elements on the irradiated mechanical behavior
has not been well examined.
(4) It is well established that high-level P segre-
gation at GBs enhances intergranular fracture
and transition temperature shift in thermally
aged steels. In such cases, the transition tem-
perature shift is proportional to the P segrega-
tion level [112,116]. Recent studies carefully ex-
amined the correlation between transition tem-
perature shift, radiation-induced hardening and
P segregation in A533B-type steels containing
a wide range of P contents (0.008–0.57%P),
and found that P segregation affects the tran-
sition temperature shift only when the P con-
centration at GBs exceeds approximately 0.3
monolayer coverage [120,121]. Figure 12 shows
224 K. Fukuya
Figure 12. Irradiation hardening (σ y ) versus transition
temperature shift (T41J ) in MTR-irradiated A533B steels
with various levels of P segregation at GBs (CP gb ) [121].
Reprinted, with permission, from the Journal of ASTM Inter-
national, Volume 6, Issue 7, copyright ASTM International,
100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428.
irradiation hardening (σ y ) versus transition
temperature shift (T41J ) in MTR-irradiated
A533B steels with various levels of P segregation
at GBs (CP gb ) [121]. Excess transition tempera-
ture shift was observed only in the specimen with
very high P segregation (CP gb = 0.32).
(5) In general, the influence of P segregation on em-
brittlement does not seem to be significant even
for long-term operation for Mn–Mo–Ni steels
containing less than 0.03% P; it might be impor-
tant in high-P steels irradiated to very high flu-
ences and/or in steels subjected to annealing.
3.3. Prediction and modeling of embrittlement
3.3.1. Transition temperature shift
Evaluation of pressure vessel structural integrity for
long-term operation requires a reliable prediction of ra-
diation embrittlement. Predictive models or correlation
models for transition temperature shift (reference tem-
perature shift) from Charpy V-notch impact testing have
been recently revised in some countries. This was to im-
prove predictability at high fluences based on the ex-
panded understanding of embrittlement mechanisms.
A new embrittlement correlation method was de-
veloped in Japan and adopted in the 2007 revision
of the code JEAC4201 [127]. This method is a kind
of mechanism-guided correlation, which models mi-
crostructural changes by a series of rate equations and
correlates the predicted microstructural changes with
mechanical properties based on the knowledge from ex-
tensive microstructural analyses of surveillance mate-
rials [32,58,59]. The model considers three microstruc-
tural components: radiation-enhanced solute clusters
(related to Cu clustering), radiation-induced solute clus-
ters (related to heterogeneous solute clustering) and MD
(related to point defect clustering). The model has Cu
and Ni contents, temperature and neutron flux as pa-
rameters, and other constants that are optimized for
the Japanese surveillance materials database. The model
assumes that the radiation-induced solute clusters are
formed from MD, and that MD is formed in proportion
to the neutron flux. Based on the proportional relation-
ship between the square root of the solute cluster volume
fraction and the transition temperature shift, the refer-
ence temperature shift is calculated by the square root
sum squared of the solute cluster contribution and MD
contribution. Detailed descriptions are given in [58,59].
The predicted shifts using this method are in good agree-
ment with measured data from both low-flux BWR
surveillance data and high-fluence PWR surveillance
data [10,32,128]. This correlation model will be modi-
fied based on the accumulation of high-fluence data for
further improving its reliability at high fluences.
Mechanism-guided prediction equations have been
proposed in the USA [129–131]: they are known as the
EWO model [129], ASTM E900 model [130] and EONY
model [131]. The last model was adopted in the evalu-
ation rule of pressurized thermal shock (PTS) in 2010
[132]. These models consider two microstructural com-
ponents that contribute to hardening: stable MD and
CRP. The transition temperature shift is expressed by a
simple sum of MD and CRP contributions which are
expressed as the product of a fluence term and a chem-
ical term. In the EONY model, the MD contribution is
a function of temperature, P and Mn contents and the
square root of fluence. The CRP contribution is a func-
tion of the Cu, Ni and P contents and fluence. The effect
of flux ϕ is incorporated as the effective fluence, which
is modified by the factor (4.39 × 1010 /ϕ)0.259 at fluxes
lower than 4.39 × 1010 n/cm2 /s. The model equations
are optimized for the surveillance materials database in
the USA, and different constants in the equations are
prepared for plate, forged and weld materials.
The mechanism-guided trend curve has also been
discussed for Belgian reactors considering MD and
CRPs [133]. In this curve, the Cu content for CRPs, and
Ni content and temperature for MD are included. Mod-
ification of the prediction equations or trend curves is
being discussed in other European countries based on
an empirical formulation using fluence and chemical fac-
tors [134–137].
Current prediction methods are optimized to the
surveillance materials database used in each country.
On the other hand, long-term operation requires a re-
liable embrittlement prediction at fluences much higher
than the fluence ranges of current surveillance databases.
Thus, there have been discussions on extending the ma-
terials’ embrittlement databases, using MTR data and
constructing an international database [137]. Predic-
tion using MTR data requires careful considerations on
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
high-flux effects. It was proposed that the contribution
of UMD, which is assumed to be vacancy-type clusters
and formed more densely at higher fluxes, should be
added to the contributions to MD and Cu-rich clusters
[2,138].
3.3.2. Attenuation through the pressure vessel wall
For the evaluation of pressure vessel integrity, the
fracture toughness value at a given depth is required
based on an attenuation trend of mechanical proper-
ties. The fracture toughness at a given depth is usually
estimated using calculated attenuation trends of neu-
tron fluence or dpa and embrittlement prediction meth-
ods. Reliability of such estimations has been examined
using irradiation defect production calculations and me-
chanical property tests on decommissioned pressure ves-
sels [139]. For example, molecular dynamics calcula-
tions of freely migrating point defects with a neutron
transport calculation through pressure vessel steels re-
vealed that the dpa attenuation trend was suitable to pre-
dict the attenuation of damage production [140]. Data
from the decommissioned French PWR Chooz A pres-
sure vessel demonstrated that the change in measured
transition temperature shift was in agreement with the
trend of the predicted shift assuming a dependence of
(fluence)0.48 [141]. The attenuation issue has been con-
tinued to be examined in the 2000s. The attenuation
of fracture toughness was examined in weld trepan of
the decommissioned WWER-440, and the results in-
dicated nonsystematic changes and large data scatter
[142]. A MTR irradiation program organized by IAEA
has been conducted. In this program, 180 mm stacks of
10mm thick impact and compact tension specimens for
commercial steels (0.14%Cu and 0.06%Cu) and high-Cu
weld (0.3%Cu) were irradiated while being monitored by
many dosimeters [143–145]. The results showed that the
trends of the transition temperature shift and the mas-
ter curve T0 shift are generally in agreement with the dpa
attenuation prediction although the degree of agreement
varied with material.
3.3.3. Fracture toughness
In fracture mechanics evaluation of pressure vessel
integrity using transition temperature shift determined
by Charpy V-notch impact tests, the basic assumption
is that the transition temperature shift is equivalent to
the reference temperature shift determined in fracture
toughness tests. Application of the master curve ap-
proach to integrity evaluation requires precise assess-
ment on irradiated fracture toughness, which includes
the shape of the fracture toughness curve (temperature
dependence of fracture toughness) and the equivalence
of the master curve reference temperature to the ref-
erence transition temperature in a wide range of flu-
ence and material conditions. A detailed review of these
macroscopic mechanical issues is beyond the purpose of
225
Figure 13. Plots of master curve reference temperature shift
T0 versus Charpy transition temperature shift T41J for
A533B steel data sets containing high-shift data. The dotted
line shows the correlation given by Sokolov and Nanstad [148].
this paper. Thus, only a brief description of some critical
technical subjects for continued study is made here.
(1) Equivalence of the master curve reference tem-
perature shift (T0 ) with transition tempera-
ture shift defined at the absorbed energy of
41 J (T41J ) has been extensively studied espe-
cially for data about high embrittlement such as
obtained with high-fluence, high-Cu and high-
Ni steels. The regression analyses of datasets
showed a trend that T0 is slightly higher than
T41J : T0 = (1.03–1.08)·T41J [146,147]. Sev-
eral high T0 data (100–200◦ C) are in good
agreement with corresponding T41J data [146–
148], while some recent T0 data showed about
40◦ C higher values [9]. Figure 13 shows an ex-
ample graph of the correlation between T0
and T41J [9]. The equivalence of the conven-
tional reference temperature (RTNDT ) and mas-
ter curve reference temperature (RTT0 ) in ASME
code cases has been examined in various irradi-
ated commercial steels such as surveillance mate-
rials, MTR-irradiated archive materials and de-
commissioned pressure vessel steels [149–153]. It
was confirmed that the master curve reference
temperature generally gives conservative evalu-
ation of fracture toughness. However, some is-
sues should be noted. One is the change in frac-
ture mode from cleavage to intergranular, which
might have a significant influence in some cases.
In an A302B HAZ material, intergranular frac-
ture induced by thermal aging (460◦ C for 168 h)
changed the shape of the temperature versus
fracture toughness curve and gave almost 50◦ C
higher T41J than T0 [154].
226 K. Fukuya
(2) Influence of specimen size has long been one
of the essential issues for determining fracture
toughness. For the master curve application,
IAEA coordinated programs extensively exam-
ined influences of specimen type and size (CT vs.
pre-cracked Charpy V-notch), pre-crack depth
and strain rate [155,156]. These factors affect the
master curve reference temperature T0 and bring
a bias to T0 determination compared to data
from large CT specimens. Considering actual
practice for determining fracture toughness from
surveillance specimens, applicability of 10 mm
CT and 3.3 mm precracked Charpy V-notch
specimens was examined [157–159]. The fracture
toughness obtained with 10 mm CT specimens
was almost comparable to those with full-sized
pre-cracked Charpy V-notch specimens in A508
surveillance material irradiated up to 3.8 × 1019
n/cm2 [157].
(3) Some determination methods of fracture tough-
ness master curves from surveillance Charpy
data have been proposed. One method calculates
the temperature dependence of fracture tough-
ness from Charpy absorbed energy data using
material properties such as work hardening co-
efficient and tensile strength [160]. Another de-
termines the reference temperature of the mas-
ter curve of Charpy absorbed energy. Although
this method does not determine the tempera-
ture dependence of fracture toughness, the ref-
erence temperature of Charpy absorbed energy
is almost of the same value as T0 obtained
from fracture toughness tests [161,162]. Further
studies are needed to assess the applicability of
these methods to fracture toughness evaluation
of RPVs.
(4) The scatter of the fracture toughness value is
one of the key issues for both probabilistic and
deterministic evaluation of structural integrity.
The scatter initiates from microscopic variation
such as carbide distribution even in a homoge-
neous material, and also from macroscopic vari-
ation of microstructure and material properties
within the volume of a pressure vessel. Influence
of macroscopic variation was recently reported
using full size vessel products and trepans from
pressure vessels of decommissioned plants. In-
fluence of macro-segregation in ingots on frac-
ture toughness was examined in French A508
forged rings and the scatter of surveillance tran-
sition temperature shifts and some high shifts
data were explained by C macro-segregation in
ingots [163,164]. Other studies showed that the
master curve reference temperature at the sur-
face of unirradiated actual VVER440 pressure
vessel steels was 35–70◦ C lower than those of
the mid-thickness region and that this differ-
ence came from the microstructural difference
induced by cooling rates [165]. However, frac-
ture toughness distribution in pressure vessels of
a decommissioned VVER, which had been an-
nealed after 13 years in operation, showed no
clear trend with large scatter, although the rea-
son for the observed large scatter was unclear
[166].
(5) Effects of warm pre-stress (WPS) on fracture
toughness have been extensively studied in Eu-
ropean countries. This is to establish a reason-
able margin for PTS evaluation since WPS is
expected to increase fracture toughness at low
temperatures. A sample of fracture toughness
data have been reported after various stress–
temperature procedures, for example, load, cool-
ing and fracture, and load, unload, cooling and
fracture [167,168]. It was confirmed that WPS
effects appear in unirradiated pressure vessel
steels. The WPS effect was also confirmed in irra-
diated steels. The increase
√ of fracture toughness
√
at 90◦ C from 100 MPa m to 238 MPa m af-
ter WPS (160◦ C) was observed in high-Cu weld
(0.22%Cu) irradiated to 1.1 × 1019 n/cm2 [169].
The increase of fracture toughness after WPS
was also reported in 1/2TCT surveillance spec-
imens irradiated to 4.6 × 1019 n/cm2 [170].
3.3.4. Multiscale modeling
A large number of computer simulation works on
radiation embrittlement have been conducted and have
contributed to understanding the mechanisms of em-
brittlement and fracture mechanics. Multiscale model-
ing is a combination of physical and mechanical mod-
eling in various time and space scales. It consists of
modeling, for example, damage production processes
by molecular dynamics calculations, diffusion processes
by ab initio calculations, clustering processes by kinetic
Monte Carlo calculations, dislocation interactions by
dislocation dynamics calculations, and macroscopic de-
formation and fracture processes by crystalline plastic-
ity calculations. In European countries, a multiscale ap-
proach was organized as the PERFECT project and has
been followed by the PERFORM60 project [171–173].
The major results of the PERFECT project were sum-
marized in a special publication [174].
The multiscale approaches provide both basic
knowledge of microstructural evolution and microme-
chanics of fracture, although current modeling has not
yet provided a prediction of fracture toughness changes
which is applicable to actual reactor evaluation. Some
examples of knowledge that has come from using the
approaches are: the interaction and diffusion energies
of point defects and various solutes [175] and the dis-
location pinning strength of various clusters [176]. For
micromechanics, several models for crack initiation at
carbides and cleavage propagation were proposed to
explain the shape and shift of the fracture toughness
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
curve [177–181]. These efforts are still of essential im-
portance to establish the physical basis of embrittlement
prediction.
3.4. Summary of radiation embrittlement
Knowledge of microstructural features and under-
standing of mechanisms on radiation embrittlement
have been significantly improved by recent development
of nano-scale analytical techniques such as 3DAP and
PA. The formation of solute clusters of Cu, Mn, Ni
and Si, and dislocation loops has been confirmed in
low-alloy steels irrespective of the material composition
and irradiation condition. These features are now be-
lieved to be dominant for radiation hardening and em-
brittlement, and are incorporated into recently devel-
oped mechanism-guided embrittlement predictions used
in some countries, which give much better correlation
with surveillance data than previous empirical correla-
tions. However, there are still unresolved issues to ob-
tain a sound understanding of radiation embrittlement
at higher fluences in long-term operations. The issues in-
clude identifying microstructural features that are dom-
inant at high fluences for various material compositions
and neutron fluxes, and formation and development
processes of the features. As a physical basis, studies on
the interaction between point defects and solute atoms,
the interrelationship between MD and solute clusters,
and the contribution of each microstructural feature
to embrittlement are essential. Especially, the relation-
ship between dislocation loops and Mn–Ni–Si clusters is
important to understand the nucleation process and
high-dose behavior of solute clusters. The acquired
knowledge will be properly modeled and incorporated
into embrittlement prediction or correlation.
4. IASCC of core structural materials
4.1. Radiation effects on SCC
IASCC is an intergranular-type SCC (IGSCC) that
occurs under the radiation environment in the core of
LWRs. The susceptibility, initiation and propagation
of IGSCC are enhanced by neutron irradiation. Fail-
ures of core structural SS components were found in
both BWRs and PWRs [6]. The IASCC susceptibil-
ity is mostly determined by the following primary fac-
tors: neutron fluence of materials, electrochemical cor-
rosion potential (ECP) in water and applied tensile stress
level. Many secondary factors are also known to affect
IASCC: material conditions including alloy type, com-
position and cold work (CW); irradiation conditions
such as temperature, flux and spectrum; environmental
conditions such as temperature, water purity and dis-
solved oxygen (DO) and dissolved hydrogen (DH) con-
centrations; and stress–strain conditions such as strain
rate.
227
The fundamental cause of IASCC has been con-
sidered to be irradiation-induced changes in materi-
als. Neutron irradiation causes displacement damage
in materials, which consequently causes changes in mi-
crostructure, microchemistry and macroscopic proper-
ties. Neutron irradiation also causes changes in stress–
strain states through irradiation creep and stress relax-
ation. These changes are accumulated as the fluence in-
creases. Furthermore, neutron irradiation together with
gamma-ray irradiation causes radiolysis in water. The
radiolysis produces various active chemical products
causing ECP change in water containing DO, while
the products disappear through reactions with hydro-
gen causing no ECP change in water containing DH.
IASCC behavior has long been studied for two differ-
ent water conditions. In this paper, the following terms
are used for water conditions: BWR water conditions
[288◦ C pure water containing DO, known as normal
water chemistry (NWC), and hydrogen water chemistry
(HWC) adding hydrogen to NWC]; and PWR water con-
ditions [290–360◦ C water containing 500–1500 ppm B
as H2 BO3 , ∼2 ppm Li as LiOH and ∼30 cc H2 /kgH2 O
(∼2.7 ppmDH)]
IASCC data are obtained by conducting reactor
irradiation in LWRs and MTRs followed by post-
irradiation examinations (PIEs) using hot cell facility
and involve large costs and long times; thus, system-
atic databases are still scarce. However, in the past two
decades, initiation and growth data at high fluences have
become available. In this section, current phenomeno-
logical knowledge on IASCC behavior is briefly summa-
rized. In Sections 4.2, 4.3 and 4.4, radiation effects on
materials, water and stress–strain, and mechanisms are
discussed.
4.1.1. Susceptibility
IASCC susceptibility of LWR-irradiated materials
has been examined mostly using slow strain rate ten-
sile (SSRT) tests. This method has provided knowledge
on influences of various parameters although the sus-
ceptibility means only the qualitative relative easiness
of IASCC occurrence. Major points have been summa-
rized in the literature [4–7]. IASCC susceptibility ap-
pears at ∼1 dpa in both oxygenated BWR water and hy-
drogenated PWR water conditions. This dose has been
often recognized as the threshold dose for IASCC oc-
currence, but it does not mean substantial immunity to
IASCC at doses lower than 1 dpa. The factors that en-
hance IASCC susceptibility are: higher DO, higher ECP,
and lower strain rate in BWR water conditions [182];
and lower DH, higher water temperature and lower
strain rate in PWR water conditions [183–185]. With re-
spect to material factors, many elements have been ex-
amined by using SSRT tests and swelling tube tests. In
BWR water conditions, IASCC susceptibility was sup-
pressed by the addition of Mo, Cr, C, N, Hf and Ti, and
enhanced by the addition of Si, P, Nb and Ti [186–190].
228 K. Fukuya
Figure 14. Constant load SCC test data in the stress ratio
to yield strength (σ /σ y ) versus dose maps in (a) BWR water
conditions (288◦ C, 32 ppm DO) and PWR water conditions
(320–340◦ C, 2.7 ppm DH).
Data showing effects of material composition on IASCC
in PWR water conditions are very limited.
4.1.2. Initiation
IASCC initiation has been investigated using con-
stant load tests. The stress for IASCC initiation is de-
creased with increasing dose and tends to saturate at
high doses [191–197]. Figure 14 shows the constant load
SCC test data in the stress ratio to yield strength (σ /σ y )
versus dose maps in BWR water conditions (288◦ C,
32 ppmDO) and PWR water conditions (320–340◦ C,
2.7 ppmDH). The tests were conducted using tensile
type, O- or C-ring type, and bend beam type speci-
mens for test duration up to 5000 h. The initiation stress
was decreased to ∼0.4σ y at doses less than 10 dpa in
high-DO BWR water conditions [191,192], while it de-
creased to ∼0.4σ y at 30–40 dpa in PWR water con-
ditions [194,195,197]. The lower bound of stress for
IASCC occurrence was almost the same for BWR and
PWR water conditions. The crack initiation time in
PWR water conditions decreased with increasing ap-
plied stress and dose. At 60–75 dpa, the initiation time
became as short as 1–10 h.
No systematic data showing influence of mate-
rial variables on IASCC initiation have been reported,
Figure 15. Dose dependence of CGR in BWR water con-
ditions at both high ECP (>150 mVSHE ) and low ECP
(<–200 mVSHE ).
while there are data showing influence of water condi-
tions. In BWR water conditions, decreasing DO from
32 ppm to 0.02 ppm suppressed IASCC initiation [191].
