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Re - Shaping Policies Creativity: Addressing Culture As A Global Public Good
Re - Shaping Policies Creativity: Addressing Culture As A Global Public Good
POLICIES FOR
CREATIVIT Y
Addressing
culture as a global
public good
2022
2022 Global Report
Facilitate equitable access, openness and balance in Recognize the complementarity freedoms of expression, information
to protect and promote the diversity of cultural expressions,
the flow of cultural goods and services as well as the free of economic and cultural aspects and communication as a pre-requisite
based on informed, transparent and participatory processes
movement of artists and cultural professionals of sustainable development for the creation and distribution
and systems of governance
of diverse cultural expressions
GOALS
National
MONITORING
Mobility International
AREAS OF
Policies and Policies and Policies and Measures strengthen Policies and Policies and Trade and National sustainable Development Policies and Policies and measures
measures support measures support measures support the skills and measures support measures investment development cooperation measures promote promote and protect
the development of diversity of digital creativity, capacities of the outward and support balanced agreements refer policies and plans strategies include gender equality freedoms of creation
dynamic cultural and the media enterprises and civil society inward mobility of international flows to the Convention include action lines action lines to in the culture and and expression and
CORE INDICATORS
creative sectors markets artists and cultural of cultural goods or implement to support diverse support diverse media sectors participation in
professionals and services its objectives cultural expressions cultural expressions cultural life
Policy-making Policies and Policies and Civil society is Operational Information Other agreements, Policies and Development Monitoring systems Policies and
is informed and measures support measures facilitate involved in the programmes support systems evaluate declarations, measures support cooperation evaluate levels of measures promote
involves multiple diversity of content access to diverse implementation the mobility of international flows recommendations equity in the programmes representation, and protect the
public bodies in the media cultural expressions of the Convention artists and cultural of cultural goods and resolutions refer distribution of strengthen participation and social and economic
in the digital at national and professionals, and services to the Convention cultural resources creative sectors in access of women rights of artists and
environment global levels notably from or implement and inclusive access developing countries in the culture and cultural professionals
developing countries its objectives to such resources media sectors
Strategic decisions of the governing bodies implemented • Awareness raised • Partnerships and networks established, strengthened and fostered • Public debates organized
ACTIONS
Information and data collected, analysed and shared • Policy analysis, benchmarking and monitoring ensured • Global reports produced
Capacities and skills reinforced • Technical assistance and policy advice provided • Projects financed
RE | SHAPING
POLICIES FOR
CREATIVIT Y
Addressing
culture as a global
public good
2022
2022 Global Report
Published in 2022
by the United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France
© UNESCO 2022
ISBN 978-92-3-100503-9
The cultural and creative sectors were among the hardest hit by
the pandemic, with over 10 million jobs lost in 2020 alone.
Public investment in culture has been declining over the
last decade and creative professions remain overall
unstable and underregulated. Although culture and The cultural
entertainment are major employers of women and creative sectors
(48.1%), gender equality is a distant prospect. account for
3.1%
Additionally, only 13% of voluntary national
reviews of progress towards the 2030 Agenda of global
acknowledge culture’s contribution to sustainable GDP
6.2%
development. Disparities between developed and
and developing countries are significant, with
developed countries leading the trade of cultural
goods and services – accounting for 95% of total of all employment
exports of cultural services.
Re|Shaping Policies for Creativity – Addressing culture as a global public good offers
insightful new data that shed light on emerging trends at a global level, as well
as putting forward policy recommendations to foster creative ecosystems that
contribute to a sustainable world by 2030 and beyond.
At the same time, we have realized how much we need culture, creativity and the diversity of cultural
expressions protected by UNESCO’s 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of
Cultural Expressions. We need the vitality of a sector which employs young people and nurtures innovation
and sustainable development. As shown at the height of the crisis, we also need what culture and creation,
in all the diversity of their expressions, can do to provide some personal respite and what they can do to
unite our societies and forge the road ahead.
Today, we must secure culture’s rightful place in our recovery plans in order to overcome the crisis.
But we also need long-term policies in order to respond to the structural challenges highlighted by the crisis.
Artists and cultural professionals from all over the world have spoken out on this subject in the ResiliArt
debates organized by UNESCO. They have drawn attention to the need to create regulations which provide
artists with some degree of security, the need to provide support with regard to digitalization by ensuring
cultural diversity, equitable value chains, and fair remuneration of creators by the main digital platforms.
The third edition of the Re|Shaping Policies for Creativity report is an essential collection of data on culture
and creation. It is a unique tool for analysing these issues, both globally and locally. It takes stock of the
geographical, gender and digital inequalities detrimental to cultural diversity. Consequently, it shows
the impact of the persistent imbalances in the circulation of cultural goods and services, in a context
where developed countries’ application of the preferential treatment measures recommended in the 2005
Convention remains an exception.
This monitoring of the objectives and implementation of the 2005 Convention by the 151 Parties thereto
can therefore not only inform public action, but also encourage its ambition by illustrating the role of
diversity and creativity as a source of innovation for sustainable societies.
UNESCO is thus determined to help governments and cultural players with the development of extensive
cultural initiatives, regulations and policies, and to support the growing role of culture in international
exchanges at the highest level. We have already taken action by convening two Forums of Ministers of
Culture, one in November 2019 and the other in April 2020, and by supporting the G20’s first ministerial
declaration on culture. And we will continue to put culture at the top of the political agenda with
the organization of the long-awaited UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable
Development (MONDIACULT) in 2022. For it is time to make culture, in all its diversity, a truly common good;
it is time to unlock its full potential in order to shape the future.
Audrey Azoulay
Director-General of UNESCO
Foreword 5
2022 Global Report
Principal Editor
Jordi Baltà Portolés
Coordinator
Berta de Sancristóbal
Editorial Team
Florisse Hendschel
Ioana-Maria Tamas
Caroline Ullerup
Editorial Board
Luis A. Albornoz, Mauricio Delfín, Lydia Deloumeaux,
Véronique Guèvremont, Yarri Kamara, Magdalena Moreno
Mújica, Ojoma Ochai, Meredith Okell, Josep Pedro,
Anupama Sekhar, Mikael Schultz, Anna Villaroya Planas
and Sara Whyatt.
External Reviewers
Areej Abou Harb, Tsveta Andreeva, Javiera Atenas,
Mira Burri, Bridget Conor, Milena Dragi evi Šeši ,
Ayodele Ganiu, Marisa Henderson, Belén Igarzábal,
Avril Joffe, Patrick Kabanda, Alfons Karabuda,
Octavio Kulesz, Helena Nassif, Justin O’Connor, Milica Pesic,
Janina Pigaht, Eduardo Saravia, Abeer Saady, Amy Shelver,
Michelle Zang and the 2005 Convention Civil Society
Global Coordination Group.
6
Acknowledgements
This third edition of the Global Report Re|Shaping Policies for Creativity would have not been possible
without the contribution of many people whose time and commitment deserve to be warmly thanked:
The Diversity of Cultural Expressions Entity led by Toussaint Tiendrebeogo, in particular Caroline Bordoni,
Xiaoyang Duan, Yuliya Ivankevych, Herim Lee, Laurence Mayer-Robitaille, Melika Medici
Caucino, Jorge Navarro de Julián, Laura Nonn, Floor Oudendijk, Julie Pilato, Gabrielle Thiboutot,
Reiko Yoshida, Ahmed Zaouche and Zhehao Zhao as well as its dedicated interns Francesca Germani,
Antoine Sauvageau‑Audet and Luis Zea Mares.
Burns Owens Partnership (BOP) Consulting and its devoted team led by Richard Naylor: Marta Moretto,
Yvonne Lo and Douglas Lonie, for accompanying the production of this report from start to finish, analysing
data from quadrennial periodic reports, collating and analysing supplementary primary and secondary
datasets, and providing unfailing support to the editorial team and board in reviewing the chapters.
The experts who met in June 2019 to reflect on the relevance of the Global Report series and the
wider uptake of its findings and whose thoughts and advice have helped shape this third issue:
Ouafa Belgacem, Mylène Bidault, Laurence Cuny, Khadija El Bennaoui, Brenda Fashugba, Andrew Firmin,
Adriana González Hassig, Nathalie Guay, Daves Guzha, Eddie Hatitye, Iman Kamel, Balufu Bakupa Kanyinda,
Christine M. Merkel, Delphine Pawlik, Jad Shahrour, Julie Trébault, Sophie Valais and Charles Vallerand.
Contributions and support from other current and former UNESCO staff were also highly valued:
Alhanouf Almogbil, Camille Appréderisse, Barbara Blanchard, Moe Chiba, Lindsay Cotton, Thomas De Clercq,
Coryn Lang, Laura Frank, Anthony Krause, Michel López Barrios, Matilda Machimura, Karalyn Monteil,
Samaa Moustafa, Adelaida Shabanaj, Ingrid Pastor Reyes and Rochelle Roca‑Hachem.
Furthermore, this report could not have materialized without the invaluable help of Helen Connor,
Noé Nougbode, Emmanuel Pivard, Yvonne Rwabukumba, Najet Saafi, Djorogo Christian Tanon and
Yaël Thomas.
The UNESCO translation services edited and proofread the manuscript with patience and dedication.
Special thanks go to Corinne Hayworth for the design and layout of the Report and to Interior of Africa for
the infographics. Their commitment and patience are second to none.
Finally, UNESCO extends its deep gratitude to the Swedish Government and the Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), whose financial support makes the Global Report series
Re|Shaping Policies for Creativity possible.
Acknowledgements 7
2022 Global Report
Contents
Foreword 5
Acknowledgements 7
Contents 8
List of figures, boxes, tables, and messages 10
Introduction • Addressing culture as a global public good 15
Ernesto Ottone R.
COVID-19: Testing times for the diversity of cultural expressions 31
Jordi Baltà Portolés
Chapter 6 Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one‑way trade 163
Lydia Deloumeaux
8 Contents
GOAL 3 INTEGRATE CULTURE IN SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Chapter 8 Culture and sustainable development: a still untapped potential 209
Yarri Kamara
Annexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Author biographies 288
Methodology 293
The Convention 297
Abbreviations 307
Bibliography 311
Contents 9
2022 Global Report
10 Contents
Figure 5.4 Average number of countries accessible without visas for passport-holders,
by developing/developed countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Figure 5.5 Average number of countries accessible without visas for passport-holders, by regions. . . . . . . . . 153
Figure 5.6 Location of artist residencies on the TransArtists platform in 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Figure 6.1 Exports of cultural goods from developing countries, 2005-2019 (in US$ billion). . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Figure 6.2 Total flow of Foreign Direct Investment in the arts, entertainment and recreation sector,
2014-2019 (in US$ million). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Figure 6.3 The recent stagnating share of developing countries in exports of cultural goods. . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Figure 6.4 Imports of cultural goods between developed countries, 2005-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 6.5 Imports of cultural goods between developing countries, 2005-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Figure 6.6 Exports of cultural services, total amount and share in total trade, 2006-2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Figure 6.7 Most Favoured Nation applied tariff – Average of Ad Valorem tariffs by cultural domains
and developed/developing countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Figure 6.8 Aid for Trade in Official Development Assistance and radio/television/print media
in Aid for Trade, 2005-2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Figure 6.9 Overview of export strategies and measures implemented by level of development . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Figure 8.1 Share of NDPs and NSDPs including cultural goals specific to the Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Figure 8.2 Inclusion of culture in National Sustainable Development Plans
according to expected outcome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Figure 8.3 Share of culture and recreation of total Official Development Assistance spent
between 2004 and 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Figure 8.4 Ten largest Culture and Recreation Official Development Assistance recipients, 2018 . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 8.5 Culture and Recreation Official Development Assistance to least-developed countries,
2004-2018. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 8.6 Ten largest Culture and Recreation Official Development Assistance donors, 2018. . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Figure 8.7 Contributions to the International Fund for Cultural Diversity, 2007-2020 (in US$ million) . . . . 228
Figure 8.8 Countries with largest contributions to the International Fund
for Cultural Diversity, 2007-2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Figure 9.1 Progress in monitoring policies and measures promoting gender equality,
by % of quadrennial periodic reports submitted by Parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Figure 9.2 Policies or measures to support women’s full participation in cultural life
in the last four years, by region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Figure 9.3 Proportion of male and female heads of national arts or cultural councils
of Parties to the Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Figure 9.4 Proportion of female award winners and jurors in major film festivals, 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 9.5 Gender balance in MEDIA grants, 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Figure 9.6 Proportion of female artists and curators in 20 international art biennales, 2018-2020. . . . . . . . 253
Figure 9.7 Regular data collection and dissemination to monitor gender equality in culture and
media sectors or the participation of women in cultural life, by region. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Figure 10.1 Types of measures reported in relation to artistic freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Figure 10.2 Attacks on artistic freedom, 2018-2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Figure 10.3 Independent bodies to receive complaints and monitor violations and restrictions
to artistic freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Figure 10.4 Initiatives to protect artists at risk or in exile have been developed or supported
by public authorities during the last four years. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Figure 10.5 Countries that have adopted or revised economic measures that take into account
the status of artists between 2017 and 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Figure 11.1 Overview of the quadrennial periodic reports
considered for the third edition of the Global Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Contents 11
2022 Global Report
List of boxes
Box 1.1 Embedding culture in national policy discourse – a whole-of-government approach. . . . . . . . . . . 50
Box 1.2 Participatory policy monitoring: sustained dialogue for policy changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Box 1.3 Integrated multistakeholder approaches to decent working conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Box 1.4 Regional perspective on knowledge production and sharing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Box 2.1 The Media Ownership Monitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Box 2.2 CBC/Radio-Canada – diversity, inclusion and anti-racism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Box 2.3 Community Radio Installation, Broadcast and Operation Policy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Box 2.4 Uganda – Increasing the presence of local content in broadcast media. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Box 2.5 Media content that fairly represents our world – ‘50:50 The Equality Project’. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Box 3.1 Devices and their manufacturers as important players in the digital environment
for the cultural and creative industries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Box 3.2 United Arab Emirates Culture Agenda and National Artificial Intelligence Strategy 2031. . . . . . 104
Box 3.3 Egypt’s support for the creative sector in the ‘Stay at Home’ initiative
during the COVID-19 pandemic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Box 3.4 Electric South. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Box 3.5 Fair remuneration of creators in the European Union: a look at the Directive
on Copyright in the Digital Single Market. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Box 3.6 Franco-Quebec report on the online discoverability of Francophone cultural content . . . . . . . . . . 113
Box 4.1 Defending artists – labour unions advocating for creativity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Box 4.2 Supporting civic engagement in Niger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Box 4.3 Mapping open government practices and connecting with the cultural agenda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Box 4.4 ResiliArt – a global movement for and by artists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Box 4.5 Enabling participatory policy monitoring through periodic reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Box 5.1 Facilitating the Schengen visa application process for Algerian cultural professionals. . . . . . . . . 147
Box 5.2 Evaluations of publicly-funded mobility programmes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Box 5.3 Wijhat – A Culture Resource (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy) programme to promote mobility
and the arts and culture of the Arab region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Box 5.4 Mapping regional mobility funding landscapes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Box 6.1 The International Creative Exchange Caribbean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Box 6.2 Indonesian Partnership Programme – Publishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Box 6.3 Berlinale World Cinema Fund – supporting international co-production and market access. . . . . 177
Box 6.4 Ouaga Film Lab. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Box 7.1 Taking into account the dual nature of digital cultural products in the Digital Economy
Partnership Agreement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Box 7.2 T he Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (International Organization of La Francophonie)
and its ongoing commitment to the diversity of cultural expressions in the digital age . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Box 7.3 Preferential treatment as part of cultural cooperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Box 8.1 Mobilizing culture as a bulwark against violent extremism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Box 8.2 Colombia’s Orange Economy development arsenal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Box 8.3 Reducing the environmental impact of the cultural and creative sectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Box 8.4 Giving a platform to indigenous voices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Box 8.5 The European Union – mainstreaming culture in development and cooperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12 Contents
Box 8.6 How COVID-19 is putting a strain on international cultural cooperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Box 9.1 Soma Book Café Reading Initiative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Box 9.2 Australia Council for the Arts' investment in female artists. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Box 9.3 Gender equality policy of the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Box 9.4 Institutional assessments to identify priority areas – the case of Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Box 9.5 Montenegro’s LGBT Strategy in the Field of Culture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Box 10.1 United Nations instruments relevant to artistic freedom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Box 10.2 Tackling hate speech and threats against artists in Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Box 10.3 Artistic freedom in regional human rights instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
Box 10.4 Germany – several initiatives supporting freedom of artistic expression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Box 10.5 The Artist Welfare Law in the Republic of Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
List of tables
Table 2.1 Policies and measures that promote content diversity in programming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Table 2.2 Domestic content quotas for audiovisual services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Table 2.3 Areas of monitoring by media regulatory authorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Table 2.4 Responsibilities of media regulatory authorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Table 3.1 Volume of data circulating on the Internet in one minute, 2016 and 2021. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Table 3.2 Internet users from 16 to 64 who consume content via the Internet each month (Q3, 2020). . . 95
Table 3.3 Top 20 global digital distributors in music (including mixed audio and video services), 2020. . . 99
Table 3.4 Interrelatedness of three analytic frameworks: the Convention‘s Monitoring Framework,
the Open Roadmap for the Implementation of the Convention
in the Digital Environment and the Sustainable Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Table 6.1 Flows of cultural goods by domains and by level of development, 2004 and 2019. . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Table 7.1 The Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement (CUSMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Table 7.2 Overview of e-commerce or digital trade chapters/sections in bilateral
and regional trade agreements signed between 2017 and 2020 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Table 7.3 Overview of references to the Convention and/or cultural clauses
in bilateral and regional trade agreements signed between 2017 and 2020. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Table 7.4 Instruments adopted between 2017 and 2020 that refer to the Convention,
its objectives or its principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Table 8.1 Inspiring ways to advance selected Sustainable Development Goals through
the implementation of the Convention. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Table 10.1 Status of the Artist laws globally. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Contents 13
2022 Global Report
List of messages
Christopher Bailey
Arts and Health Lead, World Health Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Abdulla Shahid
President of 76th United Nations General Assembly.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Noura Al Kaabi
Minister of Culture and Youth, United Arab Emirates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Irma Ratiani
Director, Creative Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Noel Curran
Director General of the European Broadcasting Union. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Bela Bajaria
Head of Global TV, Netflix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Hwang Hee
Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism, Republic of Korea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Yvonne Chaka Chaka
Vice-President, International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers (CISAC). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Muna Al-Bader
Visual artist and curator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Nina Obuljen Koržinek
Minister of Culture and Media, Republic of Croatia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Japheth Kawanguzi
Team Lead, MoTIV Creations Limited, Uganda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Phloeun Prim
Executive Director, Cambodian Living Arts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Abraão Vicente
Minister of Culture and Creative Industries, Republic of Cabo Verde. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Rebeca Grynspan
UNCTAD Secretary-General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Tamara Kotevska and Ljubomir Stefanov
Directors of the award-winning documentary film Honeyland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Jutta Urpilainen
Commissioner for International Partnerships, European Commission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Alexandra Xanthaki
UN Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Dr Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo
Mayor of Mexico City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Yalitza Aparicio Martínez
Actress and UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for Indigenous Peoples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Jeanette Gustafsdotter
Minister of Culture, Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Juan Fernando Velasco
Singer-songwriter and former Minister of Culture of Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Irene Khan
UN Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. . 279
Roger Assaf
Actor and theatre director . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Guy Ryder
Director-General of the International Labour Organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
14 Contents
Introduction
Addressing culture
as a global
public good
Ernesto Ottone R.
15
16
2022
Introduction
Global Report
Introduction 17
2022 Global Report
In the case of media diversity, the scope Article 9 on Information Sharing and circumstances. The editorial team also
of the monitoring area was broadened Transparency, including a new framework worked tirelessly to analyse information
from public media services to all media for QPRs strictly aligned with the collected up to a year before the final
services in order to better capture Convention’s Monitoring Framework to release in February 2022.
measures introduced to ensure diversity address key questions from the indicators
of and in the media and the diversity and means of verification. As explained
of the actors involved. In the case of in the appended methodological note, PERSISTENT DATA GAPS
cultural and creative sectors, it was a much of the quantitative analysis
matter of better defining the scope of offered in this report is therefore based The QPRs analysed were received from
the monitoring area. Cultural policies as directly on Parties’ responses. Most 63% of the then 149 Parties to the
a whole are not covered in this series, of the participatory policy monitoring Convention as of 1 November 2020,
since heritage policies are not addressed. processes that led to the national which is a relative increase of 55%
In addition, it seemed important to QPRs were guided by the Convention’s compared to the reports considered
highlight that the structure, functioning Monitoring Framework. for the previous edition. Those earlier
and governance of the sector are being editions also only analysed progress over
assessed, in addition to policies or The alignment of the framework for two, rather than four, years. In addition
regulatory and legal frameworks. The QPRs has resulted in a more holistic to this greater diversity of sources, 19 of
same logic led to a change in the title monitoring of the policies and measures these reports come from Parties that
of the series, on the basis that the adopted by Parties to foster creativity, had not previously submitted a report.
term ‘cultural policies’ did not seem while providing the periodic reporting While this diversification of sources
to capture the wide range of policies process with a role of improving cannot compensate for an uneven rate of
and measures introduced by Parties to understanding of the Convention’s areas ratification among regions, it nonetheless
protect and promote the diversity of of application. The QPRs feature a new represents a considerable step forward.
cultural expressions. As shown by the section on measures implemented by In addition, while complementary
11 areas of the Monitoring Framework, civil society, thereby resulting in a more research – particularly from non-
measures in policy areas other than participatory information-gathering governmental sources – has enriched the
those traditionally encompassed by process. This new tool was widely used analysis in this edition, the importance of
‘cultural policies’ are needed to promote by Parties from 2020; 77% of the reports information shared by Parties themselves
the creativity that nurtures and renews submitted since 2019 included measures has become even more significant.
cultural expressions and enriches their or initiatives undertaken by civil society
diversity. The new title of the series¸ organizations (CSOs). This is in line with While the collection of qualitative
Re|Shaping Policies for Creativity, the importance placed on civil society data for this edition has improved,
therefore does not refer to the subject in the Convention, in particular through quantitative and statistical data remain a
of such policies but rather to their Article 11, and the understanding that major challenge. This has been partially
intended impact. the diversity of cultural expressions overcome by the key questions approach
relies on the contributions of many in the periodic reporting form, which
stakeholders. allowed quantitative analyses of responses
A NEW FRAMEWORK to provide a more accurate picture of
FOR PERIODIC REPORTING how countries characterize their policies
COVID-19’S IMPACT ON and measures to protect and promote
AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL THE PUBLICATION SCHEDULE the diversity of cultural expressions.
However, when it comes to statistical
The greatest methodological and This edition was originally planned for data, the difficulty of obtaining reliable
conceptual change compared to previous publication in June 2021. However, and comparable data remains. Examples
editions is that most of the quadrennial to offer an analytical overview of include the share of cultural and creative
periodic reports (QPRs)1 submitted by the measures put in place to protect sectors in Gross Domestic Product, the
Parties between 2017 and 2020 were and promote the diversity of cultural share of employment in the cultural and
prepared using a framework harmonized expressions through Parties’ QPRs, the creative sectors (disaggregated by sector,
with the Convention’s Monitoring Report could not fail to be affected by gender or contractual arrangement) or the
Framework. At its seventh session in the COVID-19 crisis that reverberated percentage of total public funds given to
June 2019, the Conference of Parties around the world. These exceptional female artists and cultural producers. This
revised the Operational Guidelines on circumstances severely affected national type of data is vital in understanding the
processes for preparing QPRs. The cultural and creative sectors by assessing
1. Reports submitted every four years to UNESCO by deadline for their 2020 submission was their health, evaluating the impact of
Parties to the Convention on measures taken to protect therefore extended to 1 November. This existing policies and measures and their
and promote the diversity of cultural expressions within
their territory and at the international level. They constitute allowed 78 Parties to fulfil their reporting alignment with the SDGs and guiding
the main source of information for the Global Reports. obligation despite the exceptional future policies.
18 Introduction
The indicators of the Monitoring
Framework provide valuable guidance
to qualitatively assess the cultural and
creative sectors and their contribution to
the 2030 Agenda and identify regional
and global trends. However, there
remains a lack of unified international
indicators available to help all countries
quantify the sector’s progress and
shortcomings in areas such as economic
growth, employment, gender equality or
responsible consumption and production
(which are all included in the SDGs).
At the request of Member States and
subject to securing the necessary support,
UNESCO's Institute for Statistics (UIS)
should develop international indicators
on the cultural and creative sectors
and produce methodologies to support
data collection by Member States. This
should enable more systematic global
measurement and analysis of the sectors’
contribution to development goals in the
2030 Agenda and beyond.
A BRIEF OVERVIEW OF
PROGRESS TOWARDS
THE CONVENTION’S OBJECTIVES
While the chapters of this report explore
the current policy and regulatory
landscape in each area of the
Convention’s Monitoring Framework,
© Reena Kallat, Woven Chronicle, 2015, electrical wires, speakers, circuits boards, 10 min single channel audio*
identify emerging trends, analyse progress
towards the Convention’s objectives,
highlight key challenges and propose a
series of policy recommendations, this
introduction summarizes the progress
towards achieving the four goals of
the Monitoring Framework and any
gaps to be filled by those involved in
protecting and promoting the diversity of
cultural expressions.
Introduction 19
2022 Global Report
Areas of SDG
Indicators Means of verification
monitoring Targets
1.1 Integrated strategies and frameworks
1. Policies and measures
support the development 8.3 1.2 Sectoral laws and policies
of dynamic cultural and 8.3 1.3 Job creation and entrepreneurship measures
CULTURAL creative sectors 4.4 1.4 Education and training programmes
AND CREATIVE
16.6 2.1 Ministry with competence and budget for culture
SECTORS 2. Policymaking is informed 16.7 2.2 Interministerial cooperation
and involves multiple
16.7 2.3 Decentralized responsibilities
public bodies
2.4 Information systems and statistics
20 Introduction
diversity is measured through both the ¡ The digital transformation of the
diversity of the actors involved (and cultural value chain accelerated during
GOAL 1 the support they receive to actively the COVID-19 pandemic. The growing
participate in digital creativity and need for digital cultural content,
markets) and the diversity of content amplified by widespread lockdowns
SUPPORT SUSTAINABLE SYSTEMS available in the digital environment. in 2020, is driving significant
OF GOVERNANCE FOR CULTURE efforts to support creation in the
¡ Partnering with civil society:
because Parties recognize the digital environment in all regions of
The governance of culture encompasses the world.
fundamental role of civil society in
the normative frameworks, public
protecting and promoting the diversity
policies, infrastructure, institutional In the coming years, however, significant
of cultural expressions, they are
capacities and processes that shape barriers need to be addressed to ensure
called upon to encourage its active
the cultural and creative sectors. resilient, informed, transparent and
participation in their efforts to achieve
In the context of the Convention, participatory processes and systems of
the objectives of the Convention.
such governance aims to promote governance for culture:
In order to measure the quality,
participation at all levels and by all
effectiveness and sustainability of ¡ There is an ongoing downward trend
actors, enabling a diversity of voices. It
partnerships, this monitoring area in public investment for culture, which
is therefore intended to be inclusive and
focuses on the support provided points to new challenges for the
sustainable. Those two parameters are
to civil society in terms of training, cultural and creative sectors, especially
measured by the Report through four funding and enabling environment,
monitoring areas: after the COVID-19 pandemic has
as well as on the effective participation exacerbated the economic and social
of civil society in the protection
¡ The cultural and creative sectors: vulnerability of artists and cultural
an overarching area that is particularly and promotion of the diversity of professionals across the world.
interested in the strategic, legal cultural expressions at national and
and political frameworks that shape global levels. ¡ Access to funding remains the main
obstacle for CSOs' involvement in
the sectors (including in terms of The evidence presented in this cultural policy-making, monitoring and
employment and training), as well third edition of the Global Report
as in the quality of involvement of evaluation. Opportunities to co-create
demonstrates progress as follows: policy processes with public authorities
various public or arms-length bodies
in the organization of and support to are also rather limited and should
¡ Over the last few years, the be expanded beyond dialogue and
the sectors. Convention has fostered policy
consultation mechanisms.
change in the cultural and
¡ Media diversity: the Convention’s creative sectors. Evidence shows
preamble recognizes the diversity ¡ Freedom of information and diversity
of the media as a factor enabling that it also helped to streamline in the media are threatened by
cultural expressions to flourish within legislative frameworks, structure the increased disinformation in the
creative ecosystem and provide a context of the COVID-19 pandemic,
societies. This area seeks to measure
responsive framework to meet new insufficient media monitoring, ongoing
the diversity of media by looking at
challenges. Moreover, interministerial concentration of media ownership and
their level of freedom, accountability
collaboration and multistakeholder broadcasters’ difficulties in meeting
and monitoring and the level of media
engagement in the governance of existing quota requirements due to a
ownership pluralism; and diversity in
culture have been mainstreamed, lack of local content.
the media by assessing diversity of
leading to more integrated policies.
content in programming and related
¡ Only a few countries have regulatory
incentives. ¡ Public authorities tend to inform and frameworks to address digital
consult civil society organizations on a challenges. Significant gaps therefore
¡ Digital environment: considering more regular basis regarding policy-
the rapid evolution of information remain in terms of fair remuneration
making processes, thus opening new for creators online, the use of
and communication technologies
and sometimes sustainable spaces for copyright in the digital environment
since the early 2000s, the Convention
the governance of culture. and the discoverability of digital
recognizes the new opportunities
they create for enhanced interaction ¡ In most regions, domestic content cultural content. Uneven access
between cultures, as well as the quotas continue to be a common to connectivity and digital skills
challenges they represent for the measure introduced to ensure access reinforces existing inequalities, leading
diversity of cultural expressions and to diverse cultural content. With the to a widening digital divide and
the risks of increasing imbalances rise of individualized services, existing limited diversity of the actors able to
between developing and developed regulations are beginning to be engage in and benefit from the digital
countries. In this monitoring area, adapted to Video on Demand services. creative economy.
Introduction 21
2022 Global Report
Areas of SDG
Indicators Means of verification
monitoring Targets
13. Trade and investment 13.1 Special status for cultural goods and services
agreements refer to the
13.2 Cultural clauses related to e-commerce and digital products
Convention or implement
its objectives 10.a 13.3 Preferential treatment provisions
TREATIES
AND 14. Other agreements,
AGREEMENTS declarations, 14.1 Agreements aligned with the goals of the Convention
recommendations and
resolutions refer to the 14.2 D
eclarations, recommendations and resolutions aligned with
Convention or implement the goals of the Convention
its objectives
22 Introduction
measures (such as export strategies) Many of the latter link culture and the
and support (technical and financial) digital environment or sustainable
are in place to facilitate equitable development, including the newly
GOAL 2 access, openness and balance in the adopted UNESCO Recommendation
worldwide distribution of cultural on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence.
ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW goods and services.
However, there remain significant
OF CULTURAL GOODS AND challenges in achieving a balanced
¡ Treaties and agreements: to
SERVICES AND INCREASE assess Parties’ progress in fostering flow of cultural goods and services
THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND mutual supportiveness between this and increasing the mobility of artists
CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS Convention and the other treaties to and cultural professionals. These are
which they are parties (Article 20), as follows:
while promoting the Convention’s
The Convention’s objective of widening objectives and principles in other ¡ The preferential treatment clause
and balancing cultural exchanges international forums (Article 21), remains largely unimplemented. Not
applies to the flow of cultural goods or particularly in terms of trade only have no preferential treatment
services and the transnational mobility and investment but also digital, measures been implemented in
of artists and cultural professionals. environmental issues or any other mobility-support schemes in the last
In both cases, this can only be area that may impact the diversity of four years (except for a few actions
achieved through the convergence cultural expressions. triggering positive but unintended
and complementarity of measures collateral effects), but none of
introduced both by those benefiting The evidence in this third edition of the bilateral and regional trade
from the existing imbalances, as well the Global Report demonstrates the agreements signed by developed
as those feeling their adverse effects. following progress: countries that are Parties to the
This is illustrated by the implementation Convention between 2017 and
of Article 16 of the Convention on ¡ An increasing number of countries 2020 has included preferential
preferential treatment for developing – both developed and developing – treatment provisions.
countries. The impact of the Article are supporting the outward mobility
depends on the institutional and legal of artists, mainly under the principle ¡ The participation of developing
frameworks of developed countries of internationalizing the arts in countries in the global flows of
to grant preferential treatment to cultural policy strategies and legal cultural goods has stagnated over
developing countries’ artists, cultural frameworks. CSOs are playing a the last three years. Global trade
major role in this regard by providing has shown no signs of opening up
professionals and cultural goods or
opportunities for training and to cultural services from developing
services as well as on developing
networking and filling funding countries. The lack of Aid for Trade
countries’ capacity to build and
gaps in the absence of sufficient towards the culture and media sectors
maintain vibrant cultural and creative
public support. of developing countries contributes
sectors and to support artists and
to ongoing imbalances in the flow of
cultural professionals who can benefit
from preferential treatment. ¡ Although cultural services still cultural goods and services and limits
account for less than 2% of total the overall capacity of the cultural
The Report seeks to measure progress traded services, world exports of and creative sectors to promote
and challenges in three monitoring cultural services doubled in value sustained, inclusive and sustainable
areas, and pays particular attention to US$117.4 billion between 2006 economic growth.
to the implementation of preferential and 2019. Audiovisual and related
treatment measures: services remained the largest
cultural service sector, having
¡ Mobility of artists and increased its value by 70% to reach
cultural professionals: to US$47.9 billion in 2019.
determine the extent to which
there are (governmental and non- ¡ Two-thirds of the trade agreements
governmental) policies, measures and concluded between 2017 and 2020
programmes to support inward and contain clauses recognizing the
outward mobility – particularly for specific nature of cultural goods and
artists and cultural professionals from services, while at least 40 multilateral
developing countries. and regional instruments (mostly
non-binding) adopted during that
¡ Flow of cultural goods and period refer directly to the Convention
services: to determine which or its objectives and principles.
Introduction 23
2022 Global Report
Areas of SDG
Indicators Means of verification
monitoring Targets
15. National sustainable 15.1 Culture and creative sectors in national development plans
development policies 8.3
and plans include action 17.14 15.2 Public cultural bodies in planning and implementation
NATIONAL lines to support diverse
cultural expressions 15.3 Evaluation of national development plans and strategies
SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
POLICIES 16. Policies and measures
AND PLANS support equity in the 16.1 Culture-based regeneration plans
distribution of cultural
resources and inclusive 16.2 Participation and access to diverse cultural expressions
access to such resources
17.1 C
ulture and creative sectors in development cooperation
17. Development cooperation strategies
strategies include action
lines to support diverse 17.2 17.2 Official development assistance (ODA) for culture
INTERNATIONAL cultural expressions
COOPERATION 17.3 Evaluation of development cooperation strategies
FOR
SUSTAINABLE 18. Development 18.1 Support for cultural policy design and implementation
DEVELOPMENT cooperation programmes 17.9
18.2 S upport for cultural micro and small and medium-sized
strengthen creative 17.9
enterprise (SME) development
sectors in developing 17.9
countries 18.3 Support for artists and creation
24 Introduction
¡ International cooperation for ¡ Climate action and environmental
sustainable development: to sustainability remain blind spots in
assess how international development cultural policy. Despite the potential
GOAL 3 cooperation strategies and assistance of culture and creativity to drive
programmes invest in diverse cultural much-needed changes in mindsets and
INTEGRATE CULTURE IN expressions and cultural and creative behaviours, these areas are mostly
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT industries as strategic areas of ignored in climate strategies and
FRAMEWORKS action; and strengthen capacities environmental policies due to a lack of
across the creative ecosystem in awareness, expertise and capacity.
An integrated approach to sustainable developing countries.
¡ The share of Official Development
development also requires the Assistance devoted to culture and
recognition and integration of its The evidence in this third edition of
recreation in 2018 represented a third
cultural dimension, as promoted the Global Report demonstrates the
of the funding that was available
by Articles 13 and 14 of the following progress:
before the 2008 global financial
Convention. Integrating culture in crisis. A decline is predicted in the
sustainable development frameworks ¡ National development plans
and sustainable development coming years due to COVID-19-related
involves participatory elaboration, recessions.
strategies widely recognize culture’s
implementation and evaluation of
contribution, especially in terms of ¡ Across cooperation programmes,
national sustainable development
advancing cultural, social or economic there is a lack of investment to
plans and international cooperation
development outcomes. support cultural micro- and small
strategies. This also applies to
and medium-sized enterprise
cultural bodies in special coordination ¡ At city level, culture and creativity are
mechanisms, and includes factoring increasingly perceived as assets for development in developing
in the priorities of the cultural and local development, fostering economic countries, despite such enterprises
creative sectors and allocating a growth and innovation, increasing being essential for increasing local
dedicated budget. Despite being a less attractiveness and social cohesion and cultural production. Moreover, a
well‑explored area, the contribution of widening participation in cultural life. lack of systematic evaluation and
culture and creativity to climate action inadequate management of existing
¡ Evidence shows an increasing interest evaluation reports combine to prevent
and environmental sustainability is the of multilateral organizations and cultural development actors from
next urgent priority for connecting the non-traditional donor countries in capitalizing on existing knowledge
dots in the sustainable development development cooperation for culture and developing evidence-based
agenda. Key components in harnessing and creativity. cooperation programmes.
the potential of diverse cultural
expressions for sustainable development ¡ Cooperation models promoting peer-
include strengthening the capacities to-peer exchanges and knowledge
and skills of artists and cultural transfer – such as North-South-South
professionals, as well as partnerships and South-South cooperation – are
and knowledge transfer – including becoming more common, thereby
through North-South-South and South- promoting mutual learning and
South cooperation. ownership at a regional level.
Introduction 25
2022 Global Report
Areas of SDG
Indicators Means of verification
monitoring Targets
19. Policies and measures 19.1 Government bodies in charge of gender equality
promote gender equality
5.c 19.2 Support to women’s participation in cultural life
in the culture and
media sectors 5.5
19.3 Support to female artists and cultural professionals
GENDER
20. Monitoring systems
EQUALITY
evaluate levels of 5.5 20.1 L evels of women’s representation in the culture and
representation, media sectors
participation and access
of women in the culture 20.2 Levels of women’s participation in cultural life
and media sectors
26 Introduction
The evidence presented in this ¡ Overall, a significant number of
third edition of the Global Report countries have not yet put in place
demonstrates the following progress: or revised measures to improve
GOAL 4 the status of the artist. Only a few
¡ Gender equality is increasingly countries provide schemes for income
PROMOTE HUMAN RIGHTS AND being recognized as a priority for protection or career transition.
FUNDAMENTAL FREEDOMS the cultural and creative industries,
as evidenced by the high percentage ¡ While some States have amended
Ensuring respect for human rights of Parties reporting measures to or abolished laws affecting freedom
and fundamental freedoms refers to ensure gender equality in the of artistic expression, there remains
freedom of expression, information sector. QPRs also reveal the key role a worrying disconnect between
and communication, as well as the of CSOs in advancing innovative protective law and practice – with
ability of individuals to choose cultural measures for gender equality, attacks on freedom of artistic
expressions. This is set out as a building the capacities of female expression continuing to rise in 2020.
necessary and indispensable condition artists and creative professionals To be effective, protective laws must
for the protection and promotion of and stimulating networking. be supported by local monitoring
cultural diversity in the first guiding systems and concrete implementation
principle of the Convention. Accordingly, ¡ Parties have been attempting to mechanisms, yet just over half of the
the Convention’s Monitoring Framework bring labour protection of artists Parties report having independent
seeks to measure progress in promoting and cultural professionals in line bodies that receive complaints or
human rights and fundamental with what applies to the general monitor violations and restrictions to
freedoms in the cultural and creative workforce, notably through freedom of artistic expression.
sectors, with a particular focus on measures to ensure social welfare
gender equality and artistic freedom. for artists (as demonstrated by half
of Parties reporting measures to
The Report therefore seeks to measure improve the status of the artist).
progress and challenges in these two With precarious working conditions
monitoring areas: being exacerbated by the COVID-19
pandemic, emergency measures of
¡ Gender equality: the aim is to this nature were also deployed by
measure: the level of women’s many countries.
participation in cultural life as active
contributors (creators, producers and ¡ Cultural and human rights defenders,
decision-makers) and as audiences; as well as CSOs, increasingly engage
steps taken to promote gender in monitoring and advocating for
equality in these areas; and the freedom of artistic expression,
integration of gender equality into including through the provision of
monitoring systems of the cultural safe havens for artists at risk.
and media sectors.
However, there remain significant
¡ Artistic freedom: the aim is to challenges in mainstreaming human
measure progress in the area of rights and fundamental freedoms in the
freedom of artistic expression in cultural and creative sectors:
terms of protective legal frameworks;
monitoring and effective protection; ¡ Despite a critical lack of data
and the protection of the economic regarding women in the culture
and social rights of artists (notably and media sectors, evidence
through regulatory frameworks and suggests that women remain
special schemes suited to the nature under-represented in positions of
of creative work, as advocated by the leadership, have less access to
1980 Recommendation concerning public funding, achieve less visibility
the Status of the Artist). and acknowledgement for their work
than male counterparts and are
suffering a disproportionate impact
from the COVID-19 pandemic.
Introduction 27
2022 Global Report
28 Introduction
¡ Actively supporting the emergence of It therefore seems that artists and societies. This now needs to be reflected
local markets for cultural goods and cultural professionals might deserve at the global level.
services and facilitating the effective special attention as part of the 12
and licit access of such goods and commitments put forward in the UN Newly emerging fault lines in the
services to international markets, Secretary-General’s report Our Common international order, as well as persistent
taking into account the expanding Agenda. The Secretary-General’s report transnational challenges such as
range of cultural production and spoke of leaving no one behind through inequality, conflict, the digital shift and
consumption and the provisions of the a ‘renewed social contract anchored in climate change, are leading countries to
Convention (Chapter 6); and human rights’, a ‘new era of universal adapt their policies to better fulfil their
social protection, including basic health role in providing global public goods.
¡ Promoting the diversity of and access care and income security’ and ‘digital Against this backdrop, the UN Secretary-
to cultural expressions in the digital inclusivity’ (UN, 2021b). General is calling for a discussion on
environment (Chapter 3). which ones are the ‘most essential
In its preamble, the Convention and valued’ and which are ‘the best
The highlighted analysis and the trends affirms that cultural diversity is an means of ensuring their delivery’. The
and gaps identified in this edition are inherent characteristic of humanity that ongoing process has highlighted areas
meant to inform the policy dialogue constitutes both a common heritage of international concern that could
that will culminate in MONDIACULT of humanity that should be celebrated be considered as global public goods,
2022. Indeed, this report offers and preserved for the benefit of all, meaning ‘goods and services provided
relevant reflections and examples from and a mainspring for the sustainable to and benefiting all of society [that]
all world regions of how policies to development of communities. There is cannot be adequately provided by any
support creativity (cultural policies a reason why Parties to the Convention one State acting alone and […] concern
as well as policies in other fields) are required to report to UNESCO every the welfare of humanity as a whole,’
can be adapted to the challenges of four years on measures taken to protect such as health, information, economy,
sustainable development. These include and promote the diversity of cultural science, digital or peace (UN, 2021b).
ensuring sustainable and inclusive expressions within their territory and at Global public goods are those marked
economic growth, decent employment the international level, since diversity can by non-rivalry of consumption and non-
opportunities, gender equality, reducing only be achieved if it is simultaneously exclusion. Moreover, their benefits are
inequalities within and among countries pursued at the local, national, regional near-universal in terms of geographical
and taking urgent action to combat and international levels. The number and coverage, people (benefitting all) and
climate change. The Report also diversity of actors and actions having an generations (present and future).
highlights the outcomes and challenges impact on the protection and promotion
of converging governmental and non- of the diversity of cultural expressions This report argues that culture
governmental multistakeholder efforts to also show that diversity cannot be encompasses all these characteristics,
support resilient, thriving and inclusive adequately guaranteed by one State as creativity is an inexhaustible
cultural and creative sectors. acting alone but requires a convergence source, participated in by societies
of efforts at multiple levels to ensure that and individuals around the world, and
In terms of goals of the Convention’s everyone has the capacity to access and today’s creativity is tomorrow’s heritage.
Monitoring Framework, the comparative enrich this diversity. Culture is not just about institutions
analysis of measures described by or economy, but also individual and
Parties shows that the lowest number Based on measures included by Parties collective imagination. Ensuring
of measures have been reported under in their QPRs to the Convention, this everyone’s right to take part in cultural
the heading of the promotion of human report shows, however, that more life represents a basic requirement and
rights and fundamental freedoms. This attention is being paid to promoting a fundamental freedom to contribute
may mean that more advocacy efforts the Convention’s objectives at the to the sustainable development of
are needed to show how guaranteeing national level than at the international societies. The promotion and protection
the human rights and fundamental level. Fewer efforts are mobilized for of the diversity of cultural expressions
freedoms of creators and participants rebalancing cultural exchanges (in terms is thus a common goal ‘on which our
of diverse cultural expressions is key to of the flow of cultural goods and services welfare, and indeed survival, as a
ensuring the very existence of a diversity or the mobility of artists and cultural human race depend’ (UN, 2021b).
of cultural expressions. The Report also professionals) than for establishing
shows that equal economic and social sustainable systems of governance of Establishing culture as a global public
protection among cultural workers, culture at the national level. As shown good, and the resulting practical
regardless of their gender, may not yet in this report, there is increasing local implications, requires further reflection
be fully understood as a prerequisite for and national awareness and actions through the policy dialogue involving
nurturing and maintaining the diversity around the idea that culture is central all Member States in 2022 as part of
of cultural expressions. to inclusive, resilient and sustainable the build-up to MONDIACULT 2022.
Introduction 29
2022 Global Report
30 Introduction
COVID-19:
Testing times for
the diversity of
cultural expressions
Jordi Baltà Portolés*
SUPPORT
SUSTAINABLE
SYSTEMS OF
GOVERNANCE
FOR CULTURE
© vnwayne fan / Unsplash.com
Goal 1
SYSTEMS OF
expressions, based on
informed, transparent
and participatory
FOR CULTURE
2022 REPORT CARD
More integrated policies resulting Public investment in culture has Foster innovative funding and
from interministerial collaboration been declining for ten years transversal collaborations at
and multistakeholder engagement all levels
mainstreamed Financial resources available to
in the governance of culture civil society are insufficient and Allocate targeted budgets
opportunities to engage in policy and sustain transparent and
Spaces for public-civil dialogue are processes, beyond dialogue and participatory mechanisms
opening up consultation mechanisms, are
still scarce Support community media,
Domestic content regulation and invest in diverse content
support for local media outlets are Media monopolies and the production and design holistic
increasingly popular among States continued under-representation media monitoring systems
and misrepresentation of some
Significant efforts to support social groups threaten media Guarantee fair remuneration for
digital adaptation in cultural and diversity and freedom creators and foster discoverability
creative industries, spurred on of content online
by COVID-19 Insufficient or inappropriate
regulations and skills gaps in
the digital environment increase
inequalities
DATA R E Q U I R E M E N T S
Cultural and creative industries’ contribution to GDP and cultural employment statistics
Standardized and open public data on cultural expressions available online
Data on media ownership and workforce and level of diversity in media content
Access to digital media, revenues and copyright and digital content consumption
41
© Serge Kutuzov / Unsplash.com
Chapter 1
KEY FINDINGS
››› T he 2005 Convention for the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions
serves as a roadmap and stabilizing force, particularly during times of crisis, as it provides
continued, integrated and flexible direction for cultural policy-making and legislation.
››› W
hile significant improvements in participatory cultural governance have been observed through
the Convention’s reporting mechanisms – particularly with regard to the engagement of civil
society and multiple levels of government – the whole-of-government approach to cultural policy
is only progressing slowly, mainly due to limited cross-portfolio and cross-agency collaboration.
››› W
ith a few exceptions, over the last decade public investment in culture has been steadily
decreasing, and this has had a strong impact on the resilience and sustainability of the cultural
and creative sectors – particularly in times of crisis.
››› A
lthough there are a relatively high number of education and training programmes in culture
and creativity, there remain strong disparities among regions and in the cultural fields covered
– especially in digital skills and cultural management.
››› W
hile the creation of decent economic opportunities for artists and cultural professionals has
been a growing concern, the pre-existing vulnerabilities amplified by the COVID-19 pandemic call
for a better recognition of the specific needs of artists and cultural professionals (including social
security and well-being).
››› A
lthough some progress has been made in data collection and the development of cultural
information systems (especially through the impetus from the Convention’s Monitoring
Framework), there remains a need to develop internationally agreed indicators on the cultural
and creative industries, and work remains pending to fill the data gaps and build capacities for
evidence-based policy-making and monitoring.
E C O N O M I C I M PA C T INTEGRATED POLICIES
Culture and creativity contribute Culture is being Almost
significantly to the global economy. more and more
integrated across 80%
the policy spectrum
of Parties have
Permanent decentralized
mechanisms are cultural policy
mechanisms
3.1% 6.2% being set up for
interministerial
of global GDP of all employment dialogue
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
CHALLENGES
Global job losses
PUBLIC INVESTMENT POLICY PRIORITIES estimated at
Public
Most attention 10 million
investment in in 2020
culture has been
declining over Global demand for
the last decade cultural content
has increased but $
Cinema/ Performing distribution of work
EDUCATION Audiovisal arts opportunities and
arts revenue remains
There is a Music
unbalanced
mismatch between
education, training Least attention
and employment
opportunities
Persisting data
gaps hinder
Cultural management is transparency and
under‑represented in higher education Media arts Design informed policy-making
UNESCO has sought to examine and increases the visibility of the results of
INTEGRATED POLICY-MAKING:
raise awareness of the multidimensional such measures through the monitoring of
impact of the pandemic on the cultural LOOKING AT THE BIG PICTURE its implementation.
and creative sectors by bringing
together the voices of a wide range of THE CONVENTION AS A ROADMAP
stakeholders through initiatives such as
the Online Meeting of the Ministers of There is a strong narrative around the The Convention often
Culture, as well as consultations with multifold role played by the Convention serves as an instrument for
regional intergovernmental organizations in shaping cultural policy development
and development banks in April 2020 since its adoption. Since the release of wider review and improvement
and the ResiliArt movement. the 2018 edition of the Global Report, of existing policies,
the Convention has continued to serve as both within and outside
a roadmap and stabilizing force. Not only
does it support integrated policy-making
culture portfolios
Building back better can and offer flexible policy realignment in
only happen through a times of disruption, but it has also been
the basis for structural policy changes Indeed, as ratification commits
whole‑of-government approach and policy discussions. Parties to a series of responsibilities,
and participatory leadership some of which are legally binding,
Overall, the Convention influences
at the local, national and and encourages the development of
the Convention often serves as an
international levels. comprehensive public policy in the
instrument for wider review and
improvement of existing policies, both
sphere of culture. One of its defining
within and outside culture portfolios.
characteristics is its flexibility, which
A recent example is in Zimbabwe,
allows it to be tailored to national
Globally speaking, this situation has where, amidst major legislative reform
contexts. Indeed, most Parties report
highlighted existing political, economic, in 2019, the new five-year Cultural
that the Convention has helped them
social, technological and environmental and Creative Industries Development
advance cultural policies, particularly
challenges, which affect the cultural Strategy was adopted. It guides strategic
in terms of how they sit within broader
and creative ecosystem while also investment and fosters collaborative
public policy debates and considerations.
driving it to adapt. For instance, with partnerships between the central and
Furthermore, the Convention’s approach
governments worldwide introducing local governments, arts and cultural
to cultural policy-making based on the
climate mitigation and adaptation organizations and the wider community.
integration of the entire value chain
strategies and seeking to meet The aim is the holistic development
international targets and commitments, targets not only artists and creators, of cultural industries and their greater
the climate crisis is receiving growing but also producers, distributors and contribution to the country’s Gross
attention across all sectors – including audiences – thereby strengthening the Domestic Product (GDP). At the
the cultural and creative sectors. production and dissemination of local same time, Zimbabwe has also taken
There are also signs of progress with content and developing sustainable significant steps to align its frameworks
regards to its inclusion in cultural cultural and creative sectors. In Canada, with international benchmarks on media
policies by Parties to the Convention, for example, there is widespread freedom and freedom of expression.
which requires active cross-sectoral understanding of the Convention These have included the adoption of the
collaboration. through the government’s in-depth civil Freedom of Information Bill to repeal the
society engagement and co-delivery; Access to Information and Protection of
Creativity and innovation are inherent engagement and collaboration across Privacy Act (2002) and the Outlawing
characteristics of the cultural and provinces using the Convention as a of Criminal Defamation (2016). The
creative sectors. This means that they are cohesive collaborative tool to support legislative changes have enabled a freer
well positioned to seize the opportunity sustainable cultural governance flow of information, including access to
for change. Building back better can only systems; and its application to national cultural content.
happen through a whole-of-government plans, such as Canada’s Anti-Racism
approach and participatory leadership Strategy (2019-2022) and its various Several Parties report that the
at the local, national and international indigenous action plans (in response to Convention has served as a stabilizing
levels. Building on Parties’ experience calls from the Truth and Reconciliation instrument to streamline legislative
in reshaping their policies for culture Commission of Canada). Colombia, for frameworks in the cultural and creative
and creativity, this chapter examines its part, sees the Convention as a key sectors. Azerbaijan reports that it has
some of the seeds from which the future instrument for developing measures now mainstreamed the Convention’s
resilience and sustainability of these across the entire cultural value chain. principles in all its major legal and policy
sectors will grow. It also emphasizes that the Convention documents in the field of culture.
0.1%
This stabilizing force also applies in
complex environments. In Ukraine, the 0%
government is pursuing a decentralized 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
model for cultural governance, inspired *Only countries having submitted data for at least 5 years in the period between 2000 and 2019 have been considered.
by the Convention’s goal to support Source: International Monetary Fund (2020)/BOP Consulting (2021).
participatory systems of governance
for culture. The establishment of a
roadmap that involves communities, societal challenges – as enshrined in the not capture the full picture, considering
cities and regions, and that explicitly Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). the high level of informality within these
recognizes the central focus of the Before the COVID-19 pandemic, research industries, it still indicates how important
Convention in policy discussions, was on the effects of the arts on health and they are to the global economy. In the
a significant step in decentralizing well-being had grown considerably since European Union (EU) alone, the total
the governance of culture there. In the early 2000s. A 2019 World Health revenue growth of these industries was
Palestine, the Ministry of Culture has Organization (WHO) report summarising estimated at almost 17% between 2013
leveraged the Convention framework global evidence on the role of the arts and 2019 (EY Consulting, 2021)1.
to engage in participatory processes in improving health and well-being,
to draft specific laws to develop the with a focus on the WHO European In the last decade, however, trends in
cultural and creative sectors and Region, demonstrated the beneficial government expenditure for the cultural
protect freedom of artistic expression. impact of the arts in both mental and and creative sectors (Figure 1.1) show an
These examples demonstrate that the physical health from the point of view of overall decline, with the exception of a
Convention can provide a recognized prevention, management and treatment slight increase in developing countries
and stable foundation for participatory (Fancourt and Finn, 2019). Over the next between 2017 and 2019. Information
governance and policy development, few years, the collaboration between provided by Parties also reveals uneven
even in challenging contexts. UNESCO and WHO should shed more public spending across regions, with
light on the contribution of culture Western Europe and North American
Finally, the Convention has remained States reporting the highest investment,
and creativity to health and well-being,
relevant by adapting its mechanisms in in contrast with Africa, which has the
as well as guiding innovative policy
response to emerging challenges and lowest public budget for culture. This
solutions to capitalise on the healing
changes in the cultural and creative situation reinforces the inequality of
power of culture and creativity.
sectors. It can serve as a framework economic conditions in the cultural and
to address digital transformations creative sectors across the globe, giving
(as shown by examples in Canada, PUBLIC INVESTMENT IN greater weight to the promotion and
France, Germany, Republic of Korea), CULTURE AND CREATIVITY protection of some cultural expressions
climate-related issues (Austria, Germany, at the expense of others.
Ireland, Palestine), health and well- The cultural and creative sectors and their
being (Australia, Lithuania, United industries are evolving rapidly. The high
1. Data were analysed on the share of cultural and creative
Arab Emirates) or disruptions caused speed of growth makes them a strategic sectors in the GDP of 77 countries, including 73 Parties
by the COVID-19 pandemic (Burkina investment for economic development. and four non-Parties to the Convention. Sources include
Faso, Chile, Germany, Mali, Mexico), Through a combination of official QPRs submitted by Parties to the Convention, as well as
data from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
thus reinforcing the position of cultural statistics, their contribution to global GDP and Development (OECD), the European Statistical Office
and creative sectors vis-à-vis broader has been estimated at 3.1%. While it may (Eurostat) and other sources where necessary.
At a time when national increases to of cultural content and products – making competencies for economic growth.
cultural budgets are more the exception tools accessible for the development of An array of tools for creating, producing
than the norm, the pandemic has the cultural economy and for greater and leveraging arts and culture also
undeniably exacerbated these imbalances. innovation. Two major regulatory reforms supports active citizenship and fosters a
in recent years underpin this approach. greater sense of community. The holistic
Creating strong policy, legal and The adoption of the General Law on approach to policy reform for training and
regulatory environments that build on Culture and Cultural Rights (2017) stimulating critical audiences in Ecuador
the complementary strengths of the and the Regulation of the General Law is another example. With its Cultural and
cultural, creative and other sectors, (2018) consolidated the legal framework Artistic Education Curriculum, Ecuador’s
as well as on the diversity of their of the country’s cultural and creative Ministry of Education seeks to strengthen
stakeholders, is therefore more necessary sectors. These laws, which established artistic skills and expressions, as well
than ever for harnessing the power of mechanisms for the exercise of cultural as the education of critical audiences
culture and creativity. rights, provide a basis for coordination to support cultural rights and dynamic
between the Federation, federal states cultural and creative sectors.
INTEGRATED POLICIES ACROSS and municipalities and the participation
THE CULTURAL VALUE CHAIN of the social sector. Meanwhile, in
Costa Rica, the first National Policy on
In recent years, the Convention has Cultural Rights (2014‑2023) now serves In recent years, the Convention
proved to be a particularly effective tool as the main framework for cultural has proved to be a particularly
for structuring the cultural and creative policies and programmes. It has been effective tool for structuring the
ecosystem across the entire value chain. complemented by an Affirmative Action
As demonstrated by the previous edition and Inclusion Agenda and a Digital and
cultural and creative ecosystem
of the Global Report series, the once Innovation Agenda to address social across the entire value chain
linear cultural value chain has been inequalities that hamper the fulfilment of
transformed into an interconnected cultural rights for all.
network model by the rise of digital
technologies (UNESCO, 2018). Each Other Parties have prioritized education, Overall, the trend towards a holistic
node of the chain – creation, production, audience training and cultural approach to cultural expressions has
distribution and access – along with their participation. In this regard, the Finnish been confirmed in recent years, leading
interconnections and digital implications, Ministry of Education and Culture to more sophisticated policy processes
must now be considered in the developed a new strategy for cultural involving interministerial coordination
development of policies and regulatory diversity based around equitable cultural and interdisciplinary collaborations with
frameworks (whether sector- or issue- rights, and strengthened creative a diversity of stakeholders.
based). This transformation also brings
opportunities to involve other portfolios
and sectors, such as trade, labour, Figure 1.2
education, innovation, welfare, health,
industry or environment, and make Participatory and integrated governance of culture under the Convention
progress towards the SDGs to which
they are linked. Parties offer numerous
examples of varied pathways to
Interministerial Multilevel
designing, developing and implementing governance:
integrated policies that respond to the governance:
cross portfolio decentralized models
cultural and operating environments engagement at all government
in which they will be delivered. Such tiers
policies tend to address particular
domains, sectors or issues, and may also
be connected to other narratives and
policy priorities, such as cultural rights, Multistakeholder
education, economic development or Participatory Arm’s-length
governance:
governance:
social cohesion. civil society, and integrated
delegated models
non-government governance
One legislative pathway through reform at the national
actors and of culture level
and major policy review can be found private sector
in Mexico, where the government has
focused on strengthening the production,
dissemination, distribution and enjoyment Source: Moreno (2021).
D
in 2017. This new authority is based on
the concept of cultural citizenship to
encourage individuals and communities uring the 2020 pandemic, artists were among the first on the front lines, and
to participate in the creation, enjoyment were also in the demographic of those hardest hit economically (as many in the
and distribution of cultural goods and arts depend on mass gatherings for performance or creation of their work). Health
services. It reflects an evolution in systems around the world relied on the creative sector to strengthen health messaging,
public cultural institutions – and the fight misinformation but mainly to reinforce our ties to each other during periods
sector more broadly – which makes of anxiety, grief and the isolation of lockdown through artistic engagement (often
space for citizens to play a more active through improvised online means).
role in creating and implementing
public policies. There are many compelling arguments for supporting and investing in the arts, from
the virtuous economic cycles of the creative economy and supporting a sense of
In this regard, a growing focus of many identity and community among peoples, to simply supporting the arts as a celebration
Parties is to go beyond the initial co- of human imagination and creativity. Yet one area that has recently attracted
design of cultural policies and ensure increased attention is the health benefits of the arts. With the publication of WHO’s
ongoing dialogue and participatory landmark report on the subject, What is the evidence on the role of the arts in
monitoring, evaluation and review of improving health and well-being?, a global conversation has emerged that goes
measures for the cultural and creative beyond how the arts can be used for effective health messaging. Across the arts, the
sectors (as illustrated by examples report shows evidence for how music, visual arts, dance and other forms of creative
in Argentina, Burkina Faso, Canada, expression can positively impact recovery from physical injury, help support mental
Cyprus, Czechia, Ethiopia, Germany, health and also contribute to social well-being. A growing network of research
Iceland, Kenya, Malawi, Mexico, Morocco, institutions around the world is not only looking at effective arts-based health
Republic of Korea, Rwanda, Slovakia, interventions and how they measurably improve health, but also the reasons why –
Uganda). Involvement of civil society – delving into the neurology and biochemistry of the aesthetic experience.
from non-governmental organizations
The potential ramifications of this work seem encouraging, suggesting that the
and associations to unions, syndicates
evidence base will be sufficient for grounded policy recommendations about national
or individual cultural practitioners
investment in the arts to improve the health of individuals and communities within
and artists – throughout the policy
a few years. To that end, WHO and UNESCO are working together to bring Culture
cycle fosters ownership and ensures
Ministries and Health Ministries into dialogue to explore how to fund and implement
sustainable and transparent policy
polices where the arts are seen not only as cultural heritage, but as an investment in
responses in line with the needs and
the health of all people. Because hope is a creative act.
potential of the cultural and creative
sectors. For a detailed analysis of the Christopher Bailey
different forms of partnerships with civil Arts and Health Lead, World Health Organization
society, see Chapter 4.
This allows them to provide capacity and departments that operate without the and allow for high efficiency dividends,
skills sector development and engage in principle of arm's-length and/or are when comparing operational costs to
high levels of civil society participation advisory only. programmatic outputs. The benefits of
(especially through peer-assessment these agencies were particularly evident
models for making decisions about Arm's-length agencies are central to in the context of government rescue and
public spending). In this respect, arm's- implementing the Convention, its principles stimulus packages during the COVID-19
length institutions directly advance SDG and objectives. Some countries have pandemic, as they acted on behalf of
target 16.6 on effective, accountable and entrusted them with the point of contact central governments in the disbursement
transparent institutions at all levels. role responsible for sharing information of emergency financial support (as in
on its implementation. This is the case in Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, Finland,
The arm's-length agency model, typically Sweden, with the Swedish Arts Council, or Ireland, Namibia, Netherlands, Norway,
known as an arts council, is found in in The Gambia, with the National Centre Republic of Korea, Sweden, Switzerland,
former British Commonwealth countries, for Arts and Culture or committees. South Africa, Ukraine, United Kingdom
in Nordic countries, in Eastern Europe and Zimbabwe).
and an increasing number in Africa, Adopting the arm's-length principle often
South-East and Southern Asia and the means that the operational, policy and
Pacific. Indeed, an analysis conducted executive life cycles of these institutions BUILDING CAPACITY
for this chapter shows that more than are intentionally separate from IN GOVERNANCE
one Party out of every two (54%) has government administration cycles. They
at least one government agency with therefore tend to occupy a unique space Sustained participatory governance
delegated responsibilities for the cultural in the public governance of culture, as requires not only dedicated spaces for
and creative sectors. In many countries, partners to both central government dialogue, but also capacities to establish
especially in Latin America, North Africa, and the sector, and are responsible and nurture exchanges. One of the
the Middle East and Western Europe, for the disbursement of public funds objectives of the Convention, as laid out
governments have also set up arts and for the cultural and creative sectors. in Article 1, is to enhance the capacities
cultural councils to engage civil society Their position and agile organizational of developing countries in order to
in decision-making processes. However, structures often enable them to deliver protect and promote the diversity of
they tend to remain government major government initiatives and reforms cultural expressions. In this vein, the
Convention calls on UNESCO to pay
particular attention to capacity-building
Box 1.2 • Participatory policy monitoring: sustained dialogue and strengthening Parties’ expertise
upon request (Article 19). The efforts of
for policy changes Parties, UNESCO and other international
In Senegal, national consultations on participatory design and monitoring of cultural or regional organizations to build
policies for the elaboration of its quadrennial periodic report were undertaken capacities over the last few years have
between public institutions and civil society – thereby creating a community of been successful, showing substantial
practice. As a way to sustain these mechanisms, focal points from civil society improvement in policy monitoring,
were appointed to act as relays to a wider group of actors functioning as umbrella information and knowledge sharing and
organizations. Measures were also adopted to implement the recommendations South-South peer exchange.
deriving from the consultations and previous monitoring and reporting exercises on
the implementation of the Convention. For example, one of the challenges identified
was the institutional fragility that jeopardized the continuity of participatory
monitoring processes. To address this, Senegal chose to create an observatory of The results reported following
cultural policies to monitor and evaluate the country’s achievements and challenges capacity-building programmes
in the cultural and creative sectors. It will also serve to inform future policy
development. In parallel, Senegal organized training workshops with regional cultural
demonstrate that the impact
officials to build their capacity in data collection. By promoting a more decentralized of investment extends far
approach, the country is securing a network of trained professionals to support its beyond individual projects and
participatory governance of culture.
related training periods
Similar results were achieved in other partner countries involved in UNESCO’s
capacity-building programme for participatory policy monitoring, supported by
Sweden. For instance, Mongolia, where 80 experts were trained to analyse national
cultural policy against the Convention’s goals, ended up creating a stand-alone The results reported following capacity-
Ministry of Culture. This has enabled significant development in the cultural sector, building programmes demonstrate
including the drafting of the Law on the Promotion of Cinematography (2019), due that the impact of investment extends
to be approved by Parliament in 2020. far beyond individual projects and
related training periods (Box 1.2).
Abdulla Shahid
President of 76th United Nations General Assembly
*
According to the UNESCO study Cultural and creative industries in the face of COVID-19: an economic impact outlook, at least 48.4 million Full-Time Equivalent jobs.
A study focusing on South Africa also partnership supports music production decent jobs and entrepreneurship.
showed that the streaming of live in regional cultural centres by setting up Tertiary and university education degrees
performances was found to plateau at recording studios. in these fields are also rather widespread
a maximum of 30% of physical live among Parties (76%).
performance revenues (Concerts SA, It allows artists to access quality
2020), suggesting that future regulatory equipment outside Dakar thanks to the However, the same cannot be said
frameworks and policy responses should application of negotiated rates, thereby for digital literacy programmes for
primarily address the challenges raised upgrading music production at the creation and experimentation, which
by digital technologies. In the light of regional level. It also fosters job creation exist in just 49% of Parties. This
the evidence available so far, policies in in the music industry through training in demonstrates that understanding and
this field are very rare. music recording and studio management adapting to the digital environment
for young people. is still a challenge for the cultural and
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the creative sectors, and that it will remain
policy focus was mainly on music so until future generations are trained
education (Austria, Azerbaijan, ACHIEVING PROFESSIONAL in these new technologies. It is worth
Chile, Switzerland) or on training AND FORMAL CULTURAL AND noting that, when segmented between
and mentoring (El Salvador, Iceland, CREATIVE SECTORS developing and developed countries,
India). New courses and diplomas were the percentages remain fairly even for
created in developing countries, such as education and training programmes
Mauritius and Rwanda. As a result of
EDUCATION AND TRAINING: – regardless of their type (Figure 1.5).
a public-private partnership in France, RETAINING TALENT Differences start to show at the regional
a new national music institution was level. Considerable emphasis has been
For the diversity of cultural expressions to
set up as a hub to foster the national placed on digital literacy in Western
thrive, culture, creativity and education
and international development of the Europe and North America (75%) and
must be seen as going hand in hand:
French music sector under the Ministry in Latin America and the Caribbean
they should be considered together from
of Culture. Fewer countries provided (65%). In comparison, only 30% of
early childhood interventions to tertiary
financial support to music creation, Parties in Asia and the Pacific and in
curricula. In order to strengthen the
production or distribution. Iceland Arab States report having programmes
cultural and creative sectors’ contribution
established a fund for the recording and on digital literacy. When focusing
to sustainable and inclusive economic
publishing of music, while India and on university degrees and vocational
growth and decent employment, the
Croatia introduced targeted grants. Italy, training programmes (Figure 1.6), the
relevant knowledge and skills need to
for its part, implemented a tax credit for vast majority of Parties have university
be taught and nurtured at the earliest
music production companies. None of the degrees and training programmes in
possible stage, and then integrated
Parties except Canada reported specific visual arts, performing arts and music.
into educational approaches aimed
measures to address the challenges
at developing talent. Arts education While there is greater divergence
brought about by digital technologies
is essential to ignite creativity and between the availability of education
in the music sector. Between 2017 and
innovation, and establish viable career and training programmes in publishing
2019, the Plan d’action pour la musique
paths for future generations. and media arts, they are still provided
(Music Action Plan) implemented by the
Ministry of Culture and Communications by the majority of Parties. Programmes
of Quebec in collaboration with several in cinema and audiovisual arts are least
professional associations made it likely to be provided, despite the fact
Arts education is essential to that it is the most common cultural
possible to stabilize the revenues of
Quebec’s music enterprises, to maintain ignite creativity and innovation, domain for policies and measures
investments in the production of sound and establish viable career to be applied and reported. This
recordings and shows and to create a relatively low level of programmes on
paths for future generations offer raises questions about how the
common base of musical metadata with
an indexing tool. domestic talent base will develop the
necessary skills to participate fully in
There is a strong involvement of civil Most Parties (83%) have chosen to invest the global film and TV industry. The low
society in the music sector, especially in in technical and vocational education representation of cultural management
developing countries. Organizations tend and training programmes in the arts and in education and training pathways
to invest mainly in training (Colombia, cultural and creative sectors, in line with is also particularly alarming. More
Cyprus, Ethiopia, Timor-Leste), followed SDG target 4.4 to substantially increase attention needs to be paid to training
by funding (Andorra, Ecuador) and the number of youth and adults who the new generation of policy-makers and
networking (Colombia, Mauritius). have relevant skills, including technical managers if there is to be sustainable
In Senegal, a public-civil society and vocational skills, for employment, governance of culture.
© Victor /Unsplash.com
O ver the past few decades, we have seen the vast potential of the cultural and creative industries in driving forward the
sustainable and inclusive development of societies. The challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic have paved the way for new
opportunities for the creative economy to flourish and innovate. It was during the crisis that the indispensable role of the sector was
made clear, as many turned to cultural and creative content as a respite during lockdowns.
The 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions recognizes culture – spearheaded by
artists, creative professionals, practitioners and citizens worldwide – is a critical element for economic and social development.
In this regard, and to broaden opportunities for cultural and creative industries to reach new heights, the role of education is crucial
in building the foundation for talent development. Synergies between culture and arts education are needed to foster the skills to
innovate. At the same time, data remain vital for the exponential growth of the creative economy, to understand the potential of
cultural and creative industries and to guide impactful policies.
Equally important is the need to harness technological advancements in support of cultural economies and encourage fair
remuneration for cultural goods and services. This is needed to ensure equitable participation across all cultural domains, and in this
respect, intellectual property protections are fundamental to enable creativity to thrive in the digital sphere.
The United Arab Emirates recognize that societies are enriched through cultural diversity, and we have embarked on an ambitious
journey to ensure a new generation of talent is nurtured. Special attention is being paid to all stages of the creative value chain from
creation to enjoyment. The future of cultural and creative industries is bright, and I am optimistic that by keeping culture at the
forefront of the international community’s agenda, we can collectively realise a creative economy that meets the aspirations of all.
Noura Al Kaabi
Minister of Culture and Youth, United Arab Emirates
In Italy, as a result of work involving four years, the numbers show a clear Five key factors have been identified
the Ministry of Culture and Ministry of imbalance between developed (87%) in relation to data collection and
Labour, the regulation that emerged and developing countries (60%). There monitoring and the evaluation of
during the COVID-19 emergency became are also wide disparities among regions, cultural policies:
a definitive State law in August 2021, as shown in Figure 1.9.
confirming a turnaround in the social ¡ Persistent lack of standardization
protection of workers in the performing This suggests that much remains to be in the collection and interpretation
arts with measures recognizing the done to in terms of capacity-building of data. While achieving global
specificity of the sector in the social for developing or updating cultural standardization may not be possible,
security reform. Concrete changes range information systems and preparing there have been some positive
from the system for calculating parental knowledge management plans. Among developments. The revised Monitoring
leave benefits, where the daily amount the major gaps identified are databases Framework introduced by the
is now based on earnings in the twelve of artists and creative practitioners, Secretariat of the Convention in 2020
months preceding the qualifying period data on royalties and copyright, has streamlined national reporting
(instead of the last four weeks), to sick cultural employment, accurate GDP and monitoring of the Convention,
pay, where 40 daily contributions to the contributions, levels of cultural creating an invaluable baseline for
Entertainment workers’ pension fund participation and consumption and measuring impact over time. UNESCO’s
from 1 January of the year preceding a comprehensive assessment of the Culture|2030 Indicators may also help
the onset of the illness are required, environmental impact of the cultural in this effort. This ongoing challenge
instead of 100. and creative sectors. Data collection on is an opportunity to strengthen
the cultural and creative sector should regional, global and also thematic
benefit from the increasing involvement collaborations between Parties, civil
HARNESSING THE POWER OF DATA of a wide range of policy areas and society, research bodies, UNESCO and
relevant stakeholders by building on other agencies to systematize coherent
Data collection and information-sharing and integrating data collection efforts data collection on the cultural,
allow for better policy decisions, actions, already underway in other related economic, social and environmental
monitoring and evaluation, as well as sectors. Beyond gathering strategies, impact of the cultural and creative
improving impact assessment for more attention should also be given to data sectors to better assess their role in
transparent and responsive cultural analysis and the implementation of societies and their contribution to the
governance. To this end, Article 9 of related findings. achievement of the SDGs.
the Convention commits Parties to
information-sharing and transparency.
Figure 1.9
Statistical offices or research bodies that have produced data on the cultural
and creative sectors and/or evaluated cultural policies over the last four years
Data collection and
information-sharing allow Evaluated cultural policies Data produced on cultural and creative sectors
Ensuring a diversity
of voices in the media
Luis A. Albornoz*
KEY FINDINGS
››› While there has been a deterioration of global media freedom since 2006, the number of
countries with Access to Information Laws has risen from 40 in 2009 to 126 in 2019.
››› Many States see the need not only to have quality public service media, but also to diversify
their media landscape by supporting community-based outlets and local media.
››› While content quotas continue to be a popular tool (used by 68% of Parties), broadcasters
in many countries struggle to comply with domestic content quotas due to a lack of local
productions. More financial support is needed to change the situation.
››› Online services remain less regulated than public and private broadcasting, but media
regulatory authorities are expanding their areas of responsibility, which increasingly cover
the Video on Demand domain and more complex media monitoring systems.
››› Most Parties (87%) have public service media with a legal remit to promote a diversity of
cultural expressions, and they are starting to adopt measures in response to the absence,
under-representation or misrepresentation of different social groups in the stories circulated
by the media.
››› Gender inequality in the media persists both on and off screen, and concrete and evidence-
based action is lacking – as most States do not monitor gender equality in the media.
››› The COVID-19 pandemic led to a proliferation of disinformation, the closure of media outlets
and a scapegoating of certain groups in the media.
*With the collaboration of Josep Pedro, research assistant at the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid.
PROGRESS
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
CHALLENGES
Media channels
MONITORING GAPS AMONG STATES
closed and
productions shut
Only
48% monitor gender equality
in the media
OFF AIR down worldwide
Only
51% monitor editorial
independence of the media And the presence of
free and independent
Only
54% monitor online media media declined
while restrictions on
fundamental
Only
59% monitor diversity in
media ownership freedoms grew
Figure 2.1
Fifteen years of democratic decline
Countries with aggregate score declines in Freedom in the World have outnumbered those with gains every year for the past 15 years
Democracy gap: number of countries that improved minus number of countries that declined
-45
-36
-33
-31
-29 -29 -27
-22
-20
-16 -17 -18
-15 -14
-3
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
28
34 34 33 35
38 37 36 37
43 43 40 43
49 50
52 54 54
56
59 59 60
63 62 64
67 67 68
72 71 73
83 Number of countries that declined Number of countries that improved
Source: Freedom House (2021).
D
In Bulgaria, new measures have been
introduced to ensure transparency of
media ownership. All media service iversity is at the heart of public service media’s remit. We represent 115 public
providers are required to submit an service media (PSM) organizations reaching an audience of more than one billion
annual declaration identifying ownership people around the world and broadcasting in over 160 languages. Their goal is to
to the Ministry of Culture (including ensure ALL audiences have their lives, culture and experiences represented and
information on whether the owner reflected on-air and online. Our members play a crucial role in the European
occupies a public position). Media creative sector. They invest over €19 billion (US$21.4 billion) every year in content
providers must also report on amount – producing 1.5+ million hours of European TV content alone. The high volume
and usage of funding received in the of European content offered by PSM organizations not only contributes to the
previous calendar year, including details distinctiveness of their offer but also enriches the diversity of cultural expressions
of the entity that provided the funding. throughout the continent.
As per the EU’s 2018 Audiovisual Media
When COVID-19 hit, public service broadcasters were the first to step up: giving a
Services Directive, this information then
voice to artists and their experiences; supporting creatives in need; stepping in for
becomes accessible online.
cancelled arts events; and increasing exposure for artists.
In the Republic of Korea, there are The 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
restrictions to ensure that one broadcaster Expressions stresses that diversity can only be protected and promoted if human rights
does not dictate public opinion. For and fundamental freedoms, such as freedom of expression, are guaranteed.
instance, the government tracks media It also recognizes the important role that PSM plays in upholding these freedoms.
ownership to ensure that a single In today’s globalized platform environment, we need to see policies at national and
broadcaster and its affiliates does not international level that support media diversity and freedom of expression. The
control more than 30% of the market. Convention is an important recognition by the global community that these basic
values enable cultural expression to flourish. We need policies to ensure the findability
Despite these positive examples,
of diverse content and balanced reporting, giving access to the breadth of different
however, only a few other States have
views and ideas we find across our world.
reported measures that limit ownership
concentration or ensure transparency of Noel Curran
media ownership. This suggests that the Director General of the European Broadcasting Union
issue needs more widespread attention.
Most Parties (68%) also indicate the Nonetheless, most Parties report using LOCAL CONTENT QUOTAS
existence of domestic content regulations content regulation to ensure content REMAIN POPULAR
for audiovisual media, with no significant diversity in programming by supporting
regional differences (although among (1) regional and/or local broadcasters, As noted in the 2018 Global Report,
the Arab States less than half use (2) linguistic diversity, (3) community content quotas are popular instruments
content regulation, compared to programming for marginalized groups, among States (UNESCO, 2018). Such
significantly more than half of countries and/or (4) sociocultural programming. quotas originate in the response of
in other regions) (Figure 2.2). When comparing the types of support, European States to the high number of
Parties report more widespread Hollywood films shown in their cinemas
Content regulation can take many support for sociocultural programming in the 1920s and 1930s. The idea was
forms. Unfortunately, not all forms (programmes specifically designed for to intervene to provide space for locally
seek to promote a diversity of cultural segments of the population perceived as produced works in the film market.
expressions, but can instead be used having particular needs and expectations In this regard, the United Kingdom
to limit the free expression of differing such as children, youth or persons with was a pioneer in establishing a screen
opinions. It is common, for example, for disabilities), while linguistic diversity quota system for cinemas through
censorship boards to limit the expression and community programming for the Cinematograph Films Act of 1927
of conflicting opinions. marginalized groups receive the least (Albornoz and García Leiva, 2019).
Table 2.1
Policies and measures that promote content diversity in programming
It is as much about assisting broadcast and global shutdown of ongoing Court of Colombia. The judges ruled that
licensees to develop their local content audiovisual productions. In this context, the reduction of the domestic screen
policy and submit it to the Namibian several governments had to make the quota infringed the labour and social
Communications Regulatory Authority, difficult decision to suspend domestic rights of artists, performers and authors
as it is about encouraging the production content quotas, often leading to of audiovisual works by impacting
of local content through the revision important public debates. In Australia, their right to remuneration for public
of the country’s 1994 Copyright Act. for example, commercial television communication. In the same ruling, the
This revision was intended to address and radio broadcasters received a Court considered that the crisis was
challenges including how to ensure 12-month rebate on the Commercial economically affecting the regional
that the work of Namibian creatives is Broadcasting tax, while domestic drama, television channels, and therefore
adequately and effectively protected, children’s and documentary content authorized increased resources to
and that they are able to earn an income quotas on free-to-air and subscription guarantee their operation.
from their artistic work – particularly in television were suspended for 2020.
Despite a brief interruption in a few
the digital environment. The requirement for 55% Australian
countries, content quotas seem to be
content overall remained in place.
Indeed, implementing local content here to stay. Nonetheless, as was also
While this was a necessary move due to
quotas is not a magic solution (as highlighted in the 2018 edition of the
the halt in production, it also sparked
they involve their own challenges). Global Report, while the number of content
fears among local producers that
First, content quotas alone do not quotas to boost local content remains high
quota systems would be abandoned.
automatically translate into financial and continues to grow, States are lagging
A simplification of content quotas could
success for artists. Secondly, producing behind in encouraging the diversity of
result in the loss of 4,600 jobs in the
foreign content – a trend that could be
eye-catching audiovisual fiction is production industry and 141 hours
partially reversed by further promoting the
expensive compared to buying works on of culturally important content
linguistic diversity of content.
the international market or producing (Karp, 2020; Meade, 2020).
one particular type of content (such
as studio shows). As a result, many In Colombia, the proportion of local VOD SERVICES – A NEW DOMAIN
broadcasters struggle to comply with content in prime time on weekdays FOR CONTENT QUOTAS?
domestic content quotas, and States was reduced from 70% to 20% due
are increasingly turning their attention to difficulties in meeting the national Across all regions, fewer States have
to the need to not only implement content quota. This led to a public implemented content regulations on
content quotas, but also to support the debate involving several media pay-TV and on VOD services compared to
production of local content (Box 2.4). stakeholders (Colombian Association free-to-air TV and radio (Table 2.2). This
of Actors, producers and academics) highlights the need to rethink content
One of the dire consequences of the and political parties. The measure was quotas designed for traditional and
COVID-19 pandemic was the abrupt later overturned by the Constitutional public broadcasting services.
Table 2.2
Domestic content quotas for audiovisual services
Bela Bajaria
Head of Global TV, Netflix
Not only is there a need to implement regulatory framework: the Draft White of Mexican productions that are less than
content quotas for these types of outlets, Paper on Audio and Audiovisual Content 25 years old (Monreal Ávila, 2021).
but it is also crucial to consider how Services Policy Framework (2020),
to move from simply making diverse which will require Subscription Video on Such initiatives help not only ensure that
content accessible to making sure users Demand (SVOD) service providers to offer VOD companies showcase works from
are consuming diverse content when 30% local content in their catalogues. around the world, but also that they
using increasingly individualized services. play an active role in supporting the
In Australia, the film and television production of new works. This will help
An emerging trend is to consider the industry is lobbying to impose a 20% guarantee that more diverse content
obligations of VOD service operators local content quota on SVOD services, is available on VOD platforms and, by
towards locally produced content, explaining that this measure could potentially helping to improve their
and this has mainly been observed in help sustain up to 10,000 jobs. The quality, could also make them more
developed States. In the EU, there were Media Reform Green Paper, launched in attractive to larger audiences.
140 million subscriptions to VOD services November 2020, also proposes to create
by the end of 2020 (Grece, 2021), and a law that requires streaming services LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
content consumption has gradually to invest some of the revenue earned
in Australia in local content (Australian
IN PROGRAMMING
shifted away from public and paid TV
services. The reformulated Audiovisual Government, 2020). One key aspect of ensuring diversity in
Media Services Directive (2018) lays media content is to produce programmes
down reinforced rules on the promotion in different languages. In this regard,
of European works (Albornoz and García depending on audience origin and
Leiva, 2021). Article 13(1) establishes An emerging trend is to size in a territory and on the use of
that VOD service providers must ‘secure consider the obligations information and communication
at least a 30% share of European works technologies, the very functioning of
of Video on Demand
in their catalogues’. The Directive also the media market can help support a
stipulates that States may oblige VOD service operators towards certain degree of linguistic diversity. In
service operators to contribute financially locally produced content this respect, Europe is a paradigmatic
to the production of European works, region. Without denying the significant
including via direct investment in content presence of English-language television
and contribution to national funds. channels, a study conducted by the
In Canada, traditional media European Audiovisual Observatory (EAO)
In the EU, members are now importing broadcasters are required to spend 30% indicates that, on average, EU citizens
the Directive into their regulatory of their revenue on Canadian content. have access to television channels in
frameworks. The Spanish government, In late 2020, the government proposed 19 different broadcasting languages
for example, presented a draft law on an update to the Broadcasting Act to (EAO, 2018). Among them, France has
audiovisual communication stipulating require companies providing streaming the most diverse market with 35 different
that companies like Netflix or Amazon services in the country (including broadcasting languages available
should earmark 5% of revenues Netflix, Disney, Amazon and Spotify) (TV channels and on-demand services
generated in the country to finance to invest a portion of their revenue in combined), including Arabic, Turkish,
European films and series. Of this, at Canadian content. If the bill is passed, Mandarin Chinese, Hebrew, Tamil and
least 70% must support projects by the Canadian Radio-television and Urdu. Other European markets with many
independent producers and at least Telecommunications Commission will broadcasting languages are Sweden
40% must be allocated to films in set rules obliging operators of VOD (27), Germany (26), Switzerland (25) and
Spanish or an official language of the services to make financial contributions Poland (24).
Autonomous Communities. Similarly, and ensure that Canadian programming
the French government plans to require in English, French and indigenous Content quotas are routinely used
VOD services to reinvest between 20% languages is available, prominent and to underpin linguistic diversity in
and 25% of their annual turnover in easily discoverable2. programming, although the numbers
the production of local film and TV vary by region, with eastern European
Finally, in February 2021 in Mexico, an States taking the lead. Such measures
programmes – with 85% of this to
initiative was presented to the Senate include the presence of PSM working in
be spent on French-language content
to enact a new Federal Cinematography different languages (as in Belgium), the
(EAO, 2020; Keslassy, 2021).
and Audiovisual Law that seeks to operation of funds that allocate resources
Countries outside Europe are also impose on SVOD services a 15% quota to produce content in minority languages
amending policies in response to the (like in Spain) and the establishment of
rise of the VOD market. In South Africa, 2. www.canada.ca/en/canadian-heritage/services/ share quotas for language content in
the government is working on a new modernization-broadcasting-act/faq.html media outlets (as is the case in Canada).
MEDIA REPRESENTATION OF against people with disabilities, thereby practices, including the use of artificial
SOCIAL GROUPS: SOME PROGRESS attesting to the importance of launching intelligence to monitor the archiving of
similar programmes3. audiovisual content to measure gender
BUT MUCH REMAINS TO BE DONE speaking time in France; ‘50:50 The
Women also continue to be under- Equality Project’ initiated by the BBC
A particularly sensitive issue is the
represented in the media. According (Box 2.5); and the ‘Advancing Gender
representation in cultural and media
to the 6th edition of the Global Equality in Media Industries’ project:
content of different social groups,
Media Monitoring Project4, women’s a multidisciplinary European project
including women, ethnic and religious
representation as subjects and sources providing a database of best practices and
minorities, immigrants, persons with
only improved by one point from 24% learning resources (EBU, 2021).
disabilities, over-50s and LGBTIQ+
in 2015 to 25% in 2020 (GMMP, 2021).
individuals. Discrimination in the media
The Rewrite Her Story report, published
can take many forms, including prejudice
by Plan International (2019) and
in the way characters are presented, or
analysing the 56 top-grossing films in Achieving gender equality
the absence or under-representation of
certain groups.
20 countries, also found that only 27% is necessary for the media
of female characters are represented to remain relevant and
as leaders, compared to 42% of male
characters. This has consequences for attract talent
the aspirations of young women. As a
Discrimination in the media
young woman from Senegal is mentioned
can take many forms, saying in the report: ‘When we see Gender inequality tends to be worse in
including prejudice in the women playing secondary roles, young private media (McCracken et al., 2018).
way characters are presented, women can think it’s normal life to play a While private media are generally less
secondary role and lose ambition’. compelled or inclined to represent all
or the absence or under- parts of society, some companies are
representation of certain groups Achieving gender equality is necessary leading the way towards a more gender
for the media to remain relevant and equal private media sector – at least
attract talent. Nonetheless, women in news media. The UN Women Media
continue to be under-represented in Compact brings together private media
Persons with disabilities, for example,
European broadcasting, not only in terms companies intent on scaling up the
make up 15% of the world’s population
of on-air presence, but even more so in focus on women’s rights and gender
(World Bank, 2021) but remain largely
terms of speaking time – particularly equality issues, including by ensuring
under-represented in the media. When
in news and sports programmes (EBU, that women act as sources and subjects
they are included, disabled characters are
2021). In fiction, although the overall in stories produced on an equal par with
often stereotyped either as victims or as
presence of women is higher, stereotypes men. The main fronts on which media
remarkable heroes who overcome their
and ageism remain prevalent. In the partners are invited to focus on gender
disability. The full range of disabilities is
United States, for example, while women equality and women’s rights issues are
also neglected in media portrayals (Media
over 50 years of age represent 20% of through increased reporting on gender
Smarts, no date). In several countries,
the population, their share of on-screen issues, tackling stereotypes and biases;
community radio is proven to help
time is only 8% (Nielsen, 2021) – and and increasing the number of women in
increase the representation of persons
the trend is strikingly visible elsewhere. the media (including in leadership and
with disabilities. In Australia, community
decision-making positions). Based on
radio has provided both a way to make the Despite ongoing problems, the third what has been covered in this chapter,
voices of persons with disabilities heard, edition of the Gender Equality and Public much remains to be done on these
as well as a training ground for aspiring Service Media report by the European two fronts by media specializing in the
media producers with disabilities (who Broadcasting Union (EBU) nonetheless dissemination of cultural content.
have gone on to secure paid work in public highlights a clear commitment from PSMs
service media) (Stewart et al., 2019). In in Europe to achieve a better gender Some European States have also reported
Tanzania, British Broadcasting Cooperation balance. The study lists several good recent measures that aim to achieve
(BBC) Media Action launched a show gender parity in media content, as well
called ‘Niambie’ (Tell me) aimed at young as for female representation in works of
3. Read more in Inclusive Futures‘ in-depth assessment of
Tanzanians. Throughout its 12 episodes the project, ‘Changing views through radio’ at https://
fiction to be free from sexist stereotypes.
over three months, the programme focused inclusivefutures.org/tackling-stigma-and-discrimination- In Bulgaria, the Council for Electronic
on a disability-related topic or considered with-radio-shows/ Media is taking up the fight against
an issue from the perspective of a person 4. The flagship activity of the World Association for gender stereotypes through the National
Christian Communication (WACC) and the largest and
with disabilities. Early results show that longest-running research programme on gender in the Action Plan for the Promotion of Equality
the programme helped reduce stigma world’s news media. between Women and Men 2019-2020.
Table 2.4
Responsibilities of media regulatory authorities
ESTABLISHING FUNCTIONAL independence and media ownership. In October 2020, the Higher Audiovisual
MONITORING FRAMEWORKS The monitoring of gender equality in Council released the results of an
media outlets in particular is neglected investigation into off-screen gender
It is noteworthy that most regulatory – with only 50% of the 54 developing equality in the audiovisual industry
authorities are responsible for issuing countries and 44% of the 27 developed of the French-speaking Community
licences to broadcasters, content countries reporting that they monitor (CSA‑Belgium, 2020), finding that
providers and online platforms, whereas gender equality in the media (Table women are less represented at higher
it is less common for them to have 2.4). One country that does monitor hierarchical levels (around 20%) and in
responsibility for monitoring editorial gender equality in the media is Belgium. technical jobs (around 20%).
KEY FINDINGS
››› T here is an increasingly apparent multifaceted digital divide due to a lack of Internet access,
digital literacy, net neutrality, an imbalanced landscape of platforms/algorithms and
unsustainable remuneration models.
››› C
OVID-19 has accelerated the ongoing digital transformation, thereby altering the operational
context of the cultural and creative industries (including forms of creation, production,
distribution and access), as well as their business models.
››› A
lthough the majority of countries have policies aimed at the digital transformation of cultural
institutions and cultural and creative industries, more action is needed to ensure that a diverse
range of actors (especially in terms of size, geographical location and gender) can participate
in the digital creative economy.
››› E merging forms of international and regional cooperation are supporting the diversity
of cultural expressions in the digital context, as demonstrated by the Guidelines on the
Implementation of the 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of
Cultural Expressions in the Digital Environment and the related Roadmap (which has yet to be
widely applied at the national level), as well as the newly adopted UNESCO Recommendation
on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence.
››› N
ational digital strategies often fail to address the specific concerns and needs of the cultural
and creative sectors. There is a need for more intersectoral governance models involving
ministries of culture, communication (or those with a portfolio on media and broadcasting),
trade and industry (or those responsible for copyright regulation), private actors, civil society
and other relevant agents, as well as regional strategies.
››› W
ithin the digital economy, the major distributors of cultural content are also funding the
production of some content. This means they have a direct impact on the promotion of
cultural expressions. However, the operations of these large companies are not subject to many
regulations that could effectively promote and protect the diversity of cultural expressions.
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 91
2022 Global Report
PROGRESS
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
CHALLENGES
The digital
INEQUALITIES POLICIES AND DATA transformation
Digitization could Culture is neglected of production,
worsen existing in digital and Artificial distribution and access
inequalities: Intelligence policies to creative content is
• Lack of Internet access and strategies accelerating
• Digital illiteracy
Data on access From 2016 to 2021, online
• Unfair pay for creators
to digital media activity has exploded:
• Under-representation
are lacking
of women
Hours watched on Netflix per minute:
DIVERSIT Y OF PL AYERS SUSTAINABILIT Y
from 69,444 to 584,222
Policies and measures support digital creativity, Policies and measures facilitate access to diverse
enterprises and markets cultural expressions in the digital environment
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 93
2022 Global Report
However, as affirmed in the United than one quarter (26.2%) of total global
Nations General Assembly Resolution The COVID-19 pandemic has led collections (CISAC, 2021). For the music
declaring 2021 the International Year to an increase in online activity industry, however, 62.1% of total global
of Creative Economy for Sustainable recorded music revenues come from
Development, ‘creating an enabling and accelerated the digital streaming. The growth in streaming
environment for the promotion of transformation of the cultural revenues more than offset the decline in
the creative economy, such as the and creative industries revenues from other formats, including
development of digital technology [and] physical revenues, which declined 4.7%
building relevant digital infrastructure in 2020, and revenues from performance
and connectivity for supporting
Platforms and emerging technologies rights, which declined 10.1% – largely as
sustainable development’ should be
(particularly AI, augmented/virtual a result of the COVID-19 pandemic (IFPI,
driven by the need to ‘optimize the
reality and blockchain) are driving 2021b). The pandemic also reignited
economic, social and cultural benefits
stemming from the creative economy’. new forms of digital adoption and consumer e-book fortunes. In the United
consumption. Kingdom, for example, the format once
The rise of digital technologies has touted as the future of reading had
continued in recent years, while The COVID-19 pandemic, which began seen six consecutive years of declining
the COVID-19 pandemic (and the in late 2019, has led to an increase in sales since peaking in 2014, but 2020
restrictions on physical gatherings) has online activity and accelerated the digital was a different story – with domestic
accelerated the digital transformation transformation of the cultural and creative
and international sales up 17% in the
of the cultural and creative industries. industries. In its 2021 Global Collections
first half of the year. Sales of consumer
Against that backdrop, the first section Report, the International Confederation
audiobooks, which had enjoyed a rising
of this chapter analyses some of the of Societies of Authors and Composers
tide of popularity over the years, jumped
changes and challenges brought about (CISAC) stated that a 2020 decline in
worldwide royalty collections for creators 42% in the first half of the year, and
by these technologies. The second and were set to break the 2019 record.
third sections of the chapter analyse as a result of global lockdown measures
was mitigated by a significant switch to Combined sales of the two formats, which
strategies, policies and measures put
digital in some markets (digital collections totalled GBP 199 million (approximately
in place by countries at the national,
increased 16.6%), in particular by the rise US$264 million) in the first half of 2020,
regional and international levels
to address and harness these rapid of subscription Video on Demand (VOD). gave the country’s publishers their best
technological advancements for the However, digital still underperformed ever year for digital sales of mainstream
benefit of the cultural and creative substantially, representing slightly more titles (Nielsen Book Research, 2020).
sector. This chapter also highlights some
large-scale problems, for example, around Table 3.1
the digital divide, lack of diversity and
inclusion of stakeholders engaged in Volume of data circulating on the Internet in one minute, 2016 and 2021
the digital environment and platform
ownership concentration.