In PWR water conditions, IASCC initiation was en-
hanced by increasing water temperature [197], increas-
ing DH concentration [198] and increasing Li con-
centration [199]. These trends are generally consistent
with those of IASCC susceptibility as found by SSRT
tests.
4.1.3. Crack growth
IASCC CGR dominantly depends on dose, stress
and water conditions. Most crack growth data have been
obtained using irradiated SSs taken from in-core com-
ponents of LWRs; thus, CGR data have wide varia-
tions of material composition and irradiation condi-
tions. Data compilation showed that very large scat-
ter was found in CGR databases, with ranges of three
to four orders [7]. This makes it difficult to find clear
trends in some cases. Figure 15 shows the dose depen-
dence of CGR in BWR water conditions at both high
ECP (>150 mVSHE ) and low ECP (<–200 mVSHE ). This
figure contains a series of MTR irradiation data [200]
and other PIE and in-reactor data [201,202]. The CGR
clearly increased with increasing dose up to ∼5 dpa
and tended to saturate at certain levels. CGR generally
shifted to lower values by lowing ECP, while it is slightly
increased with increasing dose at higher doses at low
ECP. The saturation dose for CGR seemed to be lower
than that for initiation stress in BWR water conditions
as shown in Figure 14. The dependence of CGR on stress
intensity K is expressed as the nth power of K. The n val-
ues in the literature were within 1.5–2.5 in BWR water
conditions [7], while some data showed lower n values of
1.2 at higher doses in MTR data [200,203]. These data
suggested that K dependence might be altered by irradi-
ation and became smaller at higher dose.
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
Figure 16. CGR data of 304 SSs from in-pile tests and PIEs
in BWR NWC water conditions [208].
In PWR water conditions, CGR was examined in
in-reactor tests and PIEs of LWR-irradiated or FBR-
irradiated SSs at doses up to 40 dpa [204–206]. Some
data showed very high CGRs (>10−8 m/s). Very large
scatter was found, ranging by three orders. The up-
per bound of data became higher for higher doses
[7]; thus, CGR seemed to be higher for higher doses.
The n value in K dependence in PWR water condi-
tions showed wide variation (1–4.5) at doses higher than
10 dpa. The observed large variation in CGR data is
likely related to technical problems such as specimen
size effects on K validity and K change with crack
growth, as well as differences in material and irradiation
conditions.
4.1.4. In-core IASCC
Since water radiolysis causes ECP changes in the
core region of BWRs, in-reactor IASCC behavior is of
essential importance for understanding the IASCC be-
havior of BWR core internals. One unique CGR data set
on sensitized 304 SSs measured in an operating BWR
showed that much higher CGRs were observed at an in-
core position than at an out-of-core position and these
corresponded to higher ECP for the in-core position
[207]. In-core tests (in-pile or in-reactor tests) of SCC
growth of irradiated SSs have been conducted in the
Halden reactor [202,204] and the Japan Material Test-
ing Reactor [208]. Figure 16 compares CGR data of 304
SSs from in-pile tests and PIEs in BWR NWC water
conditions [208]. Comparison of the in-core data with
corresponding PIE data (ex-core, out-of-core or out-of-
pile data) showed that the in-core CGRs were similar to
or slightly higher than PIE data at high ECP in BWR
water conditions. Current data are insufficient to get
229
quantitative understanding of the in-core effects on
IASCC initiation and growth.
4.1.5. Simulation irradiation
Irradiation with ions and in FBRs has been used to
study the IASCC behavior. Ion irradiations have advan-
tages such as low activation and flexibility of irradiation
conditions. Irradiations with 60 MeV He ions [209] and
with 2–3 MeV protons (H ions) [210] were applied to
investigate IASCC susceptibility. In the case of proton
irradiation, irradiation temperature was selected to pro-
duce almost the same radiation-induced microstructure
and GB segregation as those in LWR-irradiated SSs. The
fact that the ion irradiation caused IASCC indicates that
the displacement damage is essential for IASCC and
that other factors specific to neutron irradiation such as
transmutation are secondary effects.
Use of FBR-irradiated materials [211,212] and irra-
diation in FBRs at temperatures lower than 370◦ C [213]
have been tried to study the IASCC behavior at higher
doses. Recent SSRT test results in PWR water condi-
tions showed that the IASCC susceptibility of FBR-
irradiated type 316 SSs was much lower than PWR-
irradiated data [213]. Since no significant differences in
mechanical properties and microstructures were found,
helium effects were proposed as one of the causes for
such difference. Helium generation was almost two or-
ders higher in PWR-irradiated type 316 SSs. The influ-
ence of He on IASCC is still not clear and requires fur-
ther studies in order to determine whether FBR data
can be used for understanding the IASCC behavior in
an LWR environment.
4.2. Radiation effects on materials
4.2.1. Microstructural evolution
Microstructural evolution in SSs under neutron ir-
radiation has long been investigated and several reviews
have already been published [214–216]. Recent careful
TEM observations of LWR-irradiated SSs [217–223] re-
vealed that interstitial dislocation loops are the domi-
nant component of irradiated microstructures, that fine
cavities or voids are formed at higher doses (higher He
concentration), and that nickel silicide (Ni3 Si, γ ’ phase)
was found as radiation-induced precipitates. Figure 17
shows example TEM micrographs showing these fea-
tures observed in type 316 SSs irradiated in a PWR to
53 dpa. The following subsections summarize the mi-
crostructural features.
Interstitial dislocation loops. Interstitial dislocation
loops (unfaulted Frank loops) are very fine and dense
(5–20 nm in size and 1022 –1023 /m3 in density) in LWR
irradiation conditions. Such fine loop microstructure
remains almost unchanged even at very high doses
(>70 dpa). The density increases with dose and saturates
230
Figure 17. TEM images showing microstructural features
observed in CW type 316 SSs PWR-irradiated to 53 dpa: (a)
rel-rod dark field image of dislocation loops; (b) dark field im-
age of dislocation loops and black dots; (c) dark field image of
Ni3 Si precipitates; and (d) defocused image of bubbles [220].
at doses of 1–5 dpa. Since the loops are very fine and
dense at high doses, effects of material variables and ir-
radiation conditions on dislocation loops have not been
clearly identified. However, at low dose, these effects can
be identified. The effect of flux was clearly found in type
304 SSs at very low flux irradiation [224]. A number of
studies have been conducted on dislocation loop for-
mation under LWR-relevant irradiation conditions us-
ing MTR or FBR irradiation [225,226] and rate equa-
tion modeling [227]. Compiling LWR, MTR and FBR
data, it was confirmed that the formation of dislocation
loops is enhanced for lower temperature and higher flux
in LWR irradiation conditions.
Since the size of dislocation loops formed in LWR
irradiation conditions is comparable to the resolution
limit of TEM, the nature of small defect clusters is diffi-
cult to fully identify. The formation of black dots was
reported, which could not be identified as dislocation
loops [220]. It was suggested that, since the black dots
showed slightly faster recovery during PIA than the dis-
location loops, the black dots contained some fraction
of thermal unstable clusters, which might be the vacancy
type and induced from cascades [220].
Cavities. The formation of cavities was reported in
LWR-irradiated SSs and was thought to be related to the
high He generation rate (5–20 appmHe/dpa). The cav-
ity formation was very sensitive to irradiation conditions
such as irradiation temperature and flux as well as mate-
rial variables. The formation of fine bubbles was recently
reported in type 304 SSs irradiated in BWRs to 5–10
dpa at 288◦ C [223]. The formation of fine bubbles and/or
voids was commonly observed in PWR-irradiated SSs
[218–220]. Voids were observed only at temperatures
K. Fukuya
higher than 320◦ C, while fine bubbles were observed at
temperatures lower than 320◦ C. The size of voids did
not exceed 10 nm. The fine bubbles (1–2 nm in diame-
ter) were homogeneously formed and their density was
of the order of 1023 /m3 . The calculated volume swelling
was within a range of 0.01–0.5%. The cavity formation
directly relates to volumetric swelling of core internal
components which results in the source of unexpected
stresses. Swelling data are still scarce in actual conditions
of PWR core internals (10−10 –10−8 dpa/s, >20 dpa, 300–
370◦ C).
Recently the fine bubble formation on GBs was evi-
denced in PWR-irradiated type 316 SSs to 33 and 70 dpa
[219]. Such GB bubbles might affect the sensitivity to GB
cracking. It was proposed that such an effect might have
a link to the difference in IASCC susceptibility between
FBR and PWR irradiations [213] since GB bubble for-
mation was not observed in FBR irradiation with lower
He production than PWR irradiation.
Precipitates. The precipitate commonly identified
in LWR-irradiated SSs by using TEM is the Ni3 Si phase
[218,220,223]. This phase is well known as radiation-
induced in SSs [216]. The size and density of Ni3 Si pre-
cipitates determined by TEM were 3–5 nm and of the or-
der of 1021 /m3 , respectively. Recent 3DAP observations
of irradiated SSs provided more detailed knowledge of
radiation-induced phases [228–233]. In CW type 316 SSs
irradiated to 12 dpa in a PWR, Si aggregates and Ni–
Si clusters were identified [228]. The Ni–Si clusters were
∼10 nm in diameter and ∼6 × 1023 /m3 in number den-
sity, and their atomic composition was 50Ni–40Si. Mo
and P were enriched at the interface of the clusters. In
type 304 SSs irradiated to 24 dpa at 300◦ C in a PWR,
Ni–Si clusters were found, which were ∼10 nm in di-
ameter and 4 × 1023 /m3 in density [232]. The averaged
atomic composition was 32Fe–40Ni–14Si–11Cr. The ra-
tio of Ni/Si was consistent with that of the Ni3 Si phase.
Mn was enriched in some of the clusters and P was segre-
gated at the interface of the clusters. Both observations
confirmed the formation of Ni–Si clusters with similar
size and density. It is notable that the reported density
of the Ni–Si clusters by 3DAP was almost one order
higher than the typical density of Ni3 Si precipitates in
the above TEM analyses [218,220,223] and also higher
than the density of dislocation loops. Another detailed
3DAP analysis on proton-irradiated type 304 SSs clearly
showed that Ni and Si atoms segregated at dislocation
loops, the same as at line dislocations and GBs [231]. It
is reasonable to think that the Ni–Si clusters are the pre-
cursors of Ni3 Si phases and nucleate preferentially at in-
terstitial dislocation loops. Si is an undersized atom and
preferentially migrates to sinks via a fast interstitial dif-
fusion mechanism of mixed dumbbells. Interestingly, no
evidence was reported for Ni3 Si phase formation at GBs
in spite of a sufficient level of Ni and Si segregation.
As to clusters or phases other than the Ni3 Si phase,
Si aggregates [228], Cu-rich clusters [231], Mn-rich
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
Ni–Si clusters [232] and carbides [234] were observed in
irradiated SSs. However, the generality of these features
is unclear.
4.2.2. Mechanical properties
Tensile properties. The formation of radiation-
induced microstructural features consequently causes
changes in stress–strain response under tensile loading.
These include: hardening, increase in yield strength and
tensile strength, and decrease in ductility (uniform elon-
gation and total elongation). Radiation-induced tensile
property changes in SSs have been well studied in wide
temperature ranges [235]. Tensile property data in LWR
irradiation conditions have been accumulated in the
last two decades. Figure 18 shows the change in yield
strength and total elongation of LWR-irradiated SSs
[194,196,236–239]. The yield strength increases rapidly
with increasing dose and saturates to 800–1000 MPa at
doses of 1–10 dpa. The increase in yield strength accom-
panies the decrease in ductility and work hardening co-
efficient. At an yield strength of 600–700 MPa, the uni-
form elongation becomes very low and plastic instability
appears. As the yield strength saturates, the elongation
saturates to ∼5%. Hardness is often used as a measure of
mechanical properties. The increase in hardness (DHv)
is almost linear with the increase in yield strength (Dsy),
and a correlation of σ y (MPa) = 3.03Hv (kg/mm2 )
was derived based on data of LWR-irradiated SSs [240].
Figure 18. Change in (a) yield strength and (b) fracture elon-
gation in LWR-irradiated SSs.
231
Tensile property changes originate from the elastic
interaction of moving dislocations and microstructural
features such as dislocation loops. The increase in yield
strength (σ y ) has a good correlation with the evolu-
tion of microstructural featurespredicted by the barrier

hardening model [235]: σ y ∝ (Ni × di )2 , where Ni
and di are the number density and diameter of the ith
microstructural feature, respectively. This relation was
confirmed in LWR-irradiated SSs assuming the proper
hardening coefficient for each feature [218–220,223,
224].
Factors that affect microstructural evolution conse-
quently cause variation of tensile property changes. Ma-
terial composition and CW, and irradiation temperature
and flux are known as such factors. Variations in these
factors are probably the main reason for the observed
variations in yield strength at low doses in Figure 18.
Since the dominant microstructural feature is disloca-
tion loops in LWR irradiation conditions, a faster in-
crease and saturation in yield strength are caused by
factors that enhance dislocation loop formation: for ex-
ample, higher flux, lower irradiation temperature, and
addition of C, Si, P and Nb [196,224,238,239]. How-
ever, effects of these factors on a saturation level of yield
strength have not been clearly identified.
Deformation mode and microstructure. Radiation-
induced microstructural changes cause significant
changes in deformation mode as well as hardening.
The deformation mechanisms in austenitic SSs are
slip formation at higher temperature and twinning
at lower temperature. Slip formation is dominant at
around 300◦ C. The deformation mode in irradiated SSs
becomes heterogeneous and planar from the homo-
geneous one in unirradiated conditions. This change
occurs due to the formation of dislocation channels in
which moving line dislocations clear away dislocation
loops, forming a path for subsequent slips. In such a
deformation mode, plastic strain is localized within
channels. In the last decade, channel formation and flow
localization in irradiated materials have been extensively
studied [241–244] and their influences on intergranular
fracture and IASCC have also been examined [245–249].
A detailed observation of deformation microstruc-
ture in LWR-irradiated SSs was reported in several ref-
erences [242,245,246,249]. The channel formation was
commonly observed in LWR-irradiated SSs after defor-
mation at around 300◦ C. Figure 19 shows an example
of dislocation channels observed near the surface region
in PWR-irradiated type 316 SSs after being slowly de-
formed to 3% at 300◦ C [245]. The width of the chan-
nels was found to be 20–100 nm and the estimated strain
within a channel might exceed 100%. It was confirmed
from crystalline plasticity calculations that the disloca-
tion channels were formed by the local shear compo-
nent of tensile stress [250]. The twin formation was ob-
served and seemed to be pronounced after deformation
232 K. Fukuya
Figure 19. Near-surface deformation microstructure in CW
type 316 SSs deformed to 3% at 320◦ C: (a) irradiated to
35 dpa showing coarse slips and surface steps with an enlarged
image of the dislocation channel and (b) unirradiated showing
tangled dislocations [245].
at room temperature or at a fast strain rate, and also in
the mid-thickness region of the specimens where high
constrain and multiaxiality exist [245]. Since the forma-
tion of channels (slips), twins and ε martensites occurs
on the (111) planes in SSs, these features may coexist in
a grain and in a slip band in irradiated and deformed
commercial SSs [241,245,246,249,251].
Dislocation channels terminate at GBs or free sur-
faces. The interaction of dislocation channels with GBs
causes local concentration of stress–strain. There are
three different interactions as schematically shown in
Figure 20. Channel transfer occurs when the misorienta-
tion between dominant slip planes in two adjacent grains
is small. This interaction produces steps on the GB, as
shown in Figure 20 (c). The absorption of dislocations
at GBs causes GB sliding. The absorption also produces
local strain in GBs. When channel transfer cannot occur
with the neighboring grain, dislocation pileup occurs at
the GB and produces a high stress field near the intersec-
tion, as shown in Figure 20 (b). Detailed morphology of
these interactions was examined by SEM and TEM ob-
servations not only in neutron-irradiated SSs, but also in
ion-irradiated SSs [252–255]. Recent EBSD studies also
confirmed the existence of high local misorientation at
dislocation pileups near GBs [256,257].
Deformation mode and microstructure are affected
by material variables and irradiation conditions through
effects on microstructural evolution. With respect to
material variables, stacking fault energy (SFE) is well
Figure 20. Schematic illustration depicting (a) three types of
interactions of dislocation channels with GBs; (b) SEM im-
age showing dislocation pileups in irradiated CW type 316 SSs
after slow deformation to 13% at 320◦ C; and (c) TEM image
showing channel transfer in irradiated CW type 316 SSs after
slow deformation to ∼3% at 320◦ C.
known as an essential parameter for deformation mi-
crostructure in non-irradiated conditions. It was con-
firmed that SFE also affected deformation mode after
irradiation [253,254,257]. From data of average strain in
each channel obtained from surface step measurements
on proton-irradiated austenitic alloys with different Cr
and Ni contents, a higher degree of strain localization
was found for lower SFE alloys. It is also known that
the formation of dislocation pileups results in microc-
racking along GBs. This is described in Section 4.4.2.
4.2.3. Grain boundary segregation
Radiation-induced segregation (RIS) is a common
phenomenon in various alloys under irradiation. The
phenomenology and underlying mechanisms of RIS at
GBs are generally well understood for SSs in LWR irra-
diation conditions [5–7]. Figure 21 shows typical solute
distribution at GBs (PWR-irradiated type 316 SSs to 35
dpa) and changes in GB segregation (changes from the
in-grain level) of Cr, Ni and Si in LWR-irradiated com-
mercial SSs [182,218,220,223,258,259]. Depletion of Cr
and enrichment of Ni and Si are common RIS behav-
iors in irradiated SSs. RIS rapidly evolves at doses lower
than 5–10 dpa and its change becomes very gradual at
higher doses. For other elements, depletion is known for
Mo and Mn, and enrichment for P and S. The width of
the RIS region is very narrow, typically less than 10 nm
from GBs, as shown in Figure 21. Recent 3DAP analy-
ses [228–233] confirmed that the RIS behavior is quanti-
tatively consistent with previous data from TEM-EDS
(energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy) analyses. Fur-
thermore, 3DAP analyses confirmed enrichment of B, C
and S in proton-irradiated type 304 SSs [231], while these
elements might be segregated before irradiation. RIS to
dislocation loops has been clearly confirmed by 3DAP
analyses. Si and Ni co-segregation at dislocation loops
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
Figure 21. Typical solute distributions across a GB and
changes in GB segregation of Cr, Ni and Si with dose in LWR-
irradiated SSs.
is believed to be the cause of Ni3 Si phase formation as
described in Section 4.2.1.
RIS is affected by material variables and irradi-
ation conditions such as irradiation temperature and
dose rate. The degree of RIS has a peak temperature
which is determined by the balance of RIS and ther-
mal back-diffusion induced by the concentration gradi-
ent. LWR-relevant temperature (290–370◦ C) is probably
lower than the peak temperature of Cr and Ni segre-
gation at LWR-relevant dose rates (10−10 –10−8 dpa/s).
The RIS of major elements induced by a vacancy mech-
anism is generally enhanced at a lower dose rate since
the freely migrating vacancy concentration might be
higher. This trend was confirmed by recent comparisons
between low-flux LWR data, high-flux FBR data, and
high-flux proton irradiation data in type 304 and 316 SSs
[260,261]. Effects of material composition and alloying
elements on RIS in SSs have been well examined [262–
264]. In general, the addition of minor elements such as
C, N, Zr and Ti suppresses RIS by reducing diffusivity
of vacancies and interstitials by trapping.
233
It is widely accepted that Cr depletion and Ni en-
richment occur mainly through an inverse Kirkendall
mechanism in the Fe–Cr–Ni system [265]. In this mech-
anism, the faster diffuser Cr preferentially diffuses away
from GBs via the vacancy flux to GB sinks, and then
the slower diffuser Ni is accumulated near GBs. The
depletion of oversized Mo and Mn atoms may be ex-
plained by this mechanism. The mechanism of enrich-
ment of undersized elements such as Si and P is con-
sidered to be the migration of solute-interstitial mixed
dumbbells [266]. Based on these mechanisms, several
RIS models have been developed and applied to mea-
sured data for discussing the influence of various factors:
for example, the contribution of Ni-interstitial binding,
and influences of temperature, dose rate and material
compositions [267–269]. Modeling efforts still continue,
for example, to develop multi-element RIS models for
commercial SSs [270,271], and as an ab initio approach
for determining reasonable physical parameters and the
contribution of interstitial diffusion [272].