Variable 2016* 2021**
A CHANGING TECHNOLOGICAL Facebook logins 701,389 1,300,000
CONTEXT: NEW OPPORTUNITIES, Hours watched on Netflix 69,444 584,222
NEW DIVIDES
New tweets 347,222 381,532
Table 3.2
Box 3.1 • Devices and their manufacturers as important players
Internet users from 16 to 64 in the digital environment for the cultural and creative industries
who consume content via the
Internet each month (Q3, 2020) In 2017, Reliance Industries (an Indian multinational headquartered in Mumbai)
disrupted the domestic phone market by distributing its new Jio model, effectively for
free, across rural India. The phone was offered for a deposit of Rs 1,500 (about US$20),
% users,
Content refundable if the phone was returned within three years, which guaranteed membership
worldwide
of the Jio network and ecosystem. In addition to traditional phone features like call and
Watch online videos 91% chat, the phone offered the ability to stream music and movies and enjoy unlimited
4G data. This was transformative for the Indian cultural content market, as over
Listen to music
51% 100 million Jio units were shipped within six months of its launch, according to research
streaming services
(Counterpoint, 2017).
Watch vlogs 73%
Alongside the hardware, Reliance Internet packages with subscriptions for as little as a
Listen to online radio few dollars a month completely changed the landscape. For example, the total number
47%
stations of Internet subscribers rose from 426 million to over 512 million within a few months,
based on new users on Reliance platforms (according to a 2018 report from the Telecom
Listen to podcasts 44%
Regulatory Authority of India).
Source: Global Web Index (2021).
The ‘Jio Effect’ is credited with skyrocketing India to No. 1 for data consumption in the
world as of 2018. This was largely due to increased access to music and film in local
Extended Reality (XR) – a broad term languages, raising the profile and views of Indian content. As an example, in 2019 the
used to describe different immersive Indian music label and movie studio T-Series overtook YouTube star PewDiePie in terms
technologies that combine the virtual and of subscriber numbers and views. In October 2021, Reliance Industries announced the
the physical worlds such as Augmented, launch of its low-cost 4G smartphone – Rs 1,999 upfront (about US$26) plus ongoing
Virtual and Mixed Realities – has also monthly instalments of about US$60. Intended for first-time smartphone buyers, it
the potential to dramatically alter the includes features such as quick translation into 10 languages spoken in India other
experience of content consumption. than English. Many believe this will extend the use of smartphones to many more
Used in gaming (as in Pokémon Go) and Indian citizens.
some cultural events (avatars/hologram
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 95
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The work was generated through a systems on distribution platforms also with the Recommendation’s call on
Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) harness AI to use data on past behaviour Member States to support collaborative
from a data set of 15,000 portraits on the platform to predict future tastes arrangements between governments,
covering six centuries. The signature or interest. academic institutions, vocational
of such work takes the form of a education and training institutions,
mathematical formula that indicates The ethics of technology are multifaceted
industry, workers’ organizations and civil
the collaboration between technology and include principles of ownership and
society, in particular to ‘bridge the gap
(combined with AI) and the human usage. Using these technologies risks
of skillset requirements to align training
creative process. The creators of this work exacerbating existing inequalities, not
programmes and strategies with the
argue that AI does not replace human just in the creation of cultural content2,
implications of the future of work and
creativity but can be used as a tool to but also in the business models for
the needs of industry, including small
stimulate it. cultural and creative value chains by
and medium enterprises’. For the cultural
tilting the balance even further in favour
of a few AI superpowers. This could and creative industries, this means
further reduce the agency of States by maintaining an ongoing dialogue among
decision-makers, AI technologists and
According to some predictions, severely impeding their ability to protect
cultural practitioners – so that AI benefits
and promote the diversity of cultural
artificial intelligence will expressions within their territories. If and empowers creators and audiences
produce a Top 40 pop song by key activities in the value chain (such broadly and equally.
2027, generate creative video as creation, distribution, marketing and
Since Canada published the world’s
so forth) are taken over by AI-enabled
by 2028 and write a New York first national AI strategy in 2017, more
machines, there is a potential cost
Times bestseller by 2049 in terms of human jobs, talent and
than 30 other countries and regions
have published similar documents as of
innovation in the cultural and creative
industries. Furthermore, it risks widening December 2020 (Stanford University,
the gap in capacity to shape the digital 2021). However, the absence of the
The uses of AI are not limited to the
environment between countries more cultural and creative industries in most
visual arts. Sensorium and Mubert
and less advanced in AI technologies, national AI strategies and plans is a
(an AI-music generating platform)
not to mention the fate of artists and worrying trend, which may result in the
teamed up in 2020 to create the first
performing AI DJ, called JAI:N. She can cultural professionals where certain roles specific concerns and needs of the sector
create flows of ever-changing music in would be taken over by technologists. being neglected (including in terms
more than a hundred music genres and of how AI impacts on the diversity of
moods. Sensorium states that JAI:N will As underlined in the newly adopted cultural expressions).
be able to create music in real time, UNESCO Recommendation on the
adapting to different audiences and Ethics of Artificial Intelligence, ‘AI
technologies can enrich cultural and A MULTIFACETED DIGITAL DIVIDE
the crowd’s reaction (McGlynn, 2020).
This technology has many implications, creative industries, but can also lead to
According to International
including the fact that neither DJs nor an increased concentration of supply
of cultural content, data, markets and Telecommunication Union (ITU) data,
music would need to be paid for, and at the end of 2019 just over half of the
that it would only take a few clicks income in the hands of only a few actors,
with potential negative implications for world population was using the Internet,
to create the look and sound of a DJ but the figure was 69% among young
performing as the transition between the diversity and pluralism of languages,
media, cultural expressions, participation people (15-24). This also means that 369
two ‘real’ ones. million young people and 3.7 billion
and equality’ (Paragraph 3c).
According to some predictions, AI will people in total were offline. Europe is
produce a Top 40 pop song by 2027, One of the principles agreed to by the the region with the highest Internet use
generate creative video by 2028 and Group of Seven leaders at the 2018 (83%), while Africa is the region with the
write a New York Times bestseller by meeting on a G7 Common Vision for the lowest (29%), with Asia and the Pacific
2049 (WEF, 2018). Increasingly, AI is Future of Artificial Intelligence was to having the highest youth/overall ratio
also used for a range of tasks across the facilitate multistakeholder dialogue on (ITU, 2020). In April 2020, UNESCO
cultural and creative industries, including how to advance AI innovation to increase launched ResiliArt, a global movement
to generate insight from data patterns trust and adoption. This resonates joined by cultural professionals from
to support decision-making across the around the world that sheds light on
value chain, enable faster tagging of 2. According to Article 4.2 of the 2005 Convention on the state of the cultural and creative
online content, automate video editing the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural industries, and the challenges raised or
Expressions, ‘cultural content’ refers to the symbolic
and even undertake analyses of scripts to meaning, artistic dimension and cultural values that exacerbated by the pandemic, through
predict box office success. Recommender originate from or express cultural identities. virtual discussions (see Chapter 4).
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 97
2022 Global Report
Figure 3.3
Alongside existing inequalities between Growth in users on GitHub, 2020-2021*
countries, inequalities within countries
also need to be addressed. For instance, Hong Kong (SAR) 56.9%
in many digital fields the participation
of women is low. Research by the Nigeria 52.2%
International Labour Organization (ILO) Indonesia 49.5%
into ICT skills in seven countries (Canada,
China, Germany, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh 48.0%
Singapore and Thailand) shows that Sri Lanka 47.6%
ICT specialists are typically younger
than the average worker and likely to Mexico 46.8%
be male. Only 30% of such workers Philippines 45.4%
in those countries were women, and
factors contributing to the low female Turkey 44.7%
participation include discrimination, Egypt 43.6%
gender stereotypes, occupational
segregation and a lack of formal job Pakistan 42.1%
opportunities for women (ILO, 2020c). *This data includes countries and regions with over 100.000 users.
Source: GitHub (2021).
According to a survey conducted by Dice
(a database for technology professionals,
managing over 9 million profiles This is the threat of oligopoly, which countries are represented, China and
in the United States), among more could recreate the gatekeeper function the United States largely dominate (with
than 9,000 technologists, Hispanic/ that traditional media companies 15 of the 20 distributors) – just as they
Latino respondents were reported to enjoyed when spectrum capacity limited dominate in terms of the number of
have experienced the highest levels of broadcast output and a handful of TV monthly users of these top 20 digital
discrimination (78%). White respondents and radio network controllers effectively distributors.
reported experiencing the least amount decided on content. This time, however,
of discrimination (9%) (Dice, 2021). the oligopoly would exist at the global Some have argued that the ‘digital
rather than the national level. The nudges’ (user-interface design elements)
In addition to the traditional factors Convention’s purpose of redressing used by algorithms on large platforms
that have driven the digital divide imbalances in cultural exchanges to modify behaviours (Birhane, 2020)
(such as income inequality, gender therefore remains relevant in the face of influence users to make choices
and age), the increasingly dominant digital transformations. that enhance the profitability of the
role of platforms in the production and platforms or align with the values
distribution of content threatens to add Within the top 20 global digital music and contexts of the platform owners
another dimension. distributors (Table 3.3), while six different (for profit companies).
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 99
2022 Global Report
Since the last Global Report, YouTube of the global recorded music industry, royalty payment goes. Rather, all
has responded to criticisms related to returning it to profit and growth after streaming revenues effectively go into
the lack of revenue that it generates for many years of decline. However, it is one big content pot, and artists’ royalties
the music industry by launching YouTube the record labels that keep the lion’s are allocated according to the overall
Music in 2018, a paid-for subscription share of streaming revenues after the market share of artists on the platform
service to compete with Spotify et al. platforms take their cut (typically 35% (which naturally favours the small
However, the service has been slow to to 45%). While streaming has improved number of major international artists
scale up – with only around 20 million the financial health of the labels, and acts).
paying subscribers in 2020 compared the platforms themselves (including
with market leader Spotify’s 144 million Spotify) often remain unprofitable There is some innovative change on
paying subscribers. (Businesswire, 2021). the horizon. The French international
streaming platform Deezer is trialling a
These different YouTube services and user-centric payment model that seeks to
content types (paid-for subscription, move away from the dominant platform-
ad-supported official artists channel Since the pandemic began, centric model and thereby increase
and user-generated streams) have very artists have had to rely much fairness in how streaming pay-outs are
different pay-out rates per stream. As more heavily on streaming distributed. Artists and smaller labels
with other streaming services, the paid- are watching the trials keenly, but there
for subscription service pays out far more
and it does not provide are still practical challenges that remain
per stream than ad-supported streams. enough revenue to support pending (Serne, 2020). However, there
YouTube’s lack of success so far in a professional career is clearly a sustainability issue, and this
converting a large proportion of its user is widely experienced by performers
base to its paid-for music service is the around the world. According to a study
biggest single reason why the streaming This is partly because the platforms commissioned by the World Intellectual
value gap persists. For instance, in its are still expanding, but it is also due Property Organization (WIPO) and
annual ‘Streaming Price Bible’, the music to the economics of streaming (which published in June 2021, the market-
industry website, the Trichordist reported remain complex and competitive). centric and the user-centric models fail
in 2020 (based on 2019 data) that, Contrary to popular belief, for instance, to adequately remunerate performers
while YouTube Content ID (named after there is no single price per stream. (albeit for different reasons), as well as
Google’s system for identifying music Instead, musicians’ payments from to adequately compensate non-featured
to assign royalty payments) generates music streaming platforms are affected performers (Castle and Feijóo, 2021).
51% of all streams, it generated only by several factors. These include the
6.4% of all audio streaming revenues split between free or paid subscriptions Another issue around remuneration is
(Trichordist, 2020). and – crucially – where listeners are the concentration of value. For instance,
located. In international markets, global an analysis of the top 40 countries in
However, the streaming value gap also streaming services must price their terms of e-book sale revenues shows that
describes wider problems within the services to be affordable to locals and only 20% of total revenues are earned
digital music sector. Composers and competitive with local streaming rivals by developing countries. Furthermore,
performers have become increasingly (such as JioSaavn in India). To illustrate 65% of these revenues are generated
vocal about the small amounts of such geographic price differentials, in in Western Europe, North America and
money per stream paid out by the main 2018 Spotify’s premium services was Asia (Statista, 2019). In the case of the
streaming platforms. This issue has priced at more than US$13 per month in games industry, the top five countries by
been magnified during the COVID-19 the United Kingdom, a little over US$6 total gaming revenue in 2019 – China,
pandemic, when artists have been in Malaysia, slightly under US$3.50 in the United States, Japan, Republic
prevented from touring (which would Indonesia and just US$1.70 in India. of Korea and Germany – together
previously have provided the mainstay Advertising revenues follow a similar account for 70% of the revenue of the
of their income). Since the pandemic pattern in terms of what international top 100 countries worldwide. China
began, artists have had to rely much streaming services can charge in different alone accounted for over a quarter
more heavily on streaming and, for all countries (Pastukhov, 2019). of total games revenue worldwide
except the biggest acts, it does not (Newzoo, 2020).
provide enough revenue to support a In addition, the dominant streaming
professional career. model amplifies problems for smaller The set of challenges and issues presented
acts and artists through the so-called so far should be evaluated and addressed
Part of the problem relates to age-old ‘platform-centric’ way in which royalties by policies and measures focused on
tensions between record labels and are allocated. In this model, there is no protecting the diversity of cultural
artists. Streaming services, and Spotify straightforward one-to-one link between expressions and their creators at the
in particular, have revived the fortunes what a user listens to and where the international, regional and national levels.
EMERGING COOPERATION Dialogue, Adoption of Open Roadmap Open Roadmap First national
AT THE INTERNATIONAL AND reflection and the Guidelines examined approved roadmaps
definition of by the Conference by the Inter- by the transmitted
REGIONAL LEVELS common of Parties governmental Conference to the
priorities for the Committee of Parties Conference
In recognition of the shifting digital implementation Request by of Parties
of the the Inter-
environment for the cultural and creative Convention
industries, in 2017 the Conference of governmental
in the digital Committee to
Parties to the Convention approved the environment develop an
Guidelines on the Implementation of the open roadmap
Convention in the Digital Environment to further guide
Parties in
as a strategic framework to protect implementing
and promote the diversity of cultural the Guidelines
expressions in this changing context.
Parties also requested more specific
guidance to support policy-making in the Furthermore, most of the contributions In addition to the Open Roadmap,
digital environment. As a result, an Open received by UNESCO have come from Parties UNESCO has also embarked on an
Roadmap for the Implementation of the in Western and Eastern Europe and North effort to develop a global normative
Convention in the Digital Environment America, while little information has been instrument on which regional and
was developed and adopted by the shared by Parties in Asia and the Pacific, national policies and regulatory
Conference of Parties in 2019 (Figure 3.4). Africa and Arab States. This suggests that frameworks can be based – so that
The Open Roadmap suggests clear some regions have encountered more these emerging technologies benefit
outputs and concrete reference activities problems in formulating practical responses all of humanity. At its 40th session in
in this area. to the digital transformation and its impact November 2019, UNESCO’s General
on cultural expressions. Conference decided to develop
an international standard-setting
Another significant challenge for instrument on the ethics of AI in the
Some regions have encountered governance is the need for the public form of a Recommendation. Since then,
more problems in formulating sector to address market concentration UNESCO has led a multidisciplinary,
and monopolistic trends in the cultural
practical responses to the digital and creative industries, as exemplified
multicultural and pluralist effort
that resulted in the adoption of the
transformation and its impact by large platforms and other aspects Recommendation by the 41st session
on cultural expressions discussed in the previous section. of its General Conference in November
2021. The process leading up to the
document has taken place against the
Since the adoption of the Open Roadmap, The tech-platform monopolist, unlike backdrop of ethical dilemmas including
Parties have had two opportunities to the rubber monopolist, controls key AI-created art. Not only does the
provide information on the steps taken to channels of distribution. These firms Recommendation cite the Convention
implement the Convention in the digital serve as gatekeepers in the 21st‑century as an instrument whose principles
environment. At meetings held in 2019 economy, so it is vital to ensure they must be recognized, but it includes
and 2021, 26 Parties – 17% of all Parties cannot use their monopoly over digital- culture as one of its strategic areas. The
to the Convention – shared information era infrastructure to pick winners and Recommendation recognizes that, while
on measures adopted to develop and/or losers, to serve their private ends at AI technologies can enrich the cultural
implement their national roadmaps, but the expense of everyone else. There are and creative industries, their use could
only three Parties have shared a complete certain features of tech platforms that also increase the concentration of
national roadmap with the Convention's can tilt markets towards monopoly. supply of cultural content, data, markets
Secretariat (Canada, including Quebec; and income in the hands of just a few –
Lina Khan
Germany; and the Republic of Korea). This then-Director of Legal Policy at the Open
with potentially negative repercussions
poor level of information-sharing seems to Markets Institute and current Chair of the on the diversity of media and cultural
indicate that countries are encountering United States Federal Trade Commission expressions, as well as on participation
serious challenges in this process. (TANK Magazine, 2018) and equality.
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 101
2022 Global Report
The very process of drafting the sector is seen as one of the areas
document, with the involvement of While Artificial Intelligence deeply impacted by these technologies
culture sector stakeholders, will also be technologies can enrich the that should therefore be included in
a model for inclusive policy-making in cooperation mechanisms.
this area and may reverse the waning cultural and creative industries,
agency of sector stakeholders. They their use could also increase the
A VARIETY OF STRATEGIES
were involved in the multistakeholder concentration of supply of cultural
consultation process from online public AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL
consultation to regional and subregional content, data, markets and
online consultations co-organized with income in the hands of just a few Policies and measures have been
host countries/institutions in all regions adopted by Parties in the light of the
and open, multistakeholder and citizen digital transformations and the global
deliberation workshops organized by and regional frameworks outlined above.
Other regional gatherings have taken
partners. This led to the revision of the place with the support of UNESCO, As was flagged in the 2018 Global
Recommendation that was eventually including a Regional Forum on Artificial Report, there is a risk that public
negotiated by Member States. Intelligence in Latin America and the sector organizations responsible for
There have been other examples of Caribbean that was held in 2019 to raise culture will lose their agency due
cooperation in developing digital awareness and explore the challenges to their inability to keep pace with
transformation strategies in recent and opportunities of AI and related technological shifts affecting the
years at the regional level. The Forum technologies for societies, institutions cultural and creative industries. Policies
on Artificial Intelligence in Africa and individuals. In one of the sessions that impact the digital environment
was held in Morocco in 2018. The dedicated to the dialogue between AI are often formulated without the input
resolutions from the Forum included and the diversity of cultural expressions, of public institutions and stakeholders
one on the need to use AI to foster panellists called for the creation of local from the culture sector. As a result, the
cultural data ecosystems, awareness needs, views and perspectives of the
the development of the creative
raising, training and networking of cultural and creative industries might
economy by embracing the dynamism
artists and cultural professionals, as not be considered as these policies
of young people and ensuring they are
well as the more systematic inclusion of are developed and implemented. In
equipped with the skills to contribute
ministries of culture in the development fact, one of the findings of the above-
to the development of the cultural
and implementation of AI strategies (by mentioned study is that, in the cultural
and creative industries. Following
positioning culture as part of the solution and creative sectors as well as in other
this, the African Union (AU) Ministers
to the unconscious biases emanating sectors, most AI start-ups in the EU
for Information and Communication
from these technologies). implement their technological solutions
Technologies adopted the 2019 Sharm
using programming libraries provided
El Sheikh Declaration, in recognition At the European Union (EU) level, by the tech giants. The latter have
of the role of digital technologies and although the European Parliament’s thus managed to position themselves
innovation in the achievement of the Committee on Culture and Education as essential resource providers in
vision and goals of the AU’s Agenda has taken an interest in the use of AI AI-related research and innovation in
2063, including Aspiration 5: An in the cultural and creative sectors many sectors, resulting in a market
Africa with a strong cultural identity, and commissioned a study on the concentration of AI that may have a
common heritage, values and ethics. subject (Caramiaux, 2020), the sizeable impact on the cultural and
The strategy also seeks to contribute revised Coordinated Plan on Artificial creative industries (Caramiaux, 2020).
to the achievement of the Sustainable Intelligence, published in 2021, does
Development Goals (SDGs). Action not explicitly mention the cultural and The following analysis is informed
points within the strategy include creative industries. by three interrelated international
establishment of a working group on frameworks – the Monitoring Framework
AI to study the creation of a common As many regions and subregions of the Convention, the Open Roadmap
African stance on AI, the development have cooperation mechanisms and for the Implementation of the Convention
of an Africa-wide capacity-building varying, sometimes complementary in the Digital Environment and the SDGs
framework and the establishment of an levels of expertise and resourcing, (Table 3.4).
AI think tank to assess and recommend regional cooperation could be an
projects on which to collaborate in effective mechanism for developing Parties to the Convention have adopted
line with Agenda 2063 and the SDGs. strategies for cultural and creative strategies and policies to adapt and
The Working Group has since been industries in the digital environment. strengthen the cultural and creative
established, chaired by Egypt with The above-mentioned examples show industries in the digital framework.
Uganda as Vice Chair and Djibouti that advocacy efforts are still needed These can be broken down into three
as Rapporteur. to ensure that the cultural and creative broad categories.
1.1 Conduct overall mapping of the 5.1 2.1 Conduct studies and collect data 6.3 4.1 Audit and identify specific 6.3
digital cultural and creative sectors Diverse actors in the on the traceability of diverse creative Data and digital skill gaps in the cultural Data and
digital industries expressions and their accessibility, on information trends and creative sectors information trends
the fair remuneration of creators in the
digital environment and on the use of
metadata in different creative sectors
1.2 Establish national teams of 5.1 2.2 Provide spaces dedicated to 5.3 4.2 Establish training 5.2 Digital
government officials, private sector Diverse actors in the digital creativity and innovation that Digital creativity programmes to strengthen the transformation
and civil society organizations digital industries enables artistic experimentation and and competencies digital skills and competencies of industries and
(including women and youth collaboration of the cultural and creative institutions
organizations) and hold country-wide sectors to fully participate in 5.3 Digital creativity
consultations the ongoing changes to the and competencies
cultural value chain 6.2 Digital literacy
1.3 Establish interministerial 6.3 2.3 Provide financial or other forms 5.3 4.3 Provide support to 6.2
coordination mechanisms to monitor Data and of support to small and medium sized Digital creativity cultural and media institutions Digital literacy
the impact of the regulatory information trends enterprises and entrepreneurs working and competencies so that they become learning
frameworks, cultural policies and in the digital cultural and creative spaces for the public to acquire
sector strategies sectors digital literacy skills and
competencies through creation
and experimentation
1.4 Design, revise or implement 5.2 2.4 Design regulations, policies and 6.1 4.4 Design and implement 6.2
regulatory frameworks, cultural Digital measures to ensure discoverability Access to domestic cultural cooperation Digital literacy
policies, sector strategies and action transformation of local and diverse cultural content, digital content programmes that support
plans to support cultural and creative of industries and fair remuneration for creators, greater digital literacy and skills
sectors in the digital environment institutions transparency in the use of algorithms
Sustainable
Development
Goals
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment
103
2022 Global Report
Firstly, there are countries that have transition to digital technologies so that cultural content, the inclusion of the
established specific digital plans for the Quebec can continue to count on the gender perspective and Indigenous
cultural and creative industries, which in contribution of culture to its economy Peoples’ beliefs, the protection of
some cases are part of broader national and remain competitive in world markets. intellectual property, digital well-being
digital strategies. and freedom of expression, equity,
In 2020, Chile’s Ministry of Cultures, Arts inclusion and difference. In parallel to
Senegal Digital Strategy 2025, and Heritage drew up the Digital Culture this, the Ministry also participated in the
for instance, aims to stimulate the Agenda to take stock of two decades drafting of Chile’s first National AI Policy
integration of digital technology in of work carried out by public cultural and undertook commitments in areas
priority economic sectors, including the institutions and outline four priorities including cultural data management.
cultural and creative industries. Countries for the future: digital cultural network;
like Austria, Comoros and Germany have access and participation; connecting Colombia’s policy on the Orange Digital
used a similar approach and included a heritage with citizens; and capacities Transformation, launched in 2020,
cultural element to their national digital and skills. The agenda explicitly refers to aims to strengthen and promote the
action plans to be implemented across UNESCO’s work on cultural expressions development of the cultural and creative
the cultural and creative industries, in the digital environment as a source of industries through capacity-building in
instead of developing stand-alone digital inspiration. It also builds on a history of technology. It is linked to the Colombian
strategies for the sector. interministerial cooperation on culture Orange Economy, which aims to bring
and digital aspects. The agenda includes together economic sectors involved
commitments for ensuring the diversity in producing and distributing cultural
of cultural expressions in the digital goods and services, including in the
Parties to the Convention have platforms of the Ministry that promote digital sphere.
adopted strategies and policies
to adapt and strengthen the
cultural and creative industries Box 3.2 • U
nited Arab Emirates Culture Agenda and National
in the digital framework Artificial Intelligence Strategy 2031
The United Arab Emirates’ Culture Agenda 2031 has seven strategic objectives and
75 strategic initiatives. An important theme in the agenda is the digital environment,
Other countries like Belgium, Canada since it helps the fulfilment of its objectives by improving access and discoverability
(Quebec), Chile, the Republic of Korea of cultural expressions, as well as enabling cultural exchanges. The main strategic
and United Arab Emirates have created objectives in support of a strong digital environment are to provide high-quality cultural
specific digital plans for the cultural infrastructure; build a holistic and sustainable cultural ecosystem; and introduce the
and creative industries or updated concept of the cultural and creative industries in the United Arab Emirates.
their cultural policy by adding digital Some of the Agenda’s strategic initiatives directly contribute to the modernization of the
culture as a key pillar (Box 3.2). In cultural and creative industries in the digital environment, such as:
September 2020, the President of
the Republic of Korea announced • Providing high-quality and effective infrastructure, ecosystem and regulation to
support cultural initiatives;
the launch of the Digital New Deal
Cultural Content Industry Strategy • Supporting the establishment of cultural markets (digital and non-digital); and
developed by the Ministry of Culture, • Assessing the Internet Protocol (IP) system to support the cultural sector.
Sports and Tourism and other relevant So far, multiple workshops have been held with freelancers and civil society to determine
ministries. This strategy aims to ensure their needs and challenges, particularly in terms of working in the digital environment,
content competitiveness by responding and the United Arab Emirates is working with international partners on the preparation
quickly to the shift to the contactless of an IP manual including best practices from around the world.
environment, encouraging investment
in the development of next-generation Furthermore, within the United Arab Emirates National Artificial Intelligence Strategy
content, restoring the content industry 2031 and the National Programme for Artificial Intelligence, there is a strategic focus
ecosystem and building the capacity of on developing a new generation of talent with skills and knowledge about artificial
cultural technologies and the workforce. intelligence (AI) and the cutting-edge technologies. The national objective is for all
students, schools and universities to be equipped with smart systems and devices as a
Quebec’s Digital Cultural Plan helps to basis for teaching, projects and research. The use of AI technologies in the education
ensure the vitality of the region’s culture sector and for students will impact the digital competencies of learners and will have far-
and make its influence felt in local, reaching ramifications for years to come. There is also an emphasis on nurturing AI skills
national and international markets. and knowledge of modern technologies in higher education.
The Plan provides a basis for helping Source: United Arab Emirates QPR.
cultural environments to make a smooth
Hwang Hee
Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism, Republic of Korea
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 105
2022 Global Report
Secondly, there are policies addressing States to require a minimum of 30% exist alongside local content quotas, as
specific areas of development for the of regional content to be included in in Nigeria. This category also includes
cultural and creative industries in the streaming services offered within the EU the 2018 Digital Pakistan Policy, which
digital environment. In the area of (see Chapter 2). includes provisions around infrastructure
digital content pricing, for example, and institutional frameworks to support
Austria, Germany, France, Ireland, Italy, A third category includes the countries stronger digital ecosystems that will
Luxembourg and Malta have adopted a that have broad digital and other enhance digital services, applications
single book price approach to the pricing strategies that impact on the cultural and and content. These types of provisions
of digital and physical books. These creative industries, even if those sectors are relevant to the cultural and creative
reductions were in line with the EU’s 2018 are not their main focus. An example is industries, even though these sectors are
ratification of Members States’ right to digital switchover policies5 in Gambia and not their main focus.
harmonize Value Added Tax (VAT) rates Nigeria, which directly impact on cultural
In addition to the strategies or roadmaps
on electronic books and publications with value chains as they provide new channels adopted at the national level, as shown
those of printed books, as outlined below. for content distribution. Policies like this in Figure 3.5, support for the digital
Through the Audiovisual Media Services could potentially trigger a demand for transformation of cultural and creative
Directive, the EU has also mandated more local content, particularly when they industries and institutions seems to
that, by 2021, a local content quota will be the main focus of measures and
be implemented on online streaming 5. Policies in support of changing the method of initiatives deployed by the largest share
platforms. The Directive enables Member transmitting television from analog to digital format. of countries (80%).
Figure 3.5
Public support for culture in the digital environment
29% 30
%
Western European and North American States
Eastern European States
Globla total
Western European and North American States
Eastern European States
Latin American and Caribbean States
Asian and Pacific States
African States
Arab States
Globla total
Western European and North American States
Eastern European States
Latin American and Caribbean States
Asian and Pacific States
African States
Arab States
Globla total
Western European and North American States
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 107
2022 Global Report
Relevant measures in this field may that offers research, experimentation, and Development Agency of Latvia,
include training and capacity-building, support and dissemination of studies with the support of the Ministries
but also networking and other avenues and innovative initiatives in the of Culture, Economy and Finance,
that enable cultural and creative agents cultural sector. and received 845 applications from
to connect and take advantage of both entrepreneurs and authors of
In Latvia, the Creative Industries
digital skills and resources. In the most business ideas in 2021, which was a
Incubator was created in line with the
recent period, 71% of the 92 Parties 65% increase from the previous round.
2014-2020 Cultural Policy Guidelines
to the Convention providing data in This confirms the increased interest in
‘Creative Latvia’ to promote the
this round indicated that they had
emergence of new enterprises and digital during the pandemic. Support of
adopted measures in this area (including
the growth of entrepreneurship in the this kind can also be provided by civil
77% of developed countries and 67%
cultural and creative industries. The society organizations such as Electric
of developing countries). As shown
Incubator is run by the Investment South in South Africa (Box 3.4).
in Figure 3.6, measures in this field
include support and funding for digital
content, followed by capacity-building Figure 3.6
programmes, networks and incubators
(although the overall number of Parties Initiatives to promote digital creativity and competencies of artists
providing specific examples of their and cultural professionals
initiatives in this area was low).
Support and funding for digital content 50%
The first type of initiative covers
measures that aim to encourage Capacity-building programmes 30%
traditional players in the cultural
and creative industries to adapt their Networks 20%
products and experiences to the digital
environment. For instance, to facilitate Incubators 20%
the distribution of works online and
foster diverse cultural content, the
Competitions 15%
Austrian Federal Ministry for Arts,
Culture, the Civil Service and Sport
Platforms 10%
made US$1.3 million available for
the promotion of digital projects in Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
2020 and offered grants to publishing
houses and contemporary art galleries
to develop online distribution and
Box 3.4 • Electric South
communication channels, such as
online shops. Electric South is a non-profit company set up in Cape Town, South Africa, to support
capacity for producing narratives using new technologies like Augmented and Virtual
Another set of actions (such as Reality (VR).
incubators, competitions, platforms and
networks) are more aimed at supporting The organization was set up in 2015 to provide mentorship and production services and
creative digital entrepreneurship. works in partnership with a range of African and international organizations, such as
In Quebec (Canada) the Société the Bertha Foundation, Ford Foundation and South Africa’s Department of Sport, Arts
de Développement des Entreprises and Culture, to provide funding and exhibitions to open up spaces for original voices
Culturelles (Cultural Enterprises and under-represented narratives.
Development Society, SODEC) set Electric South has organized VR labs and workshops to support storytellers across
up a programme to support strategic countries including Botswana, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique,
and innovative technological, digital Namibia, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.
or business development projects
that enable the sector to meet the A VR hackathon was held to support participants to learn practical production and
collaboration skills by making a short 360o film. Participants subsequently received
challenges posed by new consumer
mentoring from international experts.
habits and capitalize on the potential
of new design and distribution tools. In Between 5 to 11 November 2020, Electric South presented Electric Africa, described
Tunisia, the Tunis International Centre as Africa’s first free online VR festival to showcase new voices, new realities and new
for the Digital Cultural Economy is dimensions in VR content.
an incubator for innovative projects Source: www.electricsouth.org/.
and start-ups in the field of culture
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 109
2022 Global Report
GRADUALLY ADAPTING
REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS
I
of employees in the games industry
and webtoon artists, with the aim of
improving that environment and the
am fortunate to have enjoyed an amazing career as a singer-songwriter. It is joyous remuneration of employees and content
to feel how my music has entertained and inspired communities of people around
developers (as they are recognized as the
the world. However, I want to be more than an artist. My success has given me a
core workforce of the game and webtoon
platform to help empower others – those who have the talent and drive to make a
digital industries).
living from their art, but who are disenfranchised by a system that does not play fair,
or pay fair, with their work.
Music and entertainment are a business. Of course, the business is awash with stories
of the rich, the famous and the powerful. However, this is not what matters to me. Only a few Parties appear to
Far more important is unlocking the talent of the next generation: the young aspiring
creators who do not have the freedom of opportunity or the knowledge of their rights be using policies and measures
to succeed. Creators live an incredibly fragile life, as the COVID crisis has shown. Vast to actively tackle the issue of
numbers have lost their livelihood – their houses, their cars and the ability to feed
their families. Lockdowns have been especially brutal for people who rely on live
fair remuneration for artists
concerts and public entertainment for their livelihoods. Female creators have been and creators in the changing
disproportionately affected too, thereby setting back the mission for gender equality. digital environment
As we attempt to chart the way to recovery, those who shape the environment for
artists and creators – producers, broadcasters, digital services, government policy-
makers and others – are now in the spotlight. This is the time for valuing culture
In Denmark, a cooperation project
with actions, not words. It is a time for investment in young creators; strong rights
called ‘Share with Care’ involved
for the digital world; education so that creators understand their rights; and tougher
several bodies and was implemented to
enforcement of rights by governments who often turn a blind eye to copyright issues.
Fair chance; fair play; fair pay. That is the call to action. inform consumers about copyright and
encourage them to move from illegal
Culture is the wealth creator for future generations. This is especially true in Africa, one websites violating copyright rules to
of the regions with the greatest music talent. As COVID demonstrated, Africa also has legal Internet services, thereby creating
one of the most fragile cultural sectors. That is why I am dedicated to my work in roles the conditions for easy access to legal
such as Vice-President of the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and
online services. It makes it as easy as
Composers and the founder of the all-female ‘WOMan Radio’ project in South Africa.
possible for consumers to find cultural
I am convinced that this report opens up many avenues that can truly influence the
goods and services on platforms that
lives of creators everywhere.
are legal. ‘Share with Care’ developed a
Yvonne Chaka Chaka search engine called ‘FilmFinder’, where
Vice-President, International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers (CISAC) people can find out which platforms
feature the series or film they seek.
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 111
2022 Global Report
This would be outside of any recording cinema and details the conditions for
agreement, could not be waived by Attempts at ensuring fair audiovisual support given by the German
the artist and would be collected Federal Film Board. In July 2013, the
and distributed by the performers’
remuneration online is part of a Act was amended to stipulate that
collective management organizations. wider movement to ensure that VOD service providers without a base in
This remuneration for streaming would tech companies pay for content Germany would be subject to the film levy.
be additive, would not diminish the Germany first justified this step on the
shared on their platforms
current ‘communication to the public’ basis of rapid technological developments,
royalty and would recognize the particularly in the distribution of films,
many benefits that performers confer with an increasing share of on-demand
on streaming platforms that are not While proponents focused on the need access to films. Secondly, Germany stated
compensated by the current royalty to regulate the power of tech companies the need to consider major global VOD
regime. The streaming remuneration and ensure that news agencies (already players that serve different countries
solution would allow Member States struggling financially) would be from a single establishment. According
to maintain licensing agreements remunerated fairly, opponents focused to the German authorities, the aim of the
between producers and music on the danger of limiting the free extension was to remain in line with the
streaming platforms while establishing circulation of information and on the way existing system and philosophy of the
a new direct payment to performers that tech companies facilitate user visits Act, whereby the consumption of films in
administered by the existing system of to news media websites. Germany through any provider ensures
collective management organizations The dilemma faced by cultural content income for a government-owned fund
worldwide (Castle and Feijóo, 2021). creators are similar to those faced by that supports various cultural objectives
news media. In Australia, through the including film production and distribution.
Attempts at ensuring fair remuneration News Media and Digital Platforms The estimated annual amount of funds
online is part of a wider movement Mandatory Bargaining Code, the News available from the proceeds of the
to ensure that tech companies pay Media got the bargaining power they tax on video supply was €13 million
for content shared on their platforms. needed to ensure a more levelled playing (US$14.6 million) in 2016 (EAO, 2016).
Australia’s recent update to the field between media agencies and tech
News Media and Digital Platforms On the other side of the tax spectrum,
companies. Just like news media, artists in October 2018 the European Council
Mandatory Bargaining Code is a deserve fair remuneration for their work,
case in point, as it requires tech agreed a proposal allowing EU Member
but they also benefit from exposure on States to apply reduced, super-reduced or
companies (such as Facebook, Google platforms. If similar legislation were to be
and Microsoft) to pay for the sharing zero VAT rates to electronic publications,
introduced for the benefit of artists and thereby facilitating an alignment of
of content from news media sources not to the detriment of their presence
on their platforms. After three years VAT rules for electronic and physical
on platforms, professional organizations, publications. As a result of this decision,
of public inquiry and debate, the artists and cultural professionals should
bill was finally enacted in February countries such as Germany aligned the
be able to exercise the necessary VAT rate for digital editions (19% until
2021, encouraging media and tech bargaining power to bring technology
companies to make deals outside 2019) with that of printed products and
companies to pay fairly for their work (printed) press, namely 7%.
the code, and, in the case of no and not simply remove it from platforms.
agreement, implementing a ‘final offer
arbitration’, which establishes the
level of remuneration required if news FISCAL MEASURES TO PROTECT
are to be available on the platforms. THE DIVERSITY OF DIGITAL With the reduced VAT rate for e-books
At the time of writing, Google has CULTURAL CONTENT and digital newspapers, we have
found a way to enable payments to implemented another important
be made to news publishers through Digitalization has many implications cultural and media policy measure.
‘Google News Showcase’ and has for taxation, as it impacts tax policy Because it is not the form that
created partnerships with more than 70 and administration at the domestic matters, but the content. A diverse
Australian news publications (Google, and international levels. In some cases, press landscape is indispensable for
2021). Facebook, while initially taxation can be a measure to promote free and independent opinion-forming
blocking all news content in Australia, local content. In Germany, cinema – regardless of whether the content is
has now launched ‘Facebook News’, operators, broadcasters, video distributors conveyed online or in print. And the
created an investment fund for public and on-demand service providers are cultural value of a book is not limited
interest journalism, and is striking required to financially contribute to the to its printed form.
deals with media companies (Ward, promotion of the film industry through Monika Grütters
2021). Negotiations leading up to the the Film Support Act. The Act includes Germany’s Federal Government Commissioner
Code, were filled with disagreement. measures for the promotion of German for Culture and the Media (Börsenblatt, 2019)
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 113
2022 Global Report
Other recommendations include the The Franco-Quebec mission nevertheless Only a handful of countries appear to
adoption of legislation to compel suggests preventive actions that would have policies or measures promoting
large platforms like Netflix to meet be based, in the first instance, on an greater transparency in the use of
discoverability requirements for Canadian obligation of transparency around the algorithms. Where such measures are
content, as well as a more equitable effects of algorithms. present, they tend to focus on the
application of tax laws to Canadian and broader context rather than being
foreign online providers. specifically targeted at the creative
DATA AND INFORMATION TRENDS sector. One example of this is the EU
General Data Protection Regulation,
In addition to the need for regulation, which gives European citizens the
Online cultural uses the hoarding of certain data by right to be informed of the existence
platforms also limits the ability of of automated decision-making
developed faster decision-makers and rights holders to including profiling. The Nigeria Data
than the rate at which observe and understand the effects Protection Regulation of 2019 has a
policies and measures of platforms on the discovery of local similar provision.
content. Rights holders could optimize
to protect and promote
their discoverability and remuneration
the diversity of cultural strategies, and policies to protect
expressions were adapted to and promote diversity online could Despite the importance of
the digital environment be more effective, if the extensive digital access to cultural
usage data collected by platforms
were made accessible (Franco-Quebec expressions, only 35% of the
mission, 2020). Parties to the Convention
As noted in the report of the Franco-
A massive amount of data is generated
reported the availability of
Quebec mission on the online
discoverability of Francophone cultural by users and devices that are constantly statistics or studies with recent
content (Box 3.6), online cultural connected. In other spheres, these data on access to digital media
uses developed faster than the rate at data are collected by businesses
which policies and measures to protect and governments and combined
and promote the diversity of cultural with advances in data analytics and
expressions were adapted to the digital technology diffusion, thereby providing In October 2019, the Ministry of
environment (even though many Parties the information needed to transform Culture, Sports and Tourism of the
report implementing such measures). and shape the way people behave and Republic of Korea and key players in
organizations operate (OECD, 2019). the music industry announced the
Major international platforms may have Disaggregated data on the consumption Measure to Enhance Transparency in
little interest in promoting local content of digital content are not routinely Calculating Music Royalties. It aims to
and ensuring its visibility if there are released by platforms due to their create a sustainable and transparent
no direct benefits in terms of revenue. commercial value. Besides, while market music ecosystem and to ensure fair
Such platforms are not necessarily research companies routinely produce remuneration for creators. To this end,
subject to existing regulations to reports and studies on trends, this online music service businesses are
promote local content, even though they tends not to be disseminated and only to expand the range of information
compete directly with local players who released in exchange for payment. As a provided on royalty calculation, and the
are subject to such rules. The Franco- result of this wide-ranging lack of data, Ministry will establish an integrated
Quebec mission considers that the there is a risk that policy-making in this information system for the public sector
delivery equipment used by audiovisual area is not data informed or evidence to collect and share copyright usage
platforms (including smart TV, Roku or based – and, as such, it may not be fit information with the market.
AppleTV and voice speakers) could be an for purpose.
important lever for the discoverability of
services and content. In this market, pre- Despite the importance of digital access
installed access for a particular platform to cultural expressions, only 35% of the
would offer a significant competitive Parties to the Convention reported the
advantage, and could be conditional availability of statistics or studies with
on a commitment from platforms to recent data on access to digital media.
highlight local services and content. While there are regional variations, the
The regulation of recommendation proportion only slightly exceeds 50%
algorithms falls more generally under among Arab States and in Western
the regulation of AI devices. Europe and North America.
Chapter 3 • New opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries in the digital environment 115
© Andrei Dinu, Alexandra Pirici, Aggregate, performative environment, 2017-2019.
Exhibition view Art Basel Messeplatz*
Chapter 4
Opening up cultural
governance through civil
society participation
Mauricio Delfín
KEY FINDINGS
››› C
ivil society organizations manage and contribute to a broad range of activities in the cultural
and creative sectors, especially in capacity-building, advocacy and policy development.
They are most active in the fields that are least covered by public action and they build
cross‑sectoral connections – making them front-line players in nurturing and promoting the
diversity of cultural expressions.
››› M
ost Parties report the existence of participatory dialogue mechanisms. However, civil society
organizations are still rarely involved in decision-making, monitoring and evaluation to (re)shape
policies for creativity, which suggests a need for more inclusive and transparent processes.
››› A
lthough the use of open data principles and practices in the cultural and creative sectors
is still very limited, the multiple data gathering and dissemination strategies involving civil
society organizations and Parties would benefit from the use of these practices to foster civic
engagement and innovation.
››› W
hile collaborations between national public institutions and civil society organizations remain
most common, civil society organizations involved in partnerships with local authorities at
the subnational level tend to achieve stronger outcomes in participatory cultural governance,
expanding the reach of the Convention.
››› T he level of structuring and organization within civil society is uneven across developed and
developing countries. Similarly, there are persistent imbalances in access to funding, with civil
society organizations in Africa, Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean
receiving considerably less public support at the national and subnational levels.
››› T he COVID-19 pandemic pushed civil society organizations to adapt to the digital environment,
not only to continue to reach out to citizens, but also to engage with governments and advocate
for policy reforms. However, there remain striking imbalances in terms of capacity, access to
technologies and skills to use them – especially in developing countries.
PROGRESS
CHALLENGES C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
T R A N S PAR E N C Y
Only 35% (net) More civil society
of civil society organizations disagree
organizations surveyed than agree that cultural
think that existing laws Subnational level National level
policy-making is
enable them to partner
with public institutions
24% 61% generally transparent
SUSTAINABLE C A PA C I T Y- B U I L D I N G
PAR T N E R S H I P S
Build the capacities of
Foster public-civil civil society organizations
partnerships at all in civic engagement, digital I N N O VAT I O N
OPEN GOVERNANCE
levels, including technologies, management
Foster transparency, through sustainable and fundraising Implement open
accountability and trust for funding schemes data principles
sustainable participatory and develop shared
mechanisms and information systems
their evaluation
R E C O M M E N DAT I O N S
Measures strengthen the skills and capacities Civil society is involved in the implementation
of civil society of the Convention at national and global levels
any participatory endeavour. They also In Article 11, it recognizes the key role
INTRODUCTION suggested valuing failure, employing of civil society2 in the protection and
control mechanisms and sanctions promotion of the diversity of cultural
OPENING UP CULTURAL and embracing networked structures expressions, making this a guiding
GOVERNANCE to guarantee flexibility. The guidebook principle and far-reaching provision
constitutes an important contribution that is a distinguishing feature of this
What do the Lazareti Complex in the Old towards the systematization and international legal framework. It considers
City of Dubrovnik, the Rojc Community transfer of civic1 knowledge (knowledge civil society participation as part of a
Centre in Pula and POGON – Zagreb generated by the experience of organized broad spectrum and invites analysis
Centre for Independent Culture and citizens aiming to transform governance) of the complex relationships between
Youth all have in common? They are and a reminder of how openness serves participation, collaboration, transparency
all Croatian sociocultural centres as a guiding principle for civil society and accountability in cultural governance.
implementing diverse forms of public- organizations (CSOs) reshaping systems
civil partnerships to ensure participatory of governance for culture. This chapter explores these relationships,
governance. At Lazareti, users set up outlining a connection between
the Platform for Lazareti, a collaborative the Convention’s goal of securing
decision-making space that should be sustainable systems of cultural
able to negotiate formally with the city Modern participatory approach governance – systems that are informed,
administration. The Rojc Community to cultural policy‑making transparent and participatory – and the
Centre established an advisory body to paradigm of ‘open government’3. This
goes beyond a narrow connection offers a nuanced analytical
the mayor for building maintenance, with
formal responsibility shared between perspective on participation framework to assess civil society’s
representatives of the associations and integrates a much broader multiple contributions to protecting
and promoting the diversity of cultural
operating in the centre and city range of civic efforts expressions. The chapter also describes
representatives. In Pogon, participatory
governance has reached a further level how Parties have adopted participatory
of institutionalization, with decision- frameworks, thereby generating
making equally distributed between This initiative also illustrates how a mechanisms for collaboration, dialogue
local authorities and a civil society modern participatory approach to and exchange with civic actors – in
alliance called Association Alliance cultural policy-making goes beyond a partnership with civil society.
Operation City. narrow perspective on participation
and integrates a much broader range
2. The Convention understands civil society as
The guidebook Do it together of civic efforts aimed at opening up constituted by ‘non-governmental organizations, non-
(Vidović, 2018), produced by Kultura cultural governance, allowing joint profit organizations, professionals in the culture sector
decision-making and action. The 2005 and associated sectors, groups that support the work of
Nova Foundation as part of the
artists and cultural communities’. Partially leaving the
‘Approaches to participatory governance Convention on the Protection and private sector outside its immediate purview, it focuses on
of cultural institutions’ project supported Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural an extremely heterogeneous universe of stakeholders that
have experience configuring a broad range of alliances or
by the International Fund for Cultural Expressions provides the opportunity to partnerships with the public sector and civic actors at the
Diversity (IFCD), presents guidelines for explore these strategies. subnational, national and global levels.
establishing a flexible framework for 3. Open government can be defined as ‘a culture of
the ‘participatory governance of cultural governance based on innovative and sustainable
public policies and practices inspired by the principles
resources’, based on a study of local 1. The chapter employs the term ‘civic’ to refer to a quality of transparency, accountability, and participation that
experiences in Croatia. These included of engagement that exerts pressure on the power of the fosters democracy and inclusive growth’ (OECD, 2016). In
allocating responsibilities, harnessing State. It is derived from Buchowski’s (1996) concept of this chapter, ‘open government’ and ‘open governance’
‘civic society’ which the author understands as formed by (Millard, 2018) may seem to be used interchangeably.
varying interests among participants and ‘social institutions embedded within civil society capable of However, the first term refers to a public sector’s
managing conflict as an organic part of acting as a kind of countervailing force’. structure, while the second refers to a process.
Media Arts 56% 6. Most responses came from Africa (30%) and Western
65% Europe and North America (27%), followed by Latin
America and the Caribbean (16%), Asia and the Pacific
Source: BOP Consulting (2021). (16%), Eastern Europe (6%) and Arab States (4%).
Examples range from cultural An analysis of the measures describing of the Convention. The International
management training supported by specific activities by civil society (about Federation of Coalitions for Cultural
the National Fund for the Arts in 66% of the total) shows that a quarter Diversity, the German Commission for
Argentina, to dedicated skills and career of the initiatives undertaken focus UNESCO, the Mexican non-governmental
development units such as Screen Skills on capacity-building, workshops and organization (NGO) Creatividad y
Ireland, which focuses on professionals education. Most aim to strengthen the Cultura Glocal, the U40 Network and
from the film, TV and games industries. creative skills of artists and cultural the Chilean and Paraguayan Coalitions
professionals in a broad range of cultural for Cultural Diversity designed a training
domains and in a lifelong learning programme in Spanish to increase
perspective, with women and youth as the understanding and uptake of the
Further training is needed main targets (Burkina Faso, Colombia, Convention as a tool to promote Latin
in civic engagement practices, Cuba, Cyprus, El Salvador, Ethiopia, American cultural expressions. Uganda’s
Jamaica, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Media Women’s Association, for its
strategic and institutional Mauritius, Mexico, Palestine, Poland, part, has developed training modules
communications and United Arab Emirates). CSOs from with a focus on gender perspective in
use of information and Africa reported the largest number of programmes, development issues and
initiatives and measures across all types management. Culture and Development
communications technologies of activity, and this was particularly East Africa’s Creative Economy Incubator
visible in capacity-building. The number and Accelerator develops the technical
of civil society initiatives in capacity- and business skills of artists and creative
At civil society level, the needs building may seem unexpected, given entrepreneurs in East Africa.
assessment in the CSO survey reveals that most governments also reported
that most organizations have sufficient having specific education and training According to CSOs, funding is the most
skills and expertise to engage in cultural programmes in the arts and the cultural essential resource for enabling them
policy-making (91%). While this should and creative sectors (see Chapter 1). to partner with State agencies (while
not be considered representative, human resources, technology and
respondents tend to confirm civil communication were also mentioned).
society’s self-confidence, which was As demonstrated by the statement
identified in the previous edition of the
A quarter of the initiatives below, more than resources, participation
Global Report (UNESCO, 2018). However, undertaken by civil society requires inclusive strategies for civil
society in all its diversity to get involved
CSOs state that further training is needed organizations focus on capacity- and partner with public authorities:
in civic engagement practices, strategic
and institutional communications and
building, workshops and education
use of information and communications
technologies – areas that are directly
linked to their ability to engage with However, far from representing a It’s not so much about resources but
the public sector and impact policy duplication of efforts, the strong about the need for governments at
developments. An analysis of the involvement of CSOs in capacity-building local, regional and national levels to
ResiliArt debates, organized during the can help complement public action (for have inclusive strategies to address
COVID-19 pandemic and involving civil instance by reaching new stakeholders, the diversity of civil society itself.
society from all over the world, confirms communities or territories and addressing At national and regional level, the
that the pandemic has increased the more diverse topics). For example, it uneven and unequal state of the
need for training in several aspects of was noted that public programmes in environment, infrastructure, and
digital transformation (Box 4.4). This cinema and audiovisual arts were less policies to sustain civil society creates
is not only to reach new audiences but frequent. In contrast, there are many inequalities in the capacity to partner
also to learn how to use digital tools programmes in these areas initiated with state agencies and take part
for dialogue and exchange in order to by civil society, which could suggest in cultural policy opportunities and
participate in online spaces for policy- that CSOs invest in the fields of action processes. Our members also report an
making and evaluation. However, with least covered by public action and/or unequal level of governance by Parties
half of the world’s population still identified as priorities by cooperation and UNESCO National Commissions
offline (UN, 2021a), Internet access and partners. In addition to capacity- both to assist civil society in taking
connectivity remain major challenges building on specific cultural domains, part in policy making processes
for artists, cultural professionals and civil society also organizes training and in facilitating cultural and
civil society worldwide seeking to grasp programmes on cultural management, creative activity.
the opportunities of the ongoing digital business and related fields to enhance Respondent from the civil society survey
transformation and to make their diverse professionalization in the cultural and for the 2022 edition of the Global Report,
voices heard. creative sectors and raise awareness 2021
Muna Al-Bader
Visual artist and curator
DIVERSIFYING AND INCREASING lines (India, Indonesia, Malawi, Mongolia, public funding schemes should
FUNDING FOR CIVIL SOCIETY United Arab Emirates, United Republic encourage a greater focus on this area in
of Tanzania) and support programmes to the future (Box 4.2). Tracking the main
ORGANIZATIONS – AN ONGOING increase CSO sustainability by combining factors behind this difference (such as
CHALLENGE financial support, networking and legal constraints, low allocation of public
training (Argentina, Chile, Peru). However, resources and so on) should also help
As indicated by CSOs themselves,
there are major regional differences, identify levers for future action.
funding remains a central challenge.
A lack of funds affects the ability with Africa and Asia and the Pacific
reporting considerably less in public funds These figures may explain why CSOs
of CSOs to collaborate with public from developing regions are more likely
authorities, but also with one another. (Figure 4.3).
to seek more diverse sources of funding,
This reduces the availability of human The difference between the number with 73% of them having more than one
resources, as well as decreasing the
of developed countries (87%) and funding source compared to 57% among
time available for networking and
developing countries (73%) reporting CSOs in developed countries.
collaborative practices. Such practices
would include active participation in
open governance and participatory Figure 4.3
activities as promoted by Target 17.17
Public funding schemes supporting involvement of civil society organizations
of the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs), which recommends promoting
in promoting the diversity of cultural expressions
effective public, public-private and civil
society partnerships. In addition, the Global Total 78%
level of available public funding relative
Western European and North American States 88%
to the application costs and stringent
reporting and outcome expectations may Eastern European States 94%
paradoxically lead to more precarious
conditions for CSOs. Latin American and Caribbean States 75%
42%
CREATING AND SUSTAINING Other multilateral, bilateral
46%
AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT and civil society bodies
29%
While the Convention recognizes the 25%
role of governments and civil society in UNESCO/other UN agencies,
28%
building sustainable systems of cultural funds or programmes
14%
governance, it is the responsibility of
Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
governments to craft enabling legislative
and regulatory environments. As the
United Nations Guidance Note ‘Protection Figure 4.5
and Promotion of Civic Space’ recalls,
meaningful participation requires an open Open civic space results in better outcomes
civic space – openness being characterized
by the diversity of voices in public debate Open civic space Results
and the security of the channels and
the vitality of the media landscape ‘that • Variety of voices
allow for peaceful disagreement and • Options tailored to needs
• Candid feedback
dissent’ (Figure 4.5). It is thus States’ Freedom
responsibility to ‘shape the legal and of expression, Right to
policy space within which people express association, participate
views, assemble, associate and engage assembly • Better responses
in dialogue with one another and with • Stronger buy-in
authorities about issues that affect their
lives, from the quality of basic services,
to better institutions and respect for Security of those
fundamental freedoms’ (UN, 2020a). who speak up • More social cohesion
• Better development outcomes
Several Parties to the Convention have • More resilient societies
either adopted or revised laws and
frameworks to this end. It is interesting Source: UN (2020a).
to note that most Parties reporting such
steps since 2017 are developing countries,
especially from the Africa region. This
trend may indicate a narrowing of the Some laws provide for procedures countries have introduced more direct
gap in participatory governance between to formalize cultural and creative support mechanisms. The enactment
countries with a well-established body of associations and organizations specifically of the Organization of Civil Societies
policies for creativity and countries that or promote the acquisition of a legal Proclamation in Ethiopia eased restrictions
are newer to this policy-making area. status for all CSOs, in order to facilitate on funding sources, allowing CSOs to
More importantly, it reflects a more global dialogue with the public and private mobilize domestic and foreign funds,
uptake of the cultural policy-making sectors and help them enter into contracts and established an income-generating
principles advocated by the Convention. with them (Cameroon, Ecuador). Other mechanism to support their sustainability.
Box 4.3 • M
apping open government practices and connecting
with the cultural agenda However, there is only partial
information available on transparency
International organizations like the Open Government Partnership (OGP) have been
in QPRs submitted by Parties. Out of
promoting and mapping open government practices across all sectors for almost
Parties that responded, 70% report
a decade. The OGP, a multilateral initiative formed by 78 countries and 76 local
measures and initiatives intended to
governments, aims to secure concrete commitments from national and subnational
ensure transparent decision-making
governments. Over the last few years, it has developed a robust organizational
on government funding and/or State
infrastructure with its national members and crafted a series of mechanisms and tools
grants and awards for artists. However,
to promote civic engagement, including participation and co-creation standards and a
it should be noted that States have not
dedicated toolkit. However, the OGP does not include a specialized policy area for the
chosen to illustrate these statements by
arts and cultural sectors. This might explain why their database of over 4,225 national
listing measures in their reports. Beyond
commitments for open government lists only 19 commitments related to such sectors
the assessment of funding programmes,
(Delfín, 2021).
it is vital to make a distinction between
The commitments include a broad range of measures, such as the consolidation transparent and participatory processes:
of a National System of Information and Indicators on Culture of Brazil or the a high degree of participation does not
implementation of a policy on mandatory representation of Indigenous Peoples in automatically mean transparency in the
local legislative and policy-making bodies by the National Commission on Indigenous processes, decision-making or allocation
Peoples of the Philippines. According to the OGP, these commitments relate to various of responsibilities. Most respondents
areas such as access to information, capacity-building, e-government, fiscal openness, to the civil society survey did not
open data, public participation in fiscal policy, budget publication and so forth. consider cultural policy legislation
From the perspective of cultural governance, they are linked to digital transformation, to be formulated and enacted in a
discoverability, availability and diversity, Indigenous Peoples, cultural heritage and transparent way. Despite the countless
gender equality. Promoting a stronger connection between open government and examples of civil society consultation
cultural governance could bring forth great collaborations and important potential that emerge from the QPRs, very few
for innovation at the global level. measures have focused on describing
Source: www.opengovpartnership.org; ogp-participation-co-creation-standards. the transparency of decision-making
processes.
This suggests that the combination of data practices. Its objectives are aligned to grass-roots organizations working
participation in political processes and with the OpenGLAM11 movement, a at the subnational level (Zahuranec
transparency of decision-making practices global network that promotes open et al., 2021). Although the findings
and processes must be strengthened data practices in these areas (McCarthy were limited, the survey nonetheless
to ensure that, at the national level, and Wallace, 2018). While there are confirmed that CSOs in the cultural and
a ‘vibrant and free civic space with several examples of organizations creative sector would also benefit from
channels for safe, non-discriminatory, using open data to promote access to such developments.
inclusive, meaningful and effective information on cultural heritage, there is
participation in the conduct of public no clear movement that promotes open Understanding how access to
affairs’ is guaranteed (UN, 2020a). data practices to strengthen cultural information can generate public value by
governance – an opportunity that could strengthening the cultural and creative
A few interesting examples show that yield important results (Delfín, 2021). sectors’ capacity to engage with other
Parties and CSOs are mobilizing a Particularly as part of preparations for public policy will be a further step
range of mapping and data-generation a transformative COVID-19 recovery, (Meyrick and Barnett, 2020; Zurbriggen
practices to respond to the challenge of there is a need for reliable and updated and González, 2015).
transparency. The European Association cultural statistics, as well as more
of Independent Performing Arts, for inclusive, effective and coordinated
example, collects data to increase monitoring, evaluation and research
knowledge about artists and their mechanisms in the cultural and creative The culture sector is not well endowed
working conditions. In April 2021, the sectors. Against this backdrop, open data with statistical data because
International Federation of Coalitions could help streamline data collection the actors do not produce any,
for Cultural Diversity launched research and information sharing systems at the even within the framework of the
into civil society participation in the subnational, national and regional levels. implementation of their activities,
promotion and protection of the diversity whereas the main part of the data
of cultural expressions in the Asia- [is] provided by the government (…)
Pacific region, where the Convention Data remain essential to present,
has yet to be widely ratified (IFCCD, There is no clear movement for example, a baseline situation,
2021). In Slovakia, information and
communication technologies are
that promotes open data setting objectives or data indicators.
It allows analysis of situations and
being used to set up a Forum for the practices to strengthen contexts that we often fail to achieve
Cultural and Creative Industries – a cultural governance with unreliable data. Data are
new communication instrument that essential to promote the Convention,
maintains up-to-date maps of needs and allowing Parties to create, produce,
that will facilitate adoption of necessary disseminate and distribute their own
measures for the sectors. When asked about the use of open
government data in any of their cultural expressions and (…) have
The cultural and creative sectors could activities/initiatives to promote the access to them, taking due account of
also benefit tremendously from the Convention, survey respondents report specific conditions and needs.
promotion of open data10 practices, several obstacles standing in the way. Respondent from the civil society survey
a process that would contribute to These included problems in accessing for the 2022 edition of the Global Report,
increasing transparency and public trust public information, data not being 2021
in institutions and participative processes available or data being published in
(Delfín, 2021). A small but significant a format that makes them difficult to
The Convention is in a unique position
group of organizations reported using use, to understand the Convention in
to promote open data agendas that
national open data portals, mostly a multilayered way and to grasp how
can strengthen sustainable systems
to access cultural indicators and access to information can contribute
of governance at the national and
support the design of their projects. For to achieving the objectives of the
subnational levels. This would promote
example, the International Federation Convention. Current work on open
progress towards SDG 16 on ‘Peace,
of Library Associations and Institutions data emphasizes the need for open
justice and strong institutions’ that
(which promotes access to information data to be more useful and relevant,
ensures public access to information
and expressions of culture through going beyond the usual open data
users (journalists, lawyers and civic (Target 16.10), and SDG 17 on
libraries) is deeply involved in open
technologists) to make them relevant ‘Partnerships for the goals’ that
encourages diverse partnerships models
and multistakeholder monitoring
10. The International Open Data Charter (2021) defines frameworks to pool resources (such as
open data as digital data that are made available with 11. ‘Open Galleries, Libraries, Archives and Museums’ is a
the technical and legal characteristics needed to be used, global initiative aiming to aggregate, connect and support expertise, knowledge, technology and
reused and redistributed by anyone, anytime and anywhere. open access to cultural heritage initiatives and projects. funds) (Targets 17.16 and 17.17).
C
(see Chapter 1). An encouraging 90%
of Parties declared implementing
dialogue mechanisms with CSOs
for cultural policy-making and/ roatia has been actively supporting UNESCO initiatives for the promotion of the
or monitoring, with a higher rate in diversity of cultural expressions, and particularly the promotion of the cultural and
developed countries (97%) than in creative industries. The country has become even more engaged during the COVID-19
developing countries (87%). In contrast, pandemic, which confirmed that culture is one of the most significant sectors. Other
77% of respondents to the civil society than the first four weeks of total lockdown, the authorities managed to keep all
survey had contributed to cultural cultural venues and institutions open throughout the pandemic. The country’s cinemas,
theatres, museums, libraries and concert halls were open, even if they could only accept
policy consultation with government
a limited number of people. The Croatian government created many ad hoc schemes
structures in their country. However,
and measures in order to mitigate the effects of COVID-19 on culture, and now needs to
these figures need to be compared
ensure continuous support in order to assist its recovery. The development of resilient
with experiences on the ground. It is cultural and creative sectors has been addressed in the National Development Strategy
also worth mentioning that Parties until 2030 and the National Recovery and Resilience Plan.
may understand dialogue mechanisms
in very different ways. The spectrum Croatia took part in the UNESCO ResiliArt movement and is eager to join other
can range from mechanisms aimed at countries in a series of discussions ahead of the UNESCO World Conference on
informing stakeholders or collecting Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development – MONDIACULT 2022. This movement
feedback from them, to involving them revived the openness of the Parties to the Convention to some form of external
in decision-making. Most Parties that oversight of the Convention by civil society, while recognizing its fundamental role in
the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions and the need
reported such mechanisms focused on
to encourage its active participation in Parties’ efforts to achieve the objective of the
collecting feedback from CSOs through
Convention. The preparatory process for MONDIACULT 2022 can only benefit from
consultation.
the information on the evolving needs, gaps and opportunities on the ground that the
At the global level, the ResiliArt ResiliArt movement will continue to gather throughout 2022. MONDIACULT 2022 will
movement opened up new spaces be a valuable opportunity for UNESCO Member States to reflect and work together to
reaffirm their commitment to cultural diversity as an important part of our societies
for dialogue (Box 4.4) while, at the
and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. The Global Report Re|Shaping
national level, permanent bodies
Cultural Policies for Creativity, of which I was one of the authors in its very first
such as boards or councils (Austria,
edition, is a valuable source for this reflection.
Colombia, Italy, Jamaica, Lithuania)
were created to manage dialogue Nina Obuljen Koržinek
with CSO representatives and Minister of Culture and Media, Republic of Croatia
individual experts.
Box 4.4 • R
esiliArt – a global movement for and by artists
The COVID-19 pandemic has had a massive impact • Need for data: Cultural professionals around the world had
on artists and cultural professionals, as well as on been advocating for more systematic data collection and more
the conditions for civil society organizations (CSOs) comprehensive mapping of the cultural and creative sectors
interactions and evolution (CIVICUS, 2020). In response, long before the onset of the pandemic. Many felt that the crisis
UNESCO launched ResiliArt: a global movement to shed illustrated the risks resulting from the paucity of data in the
light on the state of cultural and creative industries and creative value chain, which leads to an undervaluing of the sectors
sectors through online discussions led mainly by arts and and to insufficient State support. Systematic and regular data
cultural organizations and professionals worldwide. collection and comprehensive and inclusive mapping of institutions
The initiative generated more than 275 debates, with for adequate scaling up of the cultural ecosystem, through
over 115 countries represented by speakers or moderators. participatory processes and public consultations, were listed
Cultural actors from around the world have seen the among the post-COVID-19 priorities.
movement as a priority platform to share their challenges, • Remuneration in the digital sphere: Digitization and increased
suggestions and innovative practices in an unfiltered way. accessibility of artists’ work online have rarely resulted in
Significant participation by CSOs was a main feature of significant remuneration. Many have attributed this discrepancy
the movement. Overall, 41.7% of ResiliArt debates were to insufficient protection of intellectual property in the digital
organized or co-organized by CSOs. As of 31 March 2021, environment, minimal per-play compensation on major streaming
more than half the debates have been led or co-hosted by platforms, lack of training opportunities to harness the new
a civil society actor in Africa (52%) and the Arab States technologies and the public’s reluctance to pay for artistic contents
(52%) An overview of the main findings of the ResiliArt and services online. Moreover, for those with limited access to
movement shows that collective actions, participatory information and communication technology infrastructure, the
processes and public consultations are a key concern for possibility of translating the digital transition into profit is almost
CSOs around the world: non-existent.
• Networking: For some, COVID-19 lockdowns heralded An in-depth analysis of UNESCO’s survey of ResiliArt organizers
an unprecedented period of networking in artistic and identified 100 recommendations*, several of which directly relate to
cultural communities aided by social media platforms the relative position and role of civil society in the cultural ecosystem
and video conferences. Such alliances with local, such as participatory policy-making beyond consultation to normalize
national and international peers have stimulated information and feedback sharing with civil society (notably in the
knowledge exchange, created momentum for collective context of the design and implementation of post-COVID-19 recovery
actions and reignited artistic creation. plans), clear registration mechanisms for CSOs active in the cultural
and creative sectors, support for their digital transition or dedicated
• Participatory process: Speakers shared their strong
wish to influence post-pandemic policy-making support to organizations operating at a subnational level to
processes, with a view to ensuring that lessons learned safeguard the diversity of locally produced cultural content.
on the ground and the pre-existing precariousness UNESCO is expanding the ResiliArt movement through ResiliArt x
revealed by the crisis may be duly addressed by recovery MONDIACULT to gather inputs on the ever-evolving needs, gaps
measures and the overall rebuilding of the sector. For and opportunities on the ground to inform the preparatory process
some players on the cultural and artistic scene, the of UNESCO’s World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable
crisis was perceived as an opportunity to usher in a Development that will be hosted by Mexico in September 2022.
more inclusive era of cultural policy-making and closer ResiliArt x MONDIACULT will serve as an inclusive, accessible
engagement with the State. platform for any interested stakeholder to engage with the high-level
consultations leading up to MONDIACULT.
* The full set of recommendations is available in the information document of the 8th session of the Conference of the Parties at
https://en.unesco.org/creativity/sites/creativity/files/sessions/8cp_inf8_covid19_resiliart_en.pdf.
Some countries also held congresses and initiatives related to advocacy, policy their intervention options throughout the
annual forums (Lithuania, Luxembourg, development and consultation. Africa process. A consortium of CSOs working in
Poland, Slovakia, Uganda), while provides several inspiring examples. In collaboration with the interministerial task
others organized regular or occasional Zimbabwe, the Nhimbe Trust developed force also develops position papers and
meetings and working groups (Belarus, a Legislative and Advocacy Tracker to policy briefs mapping the implications
Burkina Faso, Cuba, Denmark, Kenya). follow the constitutional alignment of proposed legislative amendments
In order to make their voices heard, process resulting in an overall legislative in culture-related fields, such as artistic
CSOs are also developing their own review, including in the cultural field. freedom, freedom of association or
strategies. Indeed, 18% of CSOs The Tracker aims, inter alia, to inform freedom of expression.
report taking concrete measures and artists and cultural professionals about
In terms of organizational capacities, guarantee permanent participation and However, 22% felt there was no interest
the survey reveals that 87% (net) of inclusion on policy-making, but also from government to include them and
respondents feel their organization long-term policy plans that can achieve 22% had not been asked to participate.
can make a difference to the policy substantial change over time while This sheds light on the importance of
environment at the national and/or surviving sudden changes in government not only addressing policies, but also
local levels, even though almost two- leadership. While the absence or training, communication and outreach
thirds of respondents believe that the deficiency of existing laws and practices to foster participation in
legislative and regulatory environment regulations is a major factor that inhibits policy‑making.
does not allow for partnerships with partnerships and collaboration between
public institutions (as noted earlier). One government and civil society, there are
working hypothesis is that the current other dimensions that should also be
policy environment is characterized acknowledged. For example, among the At least 92% of the quadrennial
by a weak regulatory framework that few CSOs reporting no participation in
lacks not only robust, sustainable, policy-making, 19% believed they were
periodic reports submitted
and interrelated mechanisms that can not properly equipped to contribute. by Parties indicate that
civil society had provided
inputs and overall,
Box 4.5 • E
nabling participatory policy monitoring developing regions reported
through periodic reporting more civil society involvement
The ‘Reshaping Cultural Policies for the Promotion of Fundamental Freedoms and
the Diversity of Cultural Expressions’ project (2018-2022), financed by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), strengthened the human and The Convention’s Monitoring Framework
institutional capacities of 16 developing countries in policy monitoring at national strives to measure the conditions and
and subnational levels. Multistakeholder teams involving public and civil society level of involvement of civil society
representatives were formed and trained to report on the state of the diversity of in the governance of the cultural
cultural expressions in their country. This participatory reporting process opened and creative sectors, for instance, by
up new spaces for interministerial dialogue and intersectoral networking and promoting the collection and analysis
opportunities to discuss existing policy environment. It also created communities of strategic information. The aim of
of practice with enhanced technical knowledge and know-how including within revising the Convention’s Monitoring
civil society. Framework was to better reflect the
In Mali, for instance, this project led to the creation of a new consultation framework contributions of CSOs to the diversity of
among relevant national administrations, local and regional authorities and civil cultural expressions. The revision also
society. In Peru, it helped to reinforce exchanges between the Ministry of Culture and resulted in the development of new
public agencies in charge of gender equality. In Bangladesh, consultation meetings and global reporting tools, including a civil
the training workshop provided a platform for various actors of the culture and media society form designed to help Parties
sectors to meet, learn about their respective sectors (music, performing arts, visual arts collect first-hand information from CSOs
and so on) and begin exploring common advocacy strategies. themselves. The civil society form has
proven to be a useful and versatile
‘Regarding the consultative process that has taken place, it had been a while since tool that could be adapted to different
creative people have been included in some of these things when it comes to making national settings and languages. It is
plans for our industry, for arts and culture. This is big for us because for once, we encouraging to see that at least 92%
feel that we have a say in what happens in the industry that we are in. It is one of the QPRs submitted by the Parties
thing to be consulted, it is one thing to be involved in the process, it is another thing indicate that civil society had provided
to then see the process actually bring to fruition something that you actually had a inputs. This includes 77% of Parties that
say over.’ (Macdonald Macdee Chidavaenzi – singer, music producer and director of submitted a CSO form, with remaining
Eternity Productions) Parties reporting one or more CSO being
Another important achievement was the development of a subnational approach involved in the multistakeholder process
to include more local participation, with Algeria, Mauritius, Palestine and Senegal for the drafting of the report (Box 4.5).
deploying new strategies to guarantee inputs from across their territories. Algeria, for All African and Asian and Pacific States
example, took steps to include a regional perspective into the reporting process. Several involved CSOs in multistakeholder
representatives from wilayas ‘provinces’ participated in the initial multistakeholder consultations during the elaboration
consultation and the national team formed thereafter included representatives from process and, overall, developing regions
wilayas. In Palestine, the Ministry of Culture and the UNESCO Field Office in Ramallah reported more civil society involvement
held multistakeholder consultation meetings in Ramallah, East Jerusalem and Gaza. (92%) than developed ones (84%).
Parties such as Chile, Palestine,
Japheth Kawanguzi
Team Lead, MoTIV Creations Limited, Uganda
Paraguay, Poland, Rwanda, Slovakia good practices, but to increase the cultural practitioners to participate
and Uganda reported challenges in overall quality and effectiveness of in democratic processes and paying
CSO participation due to COVID-19 these experiences. attention to the role of women and girls
restrictions, and many used the form in arts and culture.
to streamline remote participation in
reporting during this time. As a result of AN ATTEMPT TO MAP These thematic intersections are one of
the many requests to collect information PRIORITY THEMES AND FORMS civil society’s important contributions to
and data on cultural and creative protecting and promoting the diversity
OF INTERVENTION
sectors and on the situation of artists of cultural expressions by advancing
and cultural professionals, however, cross-sector connections. They speak
Besides capacity-building, advocacy and
a number of CSOs are experiencing policy developments, which appear to to culture’s transversality, enrich the
‘reporting fatigue’ – which has increased be the main initiatives reported in the repertoire of potential public and
during the pandemic. This reinforces civil society survey, CSO involvement civic interventions and can advance
the need to ensure more streamlined is particularly strong in a broad innovation by promoting cross-sectoral
and interoperable monitoring systems range of other activities that directly dialogue and collaboration to solve
to be used by diverse stakeholders contribute to creation, production, public problems. In terms of measures
at all levels. distribution and access to a diversity that CSOs reported on specific policy
of cultural expressions. These include areas, the most frequent sectors are
Examples of participatory evaluation are
event organization (festivals and gender equality and mobility of artists
less common. Through its establishment
conferences), advocacy, networking, and cultural professionals. Although
of a Creative Economy Working Group,
supporting cultural communities and they represent just 42% of all measures
Kenya has provided an inspiring way
programmes, providing resources and reported by CSOs (with the remaining
forward. The Working Group brought
infrastructure for artists and cultural 58% being less specific), these patterns
together diverse stakeholders from the
professionals and engaging in data nevertheless point to niche areas where
cultural and creative industries and
collection or monitoring (Figure 4.6). CSOs are likely to make a difference.
organized a workshop to evaluate the
Culture Bill and proposed amendments Figures should be treated with caution, Policy areas such as artistic freedom,
(which were then presented to however, since many CSOs operate digital skills, copyright or environment
Parliament). transversally across several themes and rank far behind. This suggests that, at
cultural domains. The Culture Fund for the national level (where CSOs are most
Malawi, for example, promotes cultural likely to have participated in monitoring
rights and freedom of expression efforts), there is still room for civil
There is a need to ensure while also addressing the capacity of society action.
more streamlined and
interoperable monitoring Figure 4.6
systems to be used by diverse Activities reported by civil society organizations, by types*
stakeholders at all levels
Capacity-building, workshops and education 25%
Advocacy, policy development and consultation 18%
Overall, this underlines the potential
Festivals, conferences and major events 17%
of cross-level partnerships as they
bridge national and subnational Unions, associations, trade bodies and networks 11%
levels to protect and promote the
Cultural and community programmes 8%
diversity of cultural expressions. Given
the potential for experiences to be Resources and digital platforms 4%
replicated nationwide, Parties should
Promotion of cultural products 4%
invest further in building capacities
for civic engagement practices and Data and monitoring 4%
methodologies – especially at the local
Cultural infrastructure (e.g. a cultural centre) 4%
level. A more nuanced evaluation of
participatory practices is also required, Residencies and exchange 3%
such as assessing them against the
spectrum of public participation Funding for cultural activity 1%
(IAP2, 2020). It is particularly important * Measures describing multiple or generalized activities have not been counted.
to not only recognize and replicate Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
ACHIEVE
A BALANCED
FLOW OF
CULTURAL GOODS
AND SERVICES
AND INCREASE
THE MOBILITY
OF ARTISTS
AND CULTURAL
© Reena Kallat, Woven Chronicle, 2015, electrical wires,
speakers, circuits boards, 10 min single channel audio*
PROFESSIONALS
Goal 2
FLOW OF
services as well as
the free movement of
CULTURAL GOODS
artists and cultural
professionals
AND SERVICES
AND INCREASE
THE MOBILITY
OF ARTISTS
AND CULTURAL
PROFESSIONALS
2022 REPORT CARD
Outward mobility has gained Developing countries face Re-imagine mobility in more
increased support and civil society persistent visa and funding sustainable, inclusive and
organizations play an increasingly barriers to mobility digitally accessible ways,
important role in providing and correct mobility
training, funding and information Global trade shows no signs of imbalances through preferential
opening up to cultural services treatment mechanisms
Exports of cultural goods and from developing countries
services have surged dramatically Invest in Aid for Trade and
worldwide, with the audiovisual No preferential treatment support diversified Foreign
and related services remaining the provisions have been included in Direct Investment in
largest cultural service sector trade agreements in recent years developing countries
DATA R E Q U I R E M E N T S
Visas granted and travel bans issued for artists and cultural professionals
International flows of cultural goods and services, including Foreign Direct Investment
Aid for Trade for the cultural and creative sectors
141
© Meryl McMaster, Murmur I, 2013, Canada*
Chapter 5
Re-imagining mobility
for artists and
cultural professionals
Anupama Sekhar
KEY FINDINGS
››› A progressive understanding of mobility as a fundamental part of the professional trajectory of
artists and cultural professionals is steadily growing among governments and funders.
››› An increasing number of States – both developed and developing – are supporting the outward
mobility of artists under the principle of internationalizing the arts in cultural policy strategies and
legal frameworks.
››› Global inequality in freedom of movement persists due to unequal distribution of funding and
burdensome visa regulations.
››› In the last four years, no preferential treatment measures for artists and other cultural professionals
from developing countries have been implemented, except a few actions triggering positive but
unintended collateral effects. As a result, the ability of cultural professionals from these countries to
access markets in developed countries remains extremely weak.
››› Transnational mobility in the cultural sector is one of the policy areas in which civil society
organizations are more actively contributing to the implementation of the 2005 Convention
on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions.
››› The number of Mobility Information Points has increased in Europe and North America, while
advisory services are increasingly in demand – suggesting growing complexities in mobility.
››› The COVID-19 pandemic has heralded a seminal shift in mobility. While rising costs and health
certifications create new access barriers, there are renewed opportunities to re-imagine mobility
in more digitally accessible, sustainable and environmentally friendly ways.
83% 57%
of Parties report report
supporting supporting
outward mobility inward mobility
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
CHALLENGES
International
ONGOING GLOBAL IMBALANCES IN MOBILIT Y interactions
Artists, especially from developing countries, face challenges in could only
accessing funding, visas, information, training and cultural infrastructure happen online
Passport-holders from
developed countries
79% Grants turned digital, cultural events
of international went online, and emergency funding
can visit an average of artist residencies kept many civil society organizations alive
169 countries visa-free are in Europe
and North But a focus on digital can also lead to:
Passport-holders from
America • Inequality due to asymmetric access
developing countries can visit
86 countries visa-free • Talent drain due to unfair pay
• Funding shifts from physical mobility
South-South
No new preferential mobility remains Cultural mobility will
treatment measures difficult, in part due be impacted for years
for artists from to poor regional to come, as travel becomes
developing countries connectivity increasingly expensive
and restrictive
144 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
C O R E I N D I C A T O R S
Freedom of movement is a right enshrined particularly over the last four years.
in the Universal Declaration of Human To this end, the chapter will provide
POLICIES AND MEASURES
Rights. This right ‘should not be subject an analysis of policies and measures TO SUPPORT THE MOBILITY
to any restrictions except those which implemented around the world in favour OF ARTISTS ARE MULTIPLYING
are provided by law, are necessary to of mobility. In concrete terms, these BUT IMBALANCES REMAIN
protect national security, public order, translate into commitments to establish
public health or morals or the rights and or improve:
freedoms of others, and are consistent OUTWARD MOBILITY IS SLOWLY
with the other rights recognized in ¡ Policies and measures supporting GAINING SUPPORT
the [International Covenant on Civil outward and inward mobility of artists
and Political Rights]’. The right to free and cultural professionals, including Today, many governments extend
international movement of artists was by setting up mobility information mobility support to artists and cultural
first articulated in UNESCO’s 1980 systems not as databases but mainly professionals. Out of the Parties
Recommendation concerning the Status as services providing structured providing information, 83% report
of the Artist, which called on all Member knowledge that enables artists providing support for outward mobility
States ‘to provide those engaged in artistic and cultural professionals to take (that is, for the mobility of national
activities with all the means, in particular, appropriate action artists and cultural professionals
travel and study grants, likely to enable travelling abroad), whereas only 57%
¡ Operational programmes that support of Parties report supporting the inward
them to establish lively and far-reaching the mobility of artists and cultural
contacts with other cultures’ (UNESCO, mobility of foreign artists (that is,
professionals, notably from developing
1980). Previously, the International inviting or enabling them to visit the
countries, including through mobility
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural country). Interestingly, a slightly higher
funds, cultural events and exchange
Rights had also recognized ‘the benefits to percentage of developing countries than
facilities, programmes focusing on
be derived from the encouragement and developed countries report providing
South-South mobility and mobility
development of international contacts and some kind of support for inward
projects initiated by civil society
cooperation in the scientific and cultural mobility. Only 53% of the developed
organizations (CSOs).
fields’ (UNGA, 1966). countries provide support for inward
The chapter will also assess new and mobility, despite the Convention’s
Mobility in the context of the creative existing barriers to mobility, including specific provisions to this end.
sector is now understood as the the unexpected challenges imposed by
temporary cross-border movement of the COVID-19 pandemic. On top of the
artists and cultural professionals to access Figure 5.1
four obstacles to mobility identified in
new career opportunities, collaborators, the 2018 Global Report (international Policies and measures to support
audiences and markets, and implies security measures; complex visa inward and outward mobility of
the right to work internationally. procedures and high application fees; artists and cultural professionals
With the adoption of the Convention, inadequate work permit regulations;
a new impetus was given to the and lack of funding and support), Outward mobility
1980 Recommendation. Indeed, the the COVID-19 pandemic became the Inward mobility
Convention encourages policies and fifth major obstacle to travel, and
measures to facilitate wider access for restrictions will have consequences for
creators to participate in the global 83%
years to come. This led to a rise in the
market and international distribution Global total
use of digital tools as a replacement
networks, while promoting international for physical mobility options. For 57%
cooperation that facilitates the mobility instance, more than half of the 46
of artists – especially those from major international film festivals that
developing countries. Understood in this were not cancelled were able to adapt 88%
way, freedom of movement is an integral their programmes to organize either a Developed
part of artistic freedom and often an hybrid on-site and digital programme, countries
indispensable condition for engaging in or a completely digital programme BOP 53%
creative activity (and thus for exercising Consulting (2021). The consequences of
their right to take part in cultural life). these developments on inequalities in
mobility opportunities will be assessed. 80%
The aim of this chapter is to investigate Developing
how significantly the policy framework Finally, the chapter will offer ideas for countries
offered by the Convention has widened policy options and responses to enable 59%
and deepened transnational mobility freedom of movement as travel restrictions
for artists and cultural professionals, end and physical mobility returns. Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
146 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Supporting outward mobility is much audiovisual sectors, such as in Senegal,
more common and can have several where, between 2016 and 2019, the To compensate for the
objectives, such as to promote traditional Senegalese Film and Audio-visual Industry
forms of engagement (including cultural Promotion Fund of the Ministry of Culture limited number of regular
diplomacy and country branding) or and Communication spent US$282,000 funding structures,
to advance export and civil society-led on supporting the participation of some developing countries
cultural initiatives. Underpinning the 186 Senegalese filmmakers and cinema
latter is the principle of internationalizing professionals at 38 festivals around
have been extending more
the arts, which is increasingly articulated the world. Armenia, too, has supported administrative forms of support
– by both developed and developing Armenian artists from various sectors
countries – in cultural policy strategies (cinema, theatre, music, dance and
and legal frameworks for the promotion cultural education) to participate in The scheme was launched in 2018
of artistic disciplines. international festivals with the aim of in 41 countries participating in the
increasing the recognizability of the ‘Creative Europe’ programme, and
In Chile, for example, the ‘Chile en el country and culture.
allows individuals to apply directly via
Mundo’ (Chile in the World) programme of
Other objectives of public funding a straightforward and flexible process.
the Ministry of Cultures, Arts and Heritage
can include enabling artists to spend Such grants seem to be less common
supports mobility as part of the country’s
time at arts residencies to create new in developing countries, perhaps due
internationalization strategy in the
works; supporting tours abroad or the to budgetary limitations. There are,
creative industries, working closely with
participation of artists in international however, notable exceptions, such as
ProChile (export promotion entity within
markets; strengthening international the Benin Arts and Culture Fund.
the Ministry of Foreign Relations). Mobility
support is also included in Indonesia’s collaborations and co-productions;
To compensate for the limited number
National Strategy for Culture, which calls representing the country at cultural
of regular funding structures, some
for the development of cultural resources diplomacy events abroad; and accessing
developing countries have been
to strengthen the position of Indonesia educational and training opportunities
extending more administrative forms
internationally, and in Mozambique’s overseas.
of support. A case in point is the
national cultural policy legislation, Demand-driven travel grants for a recommendation letter service that
Resolution No. 12/97, which empowers short-term activity of the professional’s Algeria’s Ministry of Culture has
the Ministry of Culture and Tourism choice are also being offered through offered to national artists applying
to support participation of cultural public programmes in support of for a Schengen visa since 2018. The
professionals at major events to boost outward mobility, including through the arrangement has resulted in more
the export of cultural products and the ‘i-Portunus’ mobility scheme funded by successful applications, faster processing
internationalization of Mozambican arts. the European Union (EU). times and even fee waivers (Box 5.1).
Similarly, Timor-Leste’s support for outward
mobility is incorporated in the National
Policy for Culture’s internationalization
strategy and implemented by the State Box 5.1 • F
acilitating the Schengen visa application process for
Secretary for Art and Culture at the Algerian cultural professionals
Ministry of Higher Education, Science
and Culture, in collaboration with the In 2018, the Algerian Ministry of Culture and Arts signed an Agreement with the
Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry Algeria‑based embassies of countries that issue Schengen visas. The Agreement aims to
and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs facilitate and speed up the application process for Algerian cultural professionals.
and Cooperation. Algerian cultural professionals scheduled to participate in cultural events abroad or
civil society organizations sponsoring them are eligible to apply for a recommendation
Such policy directions have been towards obtaining a Schengen visa from the Directorate of Cooperation and Exchanges
translated into a variety of offer-led and at the Ministry of Culture and Arts. This recommendation has resulted in faster
publicly funded schemes designed to processing times and the successful issue of 70 Schengen visas in the period 2018-2019,
promote the outward mobility of cultural with musicians, actors, directors, writers, poets and visual artists benefitting from the
professionals. measure. In some cases, applicants have obtained a Schengen visa within 48 hours.
Publicly funded support can have several The Ministry of Culture and Arts has worked in close cooperation with the Ministry
objectives, one being to represent the of Foreign Affairs and with cultural organizations to implement this measure. Similar
country at renowned international agreements are in the pipeline with embassies of other developed and developing
festivals, biennales and art markets. These countries in Algiers.
initiatives largely benefit professionals Source: Algeria QPR.
in the visual and performing arts and
Box 5.2 • E
valuations of publicly-funded mobility programmes
The need for support that goes beyond Several Parties have made efforts to assess their publicly-funded international mobility
funding to address other structural needs programmes and cooperation agreements in order to improve their impact. The four
is also highlighted by evaluations of evaluations described below reveal challenges in the administration and outreach of
mobility schemes, as well as the mobility travel support to cultural professionals and the need to take a holistic approach to
dimension of cultural cooperation mobility programmes.
agreements in several countries
Two key learnings from the evaluation of Argentina’s Aid Line scheme (2016-
(Box 5.2). The challenges include
2019) under the Becar Cultura (Culture Grants) Programme point to challenges in
overly complex application processes,
sustainability and impact. While the funding did help strengthen the management of
unclear selection criteria and limited
formal and informal cultural and artistic organizations, other goals were not attained.
outreach and impact, as well as the
The scheme was implemented between 2016 and 2017 but suspended in 2018 and
financial burden on beneficiaries and
2019, which has reduced the possibilities for artists to access mobility support and
partnering CSOs.
has therefore made it more difficult for them to participate in training activities that
Recognizing the need for such additional involve travel abroad. The suspension also led to a drop in knowledge transfer activities,
support, several countries report through which beneficiaries could have passed on their learning to local communities.
implementing large-scale enhancements A recent evaluation by the Parties of the long-standing bilateral cooperation agreement
to existing legal and operational between Burkina Faso and the Wallonia-Brussels Federation in Belgium (which has
frameworks for outward mobility. been in operation since 1998) reveals that partnering civil society organizations do not
have enough cashflow to comfortably advance the funds needed to run the projects,
In Ecuador, for example, the previous
including mobility dimensions, as reimbursements are made later in the project cycle.
funding mechanism for outward mobility
was replaced in 2019 by a specific An evaluation of how Chile’s National Fund for Cultural Development and the Arts
funding scheme implemented through (Fondart) contributed to the needs of transnational mobility of artists and cultural
an open call by the Promotion of Arts, professionals (as well as internationalization of works) between 2016 and 2019 revealed
Innovation and Creativity Institute. It the following gaps at the application and outreach phases: (1) a complex application
called for candidates to submit formal form and online platform; (2) evaluation criteria that appear to be subjective; (3)
requests for financial support, which regional concentration in the reach of the call for applications; and (4) priority given
would then be decided upon by an to some artistic disciplines over others. To address the challenges, the recommendations
ad hoc technical committee. The new were to simplify and improve the application format; provide training for potential
scheme has clearer, more strategic beneficiaries in making project applications; apply more transparency on the legal bases
criteria and more transparent procedures. of the process; and support regional and artistic decentralization strategies.
Furthermore, the Organic Law of Human
Finally, a 2019 operational study of the initial phase (2018-2020) of the ‘i-Portunus’
Mobility 2017 has harmonized and
mobility scheme funded by the European Union revealed noteworthy impact among the
integrated different regulations and
337 artists in the performing and visual arts who received mobility grants of between
instruments (including the Migration
US$1,780 and US$4,000. Of these artists, 97% acquired new skills/knowledge; 94%
Law, Law on Foreigners, Naturalization
developed new audiences/outlets; 94% developed new co-productions/creations;
Law and Law on Travel Documents) into
and 49% received a job offer. Nonetheless, the study also recommended simplifying
a single legal document, thereby making
administrative processes for future phases of the scheme. Recommended improvements
it easier for artists to access passports
include the implementation of a more concise application form; payments to be
when representing Ecuador abroad.
made to beneficiaries in two instalments with simplified cost options where possible;
In Lithuania, the Ministry of Culture mandatory but simple reporting procedures; and more financial support to be made
has set up a working group of available for ecologically responsible mobility.
government officials and experts to Sources: QPRs of Argentina, Burkina Faso and Chile; European Commission (2020a).
improve the efficiency of its Culture
148 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
UNEVEN SUPPORT FOR
INWARD MOBILITY
By ratifying the Convention, developed
countries commit themselves not only
to supporting the transnational mobility
of artists from their countries, but
also to welcoming artists and cultural
professionals from developing countries
into their territory. The fulfilment of this
commitment could also be translated
into achievements to meet Sustainable
Development Goal (SDG) Target 10.7, in
seeking to achieve orderly, safe, regular
and responsible migration and mobility.
In the context of the implementation of to improving market access in developed Apart from funding, the availability of
the Convention and the 2030 Agenda countries for creatives from developing adequate cultural infrastructure, in the
for Sustainable Development alike, it is countries, including the SüdKulturFonds form of recurring platforms that can
therefore disappointing to note that the (South Culture Fund) financed by attract and host foreign creatives, is
preferential treatment clause continues the Swiss Agency for Development vital for inward mobility. Arts festivals,
to be severely underutilized. and Cooperation to offer access to artist residency venues and programmes,
Switzerland. Mobility is also sometimes conferences, art markets and art fairs
Nonetheless, there are positive examples embedded in region-focused projects, are structures that can sustain long-
of States supporting the inward mobility such as the COINCIDENCIA cultural term mobility towards any destination.
of artists. A complex architecture of exchange programme between Latin In developed countries, residencies
funding schemes, cultural infrastructure America and Switzerland, initiated by and festivals continue to be available
and enabling immigration policies is the Swiss Arts Council Pro Helvetia, or in large numbers, subsidized through
required to support the regular flow of the Baltic Culture Fund supported by public funding.
inward mobility of artists and cultural Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
professionals into any region or country. In the past four years, there has been
Together, this combination of factors has As for one-off schemes, these can take growing national support for festivals and
led to some destinations becoming more the form of ad hoc funding via embassies art markets in developing countries, which
accessible than others. of developed countries, like the Swedish is a positive development. Mongolia’s
Embassy in Nairobi and the Swedish Ulaanbaatar International Film Festival,
Institute, which sponsored 12 Kenyan for example, is a collaborative effort of
artists’ travel to Stockholm to participate the Ulaanbaatar Governor’s Office, the
Financial support for travel in capacity-building activities in 2019. Ulaanbaatar Culture and Arts Department,
between developing countries CSOs and the Arts Council of Mongolia.
In contrast to the above, financial The 2019 edition of the festival gathered
(both on their own continent support for travel between developing 60 film makers from over 50 countries and
and beyond) remains limited countries (both on their own continent contributed to expanding international
and beyond) remains limited. Some cooperation and increasing the capacity of
national funding is available within local filmmakers.
the framework of bilateral cultural
While developing countries seem to be
cooperation agreements, several of
more active than developed countries
which have been signed in recent years,
in adopting policies to support inward
such as those between Barbados and In the past four years,
mobility, funding programmes for
Ghana, Indonesia and Papua New
travel to developing countries remain
Guinea or Bangladesh and China. there has been growing national
limited, thus undermining the impact
of such policies. In the meantime, travel
Schemes funded by third parties are support for festivals
to developed countries continues to rarer, but there are commendable and art markets
exceptions, such as the Caribbean
be supported by a broad collection
Mobility Fund (from the African and
in developing countries
of schemes financed by cultural,
international aid and multilateral Caribbean cultural cooperation mission
cooperation budgets. Artists from of the Institut Français), which is
developing countries are therefore open to cultural professionals residing The ‘Indonesiana’ cultural platform,
significantly reliant on such funds to in any Caribbean country for travel initiated by the Indonesian Ministry of
access mobility opportunities, which to any other Caribbean country (or Education and Culture, promotes better
in most cases then take them to Canada and the states of Florida and coordination and collaboration among
developed countries. Louisiana in the United States). Another organizers of cultural activities. Since its
interesting international scheme is ‘ANT launch in 2018, 31 festivals have been
These sources range from one-off Mobility’, a programme of the Swiss held under this platform. The Market for
schemes to more structured long-term Arts Council Pro Helvetia providing African Performing Arts in Abidjan, Côte
efforts. Longer-term efforts can take the travel support to individuals and arts d’Ivoire, currently covers almost three
form of regular travel support schemes organizations for international activities quarters (73%) of its total expenditure
for individual professionals on short- involving two or more countries in through national contributions, which
term visits or residency stays, such as southern Africa. Finally, ‘Mobility First!’ mainly come from the Ministry of Culture
the Bulgarian National Culture Fund’s is an Asia-Europe Foundation (ASEF) and Francophonie, the autonomous
Culture Contacts ‘Mobility’ programme programme that supports intra-Asian district of Abidjan, the Organisation
or the artist in residence programme travel for Asian cultural practitioners internationale de la Francophonie
of the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna, – with a focus on 21 countries, in (International Organization of
Austria. There are also funds dedicated partnership with Cambodian Living Arts. La Francophonie) and private sponsors.
150 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Temporary relocation initiatives for artists travel directions have unfortunately Figure 5.2
fleeing persecution in their own countries come to be prioritized. One unintended
are a unique and vital form of cultural but beneficial outcome of creatively Origin of artists represented at
infrastructure supporting inward mobility. trying to bypass strict visa policies in 13 selected art biennales
This topic, including the provision of safe developed countries is the rekindling
spaces and protection of artists in exile, 2012–2017
of interest in developing countries as Developing Developed
is covered in detail in Chapter 10 on attractive and accessible destinations. countries countries
artistic freedom. Artists at Risk Connection, for instance, 45% 55%
has considered or enabled travel to
Brazil and Nigeria, in the light of
ARTISTS FROM DEVELOPING Schengen visa rejections for artists with
COUNTRIES ARE INCREASINGLY refugee status (Akkermans, 2021).