4.3. Radiation effects on the water environment
and stress–strain
4.3.1. Water radiolysis and H2 O2 effects
In a radiolysis scheme, water is decomposed into
various radicals and molecules with the final radiolytic
products of H2 O2 , H2 and O2 . The effects of radioly-
sis on the water environment have been well reviewed
[4,6]. ECP increases significantly at a low-DO condition,
mainly due to the formation of H2 O2 . ECP is recognized
as a direct measure of water radiolysis effects on IASCC
and then one of the key factors for IASCC in BWR water
condition [6]. In general, effects of bulk water chemistry
on SCC (IASCC) for different DO and DH concentra-
tions are recognized as effects of ECP. ECP at a given
temperature is dependent on concentrations of DO, DH
and other oxidants, which is dominated by the radiation
dose rate and water flow rate. In BWR water conditions,
ECP changes with position in the core.
Water conditions within narrow cracks and crevices
may differ from bulk water conditions. The ECP at a
crack tip remains low due to oxygen consumption and is
almost insensitive to bulk water chemistry. While it was
pointed out that the influence of radiation on ECP at
crack tips may be negligible [6], the specific role of H2 O2
in oxidation, crack growth and ECP has been studied in
the last decade [273–277]. It was found that the energy
deposition by radiation was enhanced within a crack due
to back-scattered radiation from the surrounding mate-
rial [273]. This suggested that water radiolysis might be
enhanced within a crack compared to bulk water radi-
olysis. It was pointed out that the difference in ECP be-
havior of SSs exposed to water containing DO or H2 O2
was related to the difference in thickness and the evolu-
tion of inner layer oxides. These findings suggested that
H2 O2 has an additional role in corrosion and IASCC
under radiation field. However, quantitative estimation
234 K. Fukuya
Figure 22. Data of stress relaxation in type 304 and 316L SSs
under MTR irradiation at 288◦ C.
or data showing the influence of H2 O2 on initiation and
growth of IASCC in an LWR environment have not been
found. This issue is still important for quantitative un-
derstanding of the difference between the IASCC behav-
ior in LWRs and out-of-core PIE data as described in
Section 4.1.4.
4.3.2. Irradiation creep and stress relaxation
Creep and stress relaxation are enhanced under
LWR irradiation conditions [215]. Stress relaxation
causes the decrease in stress under constant strain such
as weld residual stress and bolt or spring load, and thus
may suppress IASCC initiation and growth. This results
in beneficial effects on LWR core internal components.
On the other hand, irradiation creep enhances plastic
strain at crack tips under constant stress and might re-
sult in accelerating crack growth.
Understanding on irradiation creep has obtained
mainly from data at temperatures higher than 400◦ C
[278] and experimental data at LWR-relevant temper-
atures (280–370◦ C) are scarce [279,280]. Recently data
on irradiation creep and stress relaxation at tempera-
tures around 300◦ C have been accumulated by MTR
irradiation experiments in the last decade [281–287].
Figure 22 shows the data of irradiation stress relaxation
in type 304 and 316L SSs at 288◦ C [280–284]. The ra-
tio of the measured stress (σ ) to the initial applied stress
(σ 0 ) was decreased with dose and became less than 0.5
at ∼5 dpa. Measurements of weld residual stress were
conducted by neutron diffraction techniques [283,284]
and showed that the tensile stress was relaxed at a simi-
lar rate to data from ring or tensile type measurements.
Large scatter observed in Figure 22 was due to scat-
ter of transition relaxation (corresponding to primary
creep), which appeared due to the relaxation of preexit-
ing internal strains. The degree of transition relaxation
depends on the thermomechanical treatment and stress
states [288]; methods for quantitative estimation have
not been established yet.
Neglecting the swelling contribution to creep in
LWR irradiation conditions, irradiation creep strain ε
under stress σ at dose f is generally expressed by the sum
of transition creep and steady creep:
ε/σ = A1 {1 − exp (−A2 f )} + Bσ n f,
where A1 , A2 , B and n are constants. At low stresses
less than 200 MPa, typical values are: n ∼ 1 and B
∼ 1 × 10−6 /MPa/dpa. At higher stresses around 500
MPa in CW type 316 SSs, the n value of 3 was re-
ported in an in-pile experiment [286]. In-beam experi-
ments with 17 MeV protons at 288◦ C and 2 × 10−7
dpa/s showed that the n value was 5 at stresses higher
than 500 MPa in CW type 316 SSs [289]. Effects of
material variables and irradiation conditions such as
temperature and dose rate are largely unknown in LWR
irradiation conditions since systematic in-reactor experi-
ments are difficult to conduct. Model calculations based
on creep mechanisms at low temperatures (<300◦ C) are
effective tools to understand effects of material variables
and irradiation conditions [290]. Dominant mechanisms
of creep are considered to be stress-induced preferen-
tial nucleation of interstitial dislocation loops, disloca-
tion climb by stress-induced preferential absorption of
point defects, and preferred absorption and glide. Creep
strain becomes larger for low temperature and high dose
rate. These trends appear by interstitial dominant creep
mechanisms in low temperatures where vacancy mobil-
ity is not high.
With respect to material variables, the creep rate
is known to be suppressed by increasing CW level,
and addition of P, N, Si and Mo from data at higher
temperatures (>400◦ C). Recent well-controlled proton
beam experiments and accompanying model calcula-
tions showed that the creep rate of type 316L SSs was
lower for 25%CW than 5%CW and that the stress relax-
ation of type 316L SSs was higher than that of type 304
SSs [289,291].
4.4. Mechanisms of IASCC
4.4.1. Factors controlling IASCC
Correlations of IASCC susceptibility with irradiated
material properties have been discussed in the last two
decades to find key factors for IASCC occurrence under
given water and applied stress conditions. Hardening as
a mechanical factor and GB segregation as a chemical
factor have been the main concerns for IASCC occur-
rence. Major results of such correlations are summarized
below.
(1) Compilation of LWR-irradiated data revealed
that IASCC susceptibility, as examined by SSRT
tests, generally increased with decreasing GB
Cr concentration [5,182,186] in both BWR and
PWR water conditions. Similar correlation was
found in SSs containing Mo (Cr + Mo effects)
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013 235

are not achieved in LWR irradiation conditions

[294,299,300]. These experiments showed that
hardening might have larger effects on IASCC
than GB segregation in PWR water conditions
and vice versa in BWR water conditions; im-
portantly, neither hardening nor GB segregation
alone could explain IASCC susceptibility.

Adding to the knowledge on the correlations, recent

TEM observations of IASCC crack tips have brought
forth important information on processes involved in
IASCC [301–304]. In type 316 SS bolts removed from a
PWR after a 17 cycle operation, cracks were filled with
oxides and porous Cr-rich spinel oxides on the crack
wall extended to the crack tips [301]. The oxides had
steps at the intersections with slip bands. In type 304
SS components removed from a BWR after a 23 year
Figure 23. Dose-dependent changes in IASCC, mechanical operation, similar things were seen: cracks were filled
properties and RIS in PWR-irradiated CW type 316 SSs [298].
with oxides and thin Cr-rich spinel oxides on the crack
wall extended to the crack tips [302]. The crack tip ox-
and having GB Cr enrichment before irradiation ides were finger-like with Ni enrichment ahead of the
[292]. Recent CGR data in BWR water condi- tips. These cracks in plant components were highly ox-
tions also showed a good correlation with GB idized and seemed not to be active. The observations
Cr concentration [293]. GB Cr concentration is of growing cracks at very high rates during PIE SCC
a key factor for the passivation behavior and ox- tests in PWR-irradiated type 316 SSs showed that oxi-
ide characteristics near GBs. dation near crack tips did not precede so much but that
(2) IASCC susceptibility appeared at the yield oxygen was detected near crack tips in both BWR and
strength of 500–600 MPa and increased with in- PWR water conditions [304]. Figure 24 shows the TEM
creasing yield strength in both BWR and PWR
water conditions [5,294]. CGRs of irradiated SSs
were slightly higher than the linear trend seen be-
tween CGR and yield strength in non-irradiated
CW SSs [295,296]. Higher CGRs of irradiated
SSs might be due to GB RIS effects.
(3) Dislocation microstructure in irradiated SSs
(dense dislocation loops) was quite different
from that in non-irradiated CW SSs (tangled line
dislocations). To identify the influence of this
difference, IASCC susceptibility in BWR wa-
ter conditions was examined in type 304 SSs by
changing the CW level and proton irradiation
dose while keeping the same total hardness [297].
IASCC occurred only in high-dose proton irra-
diated SSs with null or low CW level. This result
indicated that irradiation hardening has a spe-
cific role for IASCC initiation and that the de-
formation mode is more important for IASCC
than for macroscopic hardness.
(4) IASCC, mechanical properties and RIS gener-
ally show similar dose-dependent changes, as
shown in Figure 23 for PWR-irradiated CW type
316 SSs [298]. These show rapid change at doses
lower than 10 dpa and very slow change or
saturation at higher doses. To differentiate the
roles of the mechanical factor (hardening) and
Figure 24. TEM image and solute distribution near the
chemical factor (GB segregation) on IASCC, IASCC crack tip in CW type 316 SSs PWR-irradiated to
PIA and high temperature irradiation were ap- 38 dpa after the constant load test at 750 MPa in PWR wa-
plied to produce specific material states that ter conditions [304].
236
image and solute distributions near crack tips in CW
type 316 SSs PWR-irradiated to 38 dpa after a constant
load test at stress of 750 MPa in PWR water conditions
[304]. The oxygen concentration near the crack tip is
very low and the crack has steps on the wall. Such steps
were also found in PWR-irradiated type 316 SSs [301]
and corresponded to the intersection with slip bands
or deformation twins. Although crack tip observations
of growing IASCC cracks are still scarce, the available
observations have indicated that crack tip oxidation or
oxygen penetration occurs within very narrow cracks,
typically less than 5 nm, in both BWR and PWR wa-
ter conditions, and that the crack propagation relates to
deformation microstructure such as slip bands or twins
near GBs.
To date it is widely accepted that IASCC occurrence
cannot be attributed to a single static material prop-
erty and is the result of combined effects of multiple
dynamic processes. The important factors are likely to
be oxidation and deformation. The oxidation and corro-
sion kinetics near GBs in a water environment are con-
trolled by GB chemistry and water conditions, and also
determine the fracture strength of oxidized or corroded
GBs. GB chemistry includes not only RIS, but also the
existence of other elements such as He generated un-
der irradiation and H generated by corrosion processes.
He and H are likely to have influences on GB cohe-
sion or strength. The deformation controls local stress–
strain exerted on GBs and GB fracture processes. Ma-
terial variables and irradiation conditions affect defor-
mation and oxidation processes through microstructural
evolution and RIS. Figure 25 shows a schematic illus-
tration depicting various processes related to IASCC.
Figure 25. Schematic illustration depicting various processes related to IASCC.
K. Fukuya
Recent studies for IASCC mechanisms have placed the
focus on clarifying the role of deformation and oxidation
processes.
4.4.2. Role of deformation
As described in Section 4.2.2, dislocation channeling
is a distinguishing characteristic of the deformation mi-
crostructure in irradiated SSs. The interactions between
dislocation channels and GBs cause high local strain–
stress near GBs. When dislocation pileups occur, micro-
cracks can be initiated as Zener–Stroh type cracks by
coalescing dislocations piled up along a slip plane. GB
separation also can occur if the local stress exceeds GB
cohesion strength. Such IG fracture can occur without
any environmental factors and have been found in LWR-
irradiated SSs. IG fracture in an argon gas atmosphere
was found in type 304 and 316 SSs LWR-irradiated to
7–73 dpa after tensile tests at low strain rates (<10−6 /s)
and temperatures of 300–340◦ C [184,194,197,305,306].
The IG cracking initiated from the specimen surface and
the sensitivity to IG fracture decreased with increasing
tensile strain rate [305]. Similar IG cracks in an argon
atmosphere were not found at 288◦ C in type 304 SSs
irradiated to 18 dpa [307] and in type 316 SSs irradi-
ated in a FBR to 50 dpa [212], suggesting that the IG
fracture is easier at higher temperatures (300–340◦ C vs.
288◦ C). The IG fracture without an environmental fac-
tor might be a common phenomenon in highly irradi-
ated SSs at high temperatures and a low strain rate [308].
In such conditions, the dominant deformation mode is
slip/channeling in irradiated SSs.
Characteristics of IG cracking have been exam-
ined by surface observations after tensile tests were
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
Figure 26. IG cracks formed in PWR-irradiated CW type
316 SSs after slow deformation to ∼3% at 300◦ C in an argon
atmosphere [245].
interrupted at low elongation levels. A typical example
of IG cracks formed in PWR-irradiated CW type 316
SSs after slow deformation to ∼3% at 300◦ C is shown in
Figure 26 [245]. The cracks were observed on GBs with
angles of 60◦ –90◦ to the tensile direction and channel-
induced surface steps were observed for only one side of
Figure 27. Contribution of localized deformation as measured by the weighted average channel height to cracking in SSs irradiated
with protons to 1–5 dpa and SCC-tested in BWR water conditions [247].
237
the grain. These observations indicated that the cracks
were formed along GBs with high normal stress and with
dislocation pileups. Direct correlation between localized
deformation and IASCC in a water environment has
been examined in proton-irradiated SSs while chang-
ing material compositions and irradiation conditions
[247,253,257]. As shown in Figure 27 [247], it was clearly
confirmed that IASCC susceptibility (crack length per
unit area) became higher for a higher degree of deforma-
tion localization (average step height of the slip channel
on the surface). It was also confirmed that IASCC sus-
ceptibility was found to correlate with the slip continuity
at GBs [309], and relative spatial arrangement between
tensile direction, GB, Schmidt factors and channel di-
rections for both sides for grains [245,309,310].
IASCC initiation stress under constant load SCC
tests was in the yield strength range of 0.4–0.5 at higher
doses in both BWR and PWR water conditions (see Fig-
ure 14). These stress levels were comparable to the esti-
mated stress required to cause coarse slips on the planes
with the most preferable orientation (Schmidt factor of
0.5) [245], assuming that the local stress within a grain
can reach two times the applied stress based on crys-
talline plasticity calculations [311]. Recent EBSD mea-
surements of misorientations in PWR-irradiated CW
type 316 SSs showed that macroscopic elastic deforma-
tion at ∼50% of the yield strength caused detectable
strains near GBs [312]. Recent modeling studies for
channel–GB interactions also showed a similar role to
that of dislocation pileups [313,314]. Although more
238 K. Fukuya

evidence is needed to firmly correlate IASCC initiation data are needed for conclusive understanding, GB ox-
with dislocation pileups in channels, these findings sup- idation might be enhanced by RIS at GBs, possibly as
port the idea that the dislocation pileup in dislocation Cr depletion and Si enrichment. It was confirmed that
channels might be one of the key triggers for the IASCC as the Cr content in material decreased, the inner ox-
initiation site. Since there are incalculable variations in ide layer became thicker with lower Cr fraction and then
channel–GB interactions in a specimen due to varia- became less protective as a diffusion barrier [316]. A Si-
tions in the spatial configuration of grains and GBs, a enriched area might be easily oxidized and more soluble
probabilistic approach might be useful for a quantita- and then would enhance GB oxidation and GB fracture
tive understanding of the role of localized deformation [323,324]. This might be one of the reasons for enhance-
on IASCC initiation. ment of IASCC susceptibility by Si addition reported
Channel transfer to the neighboring grain and dis- in BWR-irradiated and proton-irradiated SSs [188,325].
location absorption can cause GB steps and GB slid- Preferential and accelerated oxidation at GBs may be a
ing, respectively, as described in Section 4.2.2. Such steps key factor for IASCC. However, detailed knowledge of
and sliding may break surface oxides if applied strain GB oxidation in irradiated SSs is still limited, especially
is sufficiently larger than the ductility of oxides. When considered in combination with water radiolysis effects.
this process continues in a channel and a GB, acceler-
ated oxidation is expected to occur at the intersection
and along the GB, and might result in triggering IASCC 4.4.4. Other contributors
initiation. However, these type of interactions might not Hydrogen effects. Hydrogen is known to affect
be dominant since IASCC cracks were more frequently cracking processes through various metallurgical fac-
found for GBs without slip continuity in BWR water tors. There are a number of studies concerning hy-
conditions [308]. drogen effects on cracking, mechanical properties, and
microstructure in various non-irradiated materials.
However, knowledge on hydrogen effects on irradiated
4.4.3. Role of oxidation
materials and IACC is limited. Several measurement re-
Oxidation kinetics and the nature of oxides are key sults of hydrogen concentration were reported for LWR-
information for the understanding of mechanisms of irradiated SSs [213,218,220,326,327]. The measured
IASCC as well as IGSCC in non-irradiated SSs. The values ranged from 10 to 200 wtppm with very large scat-
oxidation rate and structure of non-irradiated SSs in ter and showed no clear trend against dose. Since the
LWR water conditions have been well examined [315–
317]. The surface oxide is a double-layer structure: an
inner Cr-rich spinel layer and an outer Fe- and Ni-rich
spinel layer in PWR water conditions, and an inner Fe–
Cr–Ni spinel layer and an outer hematite layer in BWR
water conditions. There are proposed IGSCC mecha-
nisms of austenitic SSs in LWR water conditions such
as slip dissolution or slip oxidation [207,318], creep and
GB sliding [319], and hydrogen embrittlement [320]. In
these mechanisms, oxidation plays essential roles for not
only the oxidation itself, but also as a source of vacancies
and hydrogen atoms. Enhancement of oxidation results
in enhanced sensitivity to cracking in any mechanism.
While a similar role of oxidation is expected for IASCC
occurrence, experimental studies on the role of oxidation
in IASCC of irradiated SSs are scarce.
Morphology of oxides formed on irradiated SSs has
been examined in only a few papers. In type 316 SSs ir-
radiated to 5 dpa with protons and exposed to BWR
NWC water for 70 h, neither enhancement of oxidation
nor a difference in oxide structure was found compared
to unirradiated SSs [321]. In CW type 316 SSs irradi-
ated up to 73 dpa and exposed to PWR water condi-
tions for 1000 h, slight enhancement of the inner oxide
layer thickness was found [322]. Preferential oxidation
and Ni enrichment ahead of the oxides were also found
Figure 28. Distribution of Fe, Ni, Cr and O in the cross sec-
along several GBs, as shown in Figure 28 [322]. This in- tion of the surface oxide layer in type 316 SSs PWR-irradiated
dicated that the oxidation of both the matrix and GBs to 20 dpa after immersion in PWR water conditions for 1000 h
might be enhanced in irradiated SSs. Although more [322].
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
measured values were generally inconsistent with calcu-
lated generation amounts from nuclear reactions [220],
hydrogen in LWR-irradiated SSs is likely to originate
from the water environment probably through corrosion
reactions.
The relationship between hydrogen and IG crack-
ing in irradiated SSs has been discussed in a limited
number of papers. The hydrogen measurements in type
316 SSs irradiated to 6 and 53 dpa after SSRT tests
in PWR water conditions revealed that the hydrogen
concentration near the IG fracture surface was slightly
higher than that away from the fracture surface [184].
This provided evidence that hydrogen is associated with
cracking processes in irradiated SSs. Hydrogen charg-
ing effects on mechanical properties were examined in
type 304 SSs BWR-irradiated up to 20 dpa [328]. Af-
ter hydrogen charging and discharging at 100◦ C, IG
fracture was found after tensile tests at room temper-
ature and its fraction increased with increasing dose.
The cause of IG fracture was attributed to combined
effects of hydrogen-induced martensite formation and
radiation-induced GB Cr depletion, based on the sim-
ilarity to hydrogen-induced IG cracking in sensitized
type 304 SSs. Hydrogen charging effects were also exam-
ined in type 304 SSs BWR-irradiated to 2–3 dpa [329].
IG cracking was found by bending at 23◦ C after hy-
drogen charging, indicating that hydrogen caused IG
cracking. Similar IG cracking was found by bending at
23◦ C after SSRT tests in BWR water conditions. How-
ever, steels that exhibited higher IASCC susceptibility
by SSRT tests in BWR water conditions showed lower
sensitivity to IG cracking at 23◦ C after SSRT tests and
hydrogen charging. Thus, these results seem to suggest
that processes related to hydrogen might not be involved
in IASCC in BWR water conditions. Hydrogen embrit-
tlement or hydrogen-induced cracking might be a pos-
sible effect of hydrogen on IASCC. High yield strength
and well-developed RIS in highly irradiated SSs might
provide more preferable conditions for hydrogen embrit-
tlement. However, based on current irradiated data, it is
still uncertain whether hydrogen is the cause or the result
of the cracking.