YET STILL INSUFFICIENTLY
There are several other factors
REPRESENTED
contributing to limited intra-regional
Lack of adequate funding remains an mobility routes. Poor regional
oft-cited factor preventing artists in connectivity in some world regions
developing countries from working means that artists can incur additional
internationally. In the year it took travel costs even when heading for 2018–2020
Developing Developed
to complete On The Move’s Mobility nearby destinations on the map. Visa countries countries
Funding Guide to Latin America and access can prove challenging as well, as 49% 51%
the Caribbean, the original list of is the case between the Middle East and
approximately 250 scholarships and Africa (Bourdin, 2019).
opportunities had more than halved, as
many programmes ceased operations However, mobility is as much about
(Guevara, 2019). Even where funding representation as about access. The
exists, it tends to support air or train visibility over time of artists from
fare but rarely covers the range of developing countries at 14 prominent
costs related to mobility, such as art biennales can thus serve as a
visa fee, accommodation and per symbolic measure of their presence on
diem allowances. Another obstacle is the global stage. The selected biennales Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
that many opportunities are one-off feature in Artnet’s ranking of the top
arrangements, which limits the ability 20 world biennales and triennials, Nonetheless, this modest increase does
to build sustainable collaborations and are evenly distributed across not apply to all the biennales studied.
(Bourdin, 2019). developed and developing countries. In fact, the Documenta (Germany),
As international showcases for Istanbul, Sharjah and Venice biennials
For those in the developing world, even contemporary art, the influence of major have all seen a slight reduction in the
travel within the artist’s own region is biennales on the art market is extremely proportion of artists from developing
not as easy as it should be. The non- strong. A spotlight on an artist’s work countries. On the other hand, the
profit pARTage residency programme can launch careers. Simultaneously, Gwangju Biennale in Republic of
in Mauritius can attest to this – the these platforms represent structures Korea stands out, having increased the
scheme has an interest in bringing in of constant change and adaptation. representation of artists from developing
artists from the Indian Ocean region By examining the origin of artists countries from 45% to 75%. It is also
and Africa but lacks sufficient funding. presented at 14 selected art biennales interesting to note that the biennales
Instead, the scheme mainly hosts that took place between 2012 and 2017, in Brazil, Cuba, and Senegal are
artists from developed countries, who the 2018 Global Report discovered that among the few to have increased the
can pay the costs of a residence in the majority still represented developed representation of artists from developing
Mauritius or find funding at home. countries (Figure 5.2). States, suggesting that the increase in
Another factor for poor connectivity representation is perhaps rather a sign
among developing countries is the A study of artists presented at the same of increasing South-South cooperation
disproportionate emphasis traditionally art biennales between 2018 and 2020, within the mobility sphere.
placed on travel to developed countries. with the exception of the discontinued
Some professionals in developing Marrakech Biennale, reveals a positive Furthermore, it must be stressed that
countries also point out that mobility gain of 4% representation share by the increase in representation does not
‘can only be accessed at the invitation artists from developing countries necessarily correspond to increased
of a “western” collaborator’ (Le Sourd, (Figures 5.2 and 5.3), signalling a slow physical mobility of artists from
2019), which illustrates how certain but positive shift in representation. developing countries.
152 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
As such, the global inequality in the Figure 5.5
freedom of movement outlined in the
2018 Global Report persists. Among Average number of countries accessible without visas for passport-holders,
developing countries, passport holders by regions
from Arab and African States remain
particularly disadvantaged, with visa- Western European and North American States 179
free access to fewer than 70 countries
(Figure 5.5). Eastern European States 131
In 2020 and 2021, the widespread Latin American and Caribbean States 128
closure of international borders to
Asian and Pacific States 97
supress the spread of COVID-19 heralded
a shift in mobility. During the first wave African States 63
of the pandemic, even passport holders
from developed countries were unable Arab States 67
to retain their high mobility owing
to new public health protocols. For Sources: Henley & Partners Passport Index (2020); BOP Consulting (2021).
instance, international access for citizens
of the United States plummeted from
184 destinations in January 2020 to
fewer than 75 countries a year later. A withdrawal from the EU and the missing Time-consuming, costly and ever-
peculiar consequence of the crisis was chapter on individual mobility in the new changing visa application processes
that cultural professionals faced similar EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement pose a challenge to lowering mobility
restrictions under the pandemic – albeit (Dâmaso, 2021). Although the agreement imbalances. Artists may be required
briefly – as all were prevented from includes some minor provisions in terms of to show an employment contract
travelling abroad for work1. standardizing EU-wide permitted business or find a guarantor to vouch for
visitor activities, as well as provisions for their return to their country of
VISA POLICIES: contract service suppliers and independent residence. Discrimination due to the
professionals providing services within low professional status of the artist
STILL THE BIGGEST OBSTACLE Europe and the United Kingdom, it does has been frequently reported. Visa
TO THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS not provide any specific concessions for regimes are particularly difficult for
those engaged in the performing arts or artists without formal qualifications,
Beyond funding and cultural
entertainment industries (Lexology, 2021). making mobility even harder for self-
infrastructure, visa policies remain the
Each EU Member State can set its own made artists.
principal instrument for regulating the
requirements for paid work, for example a
mobility of cultural professionals, despite
musician would have to apply for a permit
the positive measures taken by States in
to perform in Germany or Spain, but not
the past four years.
to perform in France or the Netherlands.
In addition, musicians may have to
Time-consuming, costly
Visa regimes remain a persistent
impediment for cultural professionals, complete additional paperwork, which and ever-changing
particularly those from developing may incur costs, in order to transport visa application processes
their instruments and equipment and
countries. In Europe, revisions to the
apply for multiple work permits if touring
pose a challenge to lowering
Schengen visa code in 2019 fell short of
the creation of a cultural visa programme, in the EU (Dray, 2021). After protests mobility imbalances
which was explicitly called for in the 2016 from musicians, in August 2021 the
joint communication ’Towards an EU Department of Digital, Culture, Media
strategy for international cultural relations‘ and Sport’s announced visa-free tours to
19 countries in the EU for musicians from Artists also report longer waiting
(European Commission, 2016). Although
the United Kingdom. Nonetheless, the times for interview appointment slots
the pandemic has put physical mobility
on hold, the issue of visas for artists Musicians Union fears that the exemption at embassies. The outsourcing of visa
remains urgent, and has become more will only be given for tours lasting a few issuance to external service providers
so in Europe after the United Kingdom’s days or weeks, and that crew, drivers, has also negatively impacted mobility,
along with carnets or fees for moving as it reduces artists’ ability to discuss
equipment, would not be included. their case directly with consular officials.
1. A point raised at the online meeting of ’Voices of The Union therefore calls for a more Such visa processing centres also appear
Culture‘ (the structured dialogue between the cultural
sector in the European Union and the European comprehensive visa-waiver agreement less familiar with the standards specific
Commission) on 27 April 2021. with the EU (The Strad, 2021). to cultural professionals.
Global security practices continue to Therefore, preferential treatment A host of administrative burdens –
impact artists’ mobility. Securing visas commitments seeking structural such as customs regulations, Value
for artists from countries enduring change have resulted in no more than Added Tax (VAT), double taxation
conflict is still difficult. This is a few measures triggering positive but on earned income and movement of
demonstrated by the case of Kareem unintended collateral effects. Reasons instruments/equipment – continue to
Abeed, the Syrian producer of the include data gaps and a lack of clarity on complicate mobility, even in economic
Oscar-nominated documentary Last Men scope for States and for beneficiaries. integration areas such as the EU.
in Aleppo. At first, Abeed was denied Regulations around social benefits and
a visa to travel to the United States to pensions are a case in point. Costs can
attend the Academy Awards ceremony deter artists even where facilitating
in 2018, owing to that government’s The application of preferential mechanisms exist – such as the ATA
travel ban on eight countries (including treatment remains limited, Carnet international customs document
the Syrian Arab Republic). Public
outcry and campaigns ensued. He
even in the context of trade that permits the tax-free and duty-free
temporary export and import of non-
was subsequently granted a visa after agreements that include perishable goods for up to one year,
appealing (Verhoeven, 2021). relevant provisions including for artists travelling with
instruments and equipment. The price
Restrictions can also be placed on
of an ATA Carnet depends on the value
individual mobility. At least nine artists
of the items moved.
in Europe were issued travel bans in In November 2019 a two-day workshop
2020, according to Freemuse (Freemuse, on commitments under Article 16 Other problems include airline security
2020b). Travel bans are most often of the Convention was organized by restrictions (which have increased
the consequence of judicial decisions, UNESCO in Barbados in partnership the difficulty in transporting musical
which may give rise to controversy. with the CARIFORUM Secretariat, instruments and equipment) and
Some citizens question their validity, bringing together 30 intergovernmental national financial, security or travel
particularly in cases where artists are and governmental officials, as well as regulations, such as limits on cash
known for provocative works on gender, culture and trade professionals, from
withdrawals that exist in Libya, Morocco
politics or religion, and publicly criticize Barbados, Dominican Republic, Jamaica,
and Tunisia or the need to obtain
the actions of their government. Saint Lucia and Trinidad and Tobago.
parental authorization for Tunisian
The workshop served to assess and
It is disheartening that artists from citizens under 35 to be able to travel
discuss the potential opportunities and
developing countries face constant visa overseas (Bourdin, 2019).
implications of preferential treatment
challenges, given the commitment of measures for artists and cultural Nonetheless, some progress has been
developed countries that have ratified professionals from the Caribbean made in the past four years. One good
the Convention to grant preferential region, within the framework of the sign is that longer-term visas based
treatment by facilitating entry into implementation of the CARIFORUM- on artistic merit have recently been
their territories. As mentioned earlier, EU Economic Partnership Agreement. introduced in some countries interested
the implementation of this provision Discussions also revealed the increasing in attracting creative talent, including
– through measures such as visa attention given to mobility issues in the United Arab Emirates and the
exemptions, simplified visa procedures or for artists and cultural professionals
United Kingdom. In 2019, Dubai
lower visa fees – remains inadequate. from developing countries, as related
announced a cultural visa initiative,
policies are increasingly impacted by
The application of preferential treatment granting long-term residence permits
security concerns and economic and
is limited, even in the context of trade for artists and entrepreneurs in the
political constraints. Unsurprisingly, the
agreements that include relevant creative and cultural industries. This
recommendations from the workshop to
provisions. The CARIFORUM-EU Economic visa is part of a new immigration policy
both the EU and CARIFORUM included
Partnership Agreement and its Protocol that aims to attract promising Arab and
the need to create a ‘one-stop shop’,
on Cultural Cooperation, signed in 2008, international creatives to Dubai. Writers,
with the aim of offering comprehensive
were expected to allow freer movement poets, painters, artists, calligraphers and
information on mobility barriers, as well
into Europe for Caribbean artists, through as easy-to-follow instructions on the actors are among those eligible for the
mechanisms such as artist or touring Economic Needs Tests and qualification 10-year visa. Two Dubai government
visas. To date, however, only visa-free or visa requirements across the EU. entities – the Dubai Culture and Arts
travel to the Schengen area has been Authority and the General Directorate
made possible for cultural professionals While they affect artists from developing of Residency and Foreigners Affairs
from CARIFORUM countries, with no countries disproportionately, visa – have entered into an agreement to
possibility of undertaking paid work challenges are also reported by oversee this visa (United Arab Emirates,
(Burri and Nurse, 2019). professionals from developed countries. Government portal, 2021).
154 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
© Rawpixel.com / Shutterstock.com*
W hen culture crosses borders, it is often in the guise of projects that do not adequately consider equitable representation and
exchange. Historically and in the present, mobility opportunities are based on cultural context, preferences and the epistemological
frameworks of the organizing bodies. The overseas experiences of the Cambodian Royal Ballet represent a range of challenges linked
to cultural mobility.
In 1971, the Cambodian Royal Ballet performed in New York City at the invitation of the United States government. This was an act of
cultural diplomacy during the political turbulence of the Cold War era. A black and white photo of the dancers in Times Square lives
on to commemorate the moment. Only a few years later from 1975‑1979, Cambodia was under the control of the Khmer Rouge, and
all notions of cultural mobility were seen as a threat to the State. Cambodian artists no longer had the opportunity to take part in
international exchanges.
In 2013, Cambodian Living Arts (a non-governmental art organization) brought the Cambodian Royal Ballet back to New York
for the Season of Cambodia festival. Through partnership, friendship and advocacy, my team and I were able to bring 125 artists
from the Kingdom of Cambodia to the United States of America. For so long, stories about us, our home and our culture were told
from an outside point of view. We saw the Season of Cambodia as an opportunity to represent ourselves, from our own ways of
being, on the international stage. With the support of partners and friends who shared our values, we were committed to making a
multidirectional flow of cultural exchange that broke free of the neo-colonial gaze.
When implemented for the benefit of all, cultural mobility is about building friendship, compassion and a deeper understanding of
humanity. In times of crisis, friendships and connections are the building blocks of resilience. Against the backdrop of COVID-19 and
the climate crisis, we are forced to question when travel is necessary. During the last 18 months, it has been an enlightening challenge to
create networks of exchange, learning and belonging across borders in ways we never previously considered. While the future of mobility
and cultural mobility will take on new forms, the principles of interpersonal, contextual and transnational learning will endure.
Phloeun Prim
Executive Director, Cambodian Living Arts
In 2021, the Department of Culture of the world, there are some types of can access them. As such, cultural
and Tourism of Abu Dhabi unveiled its regulatory support to facilitate the professionals from developing countries
‘Creative Visa’ initiative, which is open inward mobility of foreign creatives. routinely use tourist visas for work
to talented individuals operating in key travel. Paradoxically, this means that
cultural fields (Department of Culture In Turkey, there is a special artist permit general relaxations in visa regulations
and Tourism, Abu Dhabi, 2021). for short stays (up to one month), while can benefit the creative sector. Borders
in Latvia, artists can enter to perform at in West Africa, for instance, have
Similar measures exist in other countries live shows if intending to stay no more become increasingly open to Africans
where foreign artists may be able to than 14 days. across the continent over the last
secure work permits. That is the case in five years, as shown by the African
Colombia, where permits can be provided Some countries provide for simplified
Development Bank’s fifth annual Visa
for up to two years in audiovisual access or the ability to work without
Openness Index Report 2020.
production and digital content, or in a work permit if endorsed by the
France, where an artist visa requires a authorities. For example, foreign
distinguished track record. In Canada, performers can be endorsed by
a special artist visa can be awarded the Ministry of Culture in Bulgaria Longer-term visas based on
if reciprocity exists with the country and Cuba, while in Sweden some
of which the artist holds citizenship. artists, their technicians and other artistic merit have recently
Another example is the city of Berlin, tour personnel are included in a list been introduced in some
which has become a hub for artists from compiled by the Swedish Migration countries interested in
the Arab region, as a result of factors Board, giving access to a special permit.
In Belgium, artists of international
attracting creative talent
including the German government’s
refugee policy in 2015 (Unicomb, 2021). renown can enter without a visa. In
Mauritius, too, models and professional
entertainers in the fields of theatre, A revision of the common visa code of
motion picture, radio or television and the EU in June 2019 also resulted in
While they affect artists music are exempt from the need to some amendments that will improve
obtain a work permit.
from developing countries conditions for legitimate travellers,
including cultural professionals
disproportionately, In the Republic of Korea, event
applying for short stays. Changes
visa challenges are also organizers and image-related managers
include the possibility to lodge a
including stage designers are eligible to
reported by professionals from apply for a special occupation visa, while
visa request six months in advance;
submit visa applications electronically;
developed countries artists attending events in Colombia appeal a visa refusal; access detailed
may apply for an event participant visa, information on the reasons for visa
which is also used by athletes, juries refusal and on the appeal procedure;
and exhibitors. and request a fee waiver for travellers
However, in the spirit of both
the Convention and the 1980 Some countries also apply sector- aged 25 or under attending seminars or
Recommendation, transnational specific exemptions, such as incoming cultural events arranged by non-profit
mobility is not intended as a definitive film production units enjoying visa-free organizations. Some of these revisions
measure (except for those at-risk artists access in the Bolivarian Republic of offer much-needed improvements to
hosted in a third country on a long- Venezuela, Chile, Colombia and the routinely reported visa-related mobility
term basis). Rather, such mobility is Republic of Korea. barriers, such as those documented
an option that is essential both to the by the Swiss Coalition for Cultural
professional development of artists and Finally, in some cases, such as Canada, Diversity in a 2019 report (Abbühl,
to the balance of cultural exchange artists can benefit from work permit 2019). That report draws attention to
called for by the Convention. It is exemptions if they enter as refugees. the challenges of the visa application
therefore vital to ensure that visa and Visa-free entry can also be granted based process and other administrative
work permit arrangements do not result on reciprocity, as established in bilateral requirements, as experienced by cultural
in a pattern of permanent relocation, as cultural cooperation agreements, such professionals denied a short stay visit
this could lead to a creative brain drain as those between Morocco and Niger; visa or a work permit for the Schengen
that would compromise the dynamism Belarus and Lithuania; and France area and Switzerland for their shows or
of cultural and creative sectors in and Senegal. to attend residencies. Drawing on the
developing countries. commitments of the Convention, it also
Despite the above, many countries do enabled the Swiss Coalition to lobby
While cultural or artist visas for short- not offer artist visas or visa exemptions, national authorities and raise awareness
term visits are lacking in most parts or when they do, not all artists to improve visa procedures.
156 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
travel grants, disseminating information, In developed countries, there are many
CIVIL SOCIETY ACTORS FILL delivering training or hosting platforms examples of CSOs and public bodies
GAPS IN PUBLIC FUNDING AND for presentation and networking. They cooperating on mobility projects. In
CULTURAL INFRASTRUCTURE also continue to play a crucial advocacy Finland, for example, Frame distributes
role in encouraging more beneficial visa grants from the Ministry of Culture
The above-mentioned progress and regimes for artists. and Education to promote Finnish
challenges offer important insights into contemporary arts internationally,
who is enabling mobility access and Importantly, CSOs are filling funding
including travel by artists to the venues
how. However, the story would not be gaps in countries where public funding
where their work is shown. Likewise,
complete without mentioning another is scarce. Some organizations target
in Cyprus, the Visual Artists and Art
significant actor. Transnational mobility specific sectors such as music, like the
Theorists Association – phytorio hosted
in the cultural sector is one of the policy Keychange Project that works globally on
the Phytorio Artists-in-Residency 2020
areas where CSOs are making significant reducing gender inequality in music with
grants for participation in showcases and with funding from the Cultural Services
contributions to implementing the
network development. Another example of the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Convention, as illustrated by one of
is through Concerts SA’s Music Mobility Sport and Youth and the Youth Board
the highest percentages (21%) of the
Fund which offers touring incentives of Cyprus.
measures reported by civil society in
the quadrennial periodic reports (QPRs) for South African musicians. Lastly, the
Other CSOs reinforce intra-regional
relating to mobility (see Chapter 4 for WOMEX Academy provides a practical
connections, such as the grants
more details). programme for artists and other music
from Mophradat, and the Wijhat
professionals to strengthen their skills
CSOs play an important role in (Destinations) scheme from Culture
to access the international circuits
developing countries by administering and markets. Resource (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy),
which offers grants to artists and
cultural actors of up to US$8,000 to
support travel within and outside the
ijhat – A Culture Resource (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy)
Box 5.3 • W Arab region (Box 5.3). Other examples
programme to promote mobility and the arts include travel grants from Cambodian
and culture of the Arab region Living Arts, which support travel within
Asia; or Africa Art Lines, Art Moves
In the Arab region, artists and cultural actors face major challenges when it comes Africa and the Trans-Saharan Artistic
to travel both within and outside the region. This is due to scarce funding sources, Mobility Fund, which all support travel
difficulties in obtaining visas and a lack of accessible information on potential partner within Africa. In Burkina Faso, the
organizations for creative production. These difficulties limit artists’ opportunities to Route des Arts (Arts Route) initiated by
develop their careers, gain international exposure, reach wider audiences and exchange the Cutural Space Gambidi promotes
ideas with peers. African integration by creating an
Culture Resource (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy) is a regional, non-profit organization founded exhibition route to showcase works from
in 2003 to support artists in the Arab region and encourage cultural exchange within regional artists by fostering partnerships
the region and beyond. In 2019, Culture Resource (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy) launched between exhibition spaces.
the Wijhat (Destinations) programme in response to the mobility issues described
above, by offering grants to artists and cultural actors for travel within and outside the
Arab region.
Civil society organizations are
The programme aims to offer between 25 and 30 grants per year. Despite the COVID-19
pandemic, Culture Resource (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy) decided not to suspend the filling funding gaps in countries
programme in 2020 and 2021, but to allow applicants to receive grants indicating where public funding is scarce
tentative travel dates. Due to a reduction in applications, however, fewer grants were
offered in the last two years, which is the reason why no more than 61 grants were
offered between 2019 and 2021. Out of these, 44 grants were offered to individuals and
17 to groups, bringing the total number of beneficiaries to 140 people. A breakdown of For many CSOs, certain thematic
the types of grants offered shows that 41 were provided for international mobility and or demographic priorities may be
20 were provided for regional travel. The most common type of project supported was underlined. This is the case, for
for grantees to attend a residency (with 23 grants offered), while 15 grants supported example, for the mobility grants of
participation in festivals. the Netherlands-based Prince Claus
Fund, which has prioritized emerging
Source: https://mawred.org/artistic-creativity/wijhat/?lang=en; Culture Resource (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy) ‘Wijhat
2019/2021 Quantitative Data’. professionals under 35, minority groups
or peripheral geographical locations.
158 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Its regional Mobility Funding Guides Sustainability beyond the environmental
TOWARDS FAIR AND
offer the only overview of the regional angle has been less extensively considered
funding landscapes in Latin America SUSTAINABLE MOBILITIES within the cultural sector. A thorough
and the Caribbean, Africa and the Arab examination of the potentially negative
States (Box 5.4). Another interesting Work in re-imagining mobilities had aspects of mobility by the Kunstenpunt
mobility information service is the North already begun prior to the pandemic, (Flanders Arts Institute’s) (Re)framing the
Africa Cultural Mobility Map, which partially in response to the above- International. On new ways of working
gives an accessible overview of cultural mentioned barriers, and with the aim internationally in the arts reveals several
mobility programmes in North Africa. of critically examining current practices fault lines:
Its website also includes an archive in the context of fair cooperation and
with creative projects and relevant sustainability. ¡ The paradox of hypermobility
experienced by some cultural
exhibitions from the Arab region, as well Structural inequalities, as well as professionals due to the need to make
as interviews with artists, thereby helping different working methods and a living;
spread knowledge about the region’s rich expectations in developed and
cultural offerings. ¡ The inability to forge any
developing countries, remain obstacles meaningful connections with the
Other contributions by CSOs in this area to fair international cooperation. local environment while working
include the second edition of the Fund Advice on navigating the intercultural internationally due to the rapid
Finder of the International network for challenges of mobility also remains turnaround time for commitments
relatively hard to find. An excellent arranged;
contemporary performing arts (IETM)
initiative in this area is Beyond Curiosity
(Le Sourd, 2019), an online map of art ¡ The dearth of alternate spaces to
and Desire: Towards Fairer International
residencies worldwide from Res Artis work without the pressure of the
Collaborations in the Arts toolkit,
and practical guides on visa, legal institutional market;
which is a joint 2018 project by IETM
and administrative matters from the
and On The Move in partnership with ¡ The challenge of finding mobility
Performing Arts Employers’ Association opportunities that facilitate a healthy
DutchCulture. This toolkit addresses
League Europe, Pearle. Noteworthy work-life balance, such as family-in-
the non-economic elements affecting
regional initiatives are ‘Culture Funding residence programmes like the kind
expectations in transnational mobility,
Watch’ (with a focus on the Middle East offered by the Brussels-based FoAM;
such as historical political relationships
and African regions), ‘Music in Africa’
and marked differences in cultural ¡ The pressure that artists from minority
and the MERCOSUR Map of Artistic
infrastructure and working conditions cultures or some regions may feel
Residencies, a free collaborative tool that
for artists (van Graan, 2018). to ‘satisfy exotic and stereotypical
allows public and private organizations
expectations’ to secure international
to upload information to the site.
opportunities (Janssens, 2018).
‘Green mobility’ in the cultural sector is Residencies and arts festivals went Nonetheless, the rapid shift to virtual
a work in progress and aims to balance virtual. New digital platforms brought forms of mobility has some of the
the legitimate need for professionals to much-needed sources of income to following long-term implications:
travel, with the responsibility of limiting artists. When South Africa’s National
their ecological footprint. In the EU, Arts Festival went virtual in June-July ¡ Digital access remains highly
efforts have been made to promote 2020, in partnership with Digital Lab asymmetrical, with 46% of the global
greener programmes for educational Africa, all artists whose works were population still offline. The vast
and cultural mobility, for example by presented on the festival’s virtual majority of these estimated 3.6 billion
launching baseline assessments of platform were offered a fee and formal people reside in developing countries
the environmental impact of Erasmus agreements were made regarding the (UNESCO, 2020b);
programmes, designing environmentally fair digital use of the artists’ work. New
focused programmes and promoting initiatives explored how VR and other ¡ New forms of privilege are being
created in favour of artists and cultural
digital solutions as well as travel by rail2. digital technologies could creatively
professionals who already possess
As a response to the ethical dilemma of re-imagine accessible artistic spaces,
promoting air travel in an era of climate digital collaboration skills and tools;
such as Re-Connect Online Performance
change, train travel and longer stays are Festival and Basita.live, an income-
¡ The disadvantages of one-off
being considered around the world, but generating virtual venue for artists to encounters are just as relevant to
with mixed results. For instance, not all share live or pre-recorded content. New the digital space as in the world of
parts of the world enjoy good intra- project formats were encouraged to physical travel;
regional rail connectivity, while crossings explore innovative approaches to cope
may be complicated by border disputes with the physical distancing imposed by ¡ The reliance on the Internet
or security concerns (as in North Africa) the pandemic and envisage a long-term exacerbates the challenge of fair
(Bourdin, 2019). Building knowledge re-thinking of mobility4. Organizations pay in the digital environment (see
and capacities for climate action are also such as the Kone Foundation in Finland Chapter 10). This is likely to trigger a
prioritized, as with the ‘Creative Climate also offered virtual residencies, allowing talent drain from the creative sector, as
Leadership’ programme by Julie’s Bicycle artists to receive a grant and take part mobility is a massive source of income
based in the United Kingdom. in a residency from the comfort of their for artists (UNESCO, 2020f);
own home (Kone Foundation, 2020).
¡ Few studies are available on the
COVID-19 AND THE EXPONENTIAL Beyond support for virtual mobility significant carbon footprints of digital
GROWTH OF DIGITAL OFFERINGS and the digital shift, emergency funds tools (such as video streaming and
were also made available to ensure the cloud computing);
Within the cultural sector, online survival of CSOs in developing countries,
connections have long been considered including those promoting mobility such ¡ Artists in some contexts are still better
an alternative to short trips and a as the International Relief Fund 2020 supported than others (particularly
complement to face-to-face encounters. from the German Federal Foreign Office via public schemes), leading to
For most of 2020 and 2021, the digital and the Goethe-Institut. Such investments new imbalances in funding and
sphere became the only reliable option generated huge interest from the opportunities to engage in mobility;
to keep international cooperation going, creative sector. For example, Swiss Arts
allowing for ‘transnational cultural Council Pro Helvetia’s ‘Close Distance’ ¡ A decreased desire for travel and
interactions without the visa limitations, global call received 591 proposals in a deceleration of global cultural
expense or carbon footprint attendant on just two months. exchanges in favour of local, regional
air travel’ (Bennoune, 2021). and national ones (Schindhelm, 2020);
Such initiatives continue in the face
Some travel grants were transformed of onerous restrictions on cross-border ¡ The risk of permanent diversion of
into digital grants. For instance, the ’_in travel, and they create valuable funds set aside for travel and face-to-
Motion Mobility Grants‘ 2019 for African opportunities for cultural professionals face encounters into other types of
cultural professionals from the British to work internationally. schemes to support the creative sector,
Council and the Prince Claus Fund had particularly digital initiatives;
become ’_in Motion Digital Grants‘ in
the space of just one year3. ¡ The number of residencies is likely to
shrink in the medium term, particularly
in developing countries (as the latter
2. See the European Parliament’s report on effective could be disproportionately affected
measures to ‘green’ Erasmus+, Creative Europe and the by closures due to loss of revenue,
European Solidarity Corps: www.europarl.europa.eu/ 4. See, for example, the Swiss Arts Council’s call for projects
doceo/document/A-9-2020-0141_EN.html. inability to invest in digitalization and
under the heading ‘Close Distance’: Seeking New Cultural
3. www.britishcouncil.org/arts/sub-saharan-africa/_ Formats: https://prohelvetia.ch/en/2020/04/call-close- limited access to emergency funding)
inmotion (Accessed 1 November 2020). distance-coronavirus/ (Accessed 2 December 2021). (Res Artis and UCL, 2020).
160 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Between 2019 and 2021, priority significant in the light of new schemes
CONCLUSIONS AND areas of work and proposals for and protocols for the gradual return
RECOMMENDATIONS improvement have been articulated to mobility.
by UNESCO, public bodies and CSOs.
Although it seems paradoxical to speak The following recommendations draw ¡ Governments should promote
of future global mobility amid current on these assessments and link them to investments in digital upskilling for
closures, it is important to imagine a potential interventions for improving the cultural professionals and in long-
more sustainable ecosystem for cultural transnational mobility of artists. Through term virtual networks beyond one-
mobility in a post-COVID-19 world. such efforts, it is hoped that freedom off projects.
of international movement will soon ¡ Funders are encouraged to improve
Meanwhile, several pandemic-related
become a regular experience for cultural their existing support to mobility by
trends will probably continue to disrupt
practitioners from developing countries. offering more flexibility in mobility
mobility. Mobility opportunities are
likely to become more expensive due schemes; ensuring an equitable gender
The following recommendations aim to
to COVID-19 testing, quarantine or distribution of funding; building
make progress in addressing mobility
insurance costs, reissue or cancellation long-term partnerships; fostering
imbalances:
charges by airlines and the increased the right balance between physical,
cost of remaining in residencies when virtual and blended mobility formats;
¡ States should act for the safe return
travelling home is unsafe. Travel might to mobility in a post-pandemic world. and ensuring more diverse and
also require so-called ‘COVID Passports’. The Convention has a critical role to intercultural representation of artists,
As vaccine roll-out is imbalanced, this play and the call to Parties is clear for instance by expanding juries and
will also lead to mobility inequalities. and unambiguous: States should peer-review panels.
The focus on digital may lead to a recall their commitment to the free
¡ Governments and private companies
persistent decline in physical mobility movement of artists as soon as should invest in more environmentally
opportunities, to the detriment of international travel can resume, once friendly mobility activities (of
meaningful global cultural exchange. health rules are relaxed. longer periods, for instance) and
green mobility infrastructure, as
Even when logistical and regulatory ¡ Developing States should provide not
barriers such as lockdowns and only funding, but also administrative opposed to implementing green
travel bans ease, some might face support, for the outward mobility taxation or supplementing in-person
psychological reasons for staying at of artists (for example by securing engagement with digital engagement,
home, including worries about their letters of support to strengthen visa as the latter increase the cost of
health and well-being abroad. Fears applications). mobility and deepen inequalities
of racism and xenophobia could also between artists from developed and
dampen interest in travelling to certain ¡ Governments are invited to improve developing countries.
the transparency of decisions on
destinations5. ¡ Governments, funders and residencies
the granting of visas or travel bans,
including through monitoring systems should consider current trends in
When the conditions for travel
that ensure, inter alia, that decisions favour of alternative mobility that
eventually improve after the pandemic
are never motivated by stereotypes require the availability of longer-term
recedes, existing economic, security,
or prejudices related to the origin residencies and longer-term visas, and
visa and other barriers to mobility
of artists or the attempt to restrict which should also be respectful of the
must be addressed, as they contribute
artistic freedom. needs of cultural professionals with
to unequal opportunities for artists
childcare and other responsibilities.
from developed and developing
countries. As this chapter has shown, ¡ Governments should improve funding
for intra-regional and intra-continental ¡ UNESCO should strengthen efforts
the past four years have seen many in building capacities on preferential
mobility, as well as for increased
measures implemented to support treatment for government officials
knowledge sharing and networks
the outward and inward mobility of and continue raising awareness of the
among developing countries in Africa,
artists. Nonetheless, there are major Convention among visa officials and
Asia, the Arab States, Latin America
ongoing barriers that lead to significant visa-processing centres.
and the Caribbean.
imbalances in mobility opportunities
for artists from developed and ¡ Governments should support civil
developing countries. society initiatives (particularly those
based in developing countries) that
produce knowledge and guidance
about mobility opportunities, as
already advocated in the 2018
5. Scoping calls, BOP Consulting (2020). Global Report. Their role is even more
KEY FINDINGS
››› The participation of developing countries in the global flows of cultural goods has stagnated
over the last three years. Global trade has also shown no signs of opening up to cultural
services from developing countries.
››› The lack of Aid for Trade towards the culture and media sectors of developing countries
contributes to ongoing imbalances in the flow of cultural goods and services and limits the
overall capacity of the cultural and creative sectors to promote sustained, inclusive and
sustainable economic growth.
››› An increased number of export and preferential treatment measures have been put in place to
enhance the flow of cultural goods and services among developing countries, demonstrating
a growing determination to open their markets to each other, in response to limited trade with
developed countries.
››› COVID-19 has accelerated the shift towards digital trade, making the availability of data on
the flows of cultural services, including in the digital sphere, increasingly important to capture.
››› The triple challenge of measurement, data and reporting alignment needs to be addressed
so there can be better trend analysis and a deeper understanding of the cultural goods and
services traded.
››› Measures aimed at expanding developing countries’ know-how in export practices of cultural
goods and services and mastering digital skills are crucial to redress persistent imbalances in
the flow of cultural goods and services.
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 163
2022 Global Report
PROGRESS
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
CHALLENGES The pandemic amplified
the investment gap
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES DEVELOPED COUNTRIES between developed and
developing countries
Participation of For visual arts
developing countries and publishing,
in the global flows developed countries Global music
of cultural goods has are trading almost revenues increased
stagnated over the exclusively among by 7% largely due to
last three years themselves music streaming
INFORMATION SYSTEMS
All countries:
BALANCED FLOW • Improve information systems OPEN MARKETS
to collect accurate data
Developed countries: • Evaluate international flows Developing countries:
• Increase the Aid for Trade of cultural goods and services • Adopt a sectoral
for developing countries approach to diversify
• Strengthen preferential Foreign Direct Investment
treatment measures • Open markets more to
• Exchange know-how with other developing countries
developing countries R E C O M M E N DAT I O N S
164 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
C O R E I N D I C A T O R S
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 165
2022 Global Report
166 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Figure 6.1
In 2018, the share of global Exports of cultural goods from developing countries, 2005-2019 (in US$ billion)
exports of developing countries
China and India Developing countries excluding China and India
in worldwide trade of 160
all services accounted for 30%,
stagnating for the last 10 years 140
120
A thematic perspective on
SDG target 17.11 focusing only on 100
cultural goods8 showed that, despite a
significant increase of trade of cultural 80
goods from LDCs from US$162.6 million
to US$274.5 million between 2011
60
and 2018, their share in global exports
remained unchanged. During this period,
the proportion accounted for less than 40
0.5% of the world trade of cultural
goods. In addition, the trade of cultural 20
goods of LDCs has been erratic and
unstable over the years, failing to provide 0
the sustainable revenues that would 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
significantly improve living conditions Source: Data from UN COMTRADE-DESA-UNSD/UIS, February 2021.
there and contribute to sustained,
inclusive and sustainable economic
growth and decent work.
From 2017, exports of cultural goods investment, it can create jobs, develop
While LDCs are low-income countries from developing countries rebounded, technology and foster new productive
facing severe structural impediments to with 2019 reaching almost the same capacity, as well as helping local firms
sustainable development, developing level as in 2014. access new international markets. Within
countries cover a large span of countries SDG target 10.b, FDI is also encouraged
Regarding services, the picture is as part of increasing official development
from upper high-income nations (such
less positive, even for the developing assistance (ODA) and financial flows
as China) to lower-income countries
countries that have performed well in to States where the need is greatest,
(such as Bhutan). In contrast with LDCs,
terms of cultural goods. Despite a major including LDCs. Under SDG target 17.3,
the value of cultural goods exports
increase between 2017 and 2018, the which focuses on mobilizing additional
from developing countries almost
share of LDCs in global exports of all financial resources for developing
tripled, rising from US$40.5 billion in
services (mainly business and financial countries from multiple sources, the
2005 to US$144.5 billion in 2019.
services) did not reach 1% (0.8%). financial resources from all sectors
Figure 6.1 shows that China and India
In 2018, the share of global exports benefiting developing countries are
alone accounted for at least 40% of
of developing countries in worldwide monitored. Determining the amount
these exports. The exports of cultural
trade of all services accounted for 30%, of FDI allocated to the cultural and
goods were dependent on the exports
stagnating for the last 10 years. Since creative sectors can provide insight
of these two countries. After reaching
most LDCs do not provide detailed data on the level of exchanges between
a peak in 2014, with US$147.6 billion,
in international trade in services, they developed and developing countries.
the value of exports of cultural goods
remained invisible in the statistics of Data on FDI inflows9 are used to monitor
globally decreased significantly from
cultural services. indicator 17.3.1 on FDI, ODA and South-
2015, influenced by the economic
slowdown in China during this period. South cooperation as a proportion of
THE CHASE OF ATTRACTING gross national income (UN, 2017).
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT
8. In the analysis of international trade of goods
and services conducted for this chapter, the data on For many developing countries, FDI is 9. ‘Inward flows represent transactions that increase the
cultural goods are based on customs statistics from the seen as one of the most development- investment that foreign investors have in enterprises
United Nations International Trade Statistics Database resident in the reporting economy, minus the transactions
(COMTRADE), while data on cultural services are taken friendly sources of investment because, that decrease the investment of foreign investors in
from the World Trade Organization (WTO) database. while complementing levels of domestic resident enterprises’ (OECD, 2021g).
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 167
2022 Global Report
Countries compile data on FDI by Figure 6.2 which cultural subsectors are receiving
industries that correspond to the FDI inflows or which cultural sectors
major tabulation categories in the Total flow of Foreign Direct Investment are experiencing declining FDI inflows.
UN’s International Standard Industry in the arts, entertainment and Disaggregated data would be required
Classification. As a result, data for recreation sector, 2014-2019 to assess if there is a predominance of
cultural goods and services are only (in US$ million) investment in audiovisual and music
available under the category of ‘arts, compared over other cultural sectors (as
Developed countries Developing countries
entertainment and recreation sector’, described in this chapter’s section on
consisting of a grouping of several country export measures).
activities from movies, television Total 2,600 1,169
outflow
programmes10 or other creative,
arts and entertainment activities. CONTRASTING PICTURE OF THE
Figure 6.2 shows that, between Total 3,127 1,322 ROLE OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
2014 and 2019, FDI inflows in the inflow
IN THE CULTURAL FLOWS
culture sector in developed countries
Source: International Trade Centre/BOP Consulting (2021).
(US$3,127.34 million) were almost
three times higher than the investment
STAGNATION IN EXCHANGES
made in developing countries Other regions only received a marginal OF CULTURAL GOODS FROM
(US$1,321.64 million). The comparison level of FDI inflows, with Africa DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
of investments in other countries representing less than 3.5% of global
(outflows) shows that developed FDI inflows, the Caribbean 0.2% and The exports of cultural goods doubled in
countries have invested in the other LDCs under 1.8% (ECOSOC, 2020). In value from US$132.3 billion in 2005 to
countries’ culture sectors more than short, current data show that developed US$271.7 billion in 2019. As described
twice as much as developing countries countries are the beneficiaries of around above, the exports of developing
have invested in other countries. 70% of all FDI in the culture and media countries surged in the decade from
From 2014 to 2019, outflows11 from sectors. The current data consolidate 2005 to 2014. As shown in Figure 6.3,
developed countries accounted the arts, entertainment and recreation from 2014 they have decreased, with a
for US$2.6 billion, compared to into one single category. In a context of slight uptick from 2016 and stagnating
US$1.2 billion from developing ones. shrinking FDI, it is impossible to identify as of 2017 to 2019.
40%
100
10. This class includes the operation of facilities 30%
and provision of services to meet the cultural and
entertainment interests of their customers. This includes
the production and promotion of, and participation in,
20%
50
live performances, events or exhibits intended for public
viewing; and the provision of artistic, creative or technical 10%
skills for the production of artistic products and live
performances (DESA, 2008). 0 0%
11. ‘Outward flows represent transactions that increase 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
the investment that investors in the reporting economy
have in enterprises in a foreign economy’ (OECD, 2021g). Source: Data from the UN COMTRADE-DESA-UNSD/UIS, February 2021.
168 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
However, the picture is incomplete, VISUAL ARTS AND CRAFT
especially for developing countries,
LEAD THE WAY In 2019, ‘visual arts and craft’
where limited growth was at play long
before 2017, although it was masked by
accounted for two-thirds
The analysis of Table 6.1 shows that, in
the performance of China and India. US$ value, the type of cultural goods
of exports of cultural goods
exported from developed countries slightly for both developed and
Figure 6.3 hides contrasting patterns.
While the sharp increase from 2005 to differed from the ones of developing developing countries
2014 was mainly due to the increasing countries. For developed countries, ‘visual
role of China in exports, followed by arts and craft’ accounted for 40% of
India, the share for the remaining exports of cultural goods in 2004, while To better understand the importance
developing countries only increased they accounted for more than half of of developing countries in the flows
slightly during the same period. cultural goods exported by developing of cultural goods as defined by the
Meanwhile, the significant drop was countries in that same year. In 2019, the Convention, three subdomains defined
mainly due to a fall in Chinese exports dominance towards ‘visual arts and craft’ by the FCS can be considered: visual arts;
in 2015 and 2016. The figure shows in the flows of cultural goods intensified audiovisual and music; and publishing12.
that this actually benefited the other to account for two-thirds of exports of By analysing these three subdomains
developing countries, whose share of cultural goods for both developed and from 2005 to 2019, the profile of key
exports increased. Between 2004 and cultural goods exchanged between
developing countries. In 2019, while the
2014, their share among global exports developed and developing countries
other two categories in the top three
of cultural goods remained around 20%, tempered the results.
remained the same for both country
but then increased as of 2015 to reach
30% in 2017, where they have remained groups (‘performance and celebration’ and
stable since. A pertinent question in this ‘books and press’ for developed countries,
context is whether developing countries ‘performance and celebration’ and 12. This section focuses on key cultural expressions based
on the subdomains of the 2009 UNESCO Framework for
have reached a permanent plateau ‘audiovisual and interactive media’ for Cultural Statistics to remain consistent with the 2018
that makes it challenging to improve developing countries), they significantly version of this chapter. Audiovisual and music includes
some subdomains from the Performance and Celebration
the balance of cultural flows of cultural dropped by at least 10%. Imports of domain, and music and films from the Audiovisual and
goods and services. cultural goods show similar patterns. Interactive Media domain.
Table 6.1
Flows of cultural goods by domains and by level of development, 2004 and 2019
* FCS stands for the 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics.
Source: Data from UN COMTRADE-DESA-UNSD/UIS, February 2021.
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 169
2022 Global Report
70% share on average for the Source: Data from UN COMTRADE-DESA-UNSD/UIS, February 2021.
0%
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
entire period 2005-2019
Figure 6.5
Audiovisual and Music Visual Arts Publishing Other cultural goods
Imports of cultural goods between developing countries, 2005-2019
90%
Nevertheless, these results are not
conclusive for all developing countries, 80% Audiovisual and Music Visual Arts Publishing Other cultural goods
as most of this trade originated 90%
70%
in China. In addition, the customs 80%
60%
classification changed in the middle
70%
of this period, as recorded CDs are no 50%
longer distinguished from other CDs 60%
40%
(blank CDs), and the latter cannot 50%
30%
be considered as cultural goods
40%
embodying or conveying cultural 20%
expressions. For visual arts, from 2005 30%
10%
to 2019, there was no such changing 20%
0%
ratio visible between developed and 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
10%
developing countries. Developed
countries purchased visual arts mostly 0%
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
from developed countries, with a 70%
share on average for the entire period Source: Data from UN COMTRADE-DESA-UNSD/UIS, February 2021.
2005‑2019.
170 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Because physical movement has been
radically curtailed by the COVID-19
pandemic, many governments and
cultural stakeholders have attempted
to protect their cultural sector by
transitioning to digital. However, this
could not fully protect the cultural
and creative industries), such as the
art market. As shown in the analysis
of the trade in cultural goods, visual
arts constitute the core of exchanges in
cultural goods. Online sales of art even
doubled in value in 2020 comparing to
2019. Nonetheless, this has not been
sufficient to offset the losses experienced
via physical distribution channels.
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 171
2022 Global Report
Cultural services are defined according Despite this significant growth between Cultural services data by partner
to the Extended Balance of Payments 2006 and 2019, cultural services still countries identify countries where cultural
categories, aligned to the domains accounted for less than 2% of total traded services are exported to or imported from
of the 2009 UNESCO Framework for services. Figure 6.6 shows that developed between 2006 and 2018. Import data
Cultural Statistics13. Two items dominate countries still heavily dominate the trade on cultural services provide an insight
the trade in cultural services. The first in cultural services, with an average into whether developed countries have
one, ‘audiovisual services and related of 95% of total exports of cultural opened their markets to developing
services’, covers activities such as movie services – a value that remained almost ones. Data by partner countries are
production transmitted electronically, constant during this period. The United only available for 33 countries, mainly
radio or television programmes or music States accounted for around 45% of from Europe and North America. Results
performance recordings. It also includes exports of all cultural services. This figure show that developed countries primarily
some coverage of online subscriptions to needs, however, to be taken with caution imported cultural services among
Pay TV services, including online services. as many developing countries report themselves during this period, while the
Subscriptions to film platforms from only limited data (including China in volume of cultural services exchanged
entities with multiple activities such as particular). was six times higher. Cultural services
Amazon are often categorized by their imported from developing countries
principal activity (free delivery service) accounted for only 5.8% of all imports in
or data may not be disaggregated by 2006, with a small increase to 7.6% in
categories to distinguish audiovisual Cultural services still 2018. This applies to all types of cultural
activities (Amazon Prime). The second one services for which data are available.
is ‘information services’, encompassing accounted for less than
news agencies and similar service 2% of total traded services. For instance, ‘information services’, in
which developing countries accounted for
providers (UN et al., 2012). The other Developed countries 7.3% of the imports of developed countries
categories include ‘licenses to reproduce
and/or distribute audiovisual and
still heavily dominate the in 2018, were less than 1% higher than in
related products’, advertising services, trade in cultural services, with 2006. For audiovisual and related services,
architectural services and artistic and an average of 95% of total the share of developing countries was more
related services. erratic between 2006 and 2018, but still
exports of cultural services with on average just a 3% share of imports
from developing countries.
0 90%
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019
13. Cultural services as defined by Extended Balance of
Payments Services codes. P39 (UIS, 2009). Source: Data from WTO database (2021), www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/tradeserv_stat_e.htm.
172 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
The dominance of developed countries
TRADE MEASURES: FACILITATOR
in some cultural services exchanges, While in developed OR OBSTACLE TO ENTERING
for example in ‘licenses to reproduce
and/or distribute audiovisual and
countries there is a robust THE INTERNATIONAL MARKET?
related products’, is overwhelming. protection of authors’ rights,
This category includes fees and charges copyright protection This section explores the different types
(usually in the form of licensing of trade-related measures and policies
agreements) for the reproduction and/or
needs to be strengthened
that can affect the flow of cultural goods
distribution of movies, TV series or music in developing countries and services. The first is the reduction or
(UN et al., 2012). elimination of trade tariffs. Trade tariffs,
or ‘tax imposed on a good imported
On the African continent, the illegal into a country or on products exported
The dominance of developed exploitation of creative audiovisual from developing countries’14, applies
content remains a significant problem, an additional rate that increases the
countries in cultural services price of the exported good, resulting in
with some estimates claiming that
exchanges such as licenses piracy waylays upwards of between reduced competitiveness in the market
to reproduce and/or distribute 50% and 75% of the revenue of of the importing country. They are
audiovisual and related products the film and audiovisual industries one of the most frequent preferential
(UNESCO, 2021c). treatment measures in international
is overwhelming flows of goods. Eliminating tariffs for
Licences to reproduce books or translate products originating from developing
them into other languages are an countries is also an SDG indicator 10.a.1
For this category, global exchanges important part of cultural services. – ‘proportion of tariff lines applied to
occurred almost exclusively among To combat piracy, Box 6.2 illustrates an imports from LDCs and developing
developed countries (99%) from 2013 to initiative from Indonesia to promote countries with zero‑tariff’.
2018 (the period for which reasonable the sale of book rights, which both
country coverage is available). The near increases the presence of Indonesian Global trade is governed by several
absence of developing countries in this works in international markets and principles and rules that are applied to
area is of concern because it affects protects the authors’ revenues from countries bound by trade agreements
their ability to capitalize on the benefits copyright infringement. under the auspices of the World Trade
of sales and licensing, to stimulate Organization (WTO)15. Although the
innovation in the cultural and creative These findings should be treated with Convention defines cultural goods as
sectors and to support the sector’s ability caution, due to the lack of data on embodying or conveying expressions that
to benefit from the advances made in informal activities and piracy that may result from the creativity of individuals and
developing new products. Copyright underestimate the results. While in having a symbolic meaning originating
infringement is one of several factors that developed countries there is a robust from or expressing cultural identities, in the
contribute to the unequal flow of trade in protection of authors’ rights, copyright international trade of cultural goods, based
licensing revenues. Indonesia has voiced protection needs to be strengthened in on customs data (as used in the previous
concerns that the sector’s competitiveness developing countries. section), the WTO definitions apply. One
is undermined by piracy and poor of the most important WTO rules is that
protection of intellectual property rights. of the Most Favoured Nation (MFN). This
is a non-discrimination principle, whereby
if a country applies a reduced tariff for
Box 6.2 • Indonesian Partnership Programme – Publishing a particular good to a country, then
the same tariff shall be applied for the
In 2019, the Indonesian Publishers Association launched the Indonesian Partnership same good to all WTO members. These
Programme to stimulate the licensing agreements of Indonesian books abroad with tariffs are bound, meaning that countries
the support of the Creative Economy Agency (Bekraf). The sale of book rights enables establish the maximum tariff that will be
buyers to translate the book and disseminate it in their country or abroad. During applied to the products, with exceptions
the Indonesia International Book Fair in September 2019, agreements between possible under bilateral and regional free
Indonesian and foreign publishers resulted in the sale of rights for 42 books to be trade agreements.
translated into other languages. This will contribute to increasing the market value
and visibility of Indonesian books around the world, reducing the threat of piracy
and reaching new readers. This export measure from Indonesia aims to open the
14. OECD Glossary. https://stats.oecd.org/glossary/
international market to literature from Indonesia, including by providing translated index.htm (Accessed 28 May 2021).
versions of the books. 15. Principles of the trading system. www.wto.
Source: Indonesia QPR (2020). org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/fact2_e.
htm#seebox (Accessed 15 May 2021).
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 173
2022 Global Report
174 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
© Jr Korpa / Unsplash.com
C ulture is a necessity. The State must ensure that its public policies take into account planning for and funding of culture,
creativity, innovation and cultural experimentation. We firmly believe this.
Throughout their history, the States most advanced and stable, politically and economically, have devoted part of their national
budgets to arts training and to the promotion and patronage of the arts and culture. Anyone who views the development of these
countries solely as the result of economic prosperity is mistaken. Both institutionalized culture and culture as a space for dissent,
for innovation and for collective expression are part of the mindset of those societies which have achieved their public-policy aim
to foster general well-being. These societies have also invested in technology, science, education, research, experimentation and in
a public space where freedom of the press and citizen participation flourish. It is absolutely essential that the ‘culture’ software be
installed in international organizations' sustainable development programmes, not as a cross-cutting programme, but as a targeted
action with the capacity to have a real impact on the lives of citizens and societies.
The direct transfer of resources. This is fundamental for developing countries, whether it concerns resources from States' budgets
or from international organizations' budgets. As a priority, these resources should be invested in arts education and culture, the
preservation of traditions, the construction and renovation of cultural facilities for collective creation, promotion of the built
historical heritage, local training for critical-mass empowerment, and funding for artistic and cultural projects. In addition to
funding, it is also of prime importance that the free movement of cultural professionals and the free flow of cultural goods and
services be encouraged. This is the only way of creating a market and opportunities which are shared by all.
Abraão Vicente
Minister of Culture and Creative Industries, Republic of Cabo Verde
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 175
2022 Global Report
176 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Export measures aim to increase the and their assets when they attended an
presence of a country’s cultural goods Preferential treatment measures exhibition or a related event. In 2020,
and services on the international market Burkina Faso and Senegal signed a
through means including co-production
that only benefit developing protocol on film cooperation, another
agreements, fiscal measures, training countries are not common example of a policy that can contribute to
or networking. According to Article 16 an increase of flows between developing
of the Convention, developed countries countries. In 2018 the Golden Apricot
undertake to implement preferential Only four developed countries (Albania, International Film Festival (GAIFF)
treatment measures to facilitate access Germany, Italy and Switzerland) launched the Cross-Border Regional
of cultural goods and services from indicated that they granted preferential Co-Production (C2C), ‘Feature Film
developing countries to their markets. treatment to developing countries. Project and Work-In-Progress Markets’
In other words, these measures are The projects described include the Berlin for filmmakers from the Lesser Caucasus
supposed to be non-reciprocal and International Film Festival (Berlinale) Region, including Armenia, Azerbaijan,
their main objective is the benefit of World Cinema Fund, which aims to Georgia, Turkey and Iran, to finance and
developing countries (for a detailed strengthen the film industry with and co-produce their films17. Other examples
explanation of the conditions that must from Africa and many other developing are provided later in this section.
be met for a measure to be considered regions of the world (Box 6.3).
preferential treatment, see Chapter 7). Meanwhile, there are many export
They can take the form of capacity- measures that often benefit both
building programmes for artists or
A SHIFT TO TRADING WITH EACH developed and developing countries.
cultural entrepreneurs, or financial aid OTHER – THE DEVELOPING WORLD Countries that do not yet have export
or technical assistance to government LOOKS INTERNALLY measures in place are exploring different
bodies from developing countries. ways of introducing such arrangements.
Since 2017, an increased number of In Lesotho, the National Development
Among 74 countries considered for this measures favouring cultural flows among Corporation and the Ministry of Trade
analysis, only 20 developing countries developing countries can be observed. are working together to design export
said that they benefited from preferential There were 19 developing countries that strategies that could benefit the culture
treatment. Looking further at the reported granting special treatment sector. Peru is considering the possibility
examples given, countries mainly reported measures. For example, Paraguay put in of reviewing its foreign cultural policy
general trade agreements rather than place special treatment (usually no tariff with the same goal in mind.
specific preferential treatment measures is applied to the partner country) for
that apply to cultural products alone. temporary imports that applied to artists
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 177
2022 Global Report
The first one is a cash rebate, allowing and national lockdowns, as well APPROACHES TO BECOMING
foreign entities making a co-production as the closure of borders in 2020, MORE EXPORT FRIENDLY
with a local company in Uruguay live performances and international
to claim back up to 25% of eligible festivals were banned in many Developing countries are increasingly
expenses, depending on the budget countries, substantially cutting many using transversal measures dedicated
invested. The second measure is ‘Zero- artists’ revenues. to all cultural expressions rather than
rated VAT’, allowing co-productions prioritizing specific sectors. Honduras, for
with foreign and local companies to instance, adopted a decree in 2018 to
receive a certificate from the Directorate help boost the export of cultural goods
of Film and Audiovisual Arts and be Financial investment, and services. Developing countries seem
considered production export services. to be using a wider range of measures
Both measures are helping to attract
including the creation of funds
than developed countries to support
foreign investment and facilitate film for expanding exports, followed exports. Cooperation agreements covering
co-production in the country, giving by cooperation agreements, a broad range of cultural expressions have
Uruguayan film co-productions greater
access to international markets.
are the most frequent also been signed between developing
countries. For example, in 2018, China
measures and strategies used and Niger signed a cultural cooperation
Global streaming and Video on Demand by developed countries agreement to exchange information and
(VOD) platforms offering movies and
expertise in the areas of audiovisual,
TV series from around the world have
publishing, libraries and exhibitions.
become increasingly popular. Despite
growing competition from big players The Export Office of Moroccan Music Figure 6.9 describes the typology of
such as Apple TV+, Amazon Prime (MoMEx) experienced first-hand the export measures that developed and
Video, Disney, Hulu, HBO Max or Netflix, slowing effect of the pandemic on developing countries are implementing to
specialized platforms such as Mubi for its activities. It also felt the need to achieve a more balanced flow of cultural
art films are emerging, as well as local seek new ways to support musicians goods and services. It shows that financial
or regional platforms (see Chapter 3 and other professionals in the music investment, including the creation of
for more details). For movies, most industry, which nonetheless continues funds for expanding exports, followed by
catalogues must comply with national to be rapidly transforming. MoMEx was cooperation agreements, are the most
rules, ensuring a certain percentage of created in 2016 as a public export office frequent measures and strategies used by
national content (based on the quotas to promote Moroccan artists on the developed countries. In 2017, France and
for that country’s audiovisual sector). international scene. Since its creation, Tunisia established bilateral funds for the
In many European countries, as well as it became active on international music production of Franco-Tunisian audiovisual
in Australia, Canada or other countries markets such as Market for African works, while in 2018 Chile and Germany
that have established such quotas, Performing Arts (Côte d’Ivoire), Babel put in place cooperation agreements
foreign companies must invest in local Med Music (France), Atlantic Music Expo for film co-production. In both cases,
content production by co-producing films (Cabo Verde), WOMEX – Worldwide the films produced will have privileged
with local producers, actors and the Music Expo (Europe) and Association access to the European market. No export
industry at large. of Performing Arts Professionals (USA), facilitating measures or festivals were
and took part in major music festivals in reported by developed countries.
A total of 61% of countries reported
Africa, Europe and Asia. By promoting
‘visual arts and music’ as the second
the diversity of musical expressions in Tax incentive measures can take different
sector in which such supporting export
Morocco and abroad, MoMEx directly forms such as tax rebates or tax incentives
measures most commonly existed.
contributes to the development of a applied to imported goods. Ecuador
As mentioned previously, the global
sustainable music sector and facilitates introduced tax incentives by creating
recorded music sector fared better than
a balanced flow of cultural goods a law to implement tax reductions or
other cultural industries during the
around the world. Through its work, exemptions on imports of cultural goods.
COVID-19 pandemic, particularly thanks
it supports the achievement of SDG Viet Nam, under the framework of the
to streaming services and other forms of
target 17.11, intended to increase Association of Southeast Asian Nations
digital access.
the exports of goods and services of (ASEAN) Trade in Goods Agreement
However, the live music sector was developing countries. (ATIGA), has established a measure
decimated18. As a result of local reducing or eliminating the import tax on
cultural goods such as ‘cinematographic,
performing art works, and other
18. The UNESCO report on the economic impact of audiovisual products, regardless of the
COVID-19 on the cultural and creative industries as a
whole provides evidence on which sub-sectors were hit material they are recorded on; fine arts
hardest (BOP Consulting, 2021). and photographic works’, among others.
178 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Figure 6.9 In many cases, developing countries
described initiatives aimed at enhancing
Overview of export strategies and measures implemented their export capacities across all
by level of development economic sectors, which may also benefit
cultural products. For instance, Eswatini
Developed countries Developing countries
mentioned the creation of an export
Capacity development guide to support small and medium-sized
enterprises (SMEs).
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 179
2022 Global Report
Box 6.4 • O
uaga Film Lab CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Ouaga Film Lab is the first incubator and laboratory for film development and
co‑production in West Africa. This online platform creates an international network
Although the last decade has seen
of young professionals from the African continent and beyond. Participants share
some improvements in the global flows
best practices, and young creators (directors and producers) from Africa may
of cultural goods from the perspective
submit projects to be selected and developed. The selected projects benefit from
of the diversity of cultural expressions
local financing, international co-production schemes and mentorship to support
(with an increased share for developing
the development of the films in all their aspects. Mentors are international experts,
countries in global trade), only a few
mainly from Africa, who contribute to inspiring and strengthening the technical
countries have actually benefited –
capacities of the young professionals. The first Lab took place in 2016, in partnership
and that has involved a limited range
with international, local and foreign organizations from the film sector, such as
of cultural goods. In addition, little
European Audiovisual Entrepreneurs (EAVE), the French Institute in Paris and
improvement was made during the
Burkina Faso, including through a partnership with the film support programmes
last three years. Developed countries
of the Institut Français: Fabrique Cinéma (Cinema Factory) and La Cinémathèque
continued to import certain cultural
Afrique (Cinematheque Africa), the Institute Imagine, the International Documentary
goods mainly from other developed
Film Festival of Agadir in Morocco (FIDADOC) and Sud Écriture (South Writing)
in Tunisia. It also benefited from financial support from local offices of foreign countries, whereas developing countries
development agencies from Switzerland, Germany, the International Organisation of increased the flows of cultural goods
La Francophonie and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). Other partners among themselves. This fact may be
have joined the initiative on subsequent occasions. a result of the increasing number
of export measures put in place to
The 2020 edition selected five projects – three documentaries and two fiction films enhance the flow of cultural goods and
from five francophone countries: Burkina Faso, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Republic of services among developing countries,
Congo and Rwanda. Ouaga Film Lab is a good example of when network export thereby contributing to a more balanced
measures combine with capacity-building and training to help developing countries’ flow at the global level. Evidence also
efforts to improve their presence on the international market of cultural goods shows the limitations of using data
and services. The financial support provided to developing countries by developed based on the physical characteristics
countries, through their development agencies, is key in this process, as it contributes of cultural goods to measure emerging
to a better balance of cultural goods and services and more diverse cultural and trends such as the digitization of
creative expressions. cultural exchanges. The analysis of
Source: www.ouagafilmlab.net. quadrennial periodic reports shows
some promising examples of initiatives
on the digitization of cultural exchanges
(mostly in the audiovisual and music
sector), but the overall impact remains
relatively low. Digitization is an
opportunity, as trade barriers and the
threshold for engagement on the global
market all tend to be lower.
180 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
This is doubtlessly related to the global ¡ Leverage the COVID-19 recovery
nature of the audiovisual industry, which to re-position or update policies
relies on measures enabling international and responsiveness to cross-cutting
cooperation. While global exchanges challenges that impact the cultural
may be less central to the creation and goods and services sector, in order to
production of cultural expressions in benefit cultural flows;
other cultural and creative sectors, there
is potential to support regional and ¡ For developing countries: adopt a
international exchange there too. sectoral approach to diversify FDI
and to reduce economic fragility by
Developed countries still dominate the targeting the cultural and creative
flows of cultural services worldwide. industries.
From 2006 to 2018, little to no
improvement was recorded for cultural For governments and international
services from developing countries organizations:
entering the global market. Real data ¡ Design capacity-building programmes
analysis is constrained by the overall to empower developing countries’
lack of good measurement, reporting artists and cultural entrepreneurs and
and indeed alignment between various improve their competencies and skills
measurement bodies. The results are to give their products better access
therefore limited by the partial nature and be more competitive on the
of the data available. international market;
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade 181
© Fernando Poyón, Estrategia para no olvidar [Rub'eyal richin man yamestan], 2019, Guatemala*
Chapter 7
Protecting diversity: still room
to pursue a legitimate public
policy objective outside the
framework of the Convention
Véronique Guèvremont
KEY FINDINGS
››› A
large majority (84%) of the 25 trade agreements concluded between 2017 and 2020 contain clauses
recognizing the specific nature of cultural goods or services and protecting the right of Parties to the
2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions to take action
in the cultural sector.
››› W
hile 15 of these trade agreements have been concluded exclusively between Parties to the Convention,
only one agreement contains an explicit reference to the Convention.
››› Most of the 25 trade agreements concluded between 2017 and 2020 include provisions on e-commerce and
data flow that could have an impact on the implementation of the Convention in the digital environment.
››› A
new generation of trade agreements exclusively related to e-commerce have recently emerged; the
incorporation of clauses to preserve the right of signatories to protect and promote the diversity of
cultural expressions in the digital environment would be worth considering in future negotiations.
››› The Convention receives more attention in non-trade forums than in trade forums, as at least
40 multilateral and regional instruments contain a reference to the Convention.
››› To date, Parties to the Convention have paid little attention to promoting the objectives and principles of
the Convention in international forums dealing with artificial intelligence issues, even though artificial
intelligence and recommendation algorithms have the potential to introduce bias and undermine the
visibility of local content, and thus the diversity of cultural expressions.
››› Tax issues also deserve attention, since outdated tax regimes can create significant imbalances between
domestic and foreign cultural and creative industries, and add to other kinds of inequality that may
impact the diversity of cultural expressions. This is the case when foreign competitors operating online are
exempt from domestic fiscal regimes.
››› A
rticle 16 of the Convention on preferential treatment for developing countries is not widely implemented
in trade agreements and other international instruments, with the main exception being co-production
agreements that may facilitate access by developing countries to the markets of developed countries.
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 183
2022 Global Report
19 recognize
the specific
At least 17
include commitments
15 have a chapter on digital trade:
BILATERAL AGREEMENT S
Out of 85 Bilateral NEW SYNERGIES
Investment treaties
signed, only 5 C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
contain %
cultural clauses
COVID-19 has
raised public
PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT Collaboration is needed between
awareness of the tax
the Convention and frameworks for:
No agreements signed inequalities resulting
by developed countries • Intellectual property from the special
included preferential • Taxation status of multinational
treatment provisions • Artificial intelligence companies
184 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
C O R E I N D I C A T O R S
from this treaty, including in the area All forums identified in previous editions
of e-commerce. They also preserve the of the Global Report remain relevant.
country’s autonomy to adopt or maintain Since the interaction between rules Digital technologies, however, call for a
measures that establish more favourable of varying origin may be decisive broader approach that includes forums,
treatment for third party service in achieving the objectives of the instruments and provisions that may not
providers and investors that it is not Convention, negotiators included two initially appear strictly relevant to the
obliged to extend to service providers or provisions on the relationship to other diversity of cultural expressions but that
investors from CPTPP countries in similar instruments (Articles 20 and 21). nevertheless influence Parties’ actions in
circumstances. This should allow it, for Article 20 describes this relationship the cultural sector.
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 185
2022 Global Report
International forums dealing with data action in other international forums using Convention in the Digital Environment,
flow are the main focus of this widened trade agreements or other instruments. which states that, ‘[c]onsistent with
approach. In the digital environment, Each section will pay specific attention their obligations in Article 21 […]
cultural expressions or cultural goods to Parties’ initiatives to promote Parties are also encouraged to promote
and services, mainly described as digital ‘complementarity and coherency among […] the consideration of introducing
products or content, are now linked the various legal instruments addressing cultural clauses in international bilateral,
to a new generation of commitments the diversity of cultural expressions in regional or multilateral agreements […]
on data flows. Digitally encoded or the digital environment’, as stipulated in with particular attention to the status
electronically transmitted content and paragraph 19 of the Guidelines. of e-commerce that shall recognize the
products play a crucial role in the data- specificity of cultural goods and services’.
driven economy. Parties must consider
this when promoting the Convention’s
TRADE AND INVESTMENT: Parties are also encouraged to include
FROM CULTURAL EXCHANGES provisions in their trade and investment
objectives and principles in other forums.
agreements that preserve their ‘capacity
Commitments on the free flow of data TO DATA FLOW
to design new public policies when
could limit Parties’ rights to adopt and
necessary’ (paragraph 19.5). This guideline
implement certain measures aimed at One of the main objectives of the
echoes Sustainable Development Goal
protecting and promoting the diversity of Convention: the ‘recognition of the
(SDG) 17 on global partnerships and
cultural expressions. distinctive nature of cultural activities,
Target 17.15 requesting that stakeholders
goods and services as vehicles
As stated in the Guidelines on the respect each country’s policy space.
of identity, values and meaning’
Implementation of the Convention in the (Article 1.g) requires Parties to be
Digital Environment, ‘[t]he distinctive vigilant when negotiating trade and NEW TRENDS IN
nature of cultural activities, goods and investment agreements. In order to
services as vehicles of identity, values
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
recognize this distinctive nature and
and meaning does not change in the preserve their right to adopt measures There have been two striking trends in trade
digital environment. Consequently, to protect and promote the diversity agreements observed between 2017 and
the recognition of the dual nature of of cultural expressions, Parties have 2020. First, most new trade agreements
cultural goods and services (cultural and long included cultural clauses such as contain provisions on e-commerce or digital
economic) is also applicable to cultural exceptions, exemptions or reservations trade1 (see Table 7.2 for more details on
expressions in the digital environment or in these agreements. These clauses the 15 agreements involved). Second, a
those produced with digital tools’. can limit Parties’ commitments in the new generation of agreements exclusively
cultural sector and provide them with dedicated to e-commerce has recently
The focus of discussions or negotiations policy space for the implementation of emerged. An analysis of the concerned
often moves away from cultural goods certain cultural policies (such as those agreements is featured below. In both
or services (and even more from culture supporting national and local cultural cases, it is important to understand how
or cultural diversity) and shifts towards expressions or industries). the commitments made by Parties may
data (data circulation, protection, impact their right to adopt and implement
localization) or systems that rely on the cultural policies and measures in the digital
use of data such as artificial intelligence environment. It is also worth considering
(AI) systems. When this shift happens, Parties are encouraged to the way in which some Parties have taken
few States stop to point out that, beyond include provisions in their trade account of the specific nature of cultural
data considerations, the very future of
diverse cultural expressions may be at
and investment agreements goods and services in how they formulate
their commitments in terms of digital trade.
stake in some cultural sectors. that preserve their capacity
to design new public policies The challenge is how to understand all
Based on the foregoing, this chapter that is at stake when a Party negotiates
monitors the implementation of Article 21. when necessary provisions on e-commerce. These
Research and analysis relating to other provisions can be extremely varied and
international forums are divided into have a wide range of legal implications
two parts: (1) trade and investment More recently, some Parties have been for the cultural sector.
agreements; and (2) other agreements, considering the digital environment
declarations, recommendations and when formulating these cultural clauses.
resolutions. A third part looks at In a few cases, such clauses have been 1. The terms ‘electronic commerce’ and ‘digital trade’ are
the implementation of Article 16 on included in the e-commerce chapter used interchangeably in this chapter, depending on the
preferential treatment, since developed or section of trade agreements. This terminology used in the agreements being described.
Although some authors consider the two terms to have
Parties could ‘facilitate cultural exchanges approach echoes paragraph 19.4 of the different meanings, this conclusion is not supported by a
with developing countries’ by taking Guidelines on the Implementation of the reading of the trade agreements described herein.
186 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Many provisions aim to stimulate well as developing appropriate clauses States–Mexico Agreement (CUSMA) and
cooperation among Parties to promote, to preserve their right to take action. others, are used as examples to reflect on
expand and secure digital transactions, Now that trade agreements feature these issues.
in order to facilitate the data flows commitments on e-commerce, such
(which is a key element of digital clauses should be adapted to digital
trade) and to ensure the appropriate technologies. For instance, the aim
regulatory environment (to protect of making local content visible and Now that trade agreements feature
personal information, for instance). Such accessible (a long-standing objective for commitments on e-commerce,
provisions are important for building many Parties that has proved difficult
to achieve online) remains a legitimate
cultural clauses should be adapted
consumer confidence and facilitating
exchanges. Other provisions go further public policy objective in the digital to digital technologies
by creating binding obligations to environment. The challenge is to fully
prohibit certain barriers to trade, such understand how States may need to
as customs duties. These commitments maintain control over or access to data Digital platforms involved in the creation,
can significantly improve cultural related to cultural content in order production and dissemination of cultural
exchanges in the digital environment to monitor the achievement of this content also collect personal information.
and reduce the digital divide between public policy objective. The percentage
Indeed, the business model of these
developed and developing countries. of national content in a platform’s
platforms is based on information related
As argued by Chile during the CPTPP catalogue or data on national content
to consumer preferences, which are
negotiations, such commitments could in the recommendation algorithms,
used to recommend – and even create
enhance export potential for musicians, for instance, could be highly relevant
– cultural content that will satisfy them.
filmmakers, writers and artists in general, for public decision-makers. Their trade
Article 19.11 of the CUSMA prohibits the
and facilitate the distribution of their commitments should not compromise
their ability to access such information. parties from restricting the cross-border
creations online.
transfer of such information, while Article
Some provisions, however, may limit Three provisions presented in Table 7.1, 19.12 prohibits a Party from imposing a
a State’s prerogative in implementing which are found in the Canada–United data localization requirement.
cultural policies in the digital
environment. In such cases, Parties to the
Table 7.1
Convention shall exercise caution and,
if necessary, take appropriate means to The Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement (CUSMA)
preserve this right. The first provision is
the commitment to non-discrimination2 Article Chapter 19 • Digital trade
of digital products, which is part of a
growing number of agreements. The lack 19.11 Cross-border No Party shall prohibit or restrict the cross-border transfer of
of a clause limiting the scope of this transfer of information, including personal information, by electronic means
commitment in the cultural sector will information if this activity is for the conduct of the business of a covered
have an impact on the implementation by electronic person [according to Article 19.1, a ‘covered person’ means an
of the Convention, for instance by means investment, an investor or a service supplier of a Party].
restricting Parties’ rights to adopt
measures aimed at ‘ensuring visibility 19.12 Location of No Party shall require a covered person to use or locate
and discoverability of national and local computing computing facilities in that Party’s territory as a condition
cultural content’ (paragraph 16.1 of the facilities for conducting business in that territory.
Guidelines on the Implementation of the
Convention in the Digital Environment). 19.16 Source code 1. No Party shall require the transfer of, or access to, a source code
of software owned by a person of another Party, or to an algorithm
For decades, States have been examining expressed in that source code, as a condition for the import,
the effects of the non-discrimination distribution, sale or use of that software, or of products containing
principle on their cultural policies, as that software, in its territory.
2. This Article does not preclude a regulatory body or judicial
2. As defined by the World Trade Organization (WTO),
authority of a Party from requiring a person of another Party to
non-discrimination is a core policy-making principle of preserve and make available the source code of software, or an
international trade and investment agreements. It is algorithm expressed in that source code, to the regulatory body
the principle that most directly underwrites the process for a specific investigation, inspection, examination, enforcement
of international economic integration, since it binds a
treaty’s participants together by guaranteeing that none action, or judicial proceeding, subject to safeguards against
of them will be picked out and treated unfavourably on unauthorized disclosure.
the grounds of their nationality.
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 187
2022 Global Report
stated that there is enough in the source El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, New
Parties to the Convention code provisions, ‘to cause concern about Zealand, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Republic
must fully understand the technical what [Canada] might be trading away of Korea and Viet Nam). In their annexes
at the early stages of a profound digital to the chapters on services or investment,
provisions that are appearing in transformation. These provisions must also however, some Parties to the CPTPP have
trade agreements , as such clauses be considered in conjunction with others formulated cultural reservations that apply
may threaten their right to adopt that address intellectual property, privacy, to the digital environment.
data transfers and localization. Together,
and implement the cultural they will have an impact on the shape of our The fifth agreement that includes a
policies of their choice emerging digital economy’ (Scassa, 2018). commitment to non-discrimination for
digital products, the CUSMA, contains
This is why Parties to the Convention a general exemption that excludes
Allowing free movement of data could must fully understand the technical cultural industries from the scope of the
support the expansion of cultural provisions that are appearing in trade entire agreement. Canada has qualified
exchanges in the digital environment, agreements, as such clauses may this exception as ‘technologically
while Articles 19.11 and 19.12 could lead (depending on their wording) threaten neutral’, as it ‘applies to both the
to the elimination of unnecessary barriers their right to adopt and implement the physical and the digital environment’,
to the flow of data. Parties must, however, cultural policies of their choice. while Mexico underlined the fact that
bear in mind that trade commitments this clause authorizes Parties to adopt
could also restrict their own access to
Provisions on electronic commerce ‘certain measures to protect or pursue
the data that platforms collect and use a legitimate objective’. Indeed, this
to guide the creation, production and in bilateral and regional
exemption could play a crucial role in
dissemination of online cultural content. trade agreements preserving the right of Parties to protect
Access to such data may be necessary to and promote the diversity of cultural
monitor the implementation of cultural Between 2017 and 2020, 25 free trade
agreements or economic partnerships expressions in the digital environment.
policies and measures, for instance However, the CUSMA also provides for
to support a law establishing a local involving at least one Party to the
Convention were signed. Of these a right of retaliation3 if a Party relies on
content quota in catalogues. Any trade this general exemption to maintain a
commitments restricting this access may 25 agreements, 15 contain a chapter
on digital trade and two are exclusively measure otherwise inconsistent with the
limit Parties’ rights to protect and promote Agreement. It is still too early to predict
the diversity of cultural expressions, and dedicated to digital commerce.
Irrespective of other commitments the impact of this clause, but the right
may even have detrimental effects on to retaliate may discourage use of the
cultural diversity itself. applicable to electronic commerce that
may be contained in other chapters of exemption and thus act as a deterrent
Commitments regarding source code these trade agreements, at least 68% to the adoption of cultural policies
may also be relevant. The risk of such of such agreements signed by Parties applicable to the digital environment.
commitments is that a Party may no between 2017 and 2020 contain Finally, of the ten other agreements
longer have the flexibility to monitor commitments relating to the digital that contain a chapter or a section on
some cultural policies. One example environment. digital trade, but no commitment to
would be if a Party can no longer compel non-discrimination for digital products, six
platforms to provide certain information What is in the digital trade chapter? have been signed by the European Union
about their recommendation algorithms (EU). Four of these agreements (shown
and their results in promoting national Of the 15 agreements containing an
exclusive chapter or section on digital in brown in Table 7.2) demonstrate how
or local content. The second paragraph the EU has adapted cultural clauses it
of Article 19.16 is therefore particularly trade (in bold in Table 7.2), five include
a commitment to non-discrimination for had consistently used in previous trade
important, as it states that a Party’s agreements in the light of the digital
regulatory body or judicial authority digital products, and four have no cultural
clause preserving the right of the Parties to environment, so as to exclude the
can compel an entity in another Party audiovisual sector from its commitments
to preserve and make available the support local content, cultural industries,
artists or other cultural professionals in the on trade in services and investment.
source code of software, or an algorithm
expressed in that source code, for a digital environment. This is the case of the
specific inspection or examination. Chile–Brazil Free Trade Agreement (FTA), 3. WTO obligations towards another Member can be
the CPTPP, the FTA between the Republic suspended with prior authorization from the Dispute
Settlement Body. The complainant is then allowed
It will be interesting to see how this of Korea and the Republics of Central to impose countermeasures that would otherwise be
paragraph allows Parties to monitor the America, and the Peru–Australia FTA. These inconsistent with the WTO agreement, in response to a
implementation of future cultural policies four agreements involve 15 – or 10% – of violation. This practice is also informally referred to as
‘retaliation’ or ‘sanctions’. Such a suspension of obligations
aimed at promoting local content online. the Parties to the Convention (Australia, takes place on a discriminatory basis only against the
One observer commenting on the CUSMA Brazil, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Member that has not implemented the agreement.
188 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Presence of a chapter or section on e-commerce and
Table 7.2 a commitment to non-discriminatory treatment
Overview of e-commerce or digital trade chapters/sections in bilateral Presence of a chapter or section on e-commerce, no
and regional trade agreements signed between 2017 and 2020 commitment to non-discriminatory treatment but a
involving at least one Party to the Convention cultural clause (exception, exemption, reserve) to limit
the scope of other commitments in the cultural sector
(excluding those entirely dedicated to digital trade)
Canada–United States–Mexico ✔
7 Canada, United States*, Mexico 30/11/2018 ✔ ✔ General exception
Agreement (CUSMA) + Retaliation clause
8 Chile–Brazil FTA Brazil, Chile 22/11/2018 ✔ ✔ ✘
FTA between the EU and
9 EU (27), Singapore* 19/10/2018 ✔ ✘ ✘**
the Rep. of Singapore
Agreement between the EU and
10 EU (27), Japan* 17/07/2018 ✔ ✘ ✔
Japan for an Economic Partnership
FTA between Hong Kong (Special
Hong Kong (Special Admin. Region of
11 Admin. Region of the People’s Rep. of 28/06/2018 ✔ ✘ ✘
the People’s Rep. of China), Georgia
China) and Georgia
12 New EU–Mexico Agreement in Principle EU (27), Mexico 28/06/2018 ✔ ✘ ✔
Agreement Establishing the African
13 54 African States (47) 21/03/2018 ✘
Continental Free Trade Area
Comprehensive and Progressive Australia, Brunei*, Canada, Chile,
14 Agreement for Trans–Pacific Japan*, Malaysia*, Mexico, New 08/03/2018 ✔ ✔ ✘**
Partnership (CPTPP) Zealand, Peru, Singapore*, Viet Nam
FTA between the Republic of Korea Rep. of Korea, Costa Rica, El Salvador,
15 21/02/2018 ✔ ✔ ✘
and the Republics of Central America Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama
16 Peru–Australia FTA Australia, Peru 12/02/2018 ✔ ✔ ✘
17 China–Maldives FTA China, Maldives* 08/12/2017 unavailable unavailable unavailable
Comprehensive and Enhanced
18 Partnership Agreement between the Armenia, EU (27) 24/11/2017 ✔ ✘ ✘
EU and the Rep. of Armenia
19 Argentina–Chile FTA Argentina, Chile 02/11/2017 ✘
Acuerdo de Complementación
20 Colombia, MERCOSUR (4) 21/07/2017 ✘
Económica Colombia–MERCOSUR
Australia, Cook Islands*, Kiribati*,
Nauru*, New Zealand, Niue, Samoa,
21 PACER Plus 14/06/2017 ✘
Solomon Islands*, Tonga*, Tuvalu*,
Vanuatu*
FTA between the Gov. of the People’s
22 China, Georgia 13/05/2017 ✘
Rep. of China and the Gov. of Georgia
23 El Salvador–Ecuador Trade Agreement El Salvador, Ecuador 13/02/2017 ✘
* Not party to the Convention. ** Reservation(s) formulated in other chapter(s) or section(s) applicable to electronic commerce. ( ) Number of Parties to the Convention.
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 189
2022 Global Report
In the Free Trade Agreement between the The objectives and principles of the
EU and the Republic of Singapore, despite The objectives and principles of Convention may nevertheless be
the low level of commitment included in the Convention may be outlined reflected in other types of cultural
Section F on Electronic Commerce, Article clauses. In some agreements, relevant
8.59 states that measures related to the
in the preamble of agreements but rights are only outlined in a preamble.
supply of a service using electronic means such statements do not constitute This is the case of the Agreement
fall within the scope of the obligations a mandatory rule or a cultural Establishing the African Continental
from the relevant chapter, subject to Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) in which
any applicable exceptions. One of these
exception binding on Parties the Preamble mentions ‘the right of
exceptions is the audiovisual sector, which the Parties to regulate within their
is excluded from the scope of that Section. First, it should be noted that the territories and the State Parties’
e-commerce chapter does not contain flexibility to achieve legitimate
The three other agreements concluded
a commitment to non-discrimination. policy objectives in areas including
by the EU, with Japan, Mexico and
Second, the provision setting out […] the promotion and protection
the United Kingdom, take an even
the chapter’s scope specifies that of cultural diversity’. Although this
more explicit approach by excluding
reservations, limitations and exceptions could have positive effects, since
some cultural sectors from the scope of
applicable to the obligations in the the Preamble has an interpretative
commitments related to digital trade. The
chapters and annexes on trade in value, such a statement does not
chapter entitled Electronic Commerce
services and investment do apply to constitute a mandatory rule or a
contains a clause stating that the chapter
services delivered electronically. Several cultural exception binding on Parties.
does not apply to broadcasting services
or audiovisual services. This explicit of these reservations, limitations and Other agreements (19 out of 23) go
wording may therefore protect the State’s exceptions relate to cultural services, further as they contain exceptions,
regulatory power in these sectors, since thereby preserving the right of Parties exemptions, reservations and/or
the commitments concerning digital to act in this sector, including in the limited commitments that recognize the
trade are not applicable (including digital environment. Lastly, while the specific nature of some cultural goods
provisions on source code or circulation main articles on data flow are binding, or services and partially or entirely
of data when they are integrated in the they leave significant flexibility for preserve States’ power to act upon the
agreement). France uses the audiovisual Parties to achieve a legitimate public cultural sector. This represents 84%
sector’s exclusion from the scope of trade policy objective. In each case, a of the bilateral and regional trade
liberalization as a means of preserving footnote specifies that, for the purposes agreements – involving at least one
the capacity of the EU and its Member of the subparagraph, it is up to the Party to the Convention – concluded
States to develop and implement policies implementing Party to decide on the between 2017 and 2020. As mentioned
to support and regulate the audiovisual need to implement such legitimate previously, the relevant clauses thus
sector with a view to protecting the public policy. These provisions could contribute to the achievement of SDG
diversity of cultural expressions. enable Parties to promote the free target 17.15 (respect for each country’s
According to France, this exclusion is flow of data while allowing them, for policy space).
applied in accordance with the principle example, to implement certain cultural
policies requiring the access to and Second, a general cultural exception
of technological neutrality, which or exemption is included in 10 of
means that it applies to all audiovisual monitoring of data related to the
dissemination of cultural content. these 19 agreements (highlighted in
services that do not change their nature blue in Table 7.3) involving 40 Parties
according to their mode of transmission. to the Convention. For instance, the
In defending this exclusion, France Cultural clauses in other chapters of
bilateral and regional trade agreements chapter on trade in service, investment
stressed that it was taking advantage,
liberalization and electronic commerce
alongside the EU, of the dynamic created
Beyond the issue of digital trade, it is in the EU’s trade agreements with
by the entry into force of the Convention.
worth examining the cultural clauses Armenia, Japan, MERCOSUR, Singapore
Finally, the Regional Comprehensive that have been incorporated into the and Viet Nam each contains a similar
Economic Partnership (RCEP) concluded 23 agreements listed in Tables 7.2 provision affirming Parties’ rights to
in 2020 also reflects the Parties’ cautious and 7.3. First, only one agreement adopt regulatory measures necessary
approach. This treaty brings together – the Comprehensive and Enhanced to achieve legitimate policy objectives
16 States, 9 of which are Parties to the Partnership between the EU and the (including the promotion and protection
Convention. As it is the most important Republic of Armenia – contains an of cultural diversity). Furthermore, these
global trade agreement regarding gross explicit reference to the Convention. This agreements contain specific provisions
domestic product and may influence may be disappointing, as 15 agreements on investment liberalization and cross-
future trade negotiations, it is worth have been concluded between Parties to border trade in services that exclude
considering some of the 17 articles the Convention (or groups of States, in audiovisual services from the scope of
contained in the e-commerce chapter. the case of the EU). the relevant chapter.
190 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Table 7.3 The agreement contains a general cultural
exception or exemption
Overview of references to the Convention and/or cultural clauses
in bilateral and regional trade agreements signed between 2017 and 2020, The agreement does not contain a general cultural
involving at least one Party to the Convention exception or exemption, but other cultural clauses
(excluding those entirely dedicated to digital trade) limit the scope of the commitments
Cultural clauses
Explicit
Agreement* reference to General Limited
the Convention exemption/ Reservations commitments
exception
8 Chile–Brazil FTA ✘ ✘ ✔ ✘
16 Peru–Australia FTA ✘ ✘ ✔ ✘
19 Argentina–Chile FTA ✘ ✘ ✘ ✔
21 PACER Plus* ✘ ✔ ✔ ✔
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 191
2022 Global Report
For its part, the CUSMA contains a Other clauses contain commitments
general exception to exclude cultural A new generation of trade aimed, inter alia, at facilitating business
industries from the scope of the agreements exclusively dedicated and trade, securing market access,
Agreement. preventing discriminatory measures and
to e-commerce emerged in 2019 promoting data flow. What all three
Finally, the Indonesia–Australia agreements have in common vis-à-vis the
Comprehensive Economic Partnership cultural sector is that they reflect certain
The nature of the commitments varies
Agreement states that nothing in
greatly. Some clauses are merely concerns that Parties have about the
the chapters on Trade in Services
declarations of intent regarding implementation of the commitment to
and Investment shall be construed
cooperation or information exchanges. non-discrimination in broadcasting.
as preventing a Party’s adoption or
enforcement of measures necessary to
support creative arts of national value.
This provision, however, is subject to
the requirement that these measures Box 7.1 • Taking into account the dual nature of digital cultural
are not applied in a manner that would products in the Digital Economy Partnership Agreement
constitute a means of arbitrary or
unjustifiable discrimination between the Several provisions of the Digital Economy Partnership Agreement (DEPA) between Chile,
Parties, or between investors or between New Zealand and Singapore explicitly refer to culture and creativity, either to stimulate
investments, where like conditions exchanges and support the digital economy, or to preserve the right of the Parties to
prevail, or a disguised restriction on trade adopt measures to regulate broadcasting or support creative arts.
in services or investment. The Pacific First, in the Preamble the Parties reaffirm ‘the importance of promoting […] cultural
Agreement on Closer Economic Relations identity and diversity, […] as well as the importance of preserving their right to
(PACER Plus) contains a similar provision. regulate in the public interest’. Second, the section on Innovation and the Digital
Economy insists on ‘the importance of technological innovation, creativity, and the
THE STATUS OF CULTURE IN transfer and dissemination of technology […] as a means to achieve social and
economic welfare’ (Article 9.2). In the same section, the Parties recognize that ‘cross-
AGREEMENTS EXCLUSIVELY border data flows and data sharing enable data-driven innovation’ (Article 9.4.1)
RELATED TO E-COMMERCE and that ‘data sharing mechanisms, such as trusted data sharing frameworks and
open licensing agreements, facilitate data sharing and promote its use in the digital
A new generation of trade agreements
exclusively dedicated to e-commerce environment to: (a) promote innovation and creativity; (b) facilitate the diffusion of
emerged in 2019. To date, three such information, knowledge, technology, culture and the arts; and (c) foster competition
agreements have been concluded, and open and efficient markets’ (Article 9.4.2). For these reasons, Parties shall
two of which involve three parties to endeavour to collaborate on data-sharing projects and mechanisms (Article 9.4.3).
the Convention (Australia, Chile and Another relevant provision deals with cooperation on matters relating to Digital
New Zealand): the Digital Economy Inclusion (Article 11.1.3), which is crucial to ensure that all people and businesses
Partnership Agreement (DEPA) between benefit from the digital economy (Article 11.1.1). To achieve this objective, efforts will
Chile, New Zealand and Singapore have to be made by Parties to remove barriers in order to expand and facilitate digital
(Box 7.1); and the Australia–Singapore economy opportunities, and this may include ‘enhancing cultural and people-to-people
Digital Economy Agreement (which links, including between Indigenous Peoples’ (Article 11.1.2).
mainly replaces the provisions of the Specific clauses are included in the DEPA to preserve the right of Parties to adopt policies
Electronic Commerce and Financial
and measures in the cultural sector. First, Article 3.3 states that the commitment to
Services chapters of the 2003 Singapore–
Non-Discriminatory Treatment of Digital Products shall not apply to broadcasting. The
Australia Free Trade Agreement). The
DEPA also contains a general exception allowing Parties to adopt measures necessary
third is between the United States and
to support creative arts, subject to the requirement that such measures are not applied
Japan concerning Digital Trade. Even
in a manner that would constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination
though this third agreement does not
between the Parties where like conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on trade
involve Parties to the Convention, it is
(Article 15.1.4). For the purpose of the DEPA, ‘creative arts’ include ‘the performing arts
worthy of attention as it could influence
future trade negotiations. – including theatre, dance and music – visual arts and craft, literature, film and video,
language arts, creative online content, indigenous traditional practice and contemporary
These agreements are particularly cultural expression, and digital interactive media and hybrid art work, including those
extensive and contain a large number that use new technologies to transcend discrete art form divisions. The term encompasses
of provisions on digital trade. The DEPA, those activities involved in the presentation, execution and interpretation of the arts; and
for instance, has 70 articles divided into the study and technical development of these art forms and activities’.
16 modules, in addition to 3 annexes.
192 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
The DEPA and the Australia–Singapore
Agreement state that the non-
discriminatory treatment of digital
products ‘shall not apply to broadcasting’,
while the United States–Japan Agreement
simply specifies that ‘nothing in this
Article prevents a Party from adopting
or maintaining measures that limit the
level of foreign capital participation in
an enterprise engaged in the supply of
broadcasting’. There is no other reference
to culture in the United States–Japan and
Australia–Singapore agreements, meaning
that digital cultural products are covered
by all the commitments made by their
Parties. As for the DEPA, the Parties seem
to be more aware of the opportunities and
T
country has incorporated in several
other agreements over the last 15 years
has been influential. Such an exception he creative economy is a vibrant part of the global economy, where intellectual
preserves, to a certain extent, the power property and creativity are traded on the marketplace of ideas and innovation.
of Parties to take action in the digital COVID-19 demonstrated just how important creativity is to humans, as millions
environment, in particular to protect and of people turned to books, music, art, craft, film and television to get through the
promote their own cultural content. As it pandemic. However, not everyone had equal access to consume creativity or the
stands, however, recourse to this exception ability to share their creative goods and services, and there is uneven investment in
requires fulfilling certain conditions that the creative economy in developing and developed nations.
may be subject to interpretation in the The scales need to be balanced in a post-COVID-19 world, as the creative and digital
context of a challenge before a dispute worlds continue to merge at scale. While it is impossible to replace handicrafts,
resolution body. Similar clauses on walking through artisan markets or listening to live music, we have seen that culture
other matters have been the subject of makes digital more human – and only a digital world that is human can lead to
numerous disputes before the World Trade sustainable development.
Organization (WTO). In this sense, the EU
There is an urgent need to strengthen the creative and cultural sectors globally by
approach so far, which involves explicitly
promoting a more inclusive entrepreneurial ecosystem and ensuring it is prepared
excluding the audiovisual sector from the
for any challenges brought about by digital transformation. This can be achieved by
scope of its commitments on digital trade,
ensuring that developing countries have a more equal footing in the global trade
seems to offer greater legal certainty. of cultural and creative goods and services. This involves introducing special and
differential treatment for developing countries, and supporting their creative economy
The negotiations of the World export strategies.
Trade Organization on trade-related In turn, the dividends will help us achieve the Sustainable Development Goals by
aspects of electronic commerce supporting entrepreneurship, stimulating innovation, empowering people, including
young people and women, and preserving and promoting cultural heritage and
The preceding analysis of bilateral and diversity. Let us set an agenda for a more creative and innovative future that builds
regional agreements and the approaches momentum towards a resilient and inclusive world. Many lives, and many more
favoured by some Parties to the livelihoods, depend on us succeeding.
Convention provides some indication of
the proposals being made at the WTO Rebeca Grynspan
as part of negotiations on trade-related UNCTAD Secretary-General
aspects of e-commerce.
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 193
2022 Global Report
by some Parties to the Convention are in proposals for guiding electronic commerce
It is becoming increasingly difficult line with the position they had defended negotiations at WTO. The Guidelines on
in previous bilateral or regional trade the Implementation of the Convention
to ignore the close relationship negotiations. The EU and its Member in the Digital Environment promote an
between the protection and States, for instance, have expressed their ‘integrated approach in the areas of
promotion of the diversity of willingness to ‘maintain the possibility culture, trade and investment in the digital
to define and implement cultural and environment’. However, when Parties
cultural expressions in the digital audio-visual policies for the purposes refer to legitimate public policy objectives
environment and the intellectual of preserving their cultural diversity, that must be reconciled with future
property rights regime including by not taking commitments rules to facilitate digital exchanges and
on audio-visual services’ (WTO, 2019b stimulate the cooperation in this area, the
and 2019c). Argentina and Brazil imperative of protecting cultural diversity
expressed their concerns regarding the is rarely mentioned. This is despite the
While the work programme on fact that WTO negotiations on trade-
implementation of copyright rules in the
e-commerce launched by WTO in 1998 related aspects of electronic commerce
digital environment, insisting on two
has been on hold for several years, points. First, they argue that there is a are an opportunity for Parties not only ‘to
important steps have recently been taken. need to address the ‘value gap’ problem promote the objectives and principles of
In December 2017, 75 members signed a – which is the gap between the volume of this Convention’, but also ‘to consult each
Joint Statement on Electronic Commerce, consumption of cultural content and the other’, as requested by Article 21.
recognizing ‘the important role of the lower level of artists’ associated income –
WTO in promoting open, transparent,
non-discriminatory and predictable
proposing the adoption of a ‘transparency Cultural clauses in bilateral
principle regarding copyright and related investment treaties
regulatory environments in facilitating rights in the digital environment’. Second,
electronic commerce’. The Statement also they underline the need to maintain an Finally, it is worth considering how
announced that exploratory work would appropriate balance between the interests culture is treated in bilateral investment
begin ‘toward future WTO negotiations of right holders and users of protected treaties (BITs). Out of the 85 BITs
on trade-related aspects of electronic works, proposing a provision stipulating concluded between 2017 and 2020,
commerce’ (WTO, 2017). After several that ‘exceptions and limitations provided only five contain cultural clauses. There
meetings held in 2018, a second Joint for the analog environment under is also a notable absence of cultural
Statement on Electronic Commerce Article 13 of the Agreement on Trade- clauses in several investment treaties
was issued in Davos in January 2019 Related Aspects of Intellectual Property concluded between Parties to the
during the World Economic Forum, this Rights (TRIPS) shall be carried forward Convention. Indeed, some States – such
time confirming the 76 signatories’ and appropriately extended into the as Canada and France – consider control
‘intention to commence WTO negotiations digital environment’ (WTO, 2019a). over investments in the cultural sector
on trade-related aspects of electronic These proposals show how difficult it is (and broadcasting in particular) to be
commerce’ (WTO, 2019d). The Osaka becoming to ignore the close relationship an essential condition for preserving
Declaration on the Digital Economy, between the protection and promotion of their cultural sovereignty. However, fewer
signed in June 2019 by 24 countries the diversity of cultural expressions in the Parties seem to promote the Convention’s
during the Group of Twenty (G20) summit digital environment and the intellectual objectives and principles in their
in Japan, launched the ‘Osaka Track’ to property rights regime, as acknowledged investment treaties than in their trade and
stimulate the ongoing WTO negotiations by the Parties in the Guidelines on the economic partnership agreements.
on electronic commerce. Stating that Implementation of the Convention in the
‘digitalization is transforming every Digital Environment. Two agreements negotiated by
aspect of our economies and societies, Hungary (with Belarus and Cabo Verde)
and data is increasingly becoming an On the other hand, some communications contain an article on investment and
important source of economic growth’, the submitted to WTO by other Parties to regulatory measures. According to that
signatories renewed their commitment the Convention in the context of this article, the agreement’s provisions do
to work together by building on the negotiation, notably Australia, Benin, not affect Parties’ rights to regulate
previous Joint Statement and to ‘engage China, Côte d’Ivoire and Kenya, do not within their territories through measures
in international policy discussions for contain specific remarks on the cultural necessary to achieve legitimate policy
harnessing the full potential of data and sector, while the communications objectives, such as the promotion and
digital economy’. submitted by others have not been protection of cultural diversity. The
made public. The available documents Agreement for the Reciprocal Promotion
In this context, members of WTO have nevertheless attest to a low level of and Protection of Investments between
shared their views and put forward mobilization among Parties around the the Argentine Republic and the United
proposals on various issues related to Convention’s objectives and principles, Arab Emirates contains a similar provision
electronic commerce. The proposals made which should find some resonance in the in Article 11 on the Right to Regulate.