Another possible effect of hydrogen is the interac-
tion of hydrogen with the deformation microstructure
[330,331]. It is known that hydrogen, if the concentra-
tion is sufficiently high, can relax elastic interactions
between moving dislocations and obstacles enhancing
dislocation gliding and it can reduce SFE and cross-slip
enhancing the planar dislocation microstructure. These
effects are expected to enhance dislocation channel for-
mation in irradiated materials. This effect was confirmed
by slow tensile tests on type 316 SSs irradiated to 5 dpa
with Fe ions [332]. The average spacing between sur-
face slips after slow tensile tests at 300◦ C was larger in
an hydrogen atmosphere than in an argon atmosphere.
TEM observations on the specimen cross sections con-
firmed that the surface slips were formed by disloca-
tion channels which could penetrate the near-surface
239
damaged area containing dense dislocation loops. High-
concentration hydrogen is expected to enhance deforma-
tion localization and might have an enhancement effect
on IASCC initiation and growth.
GB cohesion or strength. Among various mi-
crostructural and microchemical changes, some changes
result in the decrease in cohesion or strength of GBs.
This might not be a direct cause of IASCC but might
have an important role in crack initiation and propa-
gation. Possible factors are hydrogen, helium, RIS and
oxygen. As for hydrogen, it causes GB decohesion which
is one of the causes of hydrogen embrittlement.
As described in the previous sections, He is gen-
erated under LWR irradiation and helium bubbles are
formed on GBs in PWR-irradiated SSs to high doses
[219]. The high generation rate of He in PWR irra-
diation compared to FBR irradiation was considered
as one of the reasons that PWR-irradiated SSs exhib-
ited higher IASCC susceptibility than FBR-irradiated
SSs [213]. It is well known that He induces IG fracture
and significantly reduces ductility in slow tensile and
creep conditions at high temperatures (typically higher
than 400–450◦ C) [235]. At LWR-relevant temperatures,
high-temperature He embrittlement is not believed to be
important. However, dense fine bubbles on GBs might
reduce stresses that would lead to GB fracture. The cri-
teria for IG cracking in He-implanted SSs were reported
to be ∼30 nm for cavity spacing and ∼4 nm for the
cavity diameter at temperatures lower than 500◦ C [333].
He bubbles observed in PWR-irradiated SSs seem to
satisfy these conditions. In recent micro-tensile tests on
helium-implanted type 316 SSs, preferential fracture on
GBs was found [334]. Fine bubbles on GBs might pro-
vide a preferential path of fracture with probably lower
strength than the matrix, but the exact role of helium
and bubbles is not yet understood.
GB segregation of solute elements is a potential fac-
tor enhancing GB fracture. GB embrittlement due to
segregation of impurities such as P has been extensively
studied for body centered cubic (BCC) alloys and steels.
Recent ab initio calculations of GB cohesive energy
showed GB decohesion by some elements in face cen-
tered cubic (FCC) systems [335–337]. For Ni 5 (012)
symmetrical tilt GBs, most of the solute elements includ-
ing helium have embrittling potency, while B, C and Si
can enhance the GB cohesion [335]. Other recent ab ini-
tio calculations showed that significant GB decohesion
occurs for segregation of S and O atoms in Ni [336,337].
It is known that S enhanced IASCC susceptibility in
BWR water [188,329]. S-induced decohesion might as-
sist IG cracking in an argon atmosphere and also assist
IASCC susceptibility, while Ni–S film formation at GBs
due to S and Ni segregation has been proposed [329]. In
LWR water conditions, O atoms are preferentially con-
sumed by forming oxides rather than being segregated
at GBs. However, in the observations of rapidly grow-
ing IASCC crack tips, O atoms penetrated into the GBs
240 K. Fukuya
ahead of the tips [304]. In such cases, O atoms at GBs
might have some role in GB separation ahead of the
crack tip and CGR might have relation with O diffusion
along GBs. The basic physical knowledge of GB cohe-
sion or strength is helpful to understand mechanisms of
IASCC from a wider viewpoint of IG cracking phenom-
ena in irradiated materials.
4.5. Prediction and modeling of IASCC
4.5.1. Crack initiation and crack growth rate
Empirical deposition curves for IASCC data
have been proposed for IASCC initiation and CGR
[7,196,338]. The curves of CGR (da/dt) are usually a
function of stress intensity factor (K): for example, da/dt
= AKn , where A and n are the constants depending on
the irradiation dose, and material and water conditions.
The constants were fitted to the CGR data from PIEs
and in-rector experiments. For IASCC initiation, em-
pirical deposition curves in PWR conditions have also
been discussed [7,196]. The curves for IASCC initiation
were basically determined by the lower limit of applied
stress for failure in post-irradiation constant load SCC
tests within 2000 h. While there are two curve types,
initiation time and initiation dose, limitation of data
made it difficult to set curves applicable to high doses
and long times. Since IASCC data have limitations in
the number and quality and have large scatters, the reli-
ability of empirical curves depends on such limitations
and needs to be improved by better understanding of
the mechanisms.
Mechanism-based modes for IASCC CGR have
been proposed based on slip dissolution or slip oxidation
mechanisms of IGSCC, in which CGR is modeled by
the oxide rupture rate due to crack tip strain [207,318].
Assuming that IASCC and non-irradiated IGSCC are
controlled by the same slip oxidation processes, the mod-
els have been applied to IASCC CGR by consider-
ing radiation-induced changes, that is, the increase of
yield strength for crack tip strain and RIS for oxidation
or repassivation rate. These models successfully predict
IASCC crack growth behavior. For IASCC initiation,
no mechanism-based modeling has been reported yet.
To establish reliable prediction methods for IASCC ini-
tiation, continued efforts for modeling and data creation
are needed. For example, trial modeling of an IASCC
initiation curve was reported by correlating IASCC with
predicted increase in yield strength and GB Cr depletion
[339]. Furthermore, methods for correlating PIE data
with IASCC initiation in operating LWRs are required
for realistic prediction, where materials are simultane-
ously exposed to irradiation, coolant water and stress–
strain for long time and where the loading condition
changes with time.
4.5.2. Other related properties
Evaluation of the structural integrity of LWR core
internals requires not only precise prediction methods
Figure 29. Swelling data in various SSs irradiated at LWR-
relevant temperatures of 290–390ºC.
for IASCC initiation and growth rate, but also for other
materials properties related to stress conditions. Un-
der irradiation, the stress levels of components change
with dose due to irradiation-induced mechanical prop-
erty changes and irradiation creep and stress relaxation.
Swelling is also involved in stress increase for bolt com-
ponents in PWRs. Fracture toughness is a key prop-
erty, when the integrity is evaluated by fracture mechan-
ics. Irradiation creep and stress relaxation are discussed
in Section 4.3.2 based on recently obtained irradiated
data. The current understanding of swelling and fracture
toughness is briefly described here.
Swelling. Since swelling is very sensitive to irradi-
ation conditions, such as temperature and dose rate,
swelling data are very scarce in PWR-relevant low-dose-
rate, low-temperature conditions (10−10 –10−8 dpa/s,
>20 dpa, 300–370◦ C). Figure 29 shows the swelling
data from PWR-irradiated SSs and MTR-irradiated SSs
at LWR-relevant temperatures [218,340–347]. The data
show different trends in swelling evolution with mor-
phology (bubble vs. void), reactor type (PWR vs. FBR)
and materials (304 vs. others). A prediction curve of
swelling for type 304 SSs was proposed based on low-
temperature, FBR-irradiated type 304 SS data [348]; it
is an empirical one and a function of dose, dose rate
and temperature. Since swelling is known to be lower
for higher dose rate, lower temperature and higher CW
level [215], MTR-irradiation data at higher dose rates,
and data from removed bolts and thimble tubes which
were made of CW type 316 SSs and irradiated at tem-
peratures less than 320◦ C, are not directly applicable
to swelling prediction in PWRs. A swelling model cal-
culation for evolution of cavities observed in PWR-
irradiated CW type 316 SSs to 53 dpa at 290–340◦ C
showed that swelling might not exceed 0.2% at 100 dpa
[340]. However, correlation studies for bridging different
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
condition data are needed based on theoretical modeling
and data acquisition.
Fracture toughness. It is well known that irradiation
causes reduced fracture toughness and that the reduc-
tion is related to loss of ductility [235]. Fracture tough-
ness data of LWR-irradiated SSs have been accumu-
lated in the last decade [223,236,349–352]. Data analy-
sis and assessment of failure analysis have been reported
[353,354]. Figure 30 shows the data of fracture toughness
in LWR-irradiated SSs. Fracture toughness generally de-
creased rapidly to 5–10 dpa and the lower bound of the
data seems to saturate to ∼50 kJ/m2 . Current databases
have large data scatters, probably due to large variation
of irradiation and material conditions, and also due to
test methods, and specimen size and shapes. Fracture
toughness depends on material and irradiation condi-
tions as well as test methods and conditions, while influ-
ences of these parameters in LWR irradiation conditions
are not well understood. Fracture toughness has a close
link to tensile properties and correlations have been pro-
posed [235,355,356]. Development of mechanistic un-
derstanding and database improvement are needed for
reliable prediction.
4.6. Summary of IASCC
Databases on IASCC initiation and CGR in LWR-
irradiated SSs have been significantly expanded in the
last decade and they now provide phenomenological
knowledge on the general response of IASCC initiation
and CGR to fluence, stress and water conditions. How-
ever, the knowledge is still insufficient for a full descrip-
tion of effects of such parameters on IASCC. While initi-
ation stress and CGR tend to saturate at certain doses, it
is unclear where complete saturation occurs and at what
saturation level: these might depend on material and
water conditions. Based on current databases, empirical
trend curves of IASCC initiation and CGR have been
developed but are applicable to only limited conditions.
Figure 30. Fracture toughness data in LWR-irradiated SSs
tested at ∼300ºC.
241
To establish a realistic prediction of IASCC in LWR
conditions from available databases, relationships be-
tween PIE data and in-reactor data, and between LWR-
irradiated data and FBR-irradiated data, must be clar-
ified. To overcome limitations of databases on irradi-
ated materials, mechanistic understanding is believed to
be essential. Understanding of IASCC mechanisms has
been improved in this decade, although exact causes of
IASCC are yet uncertain. It has been confirmed that
IASCC susceptibility can correlate with material prop-
erty changes such as RIS, dislocation microstructure
and hardening but it cannot be explained by a single
static material property change. Current consensus is
that IASCC is likely to be caused by combined effects of
multiple dynamic processes. Recent studies focused on
the role of deformation and oxidation behaviors as es-
sential processes for IASCC. Characteristics of disloca-
tion channels and their interactions with GBs continue
to be examined, and the importance of localized defor-
mation on IG cracking has been confirmed. However,
changes in GB properties by oxidation and other pro-
cesses in irradiated SSs and changes under irradiation
are not well understood. Degradation of GB cohesion
or strength due to irradiation and oxidation needs to
be clarified considering effects of RIS and other factors
such as hydrogen and helium.
The evaluation of structural integrity of core inter-
nals requires prediction methods of stress relaxation,
swelling and fracture toughness as well as IASCC ini-
tiation and CGR. While empirical prediction curves for
these properties have been proposed, further improve-
ment is needed not only by accumulation of irradiated
data, but also by mechanistic modeling.
5. Conclusions
In this paper, current phenomenological knowledge
and understanding of mechanisms on radiation embrit-
tlement and IASCC in PWRs and BWRs were reviewed,
placing emphasis on microscopic material changes and
their role in degradation processes. Knowledge of mi-
crostructural evolution in LWR irradiation conditions
has been significantly improved by recent development
of nano-scale analytical techniques such as 3DAP and
by applying such techniques to LWR-irradiated mate-
rials. In RPV low-alloy steels, solute clusters of Cu,
Mn, Ni and Si and dislocation loops were identi-
fied as features causing hardening and embrittlement.
Mechanism-guided correlations of transition tempera-
ture shift have been developed based on improved un-
derstanding. In SSs for core internals, deformation and
oxidation have been recognized as potential processes
causing IASCC initiation and growth. However, full un-
derstanding of the mechanisms has not been achieved
yet and there are still many issues for improving the un-
derstanding of phenomenology and mechanisms of ra-
diation embrittlement and IASCC. Several important is-
sues were pointed out in the review.
242 K. Fukuya
Radiation-induced degradation is a complex phe-
nomenon involving multiple physical, chemical and me-
chanical processes, and it is controlled by nano-scaled
features that are very difficult to identify even by state-
of-the-art techniques. Furthermore, macroscopic tests
and microscopic analyses of neutron-irradiated mate-
rials require special technical efforts and facilities, and
make it difficult to obtain sufficient and systematic
databases. To overcome these difficulties, theoretical
modeling and simulation experiments for fundamental
processes have been and will be important tools for de-
veloping prediction methods in operating LWRs and for
mechanistic understanding.
References
[1] Odette GR, Lucas GE. Recent progress in understand-
ing reactor pressure vessel steel embrittlement. Rad Ef-
fects Defects Solids. 1998;144:189–231.
[2] Odette GR, Nanstad RK. Predictive reactor pressure
vessel steel irradiation embrittlement model: issues and
opportunities. J Metals. 2009;61:17–23.
[3] Phythian WJ, English CA. Microstructural evolu-
tion in reactor pressure vessel steels. J Nucl Mater.
1993;205:162–177.
[4] Scott P. A review of irradiation assisted stress corrosion
cracking. J Nucl Mater. 1994;211:101–122.
[5] Bruemmer SM, Simonen EP, Scott PM, Andresen
PL, Was GS, Nelson JL. Radiation-induced ma-
terial changes and susceptibility to intergranular
failure of light-water-reactor core internals. J Nucl
Mater.;274:299–314.
[6] Was GS, Andresen PL. Stress corrosion cracking behav-
ior of alloys in aggressive nuclear reactor core environ-
ments. Corrosion. 2007;63:19–45.
[7] Chopra OK, Rao AS. A review of irradiation effects on
LWR core internal materials – IASCC susceptibility and
crack growth rates of austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl
Mater. 2011;409:235–256.
[8] Fukuya K, Nakata H, Kimura I, Ohmura M, Kitagawa
Y, Ito T, Shin K. Three dimensional radiation trans-
port analyses in PWR with TORT and MCNP. Proceed-
ings of the 11th International Symposium on Reactor
Dosimetry; Singapore: World Scientific; 2003.
[9] Matsuzawa H. Prediction of radiation embrittlement for
highly irradiated reactor pressure vessel steels. Proceed-
ings of the ASME 2009 Pressure Vessel and Piping Di-
vision Conference; ASME; 2009. PVP2009-78096.
[10] Yamashita N, Iwasaki M, Dozaki K, Soneda N. Indus-
try practice for the neutron irradiation embrittlement of
reactor pressure vessel steels in Japan. Proceedings of
the 17th International Conference on Nuclear Engineer-
ing. ASME; 2009. ICONE17-75322.
[11] Chaouadi R, Gerard R. Copper precipitate hardening
of irradiated RPV materials and implications on the
superposition law and re-irradiation kinetics. J Nucl
Mater. 2005;345:65–74.
[12] Hawthorne JR. Significance of nickel and copper con-
tent to radiation sensitivity and postirradiation heat
treatment recovery of reactor vessel steels. Effects Radi-
ation Materials: ASTM STP 782, ASTM; 1982. p. 372–
391.
[13] Williams TJ. The effect of nickel, manganese and copper
on the irradiated sensitivity of low alloy steel welds. Int
J Pres Vessel Piping. 2004;81:657–665.
[14] Stofanak RJ, Li YY, Burke MG, Matuszyk K. Irra-
diation embrittlement behavior of high strength low
alloy steels containing about 3.3% nickel. Proceedings
of the 10th International Conference on Environmen-
tal Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-
Water Reactors. NACE; 2001. [CD-ROM].
[15] Wire GL, Beggs WJ, Leax TR. Evaluation of irradi-
ated embrittlement of A508 Gr4N and comparison to
other low-alloy steels; Effects of Radiation on Materi-
als: 21st International Symposium, ASTM STP 1447;
ASTM; 2004. p. 179–193.
[16] Shibamoto H, Kitao T, Matsui H, Hasegawa M,
Yamaguchi S, Kimura A. Effect of nickel in irradiation
hardening and microstructure evolution of proton ir-
radiated Fe-Cu alloy. Effects of Radiation on Materi-
als: 20th International Symposium, ASTM STP 1405;
ASTM; 2002. p. 722–733.
[17] Odette GR, Yamamoto T, Eason ED, Nastad RK, On
the metallurgical and irradiation variable dependence of
the embrittlement of RPV steels. Proceedings of the In-
ternational Symposium on Research for Aging Manage-
ment of Light Water Reactors; INSS; 2007. p. 279–306.
[18] Burke MG, Stofanak RJ, Hyde J.M, English CA, Server
WL, Microstructural aspects of irradiation damage in
A508Gr 4N forging steel: composition and flux effects.
J ASTM Int. 2004;1:JAI11773.
[19] Yabuuchi K, Saito M, Kasada R, Kimura A. Neutron ir-
radiation hardening and microstructural changes in Fe-
Mn binary alloys. J Nucl Mater. 2011;414:498–502.
[20] Beaven PA, Frisius F, Kampmann R, Wagner R,
Hawthorne JR. SANS investigation of irradiated A533-
B steels doped with phosphorus. Radiation Embrittle-
ment of Nuclear Reactor Pressure Vessel Steels: An In-
ternational Review (Third Volume), ASTM STP 1011;
ASTM; 1989. p. 243–256.
[21] Buswell JT, Little EA, Sinclair RL. An analysis
of radiation effects in model A533B pressure vessel
steels containing copper, phosphorus and nickel addi-
tions. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 18th Inter-
national Symposium, ASTM STP 1325; ASTM; 1999.
p. 30–51.
[22] McElroy RJ, Lowe AL . Irradiation embrittlement mod-
elling of Linde 80 weld metals. Effects of Radiation on
Materials: 18th International Symposium, ASTM STP
1270; ASTM; 1996. p. 68–85.
[23] Suzuki T., Itoh K, Naruse Y, Matsui H, Kimura A.
Effect of location of V-notch on neutron irradiation-
induced shift in DBTT of HAZ of welded pressure vessel
steel. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 19th Interna-
tional Symposium, ASTM STP 1366; ASTM; 2000. p.
266–278.
[24] Katsuyama J, Tobita T, Nishiyama Y, Onizawa K, Me-
chanical and microstructural characterization of heat-
affected zone materials of reactor pressure vessel. J Press
Vessel Technol. 2012;134:031402.
[25] Suzuki M, Onizawa K, Kizaki M. Effects of neutron
flux and irradiation temperature on irradiation embrit-
tlement of A533B steels. Effects of Radiation on Mate-
rials: 17th International Symposium, ASTM STP 1270;
ASTM; 1996. p. 351–362.
[26] Murakami K, Abe H, Iwai T, Tamura S, Katano Y,
Iwata T, Nishida T, Sekimura N. Effect of microstruc-
ture on ion-irradiation-induced hardening in A533B
model alloys at 563K. Proceedings of the 2009 Interna-
tional Congress on Advances in Nuclear Power Plants
(ICAPP ‘09); Tokyo; May 10–14; 2009. Paper 9453.
[27] Jones RB, Williams TJ. The dependence of radiation
hardening and embrittlement on irradiation tempera-
ture. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 17th Interna-
tional Symposium, ASTM STP 1270. ASTM; 1996.
p. 569–590.
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
[28] Williams TJ, Burch PR, English CA, de la cour Ray
PHN. The effect of irradiation dose rate and tempera-
ture, and copper and nickel content on the irradiation
shift of low alloy steel submerged arc welds. Proceedings
of the 3rd International Symposium on Environmental
Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-
Water Reactors; TMS; 1988. p. 121–131.
[29] Workshop on Dose Rate Effects in Reactor Pres-
sure Vessel Materials. Conference Proceedings, EPRI
1006981, CRIEPI T980203, November 12–14, 2001;
Olympic Valley, CA; 2001. [CD-ROM].