194 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
its objectives and principles. Besides resolutions on culture and sustainable
There is a notable absence these instruments, there are several development. Three resolutions contain
reports, studies or other non-statutory explicit references to the Convention and
of cultural clauses documents from various international invite all States ‘to actively support the
in several investment treaties or regional organizations that also refer emergence of local markets for cultural
concluded between Parties to the Convention or its objectives and goods and services and to facilitate the
principles. About half of these texts make effective and licit access of such goods
to the Convention explicit reference to the Convention. It and services to international markets,
is significant that the Convention has taking into account […] the provisions of
received more attention in non-trade the Convention’ (UNGA, 2018a, 2020a
In the Agreement between the Argentine forums than in trade agreements. and 2021). The 2021 resolution also
Republic and Japan for the Promotion calls on States ‘to promote the diversity
of Investment, in terms of national Also, about a quarter of these texts
of and the access to cultural expressions
treatment, Japan reserves the right to deal with culture and the digital
in the digital environment’. In addition,
adopt or maintain any measure relating environment. A quarter also recognizes
the General Assembly adopted two
to investment in broadcasting industry. the link between culture and sustainable
resolutions on human rights and
For its part, Argentina lists reservations development. Finally, four texts focus
cultural diversity (UNGA, 2018b and
regarding national treatment and most- on the role of cities for culture and
2020b). Although these resolutions do
favoured nation, in order to preserve the creativity. These texts place a particular
not explicitly refer to the Convention,
right to adopt or maintain any measure emphasis on the role of cultural and
creative industries for local development, several statements echo its objectives
that grants differential treatment to and principles as well as those of the
as reflected, for instance, in the Guide
its nationals based on its domestic 2001 UNESCO Universal Declaration on
for Local Governments, communities
legislation, or to nationals of other States Cultural Diversity.
and museums – Culture and Local
based on international agreements.
Development: Maximising the Impact,
Finally, the Canada–Moldova Foreign
which was jointly published in 2019
Investment Promotion and Protection
by the Organization and Development
Agreement provides for a general
(OECD) and the International Council of Since 2013, the United Nations
exception that excludes from its scope
any measures adopted or maintained
Museums (ICOM). General Assembly has adopted
by a Party with respect to a ‘person several resolutions on culture
engaged in a cultural industry’. and sustainable development
The Convention has received
BEYOND TRADE AND INVESTMENT more attention in non-trade
In terms of the HRC, its 2018 resolution
AGREEMENTS: PROMOTING forums than in trade agreements to renew the mandate of the UN Special
THE OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights
OF THE CONVENTION IN OTHER explicitly refers to the Convention.
INSTRUMENTS AND FORUMS INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
In the Preamble, the Council notes
‘the declarations within the United
It is worth mentioning that, in their The Convention (or its objectives Nations system on cultural diversity and
quadrennial periodic reports, very few and principles) is referred to in international cultural cooperation, in
Parties identify instruments or initiatives 12 international instruments from particular […] the Universal Declaration
from other international forums that the United Nations General Assembly on Cultural Diversity’ and welcomes ‘the
refer to the Convention, its objectives or (UNGA), the Human Rights Council increasing number of States Parties to
its principles. The instruments and other (HRC), the World Tourism Organization the Convention’.
documents listed below therefore point (UNWTO), the Organisation
to a trend, rather than representing an As for UNWTO, its members adopted
internationale de la Francophonie
exhaustive list of initiatives to implement (International Organization of La three declarations recognizing the link
Article 21 of the Convention. Francophonie, OIF), the Assemblée between tourism and culture. While
parlementaire de la Francophonie the Preamble of the 2017 Muscat
Based on research undertaken (Parliamentary Assembly of the French- Declaration on Tourism and Culture
for this report, there were at least Speaking World, APF) and United Cities and the 2018 Istanbul Declaration
40 international legal instruments and Local Governments (UCLG). on Tourism and Culture make explicit
adopted between 2017 and 2020 reference to the Convention, the 2019
(most of them non-binding) that Since 2013, the United Nations Kyoto Declaration on Tourism and
refer directly to the Convention or General Assembly has adopted several Culture goes further.
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 195
2022 Global Report
It not only contains a reference to the protecting and promoting the diversity Regional instruments
Convention, but also a commitment of cultural expressions (Box 7.2). Recent
from Member States’ representatives initiatives from these organizations take Most of the instruments included in
of tourism and culture administrations full account of the impact of digital Table 7.4 promote the integration of
to ‘[i]mplement innovative policy and technology on the diversity of cultural culture into development policies and
governance models reflected in cutting- expressions. aim to stimulate cultural cooperation.
edge cultural tourism projects by […] Several declarations reflect States’
[s]trengthening measures to […] promote Finally, the UCLG Durban Political willingness to promote intra- or inter-
and protect the diversity of cultural Declaration adopted in 2019 does not regional cultural exchanges and some
expression and intrinsic values therein’. contain an explicit reference to the also call for the adoption of measures
Another commitment aims at redefining Convention but states that ‘[c]ulture is to promote the flow of cultural goods
tourism management to advance a core component of local identity, the and services, as well as the mobility of
local community empowerment and fourth pillar of sustainable development, cultural professionals. Cultural industries
responsible tourism by ‘[i]nvolving the and has a key role as a strand of are often the subject of specific clauses,
whole destination in urban planning global solidarity’. The Declaration such as in the Forum on China-Africa
and destination management through adds that local cultural policies and Cooperation Beijing Action Plan (2019-
the participation of local communities programmes, including those devoted to 2021), in which States declare that
and the private/public sectors, ensuring creativity and diversity, are key vectors ‘[t]he two sides will explore the possibility
the opinions of residents are reflected of people-centred local sustainable of cooperation in the cultural industry,
as the bearers of traditions and cultural development. Local governments also and encourage and support governments
expressions rooted in their daily lives’. intend to ensure that ‘the 4th industrial and the business communities to step up
revolution goes beyond strictly exchanges and cooperation in cultural
Other references to the Convention technological advancements’ and industry and trade’.
are present in several instruments state that ‘the defense of digital rights
adopted by members of the OIF and must be a priority for all local and The Council of Europe has adopted
the APF – two long-standing allies in regional governments’. three highly relevant recommendations
dealing, inter alia, with cultural
diversity and content in the digital
Box 7.2 • The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie environment. For instance, according
(International Organization of La Francophonie) and its to the 2018 Recommendation on the
roles and responsibilities of Internet
ongoing commitment to the diversity of cultural expressions in intermediaries, ‘States should determine
the digital age appropriate levels of protection, as well
In the Abidjan Declaration of July 2017, the International Organisation of as duties and responsibilities according
La Francophonie (OIF in their French acronym) members explicitly refer to the to the role that intermediaries play in
Convention to recognize the importance of ‘adapting public policies to the governance content production and dissemination
of the digital ecosystem in order to guarantee the pluralism of cultural expressions on processes, while paying due attention to
the networks and to ensure the financing of creation and the equitable remuneration their obligation to protect and promote
of authors’. In the Action Plan relating to the Abidjan Declaration, OIF members pluralism and diversity in the online
express their wish to ‘pool [their] will and the means of implementing the Convention distribution of content’. The 2018
[...] to ensure [their] linguistic plurality and enhance [their] cultural diversity’. They Recommendation on media pluralism and
also state their desire to ‘[f]oster the training of creators in all creative industries in transparency of media ownership goes in
the most advanced techniques for the production, dissemination and promotion of the same direction, stipulating that ‘States
cultural expressions as well as conditions conducive to experimentation in the creative are encouraged to adopt regulatory
industries (scholarships, residencies, mentorships, business incubators, grants)’. In and policy measures to promote the
the Yerevan Declaration of October 2018, OIF members reiterate their commitment to availability, findability and accessibility of
effectively implement the Convention and its operational guidelines concerning the the broadest possible diversity of media
digital environment, ‘in particular by building on the principle of cultural exception, content as well as the representation
strengthening cooperation for development and encouraging greater participation of the whole diversity of society in the
of civil society in its work to achieve sustainable development objectives’. Finally, the media, including by supporting initiatives
Resolution on access to digital technology in the Francophone community adopted by media to those ends’.
by the Assemblée parlementaire de la Francophonie (Parliamentary Assembly of the
French-Speaking World, APF) in Abidjan on 7 July 2019 refers to the Convention Although the Council of Europe is a distinct
and stresses ‘the importance of developing and facilitating access to French- organization from the EU, Article 13 of the
language digital content, in order to consolidate the place of French on the Web’ 2018 EU Directive on audiovisual media
[author’s translation]. services is in line with the Council’s 2018
Recommendation on media pluralism.
196 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Table 7.4
Instruments adopted between 2017 and 2020 that refer to the Convention, its objectives or its principles
Year of
Organization Type of instrument
adoption
Summit of Heads of State
Nairobi Nguvu Ya Pamoja Declaration 2019
and Government
African Caribbean
Meeting of Ministers Niamey Declaration ‘Strengthening and diversifying partnerships in favor
and Pacific Group 2019
of Culture of ACP cultures’
of States (ACP)
Meeting of Ministers
Brussels Declaration 2017
of Culture
‘Global Partners for Global Challenges’ Chair’s Statement 2018
Asia–Europe Meeting (ASEM) ‘Strengthening Partnership for Peace and Sustainable Development’
2017
Chair’s Statement
Yogyakarta Declaration on Embracing the Culture of Prevention to Enrich
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) 2018
ASEAN Identity
Beijing Declaration–Toward an Even Stronger China–Africa Community
Beijing Summit of the Forum on 2018
with a Shared Future
China–Africa Cooperation
Action Plan (2019-2021) 2018
Recommendation on culture’s contribution to strengthening the Internet as
2018
an emancipatory force
Council of Europe–Committee of Ministers Recommendation on the roles and responsibilities of Internet
2018
(45-46-52) intermediaries
Recommendation on media pluralism and transparency of media
2017
ownership
Declaration of the Sixth Ministerial Conference 2020
European Union European Parliament Resolution on the 2016 Commission Report on Turkey 2017
Resolution on Towards an EU strategy for international cultural relations 2017
Decision on a European year of Cultural Heritage (2018) 2017
Resolution on the implementation of Regulation establishing the Creative
2017
Europe Programme (2014-2020)
Council of the
European Union and Directive on audiovisual media services 2018
European Parliament
Organization for Security and Cooperation
Tallinn Guidelines on National Minorities and the Media in the Digital Age 2019
in Europe (OSCE)
Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR) Declaration–XLV Meeting of Ministers of Culture 2019
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 197
2022 Global Report
The Directive states that ‘Member States explanatory note states that ‘[t]he that are currently being implemented.
shall ensure that media service providers realization of effective media pluralism These countries recognize the
of on-demand audiovisual media services entails targeted measures to create and contribution of such agreements to the
under their jurisdiction secure at least a sustain a wide variety of media types international visibility of their artists and
30% share of European works in their and content’. their access to new opportunities and
catalogues and ensure prominence of markets. Thus, although cooperation
those works’. The Directive also allows In addition to these new regional is more often examined in terms of its
Member States to ‘require media service instruments adopted since 2017, it is benefits for developing countries, these
providers targeting audiences in their worth mentioning recent advances in strategies show that developed countries
territories’ to contribute financially pre-existing initiatives such as the ASEAN also see it as an opportunity to increase
to the production of European works Strategic Plan for Culture and Art 2016- the presence of their artists on the
(see Chapter 2). 2025, which promotes the contribution international scene.
of creative industries to innovation; the
Finally, the Tallinn Guidelines on ongoing work of the MERCOSUR Cultural
National Minorities and the Media – created in 1995 – to strengthen
in the Digital Age adopted in 2019 cooperation and promote the cultural Some countries recognize the
by the Organization for Security diversity of the region; and the Ibero-
and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
contribution of bilateral cultural
American Cultural Charter, signed in
are particularly noteworthy. This 2006, and re-launched on its 10th agreements to the international
instrument addresses the challenge of anniversary to strengthen and redefine visibility of their artists
‘operationaliz[ing] the right to freedom the tasks of the Ibero-American States. and their access to new
of expression in diverse societies by
providing guidance on creating and opportunities and markets
Bilateral instruments
sustaining structures and processes for
a pluralistic discussion between and Several Parties to the Convention
within communities of majorities and are bound by cultural cooperation South-South cultural cooperation
minorities in the digital age’. Referring agreements covering cultural and agreements are also seen as contributing
to several legal instruments, including creative industries. When these to the implementation of the Convention
the Convention, the Guidelines state agreements converge with the by countries such as Barbados, Senegal,
that minority-specific aspects of human Convention’s Article 16, they can be Uganda and the United Arab Emirates.
rights have been set out in various considered as a preferential treatment Recent initiatives by the Barbados–Cuba
international treaties. In addition, measure, as discussed later in the Joint Commission, which implements
the explanatory note attached to chapter. Otherwise, these agreements their cultural cooperation agreement
the Guidelines reflects an effective could fall within the broader scope of signed in 1983, illustrate how digital
consideration of the objectives and Article 21, besides being considered issues are gradually being integrated
principles of the Convention in another a form of cooperation covered by into this type of relationship. Indeed,
international forum. For instance, other provisions. they are increasingly focusing on
citing Article 7.2 of the Convention, the mutual collaboration in the field of
document insists ‘on the importance for Some of these agreements explicitly film and digital media. Barbados
individuals to have “access to diverse refer to the Convention. Austria, for also implements cultural cooperation
cultural expressions” from their own instance, signed agreements with agreements with African and Asian
country and from “other countries Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Ukraine, countries. Its agreement with China, for
of the world,” as well as the need in addition to several Memoranda example, has stimulated exchanges in
for States to enable such access’ for of Understanding with India, Israel, the areas of film, broadcasting and the
national minorities. Panama and Switzerland, and nine new performing arts.
working programmes developed with
It also recalls that States Parties ‘may Albania, Bulgaria, China, Hungary, Finally, cultural cooperation initiatives
adopt measures aimed at protecting Mexico, Russian Federation, Slovakia, linking sub-State entities with each
and promoting the diversity of cultural Slovenia and Tunisia. other, or with Parties to the Convention,
expressions within its territory’, such have also been reported. For example,
as regulatory measures and ‘measures The Australian government also enters the government of Quebec (Canada)
aimed at enhancing diversity of the into bilateral cultural agreements to has concluded cooperation protocols or
media, including through public service achieve several objectives, such as signed joint declarations – with Wales
broadcasting’, citing Articles 6.1, 6.2.a promoting mutual understanding and (United Kingdom), Flanders (Belgium)
and 6.2.h of the Convention. mutual exchange and engagement. and the Basque Country (Spain) –
Emphasizing the new challenges Croatia has so far signed 48 bilateral that include components specifically
generated by digital technologies, the agreements and 25 bilateral programmes dedicated to cultural cooperation.
198 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
The France-Quebec mission on the the EC examined a measure aimed at Organization (WIPO) that impact the
discoverability of French-language supporting the production of performing diversity of cultural expressions. However,
cultural content online is another arts shows. The same measure had been only one WIPO document contains an
example of cooperation that contributes approved previously and the 2018 case explicit reference to the Convention.
to the implementation of the Convention, was about the renewal of the support
specifically in the digital environment. scheme for a further period of five Since 2011, WIPO’s Standing Committee
years. The 3.5% tax levied on ticket on Copyright and Related Rights has
sales is redistributed to performing arts been drafting a treaty on the Protection
JURISDICTION companies in the form of grants for the of Broadcasting Organizations. A Revised
creation, production or dissemination Consolidated Text on Definitions, Object
Although previous editions of the Global of Protection, Rights to be Granted and
Report identified several cases submitted of shows, or for the acquisition of
equipment for performing arts venues. other Issues, published in 2017, contains
to international or regional jurisdictions the following proposal on ‘the protection
that made reference to the Convention, it The EC recalled Article 167.1 and 167.4.
of the TFEU, stating that ‘[t]he Union and promotion of cultural diversity’:
appears that there are no such references ‘Nothing in this Treaty shall limit or
in new cases submitted between shall contribute to the flowering of the
cultures of the Member States, while constrain the freedom of a Contracting
2017 and 2020. Two decisions of the Party to protect and promote cultural
European Commission (EC) on State aid respecting their national and regional
diversity. To this effect: (a) In modifying
are nevertheless worth mentioning as diversity’ and that ‘[t]he Union shall take
their domestic laws and regulations,
they take account of the specific nature cultural aspects into account in its action
Contracting Parties will ensure that any
of cultural industries. under other provisions of the Treaties,
measures adopted pursuant to this Treaty
in particular in order to respect and to
are fully consistent with the UNESCO
promote the diversity of its cultures’. The
Convention on the Protection and
compatibility of this scheme had to be
Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
No references to the examined under the derogation provided
Expressions’. What is striking about
Convention were made in cases for in Article 107.3.(d) of the TFEU for aid
this report is that it reflects the Parties’
to promote culture. The EC stated that
submitted to international the French Entertainment Tax regime
will to develop international law in a
consistent manner, which is the purpose
or regional jurisdictions was compatible with that Article. Again,
of Article 21 of the Convention.
between 2017 and 2020 such a regime falls within the scope of
Article 6 of the Convention on the rights
of Parties at the national level. THE CONVENTION’S RELEVANCE
In the 2017 case of ‘Italy – Tax credit IN NON-CULTURAL FORUMS:
for film production companies’, the EC VARIOUS WORKING DOCUMENTS, TAXATION AND ARTIFICIAL
examined a measure aimed at protecting STUDIES AND REPORTS INTELLIGENCE
and promoting the cultural potential of
the film sector. The measure consisted In addition to the instruments identified The spirit and letter of the Convention’s
of a few modifications to one of the tax above, 15 documents issued by a Article 21 call on Parties to promote its
incentive schemes (tax credit for film range of international and regional objectives and principles in forums outside
production companies) that had been organizations refer to the Convention the field of culture. Working programmes
approved in 2008 by the Commission or some of its principles and objectives. in other areas can also impact the
under Article 107.3.(d) of the Treaty Most of these documents deal with diversity of cultural expressions.
on the Functioning of the European culture and digital technologies. International discussions in the areas of
Union (TFEU). The tax was found to be taxation and AI can be used as examples.
compatible with the internal market on Documents containing an explicit
the grounds of the 2013 Communication reference to the Convention are mainly In terms of taxation, ongoing work at
from the Commission on State aid for from organizations or entities that have OECD has major implications for the
films and other audiovisual works. already been mentioned. This is the case cultural sector. This subject, however,
Such measures are provided for in the of the APF, OIF, MERCOSUR, Council does not always receive much attention.
Convention itself and in Article 6 in of the EU and the EC. The Euro-Latin A report released in 2018 notes that
particular, which sets out the rights of American Parliamentary Assembly can ‘[t]he digital transformation is changing
Parties at the national level and includes also be added to this list. the way people interact with each other
the right to adopt measures aimed at and society more generally, raising a
providing public financial assistance. There are also documents from other number of pressing issues in the areas
organizations, such as the International of jobs and skills, privacy and security,
In the 2018 case of ‘France – State aid Telecommunication Union (ITU), OECD education, health as well as in many
for the production of shows in France’, and the World Intellectual Property other policy areas’ (OECD, 2018b).
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 199
2022 Global Report
Cultural considerations are not explicitly the use of this technology, the impact hosted by OECD – could take advantage
mentioned in the report, except in on the cultural and creative industries is of this coalition to include the diversity
a case study devoted to France’s tax often not given due consideration. For of cultural expressions on the agenda
on online and physical distribution instance, the Report of the UN Secretary- there for the next few years. To this end,
of audio-visual content. While it is General’s High-level Panel on Digital the mobilization and involvement of
widely accepted that ‘COVID-19 has Cooperation (UN, 2019) underlines ministries of culture in the deployment
exacerbated [the tax challenges] by several issues related to AI, without and monitoring of this partnership
accelerating the digitalization of the addressing the specific challenges of the could be decisive.
economy, increasing pressures on cultural sector. This is also the case for
public finances and decreasing public the Road map for digital cooperation Finally, Parties should closely monitor
tolerance for profitable [multinational adopted in 2020 (UNGA, 2020c). the work on AI undertaken by other
enterprises] not paying their fair share organizations. A follow-up to WIPO’s
of taxes’ (OECD, 2020b), the particular work would be relevant, as a recent
impact in the cultural sector should be report recognizes that AI ‘is already
resulting in greater mobilization among As for the work undertaken having, and is likely to have increasingly
in the future, a significant impact
Parties to the Convention. It is worth by some international on the creation, production and
mentioning that there might be some
progress in the next few years.
organizations – other than distribution of economic and cultural
UNESCO – to reflect on AI goods and services’ (WIPO, 2020b).
or regulate the use of this That report also underlines that AI
intersects with intellectual property (IP),
technology, the impact on since one of the main aims of IP policy
The implementation of the cultural and creative is to stimulate innovation and creativity
the principle of a global industries is often not given in economic and cultural systems
minimum rate to ensure that due consideration
(WIPO, 2020b).
multinationals pay tax of To help Parties define their position
at least 15% in each country within these international organizations,
where they operate could There are similar examples in the work
they can refer to the UNESCO
Recommendation on the Ethics of
ultimately contribute to more of OECD. The 2019 Recommendation Artificial Intelligence. The text contains
equitable exchanges in the of the Council on Artificial Intelligence multiple references to culture and
cultural and creative sector recognizes that the way AI is cultural diversity. Culture is also
transforming our world ‘may have one of the 11 areas of policy action
disparate effects within, and between covered by the Recommendation,
societies and economies, notably which affirms that ‘Member States
The June 2021 agreement of the Group regarding economic shifts, competition, should engage large technology
of Seven (G7) Ministers of Finance on transitions in the labour market, companies and other stakeholders to
key elements of international tax reform inequalities, and implications for promote a diverse supply and plural
to address the economic challenges of democracy and human rights, privacy access to cultural expressions, and in
digitalization includes the principle of and data protection, and digital particular to ensure that algorithmic
a global minimum rate to ensure that security’, without mentioning the recommendation enhances the visibility
multinationals pay tax of at least 15% impact it has on the diversity of cultural and discoverability of local content’
in each country where they operate. expressions. While its principles state (paragraph 98).
The implementation of such a principle that ‘AI actors should respect the rule
could have significant implications for of law, human rights and democratic Parties could also consider the work
cultural content platforms operating values, throughout the AI system of OIF, including the report Artificial
around the world, as they could be lifecycle’, and that ‘[t]hese include Intelligence in Art and Cultural and
required to pay a share of their revenue freedom, dignity and autonomy, privacy Creative Industries (Kulesz and Dutoit,
back to the States where audiences are and data protection, non-discrimination 2020). In addition, several documents
targeted, thus contributing to more and equality, diversity, fairness, social released by the European Parliament
equitable exchanges in the cultural and justice, and internationally recognized and the Council of Europe deal with
creative sector. labour rights’, there is no reference various aspects of the relationship
to culture in the Recommendation. between AI and culture, which
As for the work undertaken by some Parties to the Convention gathered could also inspire Parties to promote
international organizations – other than for the Global Partnership on Artificial the objectives and principles of
UNESCO – to reflect on AI or regulate Intelligence – whose Secretariat will be the Convention.
200 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
The September 2020 study The impact The 2018 Global Report underlined
of algorithms for online content
PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT: that, while no new Protocols had
filtering or moderation commissioned UNFINISHED BUSINESS FOR been signed between 2015 and
by the European Parliament, or the PARTIES TO THE CONVENTION 2017, preferential treatment for the
Council of Europe’s Recommendation broadcasting and audiovisual sectors
of the Committee of Ministers to Article 16 on preferential treatment for was offered through specific clauses
Member States on the human rights developing countries is one of the most on cultural cooperation within free
impacts of algorithmic systems, binding provisions of the Convention. trade agreements. None of the bilateral
adopted in April 2020, are two recent Its implementation helps to reduce and regional trade agreements signed
European examples. inequality among countries in the field between 2017 and 2020 has included
of cultural and creative industries, in a provision falling within the scope of
line with SDG 10 and more specifically Article 16. Only one agreement, the
with Target 10.A on implementing of the Free Trade Agreement between the
Parties to the Convention principle of special and differentiated Republic of Korea and the Republics of
treatment for developing countries. Central America, contains an Annex on
could take advantage of the
‘Audiovisual Co-production and Services’,
Global Partnership on Artificial To fall within the scope of Article 16,
which recognizes ‘that audiovisual co-
a measure must meet five conditions:
Intelligence to include the (1) be offered by a developed country;
productions in the areas including film,
diversity of cultural expressions (2) benefit developing countries; (3)
animation and broadcasting programme
can significantly contribute to the
on the agenda there for the next facilitate cultural exchanges; (4) relate
development of audiovisual industry
few years to cultural goods, cultural services and/
and to an intensification of cultural
or artists or other cultural professionals
and economic exchange’. The Parties
or practitioners of developing countries;
‘agree to consider the negotiation of an
and (5) not require reciprocity. This
audiovisual co-production agreement’
Finally, some ad hoc forums can also commitment triggers an obligation of
that ‘shall become an integral part of
provide an opportunity to promote result, which means that a developed
country merely making efforts to this Agreement but shall be interpreted
the objectives and principles of the and applied solely in accordance with
Convention internationally. This is the facilitate exchanges is not sufficient
to fulfil its obligation if these do not its own term’. Therefore, Parties to
case of the Multistakeholder Working the Convention are still reluctant to
Group on Diversity of Content Online produce concrete outcomes.
use their trade agreements to offer
established by the Department of preferential treatment to developing
As stated in the Convention’s
Canadian Heritage to develop guiding countries in the cultural sector.
Operational Guidelines ‘[p]referential
principles around four themes. Three
treatment as defined by Article 16 is
of these themes are directly related to However, there are three agreements
wider than the narrow trade meaning’.
the implementation of the Convention in which Parties have incorporated
As a result, the institutional frameworks
in the digital environment: creation, reservations in order to preserve their
that Parties use to offer preferential
access and discoverability of diverse right to conclude and implement
treatment can be based around trade,
content online; fair remuneration cultural cooperation or audiovisual
culture or a combination of the trade
and economic viability of content co-production agreements, as an
and cultural dimensions.
creators; and transparency of the exemption from their commitment to
impacts of algorithmic treatments most-favoured-nation treatment. These
of online content. This initiative TRADE AGREEMENTS:
agreements are the aforementioned
involves four other Parties to the MORE MISSED OPPORTUNITIES Regional Comprehensive Economic
Convention (Australia, Finland, France Preferential treatment could result from a Partnership, the Peru–Australia
and Germany), as well as civil society free trade agreement, and commitments FTA and the Chile–Brazil Bilateral
organizations (International Federation undertaken in relation to digital trade Trade Agreement.
of Coalitions for Cultural Diversity, the could also be relevant, as stated in
Society of Authors, Composers and paragraph 18.2 of the Guidelines on The Comprehensive and Enhanced
Publishers of Music and the French the Implementation of the Convention Partnership Agreement between the
Coalition for Cultural Diversity), in the Digital Environment referring to EU and the Republic of Armenia is
private sector (Google, Netflix, Deezer Article 16. worth mentioning, as Chapter 18
and Vubble) and the European on ‘Cooperation in the cultural field’
Audiovisual Observatory. The 2015 edition of this Global Report explicitly refers to the Convention (Article
highlighted Cultural Cooperation Protocols 96). It also states that ‘[c]ooperation
that aim to offer preferential treatment to shall focus on, inter alia: (a) cultural
Parties (mainly developing countries). cooperation and cultural exchanges;
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 201
2022 Global Report
(b) the mobility of art and artists and their willingness to implement can both facilitate market access and
the strengthening of the capacity of Article 16 for the benefit of developing contribute to the mobility of artists
the cultural sector; […] (f) cooperation countries, whether in the context of and cultural professionals involved in
in international fora such as UNESCO’ trade negotiations or in any other co-productions.
(Article 97). Another reference to the cooperation framework. Even in cases
Convention is included in Chapter 19 where no specific provisions on cultural In terms of production funds that may
on ‘Cooperation in the audiovisual and cooperation have been negotiated, as be a form of preferential treatment, one
media fields’, although no preferential in the texts of the Trade Part of the relevant example is the bilateral fund
treatment arises from these provisions. EU-MERCOSUR Agreement in Principle, for the co-production of Franco-Tunisian
there are possibilities for implementing cinematographic works. Thanks to this
Article 16. Signatories should explore facility, 18 projects have been supported
in three years, and two of these were
ways of acting on such potential,
presented at the Directors’ Fortnight of
Parties to the Convention are as this would enrich the agreement
the Cannes Film Festival.
still reluctant to use their trade by stimulating cultural exchanges
among Parties.
agreements to offer preferential
treatment to developing
CO-PRODUCTION AGREEMENTS Box 7.3 • Preferential treatment
countries in the cultural sector
AND RELATED FUNDS: as part of cultural cooperation
MODEST PROGRESS FOR As for the cultural dimension,
PREFERENTIAL TREATMENT preferential treatment can be the result
It is therefore clear that developing of cultural cooperation agreements
countries that are Parties to the Co-production agreements or funds or national cultural policies that
Convention are not taking sufficient set up to finance joint productions afford certain privileges to cultural
advantage of trade agreement goods and services, artists or other
between two or more countries may,
negotiations to obtain concessions cultural professionals from developing
under certain conditions, constitute
from developed countries that countries. Again, such agreements or
preferential treatment measures. Even
might facilitate cultural exchanges. policies could be implemented in the
if these are implemented in a limited
Furthermore, when developed countries digital environment. The Secretariat of
way, they seem to be Parties’ preferred
are Parties to the Convention, they the Convention has proposed a non-
modality for implementing Article 16.
are bound to grant them preferential exhaustive list of 14 measures that could
treatment under its Article 16. On For instance, Canada has signed fulfil the 5 conditions of Article 16:
this point, it is worth mentioning the co-production treaties with China,
example of the Brussels Declaration 1. Co-production agreements
Jordan and Ukraine since 2016. The
of the 4th Meeting of Ministers of co-produced works can access federal 2. Aid for production/post-production
Culture from African, Caribbean and and provincial funding programmes 3. A
id for distribution/broadcasting/
Pacific States (ACP) held on 9 and and are recognized as national content screening
10 November 2017, in which they for broadcasting purposes. These
committed to ‘work together to defend 4. Aid for translation/subtitling
agreements explicitly refer to the
common interests within international Convention. Similar benefits are part 5. Fiscal measures
fora, so that cultural goods and of co-production agreements signed by 6. Festivals and other cultural events
services, in particular, are given priority France with Bosnia-Herzegovina, Brazil
consideration in international and and Uruguay. Germany and Switzerland 7. Training
regional trade agreements’ and to are also reporting the conclusion of 8. Encounters and networking
‘[s]upport the movement of artists and co-production agreements (with Chile
cultural professionals’. 9. Support for civil society
and Mexico, respectively). Australia
has signed co-production agreements 10. Funds for mobility from public
More recently, in the Nairobi Nguvu cultural bodies
Ya Pamoja Declaration, the Heads of with South Africa and Singapore, which
State and Government meeting at their could lead to the development of screen 11. Facilities for entering a territory
9th Summit in December 2019 called projects that access benefits offered 12. Artist residencies
‘for unhindered access to international by each partner country. Colombia
has concluded film co-production 13. A
wards and other forms of
markets for [their] cultural goods and recognition
practitioners such as artists’. agreements with Italy and Peru,
whereby any co-produced film would be 14. Support for international initiatives
For their part, developed countries considered a national product in each of Source: UNESCO, Preferential Treatment leaflet, 2020.
should more actively demonstrate the signatory States. These agreements
202 GOAL 2 • ACHIEVE A BALANCED FLOW OF CULTURAL GOODS AND SERVICES AND INCREASE THE MOBILITY OF ARTISTS AND CULTURAL PROFESSIONALS
Another example is Germany’s Berlin The following recommendations are
International Film Festival World Cinema
CONCLUSION AND therefore put forward:
Fund, which has provided increased RECOMMENDATIONS
support for co-productions involving ¡ Parties should increase references to
Germany and sub-Saharan African The protection and promotion of the Convention in the international
producers. As a result, 13 projects have the diversity of cultural expressions legal instruments they negotiate,
been financed since 2016. require coherent action by Parties to particularly in their trade agreements.
the Convention in multiples sectors
Although South-South co-production and at all levels. This chapter contains ¡ Parties should exclude the cultural
agreements may not constitute several examples of such coherent sector from the scope of a non-
preferential treatment when they are actions, as illustrated in a wide range of discrimination commitment included
concluded between countries of an legal instruments and other initiatives in the e-commerce chapter of a trade
equivalent level of development, they implemented by a large number of agreement.
are nevertheless commendable efforts Parties from all regions of the world.
to achieve one of the objectives of the Some efforts are reflected in the cultural ¡ Parties should pay close attention to
their data flow commitments, as some
Convention – namely, to ensure wider clauses included in trade agreements,
may implicitly limit their capacity
and balanced cultural exchanges. For in cultural policy actions carried out by
to act in the cultural sector and to
example, Burkina Faso and Senegal regional cooperation organizations and
monitor their cultural policies.
developed a Protocol to set up a in forums that bring together cities or
cinematographic and audiovisual local actors involved in the development ¡ Parties should work together to
cooperation policy, and to help each of cultural and creative industries. promote the objectives and principles
other develop policies to protect and of the Convention in the ongoing WTO
promote cultural expressions. This The good practices presented in this
negotiations on e-commerce.
2020 Protocol is supplemented by chapter should not, however, obscure
an Agreement on co-production and areas where the principles and objectives ¡ Where Parties participate in
cinematographic exchanges. of the Convention are not sufficiently international forums conducting work
promoted. This applies to some trade in areas such as taxation and AI,
The few measures reported above are agreements, where the dual nature of they should consider their impact on
encouraging. However, Article 16 on cultural goods and services is not fully the diversity of cultural expressions
preferential treatment generally remains recognized – particularly in the digital and ensure that they promote the
poorly implemented to date. Considering environment. There are many missed objectives and principles of the
the 14 categories of measures that can opportunities to honour the commitment Convention in those forums.
be arranged for preferential cultural of developed countries that are Parties
treatment (Box 7.3), it would be simple to the Convention to grant preferential ¡ Parties from developed countries
enough to use pre-existing initiatives in treatment to artists and other cultural should make additional efforts to meet
developed countries by adapting them professionals and practitioners (and their commitment to Article 16 on
to the conditions of Article 16. Such cultural goods and services) from preferential treatment for developing
adaptations should be made in the next developing countries. Finally, the growth countries. Their efforts can be
few years, so that the Convention can of digital technology in the field of invested in the area of trade, as well
offer developing countries the benefits cultural and creative industries requires as in cultural, institutional and legal
that were expected at the time the treaty new synergies between the Convention frameworks.
was adopted. A promising initiative in and other forums – particularly in areas
this respect is the ‘Fair Culture’ project such as intellectual property, taxation
led by Germany to stimulate cultural and AI – which are still slow to appear.
exchanges, promote the mobility of
artists and other cultural professionals
and improve international cooperation
and solidarity to strengthen local and
regional markets. One of its objectives
is to raise awareness of preferential
treatment to promote a balanced flow
of cultural goods and services, as well
as highlighting the need to ensure fair
working conditions for artists and other
cultural professionals.
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to pursue a legitimate public policy objective outside the framework of the Convention 203
© Vanessa Barragão, Botanical Tapestry, 2019, Heathrow Airport*
Goal 3
FRAMEWORKS
DEVELOPMENT
SUSTAINABLE
CULTURE IN
INTEGRATE
Goal 3
CULTURE IN cultural aspects
of sustainable
SUSTAINABLE
development
DEVELOPMENT
FRAMEWORKS
2022 REPORT CARD
DATA R E Q U I R E M E N T S
207
© SCOWCZA, Synthetic seabed: a new life for garbage?, 2021*
Chapter 8
KEY FINDINGS
››› T he holistic framing of sustainable development in the 2030 Agenda offers many pathways
for integrating culture in a broad sense. However, only a limited number of concrete action
lines to support the diversity of cultural expressions have been inspired by the 2030 Agenda.
››› In national sustainable development planning, the cultural and creative sectors are
recognized for their ability to advance cultural outcomes (65%) and drive societal
transformations (63%), particularly in the realm of social inclusion. Resulting plans and
strategies also harness the economic potential of the cultural and creative industries (54%),
especially in developing countries.
››› C
ulture and creativity are largely underinvested to bring about the change in mindsets
and behaviours that is urgently needed to address the climate crisis. The cultural and creative
sectors themselves need to accelerate their transition towards sustainable cultural production
and consumption.
››› N
ew funding instruments have been established to increase international cooperation, while
multilateral organizations (including development banks) are showing renewed interest in the
cultural and creative sectors. However, the five largest private donors have contributed almost
twice the amount of public multilateral funding to developing countries in these sectors.
››› O
verall, only 0.23% of development aid is allocated to culture and recreation.
A decline due to COVID-19-related recessions is predicted in the coming years, which is
worrying for the future of cultural cooperation.
P R O G R E SS TOWAR D S
PROGRESS
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
CHALLENGES
There is a risk that
CLIMATE CHANGE IFCD CONTRIBUTIONS recovery plans
Climate change The International Fund for overlook the sector
reports and Cultural Diversity has yet to take A decline in
strategies rarely off. Contributions have decreased: development
mention the role of aid is predicted
the cultural sector 2011
US$ 1,563,216 2020
US$ 738,926
CULTURE DRIVING SDGs DEVELOPMENT AID
13% Only
0.23%
Only
of voluntary national
reviews acknowledge of Official
the transversal role of Development Aid was
culture for sustainable In 2020, only 35% of Parties to spent on culture and
development the Convention contributed recreation in 2018
They emanate from and influence the PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES supporting cultural expressions). This
values, shared meanings and ways of TO UNLOCK THE POTENTIAL OF only represents a 4% increase since
life encompassed by culture in its widest 2017, suggesting that further efforts
sense. These expressions have the power
CULTURE are still needed to better reflect the
to shape the narratives of societies. In Since the adoption of the 2030 Agenda, contribution of cultural expressions to
the fight against climate change, for sustainability planning increasingly sustainable development (Figure 8.1).
instance, they are powerful resources overlaps with national development
to reshape our relationship with nature, planning. While there are still some Figure 8.1
fostering the paradigm shifts urgently countries that choose to prepare specific
needed to change the way we live, Share of NDPs and NSDPs
sustainable development strategy
produce and consume. This capacity to documents, most countries are now
including cultural goals
address values at the heart of societies aligning their national plans with specific to the Convention*
explains why culture is an inseparable the SDGs (DESA, 2019). This is also Developed countries Developing countries
part of the environmental, social and increasingly the case for developed
economic dimensions of sustainable countries, as the past decade has seen
development. NDP / NSDP
a resurgence of comprehensive national in date as of 13% 31% 44%
development plans (Chimhow et al., 2020
This chapter reviews how Parties are
2019). Research undertaken for this
fulfilling the Convention’s culture and
chapter, covering NDPs and NSDPs
sustainable development agenda. The
adopted by Parties to the Convention, NDP / NSDP
focus is on the level of integration of in date as of 10% 30% 40%
shows that the vast majority (72%)
culture, and cultural expressions more 2017
of the 127 documents reviewed are
specifically, into national sustainable
adopted by developing countries (and
development plans – with a special * Rounded up to single digit.
only 28% by developed countries).
emphasis on their links to environmental Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
sustainability. The chapter also covers
territorial equity in the distribution and Overall, there is common understanding
inclusive access of cultural resources as
keys to unlocking culture’s contribution
Since the adoption of the of the foundational role of culture in
societies – in terms of identity, social
to social sustainability. Finally, the 2030 Agenda, sustainability cohesion, well-being and openness.
chapter reviews the international planning increasingly overlaps with However, among countries reporting
community’s investment in culture and national development planning on measures connecting the diversity
creativity in developing countries. of cultural expressions with the 2030
Agenda, the main emphasis is on
culture’s contribution to the social
TOWARDS A CULTURAL AGENDA Out of the countries surveyed, 88% dimension of sustainable development.
IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT reported that their NSDPs recognized In contrast, those that focus more on
PLANNING? the strategic role of culture, while 63% the economic potential of protecting
recognized the strategic role of cultural and promoting the diversity of cultural
For cultural expressions to play their and creative industries specifically. expressions tend to integrate the
full role in building diverse, inclusive Culture is thus more generally integrated 2030 Agenda less fully into their
and sustainable societies, key planning into national planning in its holistic cultural policy frameworks. Sustained
documents at all government levels sense, which is particularly true for efforts are thus needed to leverage
need to support the emergence of developed countries. Meanwhile, the contribution of the diversity of
dynamic cultural and creative sectors. developing countries, particularly in cultural expressions to all dimensions of
Assessing the integration of culture in Latin America and the Caribbean (81%) sustainable development.
such documents is therefore crucial for and in Africa (76%) declared that they
examining the extent to which culture specifically recognize the cultural and At the United Nations level, there
is mobilized to generate cultural, social, creative industries as strategic. In-depth is a growing inclusion of culture in
economic and environment outcomes. content analysis showed a more nuanced sustainable development planning
story. In 2020, 44% of plans and mechanisms, such as Common
The review of national development planning documents analysed (including Country Assessments, United Nations
plans (NDPs) and national sustainable all NDPs and NSDPs to date) integrated Sustainable Development Cooperation
development plans and strategies concrete cultural goals specific to Frameworks, COVID-19 national impact
(NSDPs) shows that the overall inclusion the Convention (such as focusing on assessment and recovery plans or
of culture has remained broadly the production and consumption of Voluntary National Reviews (VNRs)
consistent since 2017. diverse cultural goods and services, or (UNESCO, 2021b).
Less than three years later, the world has changed so dramatically and quickly that the challenges we addressed have only
multiplied and magnified in size. In the light of global challenges that the human species has never faced before, the importance of
the environmental and societal problems addressed in Honeyland can seem less important. Yet behind every statistic, there are
real people and actual parts of nature being affected. As documentary filmmakers, it is our responsibility not to let the magnitude
of global challenges deter us from raising awareness of the human stories behind them. While it is sometimes discouraging and
disheartening to make films about issues that cannot be easily fixed, we are convinced that film has a particular capability to
visualise issues, show the interconnectedness of humans and nature and inspire viewers to start looking for solutions. It is our call to
use the art of documentary filmmaking to show other ways of living that may inspire a better world.
the Pacific. Social and economic outcomes The objectives of the 2019 Government
The main emphasis is follow closely behind, with environmental Programme included improving the
outcomes scored the lowest by Parties accessibility of cultural services and
on culture’s contribution (Figure 8.2). the conditions for culture to flourish,
to the social dimension including by securing levels of central
of sustainable development Figure 8.2 government transfers, subsidies for
cultural activities and credits for
Inclusion of culture in National cultural institutions. Timor-Leste, for
Sustainable Development Plans its part, plans to develop its cultural
However, a review on how culture has been according to expected outcome infrastructure network by 2030, in
integrated in SDG monitoring between
1 4 order to foster creativity and train a
2016 and 2020 corroborates this generic
new generation of artists. Some other
approach to culture. The periodical reports Least expected Most expected
countries (Norway, Sweden) highlight
that countries produce to monitor their
Cultural 3.4 the importance of artistic freedom in
progress in implementing the 2030 ensuring healthy democratic societies.
Agenda (VNRs) provide strategic indicators
to measure and characterise countries’ Social 3.2 Advancing social outcomes remains a
approaches to culture. Of the reports, 63% key concern for countries, which are
refer to culture in the implementation of Economic mobilizing culture to nurture identity(ies)
3.1
the SDGs, but only 13% of the submitting and social cohesion, fight inequalities
countries acknowledge the transversal role and empower vulnerable groups and
of culture and ‘the cultural and creative Environmental 1.9 minorities. This trend is particularly
industries remain a largely uncharted strong in Western Europe and Africa. In
Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
area’ (UNESCO, 2021a). This reveals Switzerland, for instance, culture plays
significant potential for leveraging them Cultural outcomes are mainly related to an important role in the Sustainable
further. While the holistic framework of cultural infrastructure, participation and Development Strategy (2016-2019).
the 2030 Agenda offers many avenues access to culture, as well as innovation It is seen as a pillar of society, and is
for integrating culture, the limited number and artist support. In Finland, a expected to advance gender equality and
of explicit cultural targets does not dynamic cultural life is recognized as social cohesion. For Niger, culture is a
sufficiently encourage policy-makers to having an intrinsic value, which leads tool for social progress and for creating
reflect on the role of culture in general in the country to place significant focus on an enabling environment for sustainable
achieving the SDGs, and even less so on cultural participation. socio-economic development.
the role of cultural and creative industries
in particular. Countries are often not sure
how to integrate cultural and creative Box 8.1 • M
obilizing culture as a bulwark against violent extremism
targets in their reporting. Palau, for
Mali, like other countries in the Sahel, has seen an unprecedented rise in violent
example, points out that the connection
extremism in the last decade. The project ‘Donko ni Maaya’ (Culture and Humanism),
between culture and sustainability is
implemented between 2018 and 2021 by the Ministry of Culture in partnership with
not fully explored in the 2030 Agenda,
the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for
outside of Target 11.4. Echoing this
International Cooperation, GiZ), provided support to cultural centres to improve their
observation, the European Union has
youth-focused offerings of urban arts as a way of revitalising cultural wellsprings that
asked an Open Method Coordination
can strengthen tolerance, forgiveness and understanding. The project focused on the
expert group to prepare guidance on how
capital, Bamako, where all Malian communities and ethnicities are present. Artists
to include culture in VNRs (Council of the worked to give young people alternatives to extremist positions and encourage them to
European Union, 2020). become agents of change.
Some of the countries that prioritize In Egypt, the Ministry of Culture is deploying the ‘Promoting Positive Values in Society’
culture within their VNRs also underline in programme under the country’s sustainable development strategy, Vision 2030.
their quadrennial periodic reports (QPRs) Aimed at promoting citizenship and cohesion, the programme combats extremism
that the Convention makes it possible to through cultural and artistic events. Particular attention is paid to ensuring remote
highlight the contribution of culture and communities’ access to cultural offering. The ‘Roaming Theatre’ project, launched under
the diversity of cultural expressions to this programme, is an example of how cultural expressions can be mobilized for social
the SDGs (Austria, Slovenia, Switzerland). impact. It supports professional theatre performances in touring villages and hamlets
According to QPRs, the pursuit of cultural lacking cultural services. A second phase of the project was launched in early 2021
outcomes is the most common in Parties' with the aim of presenting 325 nights of performances in 20 governorates.
national sustainable development plans, Sources: Egypt QPR, Mali QPR, ‘Donko ni Maaya’ project page www.giz.de/en/worldwide/76553.html.
especially in Arab States and in Asia and
© Saffu / Unsplash.com
against climate change.
They must also contribute to
sustainability and be held
C
accountable for their
environmental impact,
as in all other economic sectors ulture is a driving force of sustainable development for communities, peoples and
nations, as recognized by the international community in the 2005 UNESCO Convention
on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. It is a powerful
platform for human empowerment, in particular of those left behind, giving them a
Environmental outcomes are the least voice that societies will listen to. It empowers young people – not only in their ability to
common outcomes of cultural policy in embrace diversity and to respect the views of others, but also in their power to imagine
NDPs and NSDPs, lagging considerably and shape the societies they want to live in. I had the privilege to witness this first hand,
behind the other three, and this is a when I visited an art gallery set up by Afghan youth in Tajikistan. Culture is their tool to
serious shortcoming in terms of achieving integrate into their new home country. At the same time, creative industries contribute
sustainable development. Cultural and to job creation and economic opportunities, and so it is crucial to embrace their full
creative sectors can rally society in the potential. Green and digital transitions will require fundamental shifts in the way we
fight against climate change. They must think, live, work, consume and produce. Yet again, culture will be at the core of this
also contribute to sustainability and be change. This is why we, in the European Union, recognize culture in the Consensus on
held accountable for their environmental Development not only as a component of sustainable development, but as an enabler
impact, as in all other economic sectors. too. The European Union has invested more than €100 million since 2016 in cultural
This crucial dimension is explored in and creative industries, intercultural dialogue and cultural heritage in partner countries.
greater detail in the following section, Cultural diversity is at the heart of the European project and we support the diversity of
with a view to understanding the levers cultural expressions around the globe. It is essential to promote mutual understanding
for boosting the interlinkages of these among cultures for more peaceful societies, and to ensure that fundamental freedoms
sectors with environmental sustainability and human rights are upheld. Along with education and exchanges, culture is key to
and climate action. boost people-to-people connections, a main objective of the new European Union Global
Gateway Strategy. The Erasmus+ programme and other actions will offer opportunities to
young people, including creatives and artists, to learn from each other, and to co-create
innovative solutions to sustainable development challenges. However, more efforts are
needed to unlock the potential of culture. The European Union remains committed to do
so, together with its Member States, UNESCO and other international actors in the spirit
2. Out of the 45 full VNRs submitted in 2020, 25 of them of effective multilateralism.
(55%) were reviewed for this chapter. In this sample, only
a quarter of them mentioned their cultural and creative Jutta Urpilainen
sectors in discussing economic outcomes (Benin, Bulgaria,
Estonia, India, Kyrgyzstan, Morocco), and most were brief Commissioner for International Partnerships, European Commission
mentions linked to developing cultural tourism under SDG 8.