[30] Stoller RE. The influence of damage rate and irradi-
ation temperature on radiation-induced embrittlement
in pressure vessel steels Effects of Radiation on Mate-
rials: 16th International Symposium, ASTM STP 1175;
ASTM; 1993. p. 394–423.
[31] Stoller RE. The effect of neutron flux on radiation-
induced embrittlement in reactor pressure vessel steels.
J ASTM Int. 2004;1:JAI11355.
[32] Asano K, Nishiyama T, Soneda N, Dohi K, Nishida
K, Nomoto A, Ohta T, Ishimaru Y, Yoneda H, Iida J,
Yuya H. Current understandings on the neutron irra-
diation embrittlement of BWR reactor pressure vessel
steels in Japan. Proceedings of the International Sym-
posium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials In-
vestigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2010. p. A123. [CD-ROM].
[33] Soneda N, Dohi K, Nishida K, Nomoto A, Iwasaki M,
Tsuno S, Akiyama T, Watanabe S, Ohta T. Flux effect
on neutron irradiation embrittlement of reactor pres-
sure vessel steels irradiated to high fluences. Proceedings
of the International Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contri-
bution of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. p. A080. [CD-
ROM].
[34] Remec I, Wang JA, Kam FBK, Farrell K. Effects of
gamma-induced displacements on HFIR pressure ves-
sel materials. J Nucl Mater. 1994;217:258–268.
[35] Fukuya K, Kimura I. Calculation of gamma induced
displacement cross-sections of iron considering positron
contribution and using standard damage model. J Nucl
Sci Technol. 2003;40:423–428.
[36] Fujii K, Fukuya K, Nakata H, Hono K, Nagai Y,
Hasegawa M. Hardening and microstructural evolution
in A533B steels under high-dose electron irradiation. J
Nucl Mater. 2005;340:247–258.
[37] Fujii K, Nakata H, Fukuya K, Ohkubo T, Hono K,
Nagai Y, Hasegawa M, Yoshiie T. Hardening and mi-
crostructural evolution in A533B steels under neutron
irradiation and a direct comparison with electron irra-
diation. J Nucl Mater. 2010;400:46–55.
[38] Farrell K, Stoller RE, Jung P, Ullmaier H. Hardening
of ferritic alloys at 288ºC by electron irradiation. J Nucl
Mater. 2000;279:77–83.
[39] Odette GR, Lucas GE, Klingensmith D. Irradiation
hardening of pressure vessel steels at 60ºC: The role of
thermal neutrons and boron. Effects of Radiation on
Materials: 18th International Symposium, ASTM STP
1325; ASTM; 1999. p. 3–13.
[40] Jones RB, Edens DJ, Wootton MR. Influence of ther-
mal neutrons on the hardening and embrittlement of
plate steels. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 19th
International Symposium, ASTM STP 1366; ASTM;
2000. p. 366–382.
[41] Garner FA, Greenwood LR, Roy P. An assessment of
potential gamma ray enhancement of embrittlement in
ABWR pressure vessel walls. Effects of Radiation on
Materials: 18th International Symposium, ASTM STP
1325; ASTM; 1999. p. 52–74.
243
[42] Hawthorne JR, Loss FJ. The effects of coupling nu-
clear radiation with static service stresses on pressure
vessel material behavior. Nucl Eng Design. 1968;8:108–
116.
[43] Nichols RW, Harries DR. Brittle fracture and irradi-
ation effects in ferritic pressure vessel steels. Proceed-
ings of the Symposium on Radiation Effects on Metals
and Neutron Dosimetry, ASTM STP 341; ASTM; 1963.
p. 162–198.
[44] Reynolds MB. The effect of stress on the radiation
stability of ASTM A302 grade B pressure-vessel steel.
Mater Res Stand. 1963;3:644–645.
[45] Fujii K, Fukuya K, Kasada R, Kimura A, Ohkubo
T. Effects of stress on radiation hardening and mi-
crostructural evolution in A533B steels. J Nucl Mater.
2010;407:151–157.
[46] Watanabe H, Hiragane A, Shin S, Yoshida N, Ka-
mada Y. The influence of stress on radiation induced
hardening of A533B and Fe-Mn alloys. J Nucl Mater.
Forthcoming.
[47] Lucas GE, Odette GR, Lombrozo PM, Sheckherd JM.
Effects of composition, microstructure, and temperature
on irradiation hardening of pressure vessel steels. Effects
of Radiation on Materials: 12th International Sympo-
sium, ASTM STP 870; ASTM; 1985. p. 900–930.
[48] Odette GR. Radiation induced microstructural evolu-
tion in reactor pressure vessel steels. Mat Res Soc Symp
Proc. 1995;373:137–148.
[49] English CA, Ortner SR, Gage G, Server WL, Rosinski
ST. Review of phosphorus segregation and intergranu-
lar embrittlement in reactor pressure vessel steels. Ef-
fects of radiation on Materials: 20th International Sym-
posium, ASTM STP 1405; ASTM; 2001. p. 151–173.
[50] Nagai Y, Hasegawa M, Tang Z, Hempel A, Yubuta
K, Shimamura T, Kawzoe Y, Kawai A, Kano F.
Positron Confinement in ultrafine embedded particles:
Quantum-dot-like state in an Fe-Cu alloy. Phys Rev.
2000;B61:6574–6578.
[51] Auger P, Pareige P, Welzel S, Van Duysen J-C. Synthesis
of atom probe experiments on irradiation-induced so-
lute segregation in French ferritic pressure vessel steels.
J Nucl Mater. 2000;280:331–344.
[52] Huang HF, Radiguet B, Pareige P, Todeschini R, Chas
G. Evolution of the microstructure of a French reac-
tor pressure vessel steel under neutron irradiation. Pro-
ceedings of the International Symposium Fontevraud
7, Contribution of Materials Investigations to Improve
the Safety and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010.
p. A073. [CD-ROM].
[53] Toyama T, Nagai Y, Tang Z, Hasegawa M, Almazouzi
A, van Walle E, Gerard R. Nanostructural evolution
in surveillance test specimens of a commercial nuclear
reactor pressure vessel studied by three-dimensional
atom probe and positron annihilation. Acta Mater.
2007;55:6852–6860.
[54] Gurovich B, Kuleshova E, Prikhodko K, Dedotova
S. Assessment of the recovery annealing efficiency fro
VVER-1000 materials’ structure reset and lifetime ex-
tension. Proceedings of the International Symposium
Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials Investigations
to Improve the Safety and Performance of LWRs;
SFEN; 2010.p. A009. [CD-ROM].
[55] Miller MK, Russel KF, Kocik J, Keilova E. Embrit-
tlement of low copper VVER 440 surveillance sam-
ples neutron-irradiated to high fluences. J Nucl Mater.
2000;282:83–88.
[56] Fukuya K, Ohno K, Nakata H, Dumbill S, Hyde JM.
Microstructural evolution in medium copper low al-
loy steels irradiated in a pressurized water reactor and
244 K. Fukuya
a material test reactor. J Nucl Mater. 2003;312:163–
173.
[57] Fukuya K, Ohno K, Nakata H. Microstructural evolu-
tion in reactor vessel steels under neutron irradiation.
INSS Monographs No.1; INSS; 2001. [in Japanese].
[58] Soneda N, Dohi K, Nomoto A, Nishida K, Ishino
S. Development of neutron irradiation embrittlement
correlation of reactor pressure vessel materials of light
water reactors, Report No.Q06019; CRIEPI; 2007.
[in Japanese].
[59] Soneda N, Dohi K, Nishida A, Ishino S. Embrittle-
ment correlation method for the Japanese reactor pres-
sure vessel materials. J ASTM Int. 2010;7:JAI102127.
[60] Carter R, English C, Server W. Prediction of neutron
irradiation embrittlement in BWR vessel steels. Pro-
ceedings of the International Symposium Fontevraud 6,
Contribution of Materials Investigations to Improve the
Safety and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 1997. p. 829–
842, A058.
[61] Nagai Y, Toyama T, Nishiyama Y, Suzuki M, Tang Z,
Hasegawa M. Kinetics of irradiation-induced Cu pre-
cipitation in nuclear reactor pressure vessel steels. Appl
Phys Lett. 2005;87:261920.
[62] Buswell JT, Phythian WJ, McElroy RJ, Dumbill S,
Ray PHN, Mace J, Sinclair RN. Irradiation-induced
microstructural changes and hardening mechanisms in
model PWR reactor pressure vessel steels. J Nucl Mater.
1995;225:196–214.
[63] Kampmann R, Frisius F, Hackbarth H, Beaven PA,
Wagner R, Hawthorne JR, SANS investigation of low
alloy steels in neutron irradiated, annealed and reir-
radiated conditions. Proceedings of the 5th Interna-
tional Symposium on Environmental Degradation of
Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
ANS; 1991. p. 679–688.
[64] Williams TJ, Ellis D. A mechanistically-based model
of irradiation damage in low alloy steel submerged arc
welds. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 20th Inter-
national Symposium, ASTM STP 1405; ASTM; 2001.
p. 8–27.
[65] Carter RG, Soneda N, Dohi K, Hyde JM, English
CA, Server WL. Microstructural characterization of
irradiated-induced Cu-rich clusters in reactor pressure
vessel steels. J Nucl Mater. 2001;298:211–224.
[66] Hyde JM, Ellis D, English CA, Williams TJ, Mi-
crostructural evolution in high nickel submerged arc
welds. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 20th Inter-
national Symposium, ASTM STP 1405; ASTM; 2001.
p. 262–288.
[67] Miller MK, Russell KF, Sokolov MA, Nanstad RK.
Atom probe tomography characterization of radiation-
sensitive KS-01 weld. J Nucl Mater. 2003;320:177–183.
[68] Burke MG, Stofanak RJ, Hyde JM, English CA, Server
WL. Microstructural aspects of irradiation damage in
A508 Gr4N forging steel: composition and flux effects.
J ASTM Int. 2004;1:JAI12453.
[69] Bohmert J, Viehrig H-W, Ulbricht A. Correlation be-
tween irradiation-induced changes of microstructural
parameters and mechanical properties of RPV steels.
J Nucl Mater. 2004;334:71–78.
[70] Pareige P, Radiguet B, Krummeich-Brangier R, Barbu
A, Zabusov O, Kozodaev M. Atomic-level observation
with three-dimensional atom probe of the solute be-
haviour in neutron-, ion- or electron-irradiated ferritic
alloys. Philo Mag. 2005;85:429–441.
[71] Ulbricht A, Bohmert J, Viehrig H-W. Microstructural
and mechanical characterization of radiation effects
in model reactor pressure vessel steels. J ASTM Int.
2005;2:JAI12385.
[72] Miller MK, Russell KF, Sokolov MA, Nanstad RK.
Atom probe tomography of radiation-sensitive KS-01
weld. Philo Mag. 2005;85:401–408.
[73] Miller MK, Nanstad RK, Sokolov MA, Russell KF.
The effects of irradiation, annealing and reirradia-
tion on RPV steels. J Nucl Mater. 2006;351:216–
222.
[74] Ulbricht A, Bergner F, Dewhurst CD, Heinemann A.
Small-angle neutron scattering study of post-irradiation
annealed neutron irradiated pressure vessel steels.
J Nucl Mater. 2006;353:27–34.
[75] Miller MK, Russell KF, Sokolov MA, Nanstad RK.
APT characterization of irradiated high nickel RPV
steels. J Nucl Mater. 2007;361:248–261.
[76] Miller MK, Russel KF. Embrittlement of RPV steels:
An atom probe tomography perspective. J Nucl Mater.
2007;371:145–160.
[77] Soneda N, Dohi K, Nishida K, Nomoto A, Tomimatsu
M, Matsuzawa H. Microstructural characterization of
RPV materials irradiated to high fluences at high flux.
J ASTM Int. 2009;6:JAI102128.
[78] Takeuchi T, Kuramoto A, Kameda J, Toyama T, Nagai
Y, Hasegawa M, Ohkubo T, Yoshiie T, Nishiyama Y,
Onizawa K. Effects of chemical composition and dose
on microstructure evolution and hardening of neutron-
irradiated reactor pressure vessel steels. J Nucl Mater.
2010;402:93–101.
[79] Bergner F, Lambrecht M, Ulbricht A, Almazouzi A.
Comparative small-angle neutron scattering study of
neutron-irradiated Fe, Fe-based alloys and a pressure
vessel steel. J Nucl Mater. 2010;399:129–136.
[80] Radiguet B, Barbu A, Pareige P. Understanding of
copper precipitation under electron or ion irradia-
tions in FeCu0.1wt% ferritic alloy by combination of
experiments and modeling. J Nucl Mater. 2007;360:104–
117.
[81] Verheyen K, Jardin M, Almazouzi A. Coincidence
Doppler broadening spectroscopy in Fe, Fe-C and
Fe-Cu after neutron irradiation. J Nucl Mater.
2006;351:209–215.
[82] Glade SC, Wirth BD, Odette GR, Asoka-Kumar P,
Sterne PA, Howell RH. Positron annihilation spec-
troscopy and small-angle neutron scattering character-
ization of the effect of Mn on the nanostructural fea-
tures formed in irradiated Fe-Cu-Mn alloys. Philo Mag.
2005;85:629–639.
[83] Yu Q, Was GS, Alexander D, Odette R. Hardening and
precipitate character in proton irradiated model pres-
sure vessel steel alloys. Proceedings of the 10th Inter-
national Conference on Environmental Degradation of
Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
NACE; 2001. [CD-ROM].
[84] Hasegawa M, Nagai Y, Tang Z, Kanai T, Chiba T, Tak-
enaka M, Kuramoto E. Positron annihilation character-
ization of ultrafine Cu precipitation and vacancy cluster
complexes in thermally aged and neutron-irradiated Fe-
Cu model alloys. Proceedings of the 10th International
Conference on Environmental Degradation of Materi-
als in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; NACE;
2001. [CD-ROM].
[85] Fujii K, Ohkubo T, Fukuya K. Effects of solute
elements on irradiation hardening and microstruc-
tural evolution in low alloy steels. J Nucl Mater.
2011;417:949–952.
[86] Meslin E, Radiguet B, Pareige P, Barbu A. Kinetic of
solute clustering in neutron irradiated ferritic model al-
loys and a French pressure vessel steel investigated by
atom probe tomography. J Nucl Mater. 2010;399:137–
145.
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
[87] Fujii K, Fukuya K. A study of radiation embrittlement
using simulation irradiation. Proceedings of the 16th Pa-
cific Basin Nuclear Conference; Aomori, October 13–
18; 2008. Paper ID: P16P1376.
[88] Hyde JM, Cerezo A, Williams TL. Statistical analysis
of atom probe data: detecting the early stages of so-
lute clustering and/or co-segregation. Ultramicroscopy.
2009;109:502–509.
[89] Jones RB, Bolton CJ. Neutron radiation embrittlement
studies in support of continued operation and validation
of sampling of Magnox reactor steel pressure vessels
and components. Proceedings of the 24th Water Reactor
Safety Meeting; 21–23 Oct.; Washington: NUREG/CP-
0157; 1996.
[90] Russell KC, Brown LM. A dispersion strengthening
model based on differing elastic moduli applied to the
iron-copper system. Acta Metal. 1972;20:969–974.
[91] Liu CL, Odette GR, Wirth BD, Lucas GE. A lattice
Monte Carlo simulation of nanophase compositions
and structures in irradiated pressure vessel Fe-Cu-Ni-
Mn-Si steels. Mater Sci Eng. 1997;A238:202–209.
[92] Cerezo A, Hirosawa S, Rozdilsky I, Smith GDW. Com-
bined atomic-scale modelling and experimental studies
of nucleation in the solid state. Phil Trans R Soc Lond
A. 2003;361:463–477.
[93] Vincent E, Becquart CS, Domain C. Microstructural
evolution under high flux irradiation of dilute Fe-
CuNiMnSi alloys studied by an atomic kinetic Monte
Carlo model accounting for both vacancies and self in-
terstitials. J Nucl Mater. 2008;382:154–159.
[94] Soneda N, Ishino S, Takahashi A, Dohi H. Modeling
the microstructural evolution in bcc-Fe during irradi-
ation using kinetic Monte Carlo computer simulation.
J Nucl Mater. 2003;323:169–180.
[95] Abe H, Kuramoto E. Interaction of solutes with
irradiation-induced defects of electron-irradiated dilute
iron alloys. J Nucl Mater. 1999;271&272:209–213.
[96] Murakami K. Study on irradiation defect behavior and
aging degradation in reactor pressure vessel steels. PhD.
theses. Tokyo, Japan: The University of Tokyo; 2011.
[97] Watanabe H, Masaki S, Masubuchi S, Yoshida
N, Dohi K. Effects of Mn addition on disloca-
tion loop formation in A533B and model alloys.
J Nucl Mater. 2012. Available from: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2012.08.029.
[98] Fujii K, Fukuya K. Characterization of defect clus-
ters in ion-irradiated A533B steel. J Nucl Mater.
2005;366:323–330.
[99] Kasada R, Kudo T, Kimura A, Matsui H, Narui
M. Effects of neutron dose, dose rate and irradia-
tion temperature on the irradiation embrittlement of a
low-copper reactor pressure vessel steel. J ASTM Int.
2005;2:JAI12399.
[100] Tomimatsu M, Sakamoto H, Dohi K, Watanabe T,
Matsuzawa H. Microstructural characterization of RPV
steels irradiated to high fluences. Proceedings of the
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Conference
PVP2009; ASME; 2009. PVP2009-78103.
[101] Kuleshova EA, Gurovich BA, Shtrombakh YaI., Niko-
laev YuA., Pechenkin VA. Microstructural behavior of
VVER-440 reactor pressure vessel steels under irradia-
tion to neutron fluences beyond the design operation pe-
riod. J Nucl Mater. 2005;342:77–89.
[102] Fujii K, Ohkubo T, Fukuya K. Effects of solute
elements on irradiation hardening and microstruc-
tural evolution in low alloy steels. J Nucl Mater.
2011;417:949–952.
[103] Hernandez-Mayoral M, Gomea-Briceno D. Transmis-
sion electron microscopy study on neutron irradiated
245
pure iron and RPV model alloys. J Nucl Mater.
2010;399:146–153.
[104] Lambrecht M, Meslin E, Malerba L, Hernandez-
Mayoral M, Bergner F, Pareige P, Radiguet B, Alma-
zouzi A. On the correlation between irradiation-induced
microstructural features and the hardening of reactor
pressure vessel steels. J Nucl Mater. 2010;406:84–89.
[105] Nagai Y, Takadate K, Tang Z, Ohkubo H, Hasegawa
M. Irradiation induced vacancy-Cu aggregations in Fe-
Cu model alloys of reactor pressure vessel steels studied
by positron annihilation. Effects of Radiation on Mate-
rials: 21th International Symposium, ASTM STP 1447;
ASTM; 2004. p. 590–604.
[106] Lambrecht M, Almazouzi A. Positron annihilation
study of neutron irradiated model alloys and of a reactor
pressure vessel steel. J Nucl Mater. 2009;385:334–338.
[107] Valo M, Krause R, Saarinen K, Hautojarvi P,
Hawthorne JR. Irradiation response and annealing
behavior of pressure vessel model steels and iron ternary
alloys measured with positron techniques. Effects of
Radiation on Materials: 15th International Symposium,
ASTM STP 1125; ASTM; 1992. p. 172–185.
[108] Dohi K, Soneda N, Nomoto A, Ishino S. Nano-
structural changes in the RPV steels irradiated in
MTR to high doses -3D atom probe and positron an-
nihilation study-. Report No.Q04025; CRIEPI; 2007.
[in Japanese].
[109] Nagai Y, Takadate K, Ohkubo H, Hasegawa M, tang
Z, Sunaga H, Takizawa H. Positron annihilation study
of vacancy-solute complex evolution in Fe-based alloys.
Phys Rev B. 2003;67:224202.1.
[110] Carter RG, Onchi T, Soneda N, Dohi K, Hyde JM,
English CA, Hutchings MT, Server W, Coste JF, Van-
Duysen JC. Thermal stability of matrix defects in irra-
diated pressure vessel steels. Proceedings of the Interna-
tional Symposium Fontevraud IV, Contribution of Ma-
terials Investigation to the Resolution of Problems En-
countered in Pressurized Water reactors; FNES; 1998.
[111] Soneda N, Carter R, Dohi K, Ortner S, Ishino S.
Vacancy-type defects produced in reactor pressure ves-
sel materials during neutron irradiation. Presented in
Fall annual Meeting of At. Energy Soc. Japan; 2004.
G49. [in Japanese].
[112] Druce SG, Gage G, Jordan G. Effect of ageing on prop-
erties of pressure vessel steels. Acta Metal. 1986;34:641–
652.
[113] Bischler PJE, Wild RK. A microstructural study of
phosphorus segregation and intergranular fracture in
neutron irradiated submerged-arc weld. Effects of Ra-
diation on Materials: 17th International Symposium,
ASTM STP 1270; ASTM; 1996. p. 260–273.
[114] Lu Z, Faulkner RG, Jones RB, Flewitt PEJ. Radiation-
and thermally- induced phosphorus inter-granular
segregation in pressure vessel steels. J ASTM Int.
2005;2:JAI12387.
[115] Nakata H, Fujii K, Fukuya K, Kasada R, Kimura A.
Grain boundary phosphorus segregation under ther-
mal aging in low alloy steels. J Nucl Sci Technol.
2006;43:785–793.
[116] McElroy RJ, English CA, Foreman AJ, Gage G, Hyde
JM, Ray PHN, Vatter IA. Temper embrittlement, irra-
diation induced phosphorus segregation and implica-
tions for post-irradiation annealing of reactor pressure
vessels. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 18th Inter-
national Symposium, ASTM STP1325; ASTM; 1999.
p. 296–316.
[117] Gurovich BA, Kuleshova EA, Shtorombakh Ya I,
Zabusov OO. Intergranular and intragranular phospho-
rus segregation in Russian pressure vessel steels due
246 K. Fukuya
to neutron irradiation. J Nucl Mater. 2000;279:259–
272.
[118] Kimura A, Shibata M, Kasada R, Fujii K, Fukuya K,
Nakata H. Assessment of neutron irradiation-induced
grain boundary embrittlement by phosphorus segrega-
tion in a reactor pressure vessel steel. J ASTM Int.
2005;2:JAI12398.
[119] Nishiyama Y, Onizawa K, Suzuki M. Phosphorus seg-
regation and intergranular embrittlement in thermally
aged and neutron irradiated reactor pressure vessel
steels. J ASTM Int. 2007;4:JAI100690.
[120] Nishiyama Y, Onizawa K, Suzuki M, Anderegg JW,
Nagai Y, Toyama T, Hasegawa M, Kameda J. Effects
of neutron-irradiation-induced intergranular phospho-
rus segregation and hardening on embrittlement in re-
actor pressure vessel steels. Acta Mater. 2008;56:4510–
4521.
[121] Nishiyama Y, Yamagushi M, Onizawa K, Iwase A, Mat-
suzawa H. Irradiation-induced grain-boundary solute
segregation and its effect on ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature in reactor pressure vessel steels. J ASTM
Int. 2009;6:JAI101959.
[122] Jones RB, Cowan JR, Corcoran RC, Walmsley JC. Em-
brittlement, hardening and grain boundary composi-
tion in an Fe-P-C alloy after irradiation or thermal
aging. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 19th Inter-
national Symposium, ASTM STP1366; ASTM; 2000.
p. 473–491.
[123] Kameda J, Bevolo AJ. Neutron irradiation-induced in-
tergranular solute segregation in iron base alloys. Acta
Metall. 1989;37:3283–3296.
[124] Nikolaeva AV, Nikolaev YA, Krykov AM. The con-
tribution of grain boundary effects to low-alloy steel
irradiation embrittlement. J Nucl Mater. 1994;218:85–
93.
[125] Faulkner RG, Song S, Flewitt PEJ, Victoria M, Marmy
P. Grain boundary segregation under neutron irradia-
tion in dilute alloys. J Nucl Mater. 1998;255:189–209.
[126] Ebihara K, Yamagushi M, Nishiyama Y, Onizawa K,
Matsuzawa H. Numerical simulation of irradiation-
induced grain-boundary phosphorus segregation in re-
actor pressure vessel steels using rate theory model
with first-principles calculations. Proceedings of the
ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Confer-
ence, PVP2009; ASME; 2009. PVP2009–77624.
[127] JEAC 4201-2007 Method of surveillance tests for struc-
tural materials of nuclear reactors. JEAC 4201-2007;
JEAC; 2007.
[128] Soneda N, Nomoto A. Characteristics of the new em-
brittlement correlation method for the Japanese reactor
pressure vessel steels. Proceedings of the 17th Interna-
tional Conference on Nuclear Engineering, ICONE17;
ASME; 2009. ICONE17-75320.
[129] Eason ED, Wright JE, Odette GR. Improved embrit-
tlement correlations for reactor pressure vessel steels.
NUREG/CR-6551. 1998.
[130] ASTM E900-02. Standard Guide for Predicting
Radiation-Induced Transition Temperature Shift in
Reactor Vessel Materials, E706 (IIF). Annual book of
ASTM standards; Vol. 12.02, Philadelphia: ASTM;
2002.
[131] Eason ED, Odette GR, Nanstad RK, Yamamoto T. A
physically based correlation of irradiation-induced tran-
sition temperature shifts for RPV steels. ORNL/TM-
2006/530; ORNL; 2006.
[132] NRC-2007-0008 – Alternate Fracture Toughness Re-
quirements for Protection Against Pressurized Thermal
Shock Events, published in Federal Register Vol. 75, No.
1, January 4, 2010.
[133] Bogaert A-S., Gerard R, Chaouadi R. Comparison
of embrittlement trend curves to high fluence surveil-
lance results. Proceedings of the International Sympo-
sium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials Inves-
tigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A137. [CD-ROM].
[134] Todeschini P, Lefebvre Y, Churier-Bossennec H, Rupa
N, Chas G, Benhamou C. Revision of the irradi-
ation embrittlement correlation used for the EDF
RPV fleet. Proceedings of the International Sympo-
sium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials Inves-
tigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A084. [CD-ROM].
[135] May J, Hein H, Ganswinf J, Wildera M. Irradiation
behavior of German PWR RPV steels under operat-
ing conditions. Proceedings of the International Sym-
posium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials In-
vestigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A055. [CD-ROM].
[136] Nikolaev YuA. Radiation embrittlement of Cr-Ni-Mo
and Cr-Mo RPV steels. J ASTM Int. 2007;4:JAI100695.
[137] Kirk MT. A wide-range trend embrittlement trend curve
for western RPV steels. Proceedings of the International
Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials
Investigations to Improve the Safety and Performance
of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A106. [CD-ROM].
[138] Nanstad RK, Odette GR. Reactor pressure vessel issues
for the light-water reactor sustainability program. Pro-
ceedings of the 14th International Conference on Envi-
ronmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactor; ANS; 2009. p. 1667–1676. [CD-
ROM].
[139] English CA, Server WL, Rosinski ST. Critical review
of through-wall attenuation of mechanical properties in
RPV steels. J ASTM Int. 2004;1:JAI11246.
[140] Stoller RE, Greenwood LR. An evaluation of through-
thickness changes in primary damage production in
commercial reactor pressure vessels. Effects of Ra-
diation on Materials: 20th International Symposium,
ASTM STP 1405; ASTM; 2001. p. 204–217.
[141] Brillaud C, Grandjean Y, Saittet S. Vessel investigation
program of “CHOOZ A” PWR reactor after shutdown.
Effects of Radiation on Materials: 20th International
Symposium, ASTM STP 1405; ASTM; 2001. p. 28–
41.
[142] Viehrig H-W., Schuhknecht J, Rindelhardt U, Weiss F-
P., Investigation of beltline welding seam of the Geif-
swald WWER-440 unit 1 reactor pressure vessel. J
ASTM Int. 2009;6:JAI101925.
[143] Brumovsky M, Kytka M, Server W, Soneda N, Span-
ner J. Results on attenuation of neutron embrittlement
effects. Proceedings of the 16th International Confer-
ence on Nuclear Engineering, ICONE16; ASME; 2008.
ICONE16-48710.
[144] Server W, Spanner J, Rosinski S, Brumovsky M, Kytka
M. Attenuation of neutron radiation damage through a
simulated RPV wall. J ASTM Int. 2008;5:JAI100728.
[145] Server W, Brumovsly M, Lytka M, Soneda N, Span-
ner J. Further results on attenuation of neutron embrit-
tlement effects in a simulated RPV wall. J ASTM Int.
2010;7:JAI102070.
[146] Sokolov MA, Nanstad RK, Miller MK. Fracture tough-
ness and atom probe characterization of a highly embrit-
tled RPV weld. J ASTM Int. 2004;1:JAI11312.
[147] Onizawa K, Suzuki M. Comparison of transition
temperature shifts between static fracture toughness
and Charpy-V impact properties due to irradiation
and post-irradiation annealing for Japanese A533B-
1 steels. Effects of Radiation on Materials: 20th
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
International Symposium, ASTM STP 1405; ASTM;
2001. p. 79–96.
[148] Sokolov MA, Nanstad RK. Comparison of irradiation-
induced shifts of KJc and Charpy impact toughness for
reactor pressure vessel steels. Effects of Radiation on
Materials: 18th International Symposium, ASTM STP
1325; ASTM; 1999. p. 167–190.
[149] Wallin KRW, Nagel G, Keim E, Siegele D. Estima-
tion of master curve based RTTO reference tempera-
ture from CVN data. Proceedings of the ASME Pres-
sure Vessels and Piping Division Conference, PVP2005;
ASME; 2005. PVP2005-71135.
[150] Lucon E, Scibetta M, Gerard R. Analysis of the Bel-
gian surveillance Wfracture toughness database using
conventional and advanced master curve approaches.
J ASTM Int. 2009;6:JAI101897.
[151] Chas G, Parrot A, Saillet S, Bourgon J, Rupa N,
Churier-Bossennec H. Irradiation effect on fracture
toughness of core shell on PWR vessels. Proceedings
of the Int. Symposium on Fontevraud 5, Contribu-
tion of Materials Investigation to the Resolution of
Problems Encountered in Pressurized Water Reactors;
SFEN; 2002. p. 261–272.
[152] Hein H, Keim E, Schnabel H, Seibert T, Gundermann
A. Final results from the crack initiation and arrest of
irradiated steel materials project on fracture mechanical
assessments of pre-irradiated RPV steels used in Ger-
man PWR. J ASTM Int. 2009;6:JAI101962.
[153] Zurbuchen C, Viehrig H-W, Weiss F-P. Master curve
and unified curve applicability to highly neutron irra-
diated western type reactor pressure vessel steels. Nucl
Eng Design. 2009;239:1246–1253.
[154] Nanstad RK, Sokolov MA, McCabe DE. Applicabil-
ity of the fracture toughness master curve to irradi-
ated highly embrittled steel and intergranular fracture.
J ASTM Int. 2008;5:JAI101346.
[155] Nanstad RK, Brumovsky M, Callejas RH, Gillemot F,
Korshunov M, Lee BS, Lucon E, Scibetta M, Minnebo
P, Nilsson KF, Miura N, Onizawa K, Planman T,
Server W, Burgos B, Serrano M. IAEA coordinated
research project on master curve approach to moni-
tor fracture toughness of RPV steels: final results of
the experimental exercise to support constraint effects.
Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and Pip-
ing Division Conference, PVP2009; ASME; 2009.
PVP2009-78022.
[156] Viehrig H-W, Lucon E, Server WL. IAEA coordinated
research project on master curve approach to moni-
tor fracture toughness of RPV steels: effect of loading
rate. Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and
Piping Division Conference, PVP2009; ASME; 2009.
PVP2009-77668.
[157] Scibetta M, Lucon E, Chaouadi R, van Wall E, Ger-
ard R. Use of broken charpy V-notch specimens from a
surveillance program for fracture toughness determina-
tion. J ASTM Int. 2005;2:JAI12450.
[158] Lucon E, Scibetta M. Miniature compact tension spec-
imens for upper shelf fracture toughness measurements
on RPV steels. J ASTM Int. 2008;5:JAI100959.
[159] Miura N, Soneda N. Evaluation of fracture toughness
by master curve approach using miniature C(T) spec-
imens. Proceedings of the ASME 2010 Pressure Ves-
sels and Piping Division / K-PVP Conference, PVP2010;
ASME; 2010. PVP2010- 25862.
[160] Schindler H-J., Tipping P, Kalkhof D. Application of
modern fracture mechanics methods to assess material
degradation of NPP components. Proceedings of the
International Symposium on Fontevraud 6, Contribu-
tion of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
247
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2006. p. :855–864.
A046
[161] EricksonKirk KT, EricksonKirk MA, Roe C, Zhang
XJ. Use of large database to identify trends in the
behavior of ferritic steels. Proceedings of the ASME
Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Conference,
PVP2009; ASME; 2009. PVP2009-77788.
[162] EricksonKirk M. Development of a Charpy master
curved-based embrittlement trend curve. Proceedings of
the International Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contribu-
tion of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A105. [CD-
ROM].
[163] Naudin C, Frunf J-M, Pineau A. Toughness modeling
of PWR vessel steel containing segregated zones. Pro-
ceedings of the 10th International Conference on Envi-
ronmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; NACE; 2001. [CD-ROM].
[164] Saillet S, Rupa N, Benhamou C. Impact of large forging
macrosegregations on the reactor pressure vessel surveil-
lance program. Proceedings of the International Sym-
posium on Fontevraud 6, Contribution of Materials In-
vestigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2006. p. 731–744. A067.
[165] Lucon E, Leenaers A, Vandermeulen W, Scibetta M.
Investigation of transition fracture toughness variation
within the thickness of reactor pressure vessel forging. J
ASTM Int. 2010;7:JAI102431.
[166] Viehrig H-W., Schuhknecht J, Rindelhardt U, Weiss
F-P. Investigation of beltline welding seam of the
Greifswald WWER-440 unit 1 reactor pressure vessel.
J ASTM Int. 2009;6:JAI101925.
[167] Moinereau D, Bezdikian G. SMILE: A European
R&D program for the inclusion of warm pre-stress
in RPV assessment. Trans. 18th International Confer-
ence on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology,
SMiRT18; 2005. Paper 18-G07-1.
[168] Moinereau D, Dahl A, Chapuliot S, Lidbury D. SMILE
project The effect of warm pre-stress in RPV assessment:
synthesis of experimental results and analyses. Proceed-
ings of the 2006 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Di-
vision Conference, PVP2006-ICPVT-11; ASME; 2006.
PVP2006-93178.
[169] Keim E, Langer R, Schnabel H, Bartsch R. Warm pre-
stress effect measured at irradiated RPV weld mate-
rial. Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and
Piping Division Conference, PVP2005; ASME; 2005.
PVP2005-71196.
[170] Moinereau D, Dahl A, Chas G, Rupa N, Bourgoin J,
Churier-Bossennec H. Application of warm pre-stress to
RPV assessment. Proceedings of the International Sym-
posium on Fontevraud 6, Contribution of Materials In-
vestigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2006. p. 817–828. A002.
[171] Massoud J-P., Bugat S, Marini B, Lidbury D, Van
Dyck S. PERFECT - Prediction of Irradiation Dam-
age Effects on Reactor Components: A summary. J Nucl
Mater. 2010;406:2–6.
[172] Lidbury D, Keim E, Marini B, Malerba L, Zeghadi A.
Overview of RPV sub-project of PERFORM 60. Pro-
ceedings of the International Symposium Fontevraud 7,
Contribution of Materials Investigations to Improve the
Safety and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A143.
[CD-ROM].
[173] Al-Mazouzi A, Alamo A, Lidbury D, Moinereau D,
Van Dyck S. PERFORM60: prediction of the effects of
radiation for reactor pressure vessel and in-core materi-
als using multi-scale modelling – 60 years foreseen. Nucl
Eng Design. 2011;241:3403–3415.
248 K. Fukuya
[174] FP6 IP PERFECT project: prediction of irradiation
damage effects in reactor components. J Nucl Mater.
2010;406:1–204.
[175] Vincent E, Domain C, Becquart CS. Ab initio calcula-
tions of vacancy interactions with solute atoms in bcc
Fe. Nucl Instrum Methods. 2005;B228:137–141.
[176] Jumel S, Van Duysen J-C, Ruste J, Domain C. Interac-
tions between dislocations and irradiation-induced de-
fects in light water reactor pressure vessel steels. J Nucl
Mater. 2005;346:79–97.
[177] Mathieu J-P., Inal K, Berveiller S, Diard O. A microme-
chanical interpretation of the temperature dependence
of Beremin model parameters for French RPV steel.
J Nucl Mater. 2009;406:97–112.
[178] Mathieu J-P., Diard O, Inal K, Berveiller S. Microme-
chanical modeling of brittle fracture of French RPV
steel. A comprehensive study of stress triaxiality ef-
fect. Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and
Piping Division Conference, PVP2008; ASME; 2008.
PVP2008-61334.
[179] Zhao X, Quita da Fonseca J, Sherry A, Lidbury D.
Grain-scale heterogeneity on mechanistic modeling of
cleavage fracture of a ferritic RPV steel forging ma-
terial. Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and
Piping Division Conference, PVP2008; ASME; 2008.
PVP2008-61569.
[180] Margolin B, Shvetsova V, Gulenko A, Nikolaev V, Lid-
bury D, Keim E. Physical and mechanical aspects of
radiation embrittlement of RPV steels. Proceedings of
the ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Con-
ference, PVP2008; ASME; 2008. PVP2008-61133.
[181] Bouchet C, Tanguy B, Besson J, Bugat S. Prediction of
the effects of neutron irradiation on the Charpy duc-
tile to brittle transition curve of an A508 pressure vessel
steel. Comp Mater Sci. 2005;32:294–300.
[182] Kodama M, Katsura R, Morisawa J, Nishimura S,
Suzuki S, Asano K, Fukuya K, Nakata K. IASCC sus-
ceptibility of austenitic stainless steels irradiated to high
fluence. Proceedings of the 6th International Sympo-
sium on Environmental Degradation of Materials in
Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 1993.
p. 583–588.
[183] Suzuki I, Kanasaki H, Mimaki H, Akiyama M, Okubo
T, Mishima Y, Mager TR. Stress corrosion cracking of
irradiated stainless steels in simulated PWR primary wa-
ter. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on
Nuclear Engineering, ICONE-5; 1996. p. 205.
[184] Fukuya K, Nakano M, Fujii K, Torimaru T. IASCC
susceptibility and slow tensile properties of highly-
irradiated 316 stainless steels, J Nucl Sci Technol.
2004;41:673–681.
[185] Fukuya K, Nishioka H, Fujii K, Torimaru T. Effects of
dissolved hydrogen and strain rate on IASCC behavior
in highly irradiated stainless steels, J Nucl Sci Technol.
2008;45:452–458.
[186] Chung HM, Ruther WE, Sanecki JE, Hins A, Zalzec
NJ, Kassner TF. Irradiation-assisted stress corrosion
cracking of austenitic stainless steels: recent progress
and new approaches. J Nucl Mater. 1996;239:61–79.
[187] Tanaka Y, Suzuki S, Kodama M, Nishimura S, Fukuya
K, Sakamoto H, Nakata K, Kato T. IASCC suscepti-
bility of type 304, 304L and 316L stainless steels. Pro-
ceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Envi-
ronmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; ANS; 1995. p. 803–811.
[188] Kasahara S, Nakata K, Jacobs AJ, Wozadlo GP,
Fukuya K, Shima S, Suzuki S. The effects of minor el-
ements on IASCC susceptibility in austenitic stainless
steels irradiated with neutrons. Proceedings of the 6th
International Symposium on Environmental Degrada-
tion of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Re-
actors; TMS; 1993. p. 615–621.
[189] Fournier L, Sencer BH, Was GS, Simonen EP, Bruem-
mer SM. The influence of oversized solute additions
on radiation-induced changes and post-irradiation in-
tergranular stress corrosion cracking behavior in high-
purity 316 stainless steels. J Nucl Mater. 2003;321:192–
209.
[190] Nakano J, Miwa Y, Kohya T, Tsukada T. Effects of
silicon, carbon and molybdenum additions on IASCC
of neutron irradiated austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl
Mater. 2004;329–333:643–647.
[191] Katsura R, Morisawa J, Kodama M, Nishimura S,
Suzuki S, Shima S, Yamamoto M. Effect of stress on
IASCC in irradiated austenitic stainless steels. Pro-
ceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Envi-
ronmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 1993. p. 625–631.
[192] Jacobs AJ, Wozadlo GP, Gordon GM. Use of a
constant deflection test to evaluate susceptibility to
irradiation-assisted stress corrosion cracking. Corro-
sion. 1993;49:650–655.
[193] Nishioka H, Fukuya K, Fujii K, Torimaru T. IASCC
initiation in highly irradiated stainless steels under uni-
axial constant load conditions. J Nucl Sci Technol.
2008;45:1072–1077.
[194] Conermann J, Shogan R, Fujimoto K, Yonezawa T,
Tamaguchi Y. Irradiation effects in a highly irradi-
ated cold worked stainless steel removed from a com-
mercial PWR. Proceedings of the 12th International
Conference Environmental Degradation of Materials in
Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2005.
p. 277–284. [CD-ROM].
[195] Freyer P, Mager T, Burke M. Hot cell crack initiation
testing of various heats of highly irradiated 316 stain-
less steel components obtained from three commercial
PWRs. Proceedings of the 13th International Confer-
ence Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nu-
clear Power Systems-Water Reactors; CNS; 2007. [CD-
ROM].
[196] Takakura K, Nakata K, Ando M, Fujimoto K, Wachi
E. Lifetime evaluation for IASCC initiation of cold
worked 316 stainless steel’s BFB in PWR primary water.
Proceedings of the13th International Conference Envi-
ronmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; CNS; 2007. [CD-ROM].
[197] Toivonen A, Aaltonen P, Karlsen W, Ehrnsten U, Mas-
soud J, Boursier J. Post- irradiation SCC investiga-
tions on highly-irradiated core internals component ma-
terials. Proceedings of the 6th International Sympo-
sium Fontevraud 6, Contribution of Materials Inves-
tigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2006. p. 567–580. A099.
[198] Fujii K, Nishioka H, Fukuya K, Torimaru T. Effects of
dissolved hydrogen on IASCC behavior. Proceedings of
the 7th International Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contri-
bution of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A085. [CD-
ROM].
[199] Pokor C, Massoud J-P, wintergerst M, Toivonen A,
Egrnsten U, Karlsen W. Determination of the time to
failure curves as a function of stress for a highly irradi-
ated AISI 304 stainless steel after constant load tests in
simulated PWR water environment. Proceedings of the
7th International Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contribu-
tion of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A008. [CD-
ROM].
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
[200] Takakura K, Tanaka S, Nakamura T, Chatani K, Kaji
Y. IASCC evaluation method for irradiated core inter-
nal structures in BWR power plants. Proceedings of the
ASME 2010 Pressure Vessels & Piping Division/ K-PVP
Conference, PVP2010; ASME; 2010. PVP2010-25293.
[201] Ooki S, Tanaka Y, Takamori K, Suzuki S, Tanaka S,
Ishiyama Y, Nakamura T, Kato T, Chatani K, Ko-
dama M. Study on SCC growth behavior of BWR core
shroud. Proceedings of the 12th International Confer-
ence on Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nu-
clear Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2005. p.
365–378. [CD-ROM].
[202] Karlsen TM, Bennett P, Hogberg NW. In-core crack
growth rate studies on irradiated austenitic stainless
steels in BWR and PWR conditions in the Halden re-
actor. Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium
on Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2005. p. 337–348.
[CD-ROM].
[203] Chen Y, Alexandreanu B, Yang Y, Shack WJ, Natesan
K, Gruber EE, Rao AS. Crack growth behavior of ir-
radiated type 316 SS in low dissolved oxygen environ-
ment. Proceedings of the 15th International Conference
on Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2011. p. 1169–
1182. [CD-ROM].
[204] Karlsen TM, Horvath A. Final report on the in-pile
crack growth behaviour of irradiated compact tension
specimens in IFA-639. OECD Halden Reactor Project
Report HWR-770, Dec.; 2004.
[205] Jenssen A, Stjärnsäter J, Pathania R. Crack growth rates
of irradiated commercial stainless steels in BWR and
PWR environments. Proceedings of the 15th Interna-
tional Conference on Environmental Degradation of
Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
TMS; 2011. p. 1229–1240. [CD-ROM].
[206] Jenssen A, Stjärnsäter J, Pathania R. Crack growth rate
testing of fast reactor irradiated type 304L and 316 SS in
BWR and PWR environments. Proceedings of the 14th
International Symposium on Environmental Degrada-
tion of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Re-
actors; ANS; 2009. p. 1164–1180. [CD-ROM].
[207] Andresen PL, Ford FP. Life prediction by mechanis-
tic modeling and system monitoring of environmental
cracking of iron and nickel alloys in aqueous systems.
Mater Sci Eng. 1988;A103:167–184.
[208] Kaji Y, Ugachi H, Tsukada T, Nakano J, Matsui Y,
Kawamata K, Shibata A, Ohmi M, Nagata N, Dozaki
K, Takiguchi H. In-core SCC growth behavior of type
304 stainless steel in BWR simulated high-temperature
water at JMTR. J Nucl Sci Technol. 2008;45:725–734.
[209] Fukuya K, Nakata K, Horie A. An IASCC study using
high energy ion irradiation. Proceedings of the 5th In-
ternational Symposium on Environmental Degradation
of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
ANS; 1991. p. 814–820.
[210] Was GS, Busby JT, Allen T, Kenik EA, Jensson A,
Bruemmer SM, Gan J, Edwards AD, Scott PM, An-
dresen PL. Emulation of neutron irradiation effects
with protons: validation of principle. J Nucl Mater.
2002;300:198–216.
[211] Tsukada T, Jitsukawa S, Shiba K, Sato Y, Shibahara
I, Nakajima H. Evaluation of irradiation assisted stress
corrosion cracking (IASCC) of type 316 stainless steel
irradiated in FBR. J Nucl Mater. 1993;207:159–168.
[212] Chung HM, Strain RV, Shack WJ. Tensile and stress
corrosion cracking properties of type 304 stainless steel
irradiated to a very high dose. Nucl Eng Design.
2001;208:221–234.
249
[213] Fujimoto K, Yonezawa T, Wachi E, Yamaguchi Y,
Nakano M, Shogan RP, Massoud JP, Mager TR.
Effect of the accelerated irradiation and hydro-
gen/helium gas on IASCC characteristics for highly
irradiated austenitic stainless steels. Proceedings of
the 12th International Conference on Environmental
Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-
Water Reactors; TMS; 2005. p. 299–310. [CD-ROM].
[214] Zinkle SJ, Maziasz PJ, Stoller RE. Dose dependence
of the microstructural evolution in neutron-irradiated
austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl Mater. 1993;206:266–
286.
[215] Garner FA. Evolution of microstructure in face-
centered cubic metals during irradiation. J Nucl Mater.
1993;205:98–117.
[216] Maziasz PJ. Formation and stability of radiation-
induced phases in neutron-irradiated austenitic and fer-
ritic steels. J Nucl Mater. 1989;169:95–115.
[217] Edwards DJ, Simonen EP, Brummer SM, Evolution of
fine-scale defects in stainless steels neutron-irradiated at
275◦ C. J Nucl Mater. 2003;317:13–31.
[218] Edwards DJ, Simonen EP, Garner FA, Greenwood LR,
Oliver BM, Bruemmer SM. Influence of irradiation
temperature and dose gradients on the microstructural
evolution in neutron-irradiated 316SS. J Nucl Mater.
2003;317:32–45.
[219] Edwards DJ, Garner FA, Bruemmer SM, Efsing P.
Nano-cavities observed in a 316SS flux thimble tube ir-
radiated to 33 and 70 dpa. J Nucl Mater. 2009;384:249–
255.
[220] Fukuya K, Fujii K, Nishioka M, Kitsunai Y. Evolution
of microstructure and microchemistry in cold-worked
316 stainless steels under PWR irradiation. J Nucl Sci
Technol. 2006;43:159–173.
[221] Bailat C, Almazouzi A, Baluc N, Schaublin R, Groschel
F, Victoria M. The effects of irradiation and testing tem-
perature on tensile behavior of stainless steels. J Nucl
Mater. 2000;283–287:446–450.
[222] Monnet I, Decroix GM, Dubuisson P, Reuchet J, Mor-
lent O. Investigation of the Chooz A nuclear power
plant. Proceedings of the International Symposium
Fontevraud 5, Contribution of Materials Investigation
to the Resolution of Problems Encountered in Pressur-
ized Water Reactors; SFEN; 2002. p. 371–379.
[223] Demma A, Carter R, Jenssen A, Torimaru T, Gam-
ble R. Fracture toughness of highly irradiated stainless
steels in boiling water reactors. Proceedings of the 13th
International Conference on Environmental Degrada-
tion of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Re-
actors; CNS; 2007. [CD-ROM].
[224] Torimaru T, Kodama M, Tanaka S, Nakamura T,
Asano K, Kumagai K. Neutron flux effect on the irradi-
ation hardening of type 304 stainless steel. J ASTM Int.
2005;2:JAI12843.
[225] Pokor C, Brechet Y, Dubuisson P, Massoud JP, Barbu
A. Irradiation damage in 304 and 316 stainless steels:
Experimental investigation and modeling, Part I: Evolu-
tion of the microstructure. J Nucl Mater. 2004;326:19–
29.
[226] Yang Y, Allen TR, Chen Y, Chopra OK. Microstruc-
tural evaluation of stainless alloys irradiated in the
BOR-60 reactor. Proceedings of the 13th International
Conference on Environmental Degradation of Materi-
als in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; CNS;
2007. [CD-ROM].
[227] Gan J, Was GS, Stoller RE. Modeling of microstruc-
tural evolution in austenitic stainless steels irradiated
under light water reactor condition. J Nucl Mater.
2001;299:53–67.
250 K. Fukuya
[228] Etienne A, Radiguet B, Pareige P, Massoud J-P, Pokor
C. Tomographic atom probe characterization of the
microstructure of a cold worked 316 stainless steel after
neutron irradiation. J Nucl Mater. 2008;382:64–69.
[229] Pareige P, Etienne A, Radiguet B. Experimental atomic
scale investigation of radiation effects in CW 316SS and
UFG-CW 316SS. J. Nucl. Mater. 2009;389:259–264.
[230] Etienne A, Radiguet B, Cunningham NJ, Odette GR,
Pareige P. Atomic scale investigation of radiation-
induced segregation in austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl
Mater. 2010;406:244–250.
[231] Jiao Z, Was GS. Novel features of radiation-induced
segregation and radiation-induced precipitation in
austenitic stainless steels. Acta Mater. 2011;59:1220–
1238.
[232] Toyama T, Nozawa Y, Van Renterghem W, Matsukawa
Y, Hatakeyama M. , NagaiY., Al Mazouzi A, Van Dyck
S. Irradiation-induced precipitates in a neutron irra-
diated 304 stainless steel studied by three-dimensional
atom probe. J Nucl Mater. 2011;418:62–68.
[233] Toyama T, Nozawa Y, Van Renterghem W, Matsukawa
Y, Hatakeyama M, Nagai Y, Al Mazouzi A, Van Dyck
S. Grain boundary segregation in neutron-irradiated
304 stainless steel studied by atom probe tomography.
J Nucl Mater. 2012;425:71–75.
[234] Hashimoto N, Wakai E, Robertson JP. Relationship
between hardening and damage structure in austenitic
stainless steel 316LN irradiated at low temperature in
the HFIR. J Nucl Mater. 1999;273:95–101.
[235] Lucas GE. The evolution of mechanical property
change in irradiated austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl
Mater. 1993;206:287–305.
[236] Arai H, Masanori S, Mager TR, Akiyama M, Okubo T,
Mishima Y. Irradiation embrittlement of PWR reactor
internals. Proceedings of the ASME/JSME Nuclear En-
gineering Conference, Vol. 2; ASME; 1993. p. 101–106.
[237] Suzuki S, Saito K, Kodama M, Shima S, Saito T. Eval-
uation of irradiation assisted degradation to BWR reac-
tor internal components. Trans. 11th International Con-
ference on Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology,
SMiRT11, Vol. D; 1991. p. 321.
[238] Fukuya K, Shima S, Nakata K, Kasahara S, Jacobs AJ,
Wozadlo GP, Suzuki S, Kitamura M. Mechanical prop-
erties and IASCC susceptibility in irradiated stainless
steels. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium
on Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 1993. p. 565–572.
[239] Kodama M, Nishimura S, Tanaka Y, Suzuki S, Fukuya
K, Shima S, Nakata K, Kato T. Mechanical properties
of various kinds of irradiated austenitic stainless steels.
Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on En-
vironmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; ANS; 1995. p. 831–838.
[240] Busby JT, Hash MC, Was GS. The relationship between
hardness and yield stress in irradiated austenitic and fer-
ritic steels. J Nucl Mater. 2005;336:267–278.
[241] Hashimoto N, Zinkle SJ, Rowcliff AF, Robertson JP,
Jitsukawa S. Deformation mechanisms in 316 stain-
less steel irradiated at 60◦ C and 330◦ C. J Nucl Mater.
2000;283–287:528–534.
[242] Bailat C, Groschel F, Victoria M. Deformation modes
of proton and neutron irradiated stainless steels. J Nucl
Mater. 2000;276:283–288.
[243] Byun TS, Hashimoto N, Farrell K. Deformation mode
map of irradiated 316 stainless steel in true stress-dose
space. J Nucl Mater. 2006;351:303–315.
[244] Byun TS, Hashimoto N. Strain hardening during me-
chanical twinning and dislocation channeling in irradi-
ated 316 stainless steels. J ASTM Int. 2007;4:JAI100680.
[245] Nishioka H, Fukuya K, Fujii K, Kitsunai Y. Deforma-
tion structure in highly irradiated stainless steels. J Nucl
Sci Technol. 2008;45:274–287.
[246] Onchi T, Dohi K, Navas M, Karlsen W. Crack initiation
mechanism in non-ductile cracking of irradiated 304L
stainless steels under BWR water environment. J Nucl
Sci Technol. 2006;43:851–865.
[247] Jiao Z, Was GS. Impact of localized deformation on
IASCC in austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl Mater.
2011;408:246–256.
[248] Was GS, Farkas D, Robertson IM. Micromechanics
of dislocation channeling in intergranular stress corro-
sion crack nucleation. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci.
2012;16:134–142.
[249] Karlsen W, Pakarinen J, Toivonen A, Ehrnstén U. De-
formation microstructures of 30 dpa AISI 304 stainless
steel after monotonic tensile and constant load auto-
clave testing. Proceedings of the 15th International Con-
ference on Environmental Degradation of Materials in
Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2011.
p. 1429–1444. [CD-ROM].
[250] Kamaya M, Fukuya K, Kitamura T. Angular dis-
tribution of slip steps by three-dimensional polycrys-
talline model for stainless steel. J Nucl Sci Technol.
2009;46:901–906.
[251] Hashimoto N, Byun TS. Deformation-induced marten-
site formation and dislocation channeling in neutron-
irradiated 316 stainless steel. J Nucl Mater. 2007;367–
370:960–965.
[252] Cole JI, Bruemmer SM. Post-irradiation deformation
characteristics of heavy-ion irradiated 304LSS. J Nucl
Mater. 1993;225:53–58.
[253] Jiao Z, Was GS. Localized deformation and IASCC
initiation in austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl Mater.
2008;382:203–209.
[254] Miura T, Fujii K, Fukuya K, Ito Y. Characterization
of deformation structure using ion-irradiated stainless
steels. J Nucl Mater. 2009;386–388:210–213.
[255] Tanno T, Hasegawa A, Sasaki S, Nogami S, Satou
M. Evaluation of localized deformation at low strain
levels in austenitic stainless steel irradiated by proton.
Proceedings of the 14th International Conference on
Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; ANS; 2009. p. 1289–
1293. [CD-ROM].
[256] Fukuya K, Nishioka H, Fujii K, Miura T, Torimaru T.
An EBSD examination of SUS316 stainless steel irra-
diated to 73dpa and deformed at 593K. J Nucl Mater.
2011;417:958–962.
[257] Jiao Z, Busby JT, Obata R, Was GS. Influence of lo-
calized deformation on irradiation-assisted stress cor-
rosion cracking of proton-irradiated austenitic alloys.
Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on
Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2005. p. 379–388.
[CD-ROM].
[258] Williams JF, Mager TR, Spellward P, Walmsley J,
Koyama M, Suzuki I, Mishima H. Microstructural ef-
fects in austenitic stainless steel materials irradiated in
a pressurized water reactor. Proceedings of the 8th In-
ternational Symposium on Environmental Degradation
of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
NACE; 1997. p. 725–733.
[259] Asano K, Fukuya K, Nakata K, Kodama M. Changes
in grain boundary composition induced by neutron irra-
diation on austenitic stainless steels. Proceedings of the
5th International Symposium on Environmental Degra-
dation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water
Reactors; ANS; 1991. p. 838–843.
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
[260] Allen TR, Cole JI, Kenik EA, Was GS. Analyzing the
effect of displacement rate on radiation-induced segre-
gation in 304 and 316 stainless steels by examining irra-
diated EBR-II components and samples irradiated with
protons. J Nucl Mater. 2008;376:169–173.
[261] Simonen EP, Edwards DJ, Bruemmer SM. Dose rate
effects on microchemistry and microstructure relevant
to LWR components. Proceedings of the 12th Interna-
tional Symposium on Environmental Degradation of
Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
TMS; 2005. p. 429–438. [CD-ROM].
[262] Allen TR, Busby JT, Was GS, Kenik EA. On the mecha-
nism of radiation-induced segregation in austenitic Fe–
Cr–Ni alloys. J Nucl Mater. 1998;255:44–58.
[263] Kano F, Fukuya K, Hamada S, Miwa Y. Effect of
carbon and nitrogen on grain boundary segregation
in irradiated stainless steels. J Nucl Mater. 1998;258–
263:1713–1717.
[264] Hackett MJ, Busby JT, Miller MK, Was GS. Effects
of oversized solutes on radiation-induced segregation in
austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl Mater. 2009;389:265–
278.
[265] Perks JM, Murphy SM. Modelling the major element
radiation-induced segregation in concentrated Fe-Cr-Ni
alloys. Proceedings of the of Materials for Nuclear Re-
actor Core Application; BNES; 1987. p. 165–169.
[266] Johnson RA, Lam NQ. Solute segregation in metals un-
der irradiation. Phys Rev B. 1976;13:4346–4375.
[267] Allen TR, Was GS. Modeling radiation-induced seg-
regation in austenitic Fe-Cr-Ni alloys. Acta Mater.
1998;46:3679–3691.
[268] Sakaguchi N, Watanabe S, Takahashi H. Heteroge-
neous dislocation formation and solute redistribution
near grain boundaries in austenitic stainless steel under
electron irradiation. Acta Mater. 2001;49:1129–1137.
[269] Simonen EP, Edwards DJ, Bruemmer SM. Dose rate
ffects on microchemistry and microstructure relevant
to LWR components. Proceedings of the 12th Inter-
national Conference on Environmental Degradation of
Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
TMS; 2005. p. 429–438. [CD-ROM].
[270] Sakaguchi N, Takahashi H, Ichinose H. Influence of
silicon and phosphorus on radiation-induced segrega-
tion of chromium and nickel in austenitic model alloys.
Mater Trans. 2005;46:440–444.
[271] Fukuya K, Fujii K. A multicomponent model of radia-
tion induced segregation in commercial stainless steels.
J Nucl Sci Technol. 2009;46:744–752.
[272] Tucker JD, Najafabadi R, Allen TR, Morgan D. Ab
initio-based diffusion theory and tracer diffusion in Ni–
Cr and Ni–Fe alloys. J Nucl Mater. 2010;405:216–234.
[273] Satoh T, Satoh Y, Uchida S. Water chemistry in a crack
tip under irradiation, (II) Evaluation of oxidant concen-
tration in the crack tip. J Nucl Sci Technol. 2003;40:334–
342.
[274] Murayama Y, Satoh T, Uchida S, Satoh Y, Nagata S,
Satoh T, Wada Y, Tachibana M. Effects of hydrogen
peroxide on intergranular stress corrosion cracking of
stainless steel in high temperature water, (V) Character-
ization of oxide film on stainless steel by multilateral sur-
face analyses. J Nucl Sci Technol. 2002;39:1199–1206.
[275] Miyazawa T, Terachi T, Uchida S, Satoh T, Tsukada
T, Satoh Y, Wada Y, Hosokawa H. Effects of hydrogen
peroxide on corrosion of stainless steel, (V) Characteri-
zation of oxide film with multilateral surface analyses. J
Nucl Sci Technol. 2006;43:884–895.
[276] Wada Y, Ishida K, Watanabe A, Tachibana M, An-
zai M, Fuse M. Effects of g-ray irradiation upon
SCC initiation and propagation under BWR conditions.
251
Proceedings of the 14th International Symposium on
Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; ANS; 2009. p. 596–603.
[CD-ROM].
[277] Uchida S, Satoh T, Tsukada T, Miyazawa T, Satoh
Y, Ishii K. Evaluation of the effects of oxide film on
electrochemical corrosion potential of stainless steel in
high temperature water. Proceedings of the 14th Inter-
national Symposium on Environmental Degradation of
Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors;
ANS; 2009. p. 1100–1121. [CD-ROM].
[278] Ehrlich K. Irradiation creep and interrelation with
swelling in austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl Mater.
1981;100:149–166.
[279] Kenfield TA, Busboom HJ, Appleby WK. In-reactor
stress relaxation in bending of 20% cold-worked 316
stainless steel. J Nucl Mater. 1977;65:238–243.
[280] Causey AR, Carpenter GJC, MacEwen SR. In-reactor
stress relaxation of selected metals and alloys at low tem-
peratures. J Nucl Mater. 1980;90:216–223.
[281] Kaji Y, Miwa Y, Tsukada T, Kikuchi M, Kita S,
Yonekawa M, Nakano J, Tsuji H, Nakajima H. Evalu-
ation of in-pile and out-of-pile stress relaxation in 316L
stainless steel under uniaxial loading. J Nucl Mater.
2002;307–311:331–334.
[282] Ishiyama Y, Nakata K, Obata M, Anzai H, Tanaka
S, Tsukada T, Asano K. Stress relaxation caused by
neutron-irradiation at 561 K in austenitic stainless
steels. Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium
on Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; ANS; 2003. p. 920–928.
[CD-ROM].
[283] Obata M, Root JH, Ishiyama Y, Nakata K, Sakamoto
H, Anzai H, Asano K. Radiation-induced stress relax-
ation of welded type 304 stainless steel evaluated by neu-
tron diffraction. J ASTM Int. 2006;3:JAI12348.
[284] Ishiyama Y, Rogge RB, Obata M. Radiation-induced
stress relaxation in high temperature water of type 316L
stainless steel evaluated by neutron diffraction. J Nucl
Mater. 2011;408:153–160.
[285] Garnier J, Dubuisson P, Pokor C, Lemaire E, Monteil
N, Massoud J-P. Relaxation and irradiation creep of
PWR baffle bolt materials. Proceedings of the 7th In-
ternational Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of
Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety and Per-
formance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A150. [CD-ROM].
[286] Takakura K, Sakima K, Fujimoto K, Kubo N, Kido
T, In-pile creep behavior of type 316 stainless steel at
HALDEN reactor. Proceedings of the 7th International
Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials
Investigations to Improve the Safety and Performance
of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A132. [CD-ROM].
[287] Foster JP, Karlsen TM. Irradiation creep and irradia-
tion stress relaxation of 316 and 304L stainless steels
in thermal and fast neutron spectrum reactors. Pro-
ceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Envi-
ronmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2011. p. 1339–1350.
[CD-ROM].
[288] Foster JP, Bunde K, Gilbert ER. Stress state de-
pendence of transient irradiation creep in 20% cold
worked 316 stainless steel. J Nucl Mater. 1998;257:118–
125.
[289] Nakagawa J, Ueno K, Murase Y, Yamamoto N. Ef-
fect of cold-work on the radiation-induced deformation
of austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl Mater. 2007;367–
370:910–914.
[290] Nagakawa J. Calculation of radiation-induced creep
and stress relaxation. J Nucl Mater. 1995;225:1–7.
252 K. Fukuya
[291] Nagakawa J, Ueno K. Calculation of radiation-induced
deformation of SUS316 in the ITER-relevant condition.
J Nucl Mater. 2004;329–333:597–601.
[292] Kodama M, Ishiyama Y, Namatame S, Suzuki S,
Fukuya K, Sakamoto H, Nakata K, Kato T. Effect of
pre-irradiation grain boundary chemistry on IASCC.
Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium on En-
vironmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 1999. p. 923–929.
[293] Chatani K, Takakura K, Ando M, Nakata K, Tanaka S,
Ishiyama Y, Hishida M, Kaji Y. IASCC crack growth
rate of neutron irradiated low carbon austenitic stain-
less steels in simulated BWR condition. Proceedings of
the 13th International Conference on Environmental
Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-
Water Reactors; CNS; 2011. [CD-ROM].
[294] Fukuya K, Nakano M, Fujii K, Torimaru T. Separation
of microstructural and microchemical effects in IASCC
using post-irradiation annealing. J Nucl Sci Technol.
2004;41:1218–1227.
[295] Andresen PL, Morra MM. IGSCC of non-sensitized
stainless steels in high temperature water. J Nucl Mater.
2008;383:97–111.
[296] Karlsen TM, Høgberg N-W, van Nieuwenhove R. Re-
sults from irradiation assisted stress corrosion cracking
and stress relaxation studies preformed in the Halden
reactor. Proceedings of the 6th International Sympo-
sium Fontevraud 6, Contribution of Materials Inves-
tigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2008. p. 581–590. A144.
[297] Hash MC, Busby JT, Was GS. The effect of harden-
ing source in proton irradiation-assisted stress corrosion
cracking of cold worked type 304 stainless steel. Effects
of Radiation on Materials: 21st International Sympo-
sium, ASTM STP 1447; ASTM; 2004. p. 92–104.
[298] Fukuya K, Nishioka H, Fujii K, Kamaya M, Miura
T, Torimaru T. Material property changes of stainless
steels under PWR irradiation. Proceedings of the 2009
International Congress on Advances in Nuclear Power
Plants, ICAPP’09, Tokyo, May 10–14; 2009. Paper 9191.
[299] FukuyaK., Nakano M, Fujii K, Torimaru T. Role of
radiation-induced grain boundary segregation in irradi-
ation assisted stress corrosion cracking. J Nucl Sci Tech-
nol. 2004;41:594–600.
[300] Busby JT, Was GS, Kenik EA. Isolation of the role
of radiation-induced segregation in IASCC of proton-
irradiated austenitic stainless steels. J Nucl Mater.
2002;302:20–40.
[301] Thomas LE, Bruemmer SM. Analytical transmission
electron microscopy characterization of stress corrosion
cracks in an irradiated type 316 stainless steel core com-
ponent. Proceedings of the 5th International Sympo-
sium Fontevraud 5, Contribution of Materials Investi-
gations to the Resolution of Problems Encountered in
Pressurized Water Reactors; SFEN; 2002.p. 347–360.
[302] Thomas LE, Bruemmer SM. Microstructural and mi-
crochemical characterization of intergranular stress cor-
rosion cracks in irradiated type 304SS removed from a
BWR top guide. Proceedings of the 11th International
Conference on Environmental Degradation of Materi-
als in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; ANS;
2003. p. 1049–1059. [CD-ROM].
[303] Thomas L, Edwards D, Asano K. Crack-tip charac-
teristics in BWR service components. Proceedings of
the 13th International Conference on Environmental
Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-
Water Reactors; CNS; 2007. [CD-ROM].
[304] Fukuya K, Nishioka H, Fujii K, Kitsunai Y. Char-
acterization of IASCC crack tip in highly irradiated
stainless steels. Proceedings of the 14th International
Conference on Environmental Degradation of Materi-
als in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; ANS;
2009. p. 1248–1258. [CD-ROM].
[305] Manahan MP, Kohli R, Santucci J, Sipush P. A phe-
nomenological investigation of in-reactor cracking of
type 304 stainless steel control rod cladding. Nucl Eng
Design. 1989;113:297–321.
[306] Matsuoka T, Yonezawa T, Tomimatsu M, Mori M, My-
ojin H, Sasaki Y, Ootani M, Nagata T, Intergranular
cracking in cladding tube of PWR RCCA rodlets. JSME
Int J. 1995;A38:515–523.
[307] Morisawa J, Kodama M, Yokota N, Nakata K, Fukuya
K, Shima S, Asano K. Hydrogen analysis and slow
strain rate test in Ar gas for irradiated austenitic stain-
less steel. J Nucl Mater. 2001;294:241–249.
[308] Fukuya K, Nishioka H, Fujii K, Kamaya M, Miura
T, Torimaru T. Fracture behavior of austenitic stainless
steels irradiated in PWR. J Nucl Mater. 2008;378:211–
219.
[309] McMurtrey MD, Was GS, Patrick L, Farkas D. Re-
lationship between localized strain and irradiation as-
sisted stress corrosion cracking in an austenitic alloy.
Mater Sci Eng. 2011;A528:3730–3740.
[310] West EA, Was GS. A model for the normal stress de-
pendence of intergranular cracking of irradiated 316L
stainless steel in supercritical water. J Nucl Mater.
2011;408:142–152.
[311] Kamaya M, Kawamura Y, Kitamura T. Three-
dimensional local stress analysis on grain bound-
aries in polycrystalline material. Int J Solids Struct.
2007;44:3267–3277.
[312] Fukuya K, Nishioka H, Fujii K, Miura T, Kitsunai
Y. Local strain distribution near grain boundaries un-
der tensile stresses in highly irradiated SUS316 stainless
steel. J Nucl Mater. 2013;432:67–71.
[313] Evrad P, Sauzay M. Modelling of the effect of dislo-
cation channel on intergranular microcrack nucleation
in pre-irradiated austenitic stainless steels during low
strain rate tensile loading. J Nucl Mater. 2010;405:83–
94.
[314] Sauzay M, Bavard K, Karlsen W. TEM observations
and finite element modelling of channel deformation
in pre-irradiated austenitic stainless steels - Interaction
with free surfaces and grain boundaries. J Nucl Mater.
2010;406:152–165.
[315] Kim YJ . Analysis of oxide film formed on type 304
stainless steel in 288C water containing oxygen, hy-
drogen, and hydrogen peroxide. Corrosion. 1999;55:81–
88.
[316] Stellwag B. The mechanism of oxide film formation
on austenitic stainless steels in high-temperature water.
Corros Sci. 1998;40:337–380.
[317] Terachi T, Yamada T, Miyamoto T, Arioka K, Fukuya
K. Corrosion behavior of stainless steels in simulated
PWR primary water -Effect of chromium content in
alloys and dissolved hydrogen-. J Nucl Sci Technol.
2008;45:975–984.
[318] Shoji T, Lu Z, Das NK, Murakami H, Takeda Y, Is-
mail T. Modeling stress corrosion cracking growth rates
based upon the effect of stress/strain on crack tip inter-
face degradation and oxidation kinetics. Proceedings of
the ASME 2009 Pressure Vessels and Piping Division
Conference, PVP2009; ASME; 2009. PVP2009-77615.
[319] Arioka K, Yamada T, Terachi T, Miyamoto T. Depen-
dence of stress corrosion cracking for cold-worked stain-
less steel on temperature and potential, and role of diffu-
sion of vacancies at crack tips. Corrosion. 2008;64:691–
705.
 Journal of Nuclear Science and Technology, Volume 50, No. 3, March 2013
[320] Sharkawy SW, Xia Z, Szklarska-Smialowska Z. Stress
corrosion cracking of AISI 304 and 316 stainless steels
in lithiated water at 350◦ C. J Nucl Mater. 1992;195:184–
190.
[321] Jiao Z, Was G. Oxidation of a proton-irradiated 316
stainless steel in simulated BWR NWC environment.
Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on
Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2011. p. 1329–
1338. [CD-ROM].
[322] Nishioka H, Fukuya K, Fujii K, Kitsunai Y. Analyses
of surface oxides formed on irradiated stainless steels
in simulated primary water. J Institute Safety System.
2012;19:131–143. [in Japanese].
[323] Li GF, Kaneshima Y, Shoji T. Effects of impurities
on environmentally assisted crack growth of solution-
annealed austenitic steels in primary water at 325◦ C.
Corrosion. 2000;56:460–468.
[324] Andresen PL, Morra MM. Effects of Si on SCC of ir-
radiated and unirradiated stainless steels and nickel al-
loys. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference
on Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear
Power Systems-Water Reactors; TMS; 2005. p. 87–106.
[CD-ROM].
[325] Busby JT, Was GS. Irradiation assisted stress corrosion
cracking in model austenitic alloys with solute additions.
Proceedings of the 11th International Conference Envi-
ronmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; ANS; 2003. p. 995–1012. [CD-
ROM].
[326] Jacobs AJ . Hydrogen buildup in irradiated type-304
stainless steel. Influence of Radiation on Material Prop-
erties: 13th International Symposium, ASTM STP 956;
ASTM; 1987. p. 239–244.
[327] Matsuoka T, Yamaguchi Y, Yonezawa T, Nakamura K,
Fukuda R, Shiraishi S. Irradiation assisted mechanical
cracking on cladding tubes of control rods in nuclear re-
actors. JSME Int J. 1999;A42:438–446.
[328] Morisawa J, Kodama M, Nishimura S, Asano K,
Nakata K, Shima S. Effects of hydrogen on mechani-
cal properties in irradiated austenitic stainless steels. J
Nucl Mater. 1994;212–215:1396–1400.
[329] Chung HM, Strain RV, Perry DL, Shack WJ.
Irradiation-assisted cracking of austenitic stainless
steels in water and in inert environment. Proceedings
of the 11th International Conference Environmen-
tal Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power
Systems-Water Reactors; ANS; 2003. p. 1164–1174.
[CD-ROM].
[330] Birnbaum HK, Sofronia P. Hydrogen-enhanced local-
ized plasticity – a mechanism for hydrogen-related frac-
ture. Mater Sci Eng. 1994;A176:191–202.
[331] Robertson IM. The effect of hydrogen on dislocation dy-
namics. Eng Fract Mech. 1999;64:649–673.
[332] Miura T, Fujii K, Nishioka H, Fukuya K. Effects
of hydrogen on interaction between dislocations and
radiation-induced defects in austenitic stainless steels. J
Nucl Mater. In press.
[333] Bennetch JI, Jesser WA. Microstructural aspects of He
embrittlement in type 316 stainless steel. J Nucl Mater.
1981;103&104:809–813.
[334] Miura T. Micro tensile testing for He-implanted stain-
less steel. Presented in NuMat 2012: The Nuclear Mate-
rials Conference, 22–25 Oct.; Osaka; 2012.
[335] Yamagushi M, Shiga M, Kaburaki H. Energetics of
segregation and embrittling potency for non-transition
elements in the Ni 5 (012) symmetrical tilt grain
boundary: a first-principal study, J Phys Cond Matter.
2004;16:3933–3956.
253
[336] Yamaguchi M, Shiga M, Kaburaki H. Grain bound-
ary decohesion by sulfur segregation in ferromagnetic
iron and nickel – a first-principles study. Mater Trans.
2006;47:2682–2689.
[337] Yamaguchi M, Kaburaki H. First-principles calcula-
tions on the grain boundary decohesion of iron and
nickel by oxygen. Proceedings of the Joint International
Topical Meeting on Mathematics & Computation and
Supercomputing in Nuclear Applications; ANS; 2007.
[338] Pathania R, Carter R, Demma A. Overview of EPRI
research on effects of irradiation on LWR inter-
nals. Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium
Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials Investigations
to Improve the Safety and Performance of LWRs;
SFEN; 2010. A102. [CD-ROM].
[339] Fukuya K, Fujii K, Takakura K, Nakata K. A predic-
tion model of IASCC initiation stress for bolts in PWR
core internals. Nucl Eng Design. 2010;240:473–481.
[340] Fujii K, Fukuya K, Furutani G, Torimaru T, Kohyama
A, Katoh Y. Swelling in 316 stainless steel irradiated to
53dpa in a PWR, Proceedings of the 10th International
Symposium on Environmental Degradation of Materi-
als in Nuclear Power Systems-Water Reactors; NACE;
2001. [CD-ROM].
[341] Foster JP, Porter DL, Harrod DL, Mager TR, Burke
MG. 316 stainless steel cavity swelling in a PWR. J Nucl
Mater. 1995;224:207–215.
[342] Garner FA, Toloczko MB, Porollo SI, Vorobjev AN,
Dvoriashin AM, Konobeev YuV. Potential irradiation
creep and void swelling of stainless steels in PWR in-
ternals. Proceedings of the 8th International Sympo-
sium Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nu-
clear Power Systems – Water Reactors; ANS; 1995.
p. 839–845.
[343] Porollo SI, Vorobjev AN, Konobeev YuV, Dvoriashin
AM, Krigan VM, Budylkin NI, Mironova EG, Gar-
ner FA. Swelling and void-induced embrittlement of
austenitic stainless steel irradiated to 73–82 dpa at 335–
336◦ C. J Nucl Mater. 1998;258–263:1613–1617.
[344] Maksimkin OP, Tsai KV, Turubarova LG, Doronina T,
Garner FA. Characterization of 08Cr16Ni11Mo3 stain-
less steel irradiated in the BN-350 reactor. J Nucl Mater.
2004;329–333:625–629.
[345] Garner FA, Makenas BJ. Recent experimental results
on neutron-induced void swelling of AISI 304 stain-
less steel concerning its interactive dependence on tem-
perature and displacement rate. Proceedings of the
6th International Symposium Fontevraud 6, Contribu-
tion of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2007. p. 625–636.
A032.
[346] Hamada S, Maziasz PJ, Tanaka MP, Suzuki M, Hish-
inuma A. Temperature dependence of swelling in type
316 stainless steel. J Nucl Mater. 1988;155–157:838–
844.
[347] Thomas LE, Beeston JM. The microstructure of neu-
tron irradiated type 348 stainless steel and its relation to
creep and hardening. J Nucl Mater. 1982;107:159–167.
[348] Matsubara T, Tsutsui T, Kamei Y, Kitsu M. Stress
evaluation of baffle former bolt for IASCC failure pre-
diction. Proceedings of the 7th International Sympo-
sium Fontevraud 7, Contribution of Materials Inves-
tigations to Improve the Safety and Performance of
LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A069. [CD-ROM].
[349] Torimaru T, Kodama M, Tanaka S, Nakamura T, Ku-
magai K, Asano K. Fracture toughness of austenitic
stainless steels after BWR irradiation. Proceedings of
the 7th International Symposium Fontevraud 7, Contri-
bution of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
254 K. Fukuya
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2010. A060. [CD-
ROM].
[350] Jenssen A, Grigoriev V, Jakobsson R, Efsing P. Frac-
ture resistance evaluation of a flux thimble irradi-
ated to 65 dpa in a PWR. Proceedings of the 6th
International Symposium Fontevraud 6, Contribution
of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2007. p. 649–660.
A030.
[351] Ehrnstén U, Wallin K, Roikonen PK, van Dyck S, Ould
P. Fracture toughness of stainless steels irradiated up
to ∼9 dpa in commercial BWRs. Proceedings of the
6th International Symposium Fontevraud 6, Contribu-
tion of Materials Investigations to Improve the Safety
and Performance of LWRs; SFEN; 2007. p. 661–670.
A034.
[352] Heera ML, Higgins JP, Hattori S, Andou M, Akiyama
M, Suzuki I, Koyama M, Chujo N, Kanazawa Y,
Okubo T. Evaluation of the effects of radiation on the
fracture toughness of BWR components. Proceedings of
the International Conference on Nuclear Engineering,
Vol.5, ASME; 1996.
[353] Xu H, Fyfitch S, Tang HT. Fracture toughness behav-
ior of irradiated stainless steel in PWR system. Proceed-
ings of the 13th International Conference Environmen-
tal Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems-
Water Reactors; CNS; 2007. [CD-ROM].
[354] Carter RG, Gamble RM. Assessment of the fracture
toughness of irradiated stainless steel for BWR core
shrouds. Proceedings of the 5th International Sympo-
sium Fontevraud 5, Contribution of Materials Investi-
gations to Resolution of Problems Encountered in Pres-
surized Water Reactors; SFEN; 2002. p. 381–392.
[355] Hamilton ML, Garner FA, Yang WJS. Prediction
of fracture toughness in irradiated AISI 316 based
on a tensile toughness correlation. Fusion Technol.
1986;10:405–410.
[356] Wolfer WG, Jones RH. Flow and fracture of alloys in the
fusion environment. J Nucl Mater. 1981;103&104:1305–
1314.