In East Africa, for example, a pilot (Hacking the Climate Crisis: the Future is challenges, creative industries have not
project was launched in seven countries Indigenous)3. The aim was to encourage been given the same attention. The Small
to research and document case studies indigenous narratives around the climate Island Developing State of Palau asserted,
of intangible cultural heritage practices crisis for structural change. Colombia’s in its 2019 VNR, that Palau culture and
that addressed the challenges of Ministry of Culture, for its part, is traditions are essential resources in the
biodiversity conservation, climate change implementing a programme aimed at fight against environmental degradation.
and disaster risk reduction. In line with enabling indigenous communities to Building on a cultural ecological ethic of
the UNESCO ‘Local and Indigenous put into practice their own development ‘take only what you need, think always of
Knowledge Systems’ programme, this paradigm along the indigenous concept tomorrow’, Palau introduced a passport
project helps shape local approaches to of Buen Vivir (Good Living), which pledge for incoming visitors to promise
sustainable development. Similarly, in emphasises a balance with nature in to do no harm. Palau is a signatory to the
Latin America and the Caribbean, there satisfying human needs. 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding
have been initiatives contributing to the of the Intangible Cultural Heritage but
However, the analysis of VNRs reveals
new development paradigms needed. not yet to the 2005 Convention. In
that the cultural and creative industries’
In Cuba, the Núñez Jiménez Foundation Palau’s example, as in others, there is
potential to highlight heritage as a
of Nature and Humanity works closely an untapped potential for the arts and
resource for climate change responses
with various entities from the Ministry creativity to engage with cultural heritage
is often untapped. While developing
of Culture to integrate environmental and knowledge for climate action. The
countries are often firmly committed to
dimensions, often linked to indigenous Palau passport pledge was developed by
drawing on their heritage to propose
knowledge, in cultural action. In Mexico an advertising firm (Medel, 2020). Sectors
alternative solutions to environmental
in 2021, the British Council organized such as film, music and literature can also
a cultural hackathon entitled Hackear be powerful amplifying levers of heritage
la crisis climática: El futuro es indígena 3. www.britishcouncil.org.mx/hackear-la-crisis-climatica for climate change action.
Box 8.3 • R
educing the environmental impact of the cultural and creative sectors
Arts Council England and Julie’s Bicycle A global creative coalition for climate action
One game-shifter in the public sector is Arts Council ‘Data analysis shows that one average tentpole film production – a film
England. In 2012, it became the first cultural body with a budget of over US$70m – generates 2,840 tonnes of CO2e, the
in the world to make environmental reporting and equivalent amount absorbed by 3,709 acres of forest in a year’ (albert et
plans into a funding requirement. Working with Julie’s al., 2020). Driven by the desire to take collective climate action, film and
Bicycle, a non-governmental organization, the Arts television industries have come together around a voluntary mechanism.
Council designed a policy requiring a category of Launched in 2019, the Creative Industries Pact for Sustainable Action takes
recipients to have environmental policies and action direct inspiration from the 2030 Agenda and the Paris Agreement and
plans, and annually report on their environmental sets goals aligned with national and local climate strategies. Signatories
impacts. Julie’s Bicycle rolled out capacity-building are encouraged to self-report on measures adopted for green production
activities to help organizations shift to lower carbon and consumption processes and for collaboration with peers in the film
practices. and television industries. They are also expected to leverage their influence
on the general public to achieve a broader cultural shift towards more
The 2018-2022 funding cohort included 828
sustainable living. Signatories include film corporations, public agencies,
cultural organizations. They used the ‘Creative
guilds, member-based organizations and film schools. As of May 2021,
Green Tools’ carbon calculators to report energy
the Pact had 90 signatories from North America, Europe and Africa.
consumption, waste generation, kilometres of touring
Other notable national film schemes include Ecoprod in France, Grüner
and so forth. In 2019, the largest contributor to the
Filmpass in Germany and albert in the United Kingdom. Most schemes
culture sector’s carbon footprint came from energy
today are voluntary, although this is progressively changing. Germany’s
consumption (81%) and waste generation (11%).
Grüner Filmpass (Green Film Pass), redesigned in 2020, now includes
The most common measures for reducing carbon
some mandatory measures. However, the dearth of benchmarking data for
impact included installing energy-efficient lighting,
different types and sizes of film production (adverts, TV, feature film and so
eliminating single-use plastic and reducing travel.
on), and the lack of common standards across international productions,
While every contribution to emissions reduction counts,
remain significant challenges. Moreover, many industry players still give
only 10% of organizations were found to have a policy
low priority to environmental sustainability in the absence of obligatory
or strategy aligned with the level of reductions needed
regulation (Bigger Picture Research, 2020).
according to climate science.
Sources: https://creativeindustriespact.com, www.ecoprod.com,
Source: Arts Council England, 2020. www.ffhsh.de/en/film_commission/Green-Filming-Badge.php, www.wearealbert.org.
© USGS / Unsplash.com
T he UNESCO 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions relates closely to my
mandate. In studying the relationship between cultural rights and cultural diversity with the aim of further promoting cultural rights,
it is crucial for my mandate to collaborate closely with civil society and international organizations, including UNESCO. The cultural
rights of individuals and communities can only thrive where cultural diversity is protected. Very often, we see cultural diversity being
undermined at the domestic level. Reasons include alleged or real threats to national sovereignty, the need to promote the ‘national’
or majority culture and the need to prioritize other interests, often development, over cultural rights. Yet, we now know beyond any
doubt that recognizing cultural diversity and implementing cultural rights makes a significant contribution to the well-being and
development of individuals and communities; and therefore ultimately to social cohesion and peace. It is important to remember
that international standards oblige States to grant special protection and prioritize the rights of specific sections of the population
including women, indigenous peoples, minorities, and vulnerable individuals. It is vital that the interpretation and implementation
of the Convention is always informed by the ever-evolving human rights standards in this sphere. Closer interaction between
UNESCO and the UN is one of the main priorities of my mandate.
Cultural rights must also be at the core of any discussion and activity relating to sustainable development. As early as 1987, the
Brundtland Report had rightly noted that, in order to be ‘sustainable’, development must meet the needs of the community without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. States are under a clear obligation to adopt all appropriate
measures to protect the environment, the livelihood and the natural resources of the affected communities. Cultural rights are an
important ally and resource in this respect. It is vital that States and the international community apply a variety of development
models. The wisdom of traditional knowledge holders and the experiences of affected communities must be used in all stages of
development projects, from inception to delivery and evaluation. Such communities must not only be consulted; their free, prior
and informed consent must be respected and their leadership in implementing and evaluating development programmes must be
sought. This is the only way to ensure that individual and collective cultural rights are protected; and that cultural diversity empowers
communities and benefits humanity.
The Convention ensures that culture is no longer seen as a top-down concept. We are grateful for this. I am determined to use my
mandate to ensure that such a message is heard loudly through cultural rights. I look forward to using this timely Report in carrying
out my mandate in the years to come.
Alexandra Xanthaki
UN Special Rapporteur in the Field of Cultural Rights
Indeed, the municipality created a Ministry of Culture, for its part, has been for European cities, compared with 57%
connected network of routes across working with Mexico City authorities to for rural areas. In some countries (Austria,
Melbourne with their own stories, visuals launch development of the Chapultepec Belgium, France, Germany, Netherlands,
and acoustic designs to showcase Forest Cultural Project, which combines Portugal, Slovenia) the gap between
the city’s creative culture and unlock urban, ecological and cultural planning. urban and rural cultural participation
the potential of some of its lesser- The biocultural park, with a design rates is less than 5% showing a balanced
known areas. As well as providing coordinated by renowned Mexican artist, distribution of cultural assets (Montalto
employment opportunities, improving Gabriel Orozco, may be an interesting et al., 2019). While trends in other regions
mental health and economic satiation experience that will need to address the are more difficult to compare due to a
for many residents, this new initiative challenge of combining cultural and lack of detailed data, the UNESCO Culture
strived to improve local amenities and environmental planning within cities. 2030 Indicators could help to enhance
neighbourhoods to encourage people data collection in the coming years.
to move to or visit there, therefore However, it appears that the rural-urban
revitalising the city during this difficult divide in cultural participation rates is
time. In its VLR on the 2030 Agenda’s The rural-urban divide in higher in developing countries than in
implementation, the Chinese city of cultural participation rates developed ones, which could reflect lower
Deqing included an indicator tracking is higher in developing countries capacity to ensure cultural infrastructure
whether ‘100% of residents can reach in rural areas.
cultural facilities in 40 minutes’ to than in developed ones
evaluate progress on the fight against Developing and developed countries
poverty (SDG 1) (Culture 2030 Goal all implement a variety of measures for
Campaign, 2019). The economic The involvement of central governments ensuring access to culture outside of
dimension of culture is strong in local in developing local government capacities the main urban areas. Viet Nam has a
strategies aimed at local branding is a crucial driver for the integration of particularly comprehensive policy approach
and competitiveness and, under such culture in local development. Under for rural areas through the National Target
objectives, there is often a focus on its Orange Economy Law, Colombia Programme on New Rural Development. In
cultural tourism, notably through heritage developed tools advising mayors and local Latin America, under the regional Cultura
promotion but sometimes through governments on how to include culture Viva (Living Culture) programme, several
developing cultural industry hubs. The and creativity in their development plans. countries (Argentina, Costa Rica, Peru,
region of Lazio in Italy, for instance, Argentina’s national Creative Cities Uruguay) have created Puntos de Cultura
has developed several instruments and Network programme provides training to (Cultural Hotspots) by designating and
triennial plans for developing the region’s local officials of 54 cities to strengthen supporting civil society organizations with
cinema industry as a way of boosting local creative ecosystems. a track record of strengthening cultural
employment, revenues and tourism life in their communities. These hotspots
(Cavallini et al., 2018). IMPROVING TERRITORIAL EQUITY, become hubs for cultural and creative
events and resources in their region.
Cultural industry-based regeneration INCREASING ACCESS TO CULTURE Emphasis is also placed on strengthening
projects are a good example of how Equitable distribution of cultural resources regional cultural infrastructures (Algeria,
cultural, social and economic outcomes and infrastructures is key for territorial Senegal, Timor-Leste) or fostering
can be interconnected. While 73% development, and a prerequisite for participation through the ‘Cultural Sharing’
of respondent countries reported creativity to thrive. Throughout the schemes in the Republic of Korea, which
implementing such projects at the cultural value chain, such assets crucially ensure that art performances reach remote
regional, urban or rural levels, the enable artists and cultural professionals areas, or mobile libraries and bookstores
trend was particularly significant for to create, produce and distribute works. deployed to stimulate reading (China,
Western Europe and North America They also allow audiences to access and Egypt, Iraq). Similarly, the Creative City
(88%) and Latin America and the participate in cultural life. of Heidelberg (Germany), as part of its
Caribbean (82%). These projects are ‘Lust4Live’ initiative – which saw the
an opportunity to enhance community Equity in accessing culture across national creation of small-scale open-air festival
participation and create new economic territories can be tracked in many ways throughout the city centre – ensured that
opportunities. In Maribor, Slovenia, depending on national and local statistics access to culture for all was provided by
university students and residents were available. Currently, the region with the driving a mobile stage on a truck through
involved in the inception phase of the most comparable data is the European the city’s suburbs. Given that the COVID-19
conversion of a former prison, close to Union (EU). The EU Cultural and Creative pandemic has highlighted the challenge
the historic centre, into a commercial Cities Monitor includes indicators such as of digital exclusion, it is encouraging
and cultural facility. The results of this the percentage of inhabitants living no to see the reporting of measures aimed
multistakeholder consultative process more than two kilometres from the closest at ensuring greater connectivity in
are intended to inform the Local Action cultural venue. Eurostat figures from 2015 libraries across national territories
Plan of the municipality. The Mexican show a cultural participation rate of 69% (Argentina, Costa Rica).
INCLUSIVITY MEANS DIVERSITY inclusion and cohesion. Unsurprisingly, arts education for children with special
the countries there implement numerous needs and providing support to artistic
Even in a city or rural area with a good measures to ensure inclusion of projects for disability organizations. In
cultural offering, if there are no special vulnerable groups and minorities. Mozambique, the Ministry of Culture
measures then vulnerable groups (young provides training in arts and crafts to
people, older adults, marginalized In this regard, measures for the women with disabilities.
racial groups, immigrants, persons with inclusion of people with disabilities are
disabilities and Indigenous Peoples) may becoming more widespread. This has The inclusion of migrant or migrant-
not be able to access or contribute to been helped by instruments such as origin populations is also a continuing
this offering (Box 8.4). Of the countries the 2013 Marrakesh Treaty, aimed at trend in many countries (Austria, Cyprus,
surveyed, 81% reportedly implement facilitating access to printed works for Germany, Italy, Republic of Korea,
measures to facilitate access to culture the visually impaired. Measures in this Switzerland). A non-government-led
for disadvantaged or vulnerable groups. field range from translating the Treaty example can be found in Switzerland,
This is generally more common in into national languages, to legislation on where the live music association, PETZI,
developed countries (90%) than in physical accessibility of public cultural in collaboration with other music
developing countries (76%) although spaces, as well as active support to associations, created the Diversity
Latin America and the Caribbean bucks cultural professionals with disabilities Roadmap to provide guidelines to the
this trend. The latter region, like Europe and audiences. In Bulgaria, the Ministry music industry to make the programme,
and North America, has prioritized the of Culture implements the National communication and structure of events
mobilization of culture to promote social Disability Strategy by ensuring integrated more diverse and less discriminatory.
Table 8.1
Inspiring ways to advance selected Sustainable Development Goals through the implementation of the Convention
Target 5.5: Women’s full Goal 4 The Austrian Film Institute introduced incentives
PROMOTE
participation and equal HUMAN to increase the number of female directors in
opportunities for leadership at RIGHTS AND
FUNDAMENTAL
film. Guidelines on TV production were also
all levels of decision-making […] FREEDOMS revised to ensure that women hold key creative
positions. In 2018, the percentage of female
directors increased to 39% and the percentage
of women in key creative positions in TV to 28%.
Target 5.c: Adopt and Goal 4 Argentina’s Law on Female Quota and Access
PROMOTE
strengthen sound policies and HUMAN for Women Artists to Musical Events states that
enforceable legislation for the RIGHTS AND
FUNDAMENTAL
all live music events featuring at least three
promotion of gender equality FREEDOMS artists or groups have to include 30% female
and the empowerment of all artists minimum in their programming. The
women and girls at all levels. same requirements are applied to the digital
environment during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Target 8.a: Increase Aid for Goal 2 Chile’s Ministry of Finance implemented a
ACHIEVE A BALANCED
Trade support for developing FLOW OF CULTURAL support programme for service exports with the
countries, in particular least GOODS AND SERVICES
AND INCREASE THE
Inter-American Development Bank. Through
developed countries […]. MOBILITY OF ARTISTS
AND CULTURAL
interministerial cooperation with the Ministry
PROFESSIONALS of Culture it strengthened business capacity
and the inter-institutional ecosystem to increase
cultural and creative exports.
Target 10.2: By 2030, Goal 3 Algeria’s Regional Theatre of Oran offers ‘a book
empower and promote the INTEGRATE
CULTURE IN
for a ticket’ theatre shows to collect books for
social, economic and political SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
creating libraries for hospitals and marginalized
inclusion of all […]. FRAMEWORKS communities. Three thousand books were
collected in 2017 for a paediatric hospital.
Target 10.7: Facilitate orderly, Goal 2 The Artists Residency Programme of the
ACHIEVE A BALANCED
safe, regular and responsible FLOW OF CULTURAL Association of Southeast Asian Nations is
migration and mobility of GOODS AND SERVICES
AND INCREASE THE
designed to facilitate South-South regional
people […]. MOBILITY OF ARTISTS
AND CULTURAL
mobility of artists and cultural professionals in
PROFESSIONALS the field of visual arts.
Target 10.a: Implement Goal 2 Canada’s Coalition for the Diversity of Cultural
ACHIEVE A BALANCED
the principle of special and FLOW OF CULTURAL Expressions, through intense advocacy ensured
differential treatment for GOODS AND SERVICES
AND INCREASE THE
that the cultural exemption was maintained during
developing countries […]. MOBILITY OF ARTISTS
AND CULTURAL
the negotiations of the new trade agreement
PROFESSIONALS between Canada, Mexico and the United States.
Target 11.3: By 2030, enhance Goal 3 The Hub City of Asian Culture is a cultural and
inclusive and sustainable INTEGRATE
CULTURE IN
urban development project in Gwangju, Republic
urbanization and capacity for SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
of Korea, which bolsters cultural production,
participatory, integrated and FRAMEWORKS activities and exchanges through the creation
sustainable human settlement of culture zones and new infrastructures and
planning and management in training of cultural professionals.
all countries.
Target 16.6: Develop effective, Goal 1 Costa Rica provides training in socio-cultural
SUPPORT
accountable and transparent SUSTAINABLE management to the staff of the Ministry of
institutions. SYSTEMS OF
GOVERNANCE
Culture and Youth on an annual basis to
FOR CULTURE strengthen their capacities.
Target 16.10: Ensure public Goal 4 Sweden has several targeted measures to
PROMOTE
access to information and protect HUMAN protect freedom of expression and artistic
fundamental freedoms […]. RIGHTS AND
FUNDAMENTAL
freedom, including knowledge production, and
FREEDOMS support to artists and journalists. The Swedish
Arts Grants Committee has a mandate to
monitor artistic freedom violations.
Target 17.14: Enhance policy Goal 3 Lithuania’s Inter-Institutional Action Plan for
coherence for sustainable INTEGRATE
CULTURE IN
Culture (2014-2023) implements the provisions
development. SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
of the National Advancement Strategy in the
FRAMEWORKS field of culture, such as infrastructure renewal,
support to the cultural and creative industries,
and enhanced access to and participation
in cultural life. Its implementation by the
Ministry of Culture involves participation from
seven other Ministries and the Department of
Statistics.
¡ Cultural policies and action plans of all ¡ UNESCO, Parties and other relevant
stakeholders should pursue and
tiers of government should integrate
environmental dimensions, including accelerate guidance to countries in
measures addressing the climate different regions on how to integrate
crisis. Conversely, environmental culture in their NSDPs as well as in
policies should consider how cultural VNRs on SDG implementation.
expressions can help reshape existing
models and obtain more effective
¡ International solidarity in funding
cultural cooperation during the post-
results, particularly on climate action.
COVID-19 recovery should continue,
including through the International
¡ As part of strengthening collaboration
between cultural and environmental Fund for Cultural Diversity and the
sectors, Parties and other funding funding commitments of development
bodies should increase funding banks, to ensure that economic and
instruments for cultural expressions social recovery plans do not overlook
around the climate crisis. This the cultural and creative sectors, as
can include mainstreaming the that could have irreversible effects on
environment into existing funding the diversity of cultural expressions,
instruments, increasing environmental particularly in developing countries.
requirements where these already
exist or developing new funding ¡ Parties should further invest in
instruments. evaluating sustainable development
plans and programmes and strengthen
¡ Global institutions working together their evaluation capacities, notably
with regional and national bodies through dedicated international
should fine-tune methodologies to cooperation programmes in
measure the environmental impacts of developing countries and the creation
streaming, as well as designing model of a clearing house for cultural
regulatory measures for countries to development evaluation reports to
keep these impacts to a minimum. enhance use of existing knowledge.
FREEDOMS
FUNDAMENTAL
RIGHTS AND
HUMAN
PROMOTE
Goal 4
RIGHTS AND
as a pre-requisite
for the creation and
distribution of diverse
FUNDAMENTAL cultural expressions
FREEDOMS
2022 REPORT CARD
Gender equality is a growing Gender imbalances in creative Take affirmative action and monitor
priority for public authorities and positions remain wide gender equality and diversity
civil society organizations
Income protection and career Improve the status of the artist
Increasing efforts to improve transition schemes remain rare and build capacities to protect
labour conditions and social artists and cultural professionals’
welfare, especially through Attacks on freedom of artistic social and economic rights
emergency COVID-19 measures expression continue to rise and
digital censorship is becoming a
Support international human
growing concern
Increased capacities of artistic rights frameworks with local
freedom monitors monitoring systems and concrete
implementation mechanisms,
including online
DATA R E Q U I R E M E N T S
239
© Victoria Villasana, Fibonacci sequence, 2017, Mexico*
Chapter 9
Gender equality:
one step forward,
two steps back
Anna Villarroya Planas
KEY FINDINGS
››› G
ender equality is increasingly being recognized as a priority for the cultural and creative industries, as
evidenced by the high percentage of Parties reporting measures to ensure gender equality in the sector.
However, acting for gender equality remains one of the main challenges in the implementation of the
2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions.
››› T here is a critical lack of data regarding women in the culture and media sectors. However, existing
evidence suggests that women remain under-represented in positions of leadership, have less access to
public funding and their work is far less visible and acknowledged than their male counterparts.
››› T he COVID-19 pandemic may have taken a disproportionate toll on female artists and cultural
professionals. For a sustainable recovery, gender equality needs to become a mainstreamed priority.
››› C
ivil society organizations are proving to be key in advancing innovative measures for gender equality,
building the capacities of female artists and creative professionals and stimulating networking.
››› T he film industry plays a leading role in advocating and benefitting from gender equality measures
(65%) compared to music and publishing (each at 13%) and the performing arts (9%). However, only
about a third (33%) of the awards for the main film categories of 60 major film festivals worldwide
were given to female artists and producers in 2019. Under a quarter (24%) were awarded for best
director and best screenplay.
››› T he female workforce in the gaming industry stands at just 30% worldwide. This confirms
women’s under-representation in some creative industries (particularly those linked to fast growing
technologies) and overrepresentation in other, traditionally more precarious ones.
››› G
ender diversity and intersectionality are emerging areas of intervention, both contributing to
advancing gender equality and fostering more diverse and inclusive cultural and creative sectors.
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 241
2022 Global Report
PROGRESS
u
GENDER EQUALIT Y MEASURES PROGRESS BY SECTOR
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
CHALLENGES
Policies and measures promote gender equality Monitoring systems evaluate levels of representation,
in the culture and media sectors participation and access of women in the culture
and media sectors
with the Swedish regions – responsible and professionals working in the cultural
INTRODUCTION for distributing funds to regional cultural and creative sectors are at risk of being
activities throughout the country – to left out of the recovery plans. In reviewing
In 2017, the #MeToo movement took the
tackle this issue and bring about change policies and measures to counteract the
world by storm. The movement and its
from the ground up. These immediate devastating effects of the pandemic on the
related hashtag became an overnight
actions led to positive change in public cultural and creative industries, UNESCO
phenomenon that provided millions of
and private organizations’ policies could not identify any government
women and girls with a means to share against harassment and discrimination measures specifically aimed at promoting
their stories of sexual harassment and of any kind. The Swedish Film Institute, gender equality (UNESCO, 2020f).
express solidarity with all those who a champion for gender parity in the
experienced gender-based violence or industry, further reinforced its advocacy While female creators and women
discrimination at home, at work, in efforts at the international level in 2018 working in the culture and media sectors
public spaces or online. It is not an by organizing the international seminar are at the forefront of making gender
overstatement to say that the movement ‘Take Two: Next moves for #MeToo’ at equality a reality, all too often achieving
shook the world to its core. It also came the Cannes Film Festival to help raise gender equality in the cultural and
as no surprise that the movement was awareness about inequalities facing creative industries is not high on the list
fuelled by leading film actresses who women in this sector. of government priorities.
came forward to share their struggles in
an industry historically run by men. While Similarly, the performance Un violador
they amplified the voices emerging from en tu camino (A Rapist in Your Path)
all walks of life and professions across rallied women across the world against Female and gender diverse artists
the world, it also sounded the alarm that femicides and gender-based sexual and professionals working in
the film and creative industries at large violence. LASTESIS1 (The Thesis), a the cultural and creative sectors
were not spared from sexual misconduct, feminist art and performance collective
from Chile, first organized the protest are at risk of being left out of
gender-based inequalities and a culture
of silence. flash mob in 2019 outside the Supreme COVID-19 recovery plans
Court in Santiago, to mark the
The #MeToo movement continues to International Day for the Elimination of
reverberate and have long-lasting effects Violence Against Women (25 November).
at an individual and societal level, The song and choreography became an ONE STEP FORWARD
including in the adoption of policies international movement, replicated by
and measures in the cultural and women of all ages in 54 countries across Since 2007, gender equality has been
creative sectors. six continents2. one of UNESCO’s two global priorities.
Emphasizing the importance of culture
In Sweden, #MeToo led to immediate However, as the COVID-19 pandemic for social cohesion in general, and in
action against sexual harassment and impacted the world and demanded an particular its potential to enhance the
discrimination in the cultural sector. The immediate response at the government status and role of women in society, the
Swedish Work Environment Authority level, female and gender diverse artists 2005 Convention on the Protection and
and the Equality Ombudsman were Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural
commissioned to distribute information 1. Artists at Risk Connection. Artist Profile: LASTESIS, Expressions relies on Parties’ commitment
about employers’ responsibilities in Chile. https://artistsatriskconnection.org/story/lastesis to: ‘create in their territory an environment
(Accessed 22 October 2021).
this regard. In the theatre sector, the which encourages individuals and social
2. A map documenting the locations of the 400+
government released new guidelines performances of Un violador en tu camino (A Rapist groups to create, produce, disseminate,
calling for dedicated measures to prevent in Your Path) is available online at https://umap. distribute and have access to their own
and counter sexual harassment and other openstreetmap.fr/es/map/un-violador-en-tu-camino- cultural expressions, paying due attention
20192021-actualizado-al-2_394247#3/57.47/-2.99
forms of discrimination. The Swedish Arts (Accessed 22 October 2021) – project initiated by to the special circumstances and needs of
Council was mandated to work together Geochicas (2021), a collective of feminist mapmakers. women […]’ (Article 7).
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 243
2022 Global Report
The Recommendation concerning the Figure 9.1 sectors through gender equality
Status of the Artist (1980), also calls on strategies, new legal provisions and
governments to: ‘give particular attention Progress in monitoring policies dedicated programmes. For example, a
to the development of women’s creativity and measures promoting gender six-month online training programme
and the encouragement of groups and equality, by % of quadrennial for women entrepreneurs with small to
organizations which seek to promote the periodic reports submitted by Parties medium-sized enterprises in all fields,
role of women in the various branches of 2020 including culture, was launched in the
artistic activity’ (Article 4). 2012-2015 2016-2019 United Arab Emirates in 2020 by the
(as Nov. 2020)
United States Embassy in partnership
Public awareness about the importance 5% with startAD (an accelerator) and Zayed
of gender equality, both as a human 89%
University. Meanwhile, the government
right and as an indispensable factor for of Comoros revised its National
sustainable development, has increased Policy for Gender Equality in 2018 to
over time. Since the previous edition of incorporate culture in the government’s
the Global Report, in the cultural and approach to sustainable development.
creative sectors, countries have taken 64% Similarly, Nicaragua has dedicated one
important steps towards advancing SDG of the National Human Development
5, which aims to achieve gender equality 77% Programme’s lines of action to the
and empower all women and girls. In equality between men and women.
Note: The percentage for 2020 is lower than the one
2020, Parties to the Convention reported included in UNESCO, 2021d because of the large On this basis, the Nicaraguan Institute
more measures and policies than ever number of new QPRs submitted in the latter half of of Culture prioritizes the equitable
aiming to enable women to access and 2020, which increased the base size. participation (50% – 50%) of men and
excel in the creative economy, as well Source: BOP Consulting (2021). women in cultural activities across age
as to diversify the ways in which girls groups (children, youth, adults, older
and women are represented across the Some of the measures reported adults). As demonstrated by these
spectrum of cultural expressions. by national governments are not examples, the pre-existence of standard
exclusively meant for cultural and policies in the field of gender equality
creative sectors, but rather aim to can be a first step towards the inclusion
advance gender equality across several of specific measures in the cultural field.
Public awareness about the
importance of gender equality,
both as a human right and Figure 9.2
as an indispensable factor
for sustainable development, Policies or measures to support women’s full participation in cultural life
in the last four years, by region
has increased over time
Support the full participation of women in cultural life
Support the recognition and advancement of women as artists, cultural professionals and/or
As shown in Figure 9.1, in the first creative entrepreneurs
reporting cycle (2012-2015) when gender
Global total 77%
equality was not included as a specific 66%
reporting area, only 5% of reports detailed
policies or measures on this topic. For 93%
Western European and North American States
the second reporting cycle (2016-2019), 88%
Parties were encouraged to report on 59%
Eastern European States
policies and measures to promote gender 60%
equality and 64% of the submitted reports 76%
included at least one policy or measure Latin American and Caribbean States
50%
on gender equality. For the third reporting
Asian and Pacific States 70%
cycle launched in 2020, the new reporting 40%
form (which is fully aligned with the
Convention’s Monitoring Framework) has 81%
African States
71%
had a leverage effect: the share of reports
including policies or measures on gender 82%
Arab States
equality in the first year of this cycle 80%
peaked at 77%. Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 245
2022 Global Report
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 247
2022 Global Report
For example, with support from the continues to invest in its female alumni by a series of national and international
Ministry of Culture, Hecho por Mujeres facilitating their access to the job market, prizes for literary and artistic creation
(Made by Women) is Peru’s first festival festivals and other art residencies. Also bearing the names of women artists. The
to showcase feature and short films in Africa, Music Crossroads Zimbabwe Algerian government is also considering
directed by women. It was launched in provides skills enhancement workshops the creation of a National Observatory
2018, in response to persistent inequality for female artists. As a result of this for Women, with a mission to promote
in the industry, where only 5% to 8% of initiative, the Women’s Desk at the female artists and women working in the
the annual feature films released in the Zimbabwe Union of Musicians has been cultural field, while ensuring statistical
country were directed by female directors. established to oversee the interests of monitoring of women’s representation
For its first two editions in 2018 and and identify empowerment initiatives in culture and other sectors of the
2019, the festival was organized in more for female musicians across the country. economy at the national level. At the
than 40 venues in 10 different regions of The UNESCO-Sabrina Ho initiative ‘You international level, the ResiliArt initiative
the country, screening over 150 Peruvian Are Next: Empowering Creative Women’ was launched by UNESCO in April 2020.
productions. Its programme included was launched in 2018 to tackle the This initiative began as a movement for
meetings with artists and filmmakers, multifaceted gender challenges that and by artists, and has drawn attention
round tables and workshops. In Rwanda, are ongoing in the culture sector. Over to gender equality issues. It has provided
the Urusaro International Women Film the course of two years, it funded four women with opportunities to lead global,
Festival, which has been organized by outstanding projects that empowered regional and national discussions, and to
CinéFEMMES RWANDA since 2015, and trained young women under the age set an agenda for overcoming the crisis
attempts to change the perception of of 40 in Mexico, Palestine, Senegal and in culture – with particular emphasis on
women in society, promote the role of Tajikistan by providing access to digital the effects on women past and present.
creative industries for economic growth tools and courses to build their technical, As a result, UNESCO launched the digital
and invest in training new female talent creative and entrepreneurial skills. One campaign ‘The Voice of the Resilient:
in film production. Along the same of these projects was ‘Women Audio Women Creators from West Africa’ in
lines, the Fémina Festival in Panama is a Visual Education’, a technology-based August 2020 to promote gender equality
multidisciplinary event with workshops, training programme developed by Ayyam in the West African cultural sector during
a marketplace and a talk show dedicated Al Masrah (Theatre Day Productions) in the pandemic.
to women creators in cinema, theatre, Gaza, Palestine, teaching participants
visual arts, crafts, stand-up comedy and to work with communities and turn Other types of instruments adopted
music to discuss women’s role in and improvisation, character analysis and include laws and regulatory developments
contribution to society. development into new digital content. on women’s participation in cultural
Similarly, the Digital Arts Academy offered institutions, decision-making processes
courses in coding, digital creation and and cultural programmes – including
entrepreneurship to young female cultural specific quotas and targets in some cases.
Artistic events showcasing work entrepreneurs from Afghanistan and The Albanian Ministry of Social Welfare
and Youth and the Ministry of Finance,
by female artists and capacity- Tajikistan through the Bactria Cultural
in cooperation with the UN Women
Center, founded by the non-governmental
building programmes were organization ACTED (Agency for Technical Country Office in Albania, have taken the
among the most commonly Cooperation and Development). initiative to integrate gender budgeting
reported measures and policies principles in the annual and medium-
Other significant mechanisms included term budget programming processes.
to support female creative talent advocacy events, forums, competitions The purpose is to eliminate gender
and prizes for female artists. The Ministry inequalities in various areas, including
of Culture, Tourism and Antiquities in Iraq culture. The Ministry of Culture is one of
Capacity-building programmes were also organizes the annual Naziq Al-Malaika 24 public institutions benefitting from
commonly reported among the measures Award for Women’s Literary Creativity, the initiative. In Argentina, Law No.
and policies to support female creative aimed at stimulating and increasing 27539 on Female Quota and Access for
talent. Frequently involving CSOs, such the exposure of female writers in the Women Artists to Musical Events was
measures often aim to facilitate market Arab region in the fields of poetry, the adopted in December 2019, with the
access for cultural expressions created or novel and literary criticism. The Award scope to eliminate all discrimination
produced by women. Through the ‘Arts is international in scope and seeks based on sex, gender or gender identity.
Femmes’ (Arts Women) project, since to promote cultural exchange among According to the Law, live music events
2016 the cultural association Coté Cour in Arab countries and to expand the or activities involving a minimum of
Mali has trained more than 100 women literary market. Similarly, the Algerian three artists and/or musical groups must
in lighting design, set design, playwriting, Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of ensure that at least 30% of their artists
directing and cultural management – Communication, in partnership with are women and/or people whose self-
especially for theatre. The association other public institutions, have established perceived gender identity is female.
A
implemented by Screen Australia, Screen
Ireland, the Austrian Film Institute, the
National Film Board of Canada and the chieving gender equality in the cultural and creative sectors requires accepting
Norwegian Film Institute. In all these that there is an unquestionable need to acknowledge and remedy the difference in
cases, linking funding decisions to opportunities and social status associated with gender. In other words, it requires
greater gender equality is already paying exercising fairness. This acknowledgement should enable us to develop empathy
dividends and providing a positive model towards those currently less fortunate and foster respect and tolerance within the
to replicate in other cultural sectors. group. It should also serve to cultivate what is a key belief, namely, that change is
necessary if we are to make equality a reality.
A survey carried out by the International
Labour Organization (ILO) among over
People’s experiences have laid the foundations for establishing a path towards
equity and providing a source of optimism. Achieving equity involves creating
90 trade unions in the live entertainment,
tools which make it possible for women and men to be seen as equally capable
film and television, and broadcasting
of realizing their full potential in different fields - not only the field of acting. It
industries analysed the links between the involves awakening in women and men an interest in bettering themselves or
way the work is organized the industry, expanding their knowledge. And it involves understanding that they deserve equal
its specific organizational dynamics and recognition and equal pay for any work they do; they deserve work which is free of
the diverse employment relationships, discrimination based on gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic background or
and patterns of sexual harassment. It any other differentiating circumstance.
also stressed the need to prevent, address
We must make it clear that it is society’s duty to ensure, with assertive information,
and eliminate violence and harassment that people understand their rights. It is time for change. It is time to respect human
in combination with actions tackling the rights by treating people with dignity and seeing to it that their working conditions
underlying gender imbalances in the meet their needs. It is time to recognize, by highlighting every achievement, that skin
industry (ILO, 2020b). colour, physical appearance and sexual preference do not matter when it comes to
talent and the desire to progress – whether through large steps or small ones.
Some countries have also adopted
policies and measures to combat sexual We need to be aware of our reality and of how we can change it. We need to find a
harassment of artists and cultural way to go further, based on our history and our reflections, in order to make visible
professionals. In Finland, the Ministry of all those considered invisible. In doing this we must make an impression on all
Education and Culture provides financial
those trying to forge their own way, not only in the cultural and creative spheres,
but in all fields of work.
support in the fields of theatre and film,
including practical measures to prevent Yalitza Aparicio Martínez
harassment, and support for employers’ Actress and UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for Indigenous Peoples
rights and obligations.
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 249
2022 Global Report
The Ministry has also introduced audiovisual and film sectors to deal with
new obligations for the Finnish Film sexual and gender-based violence and Everywhere in the world,
Foundation, which must ensure that harassment. it remains much more difficult
publicly funded productions fulfil their for women to gain recognition
legal obligations and that appropriate Networks to protect women and
measures are in place to prevent gender diverse artists’ rights are usually and acclaim for their work
harassment and promote gender established as civil society initiatives in the creative professions
equality. The same clause applies to all and act as advocacy groups with key
operating grants of the Ministry from actors, stakeholders and partners. In
2020 onwards (Box 9.3). Also in the many cases, these networks use shared Meanwhile, Conectadas Latinoamérica
audiovisual sector, in Bangladesh the experiences to identify career obstacles, (Connected Latin America) is a
Ministry of Information (through the and to collectively reflect on the levers multidisciplinary platform connecting
Cinema and Television Institute) has to mobilize in order to overcome them. female artists, managers, producers and
established a committee to prevent any One such example is the Network of technicians in several Latin American
kind of harassment within the industry. Gender Journalists for Women and cities. Significant initiatives in the film
In France, the Ministry of Culture has Cultural Advancement in Gambia, and audiovisual industry include the
created a legal and psychological alert which has around 90 members and has Collectif 50/50 in France, which is
and listening unit for permanent and published about 26 articles on women committed to reflecting on and fighting
temporary employees in the performing, and culture. for equality, parity and diversity in the
industry, and CinéFEMMES RWANDA,
which focuses on raising awareness about
the need to support women filmmakers in
Box 9.3 • G
ender equality policy of the Finnish Ministry pursuing their careers. At the local level,
of Education and Culture musicHHwomen is the first local network
in Hamburg (Germany) for women
Motivated by the need to gain deeper insight into the #MeToo discussion, in 2018 musicians aimed at improving access to
the Finnish Ministry of Education and Culture commissioned a study on gender senior positions, overcoming prescribed
equality in the country’s cultural and creative sectors. The questions addressed by roles and stereotypes and increasing the
the study included reasons why the artistic and cultural scene in Finland is prone to presence of women in the music industry.
sexual or gender-based harassment and improper conduct. The research was carried
out by the Centre for Cultural Policy Research Cupore, and the final study She plays ENHANCING WOMEN’S ACCESS
like a man! How to strengthen equality and wellbeing at work in the cultural field?
was published in 2019. Besides up-to-date statistics and good practice examples, the
TO CULTURAL LIFE
report proposes recommendations for promoting well-being and ensuring more equal Among the data collected at national
working conditions for artists and culture professionals, such as: levels, the participation in artistic and
cultural events and activities is the form
¡ Including equality plans in funding applications, together with financial sanctions most frequently disaggregated by sex.
in case of misconduct – with possible withdrawal of funding;
However, it is not possible to establish
¡ Continuous collection and publication of data on the state of gender equality a comprehensive global picture because
in the cultural and creative sectors; datasets collected by countries are not
¡ Training on gender equality for managers/leaders/supervisors; entirely comparable. In addition, regions
¡ Dismantling outdated gender traditions, stereotypes and genius myths – remembering like Africa and the Arab States provide
that nobody is exceptional enough to have the right or special privilege to oppress others; little statistical evidence to support a
geographically balanced analysis. Out of
¡ Working conditions need to be decent, even when work is done as a calling. the 13 countries4 that reported accurate
One of the concrete actions carried out in 2019 by the Finnish Ministry of Education measurements of the female participation
and Culture was the adoption of the Guidelines for Inclusion 2020-2023, an action rate in cultural activities as an indicator for
plan for promoting operational gender equality and non-discrimination. Also, a the implementation of the Convention and
gender equality clause was included in all operational grants of the Ministry, as of of SGD target 5.c, Australia and Canada
2020. The clause stipulates that all beneficiaries must promote gender equality and are the two developed countries with the
non-discrimination in their operations, report on it and ensure that work is carried out highest female cultural attendance of
within legal remits (Gender Equality Act and Non-discrimination Act). 85% (2018) and 87% (2016), respectively.
These initiatives are even more noteworthy given that, in its 2016 periodic report on
the implementation of the Convention, Finland stated that gender was not then part 4. Based on the research conducted by BOP Consulting,
of the arts or cultural policy discourse in the country. in alphabetical order, the 13 countries are: Australia,
Canada, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica, Japan, Republic of
Sources: Finland QPR, www.cupore.fi/en/publications/cupore-s-publications/the-girl-plays-like-a-man. Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Peru, Singapore, Switzerland
and the United States.
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 251
2022 Global Report
Even if the success rate was slightly characters showing women’s true
higher for female than male applicants lived experiences, nor will it naturally The visual art world
(42.8%), men outnumber their female lead to better working conditions for
counterparts. All in all, further efforts women on set (Jansson & Wallenberg,
is showing progress in
should be made to attract more women 2020). Policies and measures aimed the representation of women
film and TV directors and scriptwriters at promoting gender equality must artists and curators
to apply, and to help them increase their therefore also aim to change industry
chances of being selected. norms about how gender is reflected on
screen, as well as behind the camera.
On the African continent, gender equality Other music genres do not necessarily
in film stands out as one of the greatest In the music sector, more specifically perform much better. For example, the
challenges. In the Central, Eastern and in classical music, the disproportionate proportion of female artists performing
Western Africa regions, the proportion of representation of male over female at electronic music festivals worldwide
women in the film industry is estimated conductors is stark. According to is still unbalanced – despite having
to be less than 10%. However, several Bachtrack5 (a global online classical increased from 15% in 2016 to 25%
Arabic-speaking and English-speaking music event listing platform), in 2019
in 2019. Moreover, existing data show
countries, including Kenya, Morocco, just 8 out of the 100 conductors with
that larger festivals still tend to have
Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Tunisia the most performances across the
a lower percentage of female acts.
and Zimbabwe, showed encouraging world were women. Even though this
Unsurprisingly, public funded festivals
dynamics, with 30% or more female is eight times higher than in 2013, the
and festivals with female artistic
professionals behind and in front of the contrast should be worrisome for anyone
directors have a considerably higher
camera. In general, however, most of the who understands the need for gender
proportion of female acts. This suggests
technical roles are held by men. Freedom equality progress in all areas of the
the ways forward to improve the current
of expression is another major challenge, creative economy.
situation in favour of gender equality
as 87% of film professionals report
and diverse cultural expressions.
explicit or self-imposed limitations to what
can be shown or addressed on screen The visual art world is showing progress
(UNESCO, 2021c). Policies and measures aimed at in the representation of women artists
Commercial logic interferes with promoting gender equality must and curators. Art biennales, such as
policies to promote gender equality, also aim to change industry the Istanbul Biennial, la Biennale di
Venezia, the Sharjah Biennial, DAK’ART
including with initiatives to promote norms about how gender is and the Havana Biennial, have
more women in key creative roles in
major film projects. A recent study of
reflected on screen, as well as significantly improved the participation
the film industry in Sweden reported behind the camera of women curators and female artists. In
on the difficulties faced by women the period 2015-2017 these biennales
directors when they attempt to portray had between 26% (Havana Biennial)
gender differently and challenge current and 43% (Istanbul Biennial) female
An international survey was conducted curators and artists. From 2018 to
gender norms. Larger budgets are often
in 2015 and 2016 among female 2020, their representation improved,
correlated with more circumscribed
composers, but with a response rate ranging between 40% (Havana
artistic control and therefore less
mainly from Australia, North America Biennial) and 55% (Istanbul Biennial).
opportunity to break with convention.
and Europe (84% from a sample of 225 Figure 9.6 shows the proportion of
Female producers call out the pressure
respondents). According to the survey, female artists and curators in 20 global
to develop female protagonists who fall
social networks and social capital, art biennales, after considering
under the ‘umbrella of female likeability’:
online visibility, family support and the nearly 2,000 artists and curators
characters that are physically attractive,
availability of external funding continue participating in these global art events.
submissive, non-opinionated or, in a
to play a decisive part in their career Even if the numbers have improved,
word, ‘likable’. They also criticise the long
trajectories (Hennekam et al., 2019). just three events have had a greater
hours on set, which are incompatible
The findings revealed the need for: representation of female artists and
with responsibilities that women usually
more grants and funding opportunities, curators between 2018 and 2020:
have at home (echoing the complaints
online platforms for composers Bienal of São Paulo (Brazil), Istanbul
of women across the cultural sector).
to enhance visibility and a more Biennial (Turkey) and Whitney Biennial
This means that, while the presence of
ambitious collaborative effort to reduce (United States). The other 17 still have
more women in commercial productions
gender inequity. some way to go in terms of giving
may increase their representation behind
the camera, it will not necessarily result balanced exposure to male and female
in more diverse and complex female 5. www.bachtrack.com. experts and artists.
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 253
2022 Global Report
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 255
2022 Global Report
Figure 9.7
The pandemic has highlighted Regular data collection and dissemination to monitor gender equality
the extent to which cultural in culture and media sectors or the participation of women in cultural life,
employment is precarious by region
due to the informal working
Global total 53%
conditions in many private
art spaces, cultural projects Western European and North American States 100%
and freelance-based Eastern European States 47%
collaborations, especially
for women Latin American and Caribbean States 53%
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 257
2022 Global Report
OF INTERVENTION
The last few years have seen the seekers worked with textiles and other art gender identities and participating
emergence of policy intervention areas media to enhance their skills in design, in the cultural life. Through artistic
with clear impacts on the diversity of pedagogy, humanitarian support and events and by participating in various
cultural expressions. marketing. As a result, participants began governmental forums for the formulation
to open up and come out from closed of public policies, they have created new
One of these relates to intersectionality environments, integrate into groups and opportunities for female and LGBTIQ+
frameworks, which explore the communities, become actively involved in youth, artists and cultural professionals.
interaction of gender with other forms society and engage in cultural activities. In Iceland, Stelpur rokka! (Girls Rock!)
of discrimination such as race, economic The projects also gave visibility to these is a volunteer organization that works
status, language, religion, age and groups, their culture and language, to empower girls, trans, queer and
disability. In line with cultural rights and thereby helping to eliminate prejudice intersex youth through music and equal
the aim to leave no one behind, the use and overcome stigmatisation. rights education. In five years, over
of intersectional lenses adds nuance 400 girls and women have participated
to the policies and measures targeting Another visible trend is the adoption in its activities and have formed more
women in the culture sector. Some Parties of policies and measures that, beyond than 70 bands10. Girls Rock! is a part
to the Convention have increasingly a focus on equality between women of the Girls Rock Camp Alliance, an
taken measures in this area. With support and men, address gender diversity more international network of youth-centred
from the EU’s European Social Fund, broadly – including the various ways arts and social justice organizations
Slovenia has prioritized co-financing in which people define their gender with over 60 girl rock camps all over the
projects involving women belonging to identities and preferences (Box 9.5). world. With support from the Icelandic
minority communities, particularly in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Girls Rock
field of culture and creative sectors. The For example, the National Exhibition of Camp has also been organized in Togo
results are visible in projects designed Visual Arts in Argentina has challenged since 2016.
to include vulnerable social groups and the binary conception of gender by
women from minority ethnic groups, The cultural and creative industries
including the option ‘other’ in the gender
such as the Roma community and therefore represent an opportunity
field when registering for the Exhibition.
the German-speaking ethnic group in to engage participants, audiences,
The National Institute of Music has also
Slovenia, so that they may participate governments, CSOs and activists with
established a non-binary official Register
opportunities to explore and imagine
fully in cultural life. One such project of musicians and bands.
many different ways of being and
was Razkrite roke – Poslovni in humani
In Ecuador, Crisalys – an association of identifying in our societies and, in turn,
uspehi (Revealed Hands – human and
families with transgender minors and contributing to greater gender equality
business achievements) implemented by
Ñuca Trans (We Trans) – a group of and diversity.
the OLOOP Ljubljana Institute (Institute
for Contemporary Textile Art and Design), transgender women – have addressed the
where female immigrants and asylum lack of spaces for expressing non-binary 10. www.stelpurrokka.is.
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 259
2022 Global Report
Chapter 9 • Gender equality: one step forward, two steps back 261
© Shilpa Gupta, For, in your tongue, I cannot fit, 2017-18. Photograph by Pat Verbruggen.
Sound Installation with 100 speakers, microphones, printed text and metal stands,
commissioned by YARAT Contemporary Art Space and Edinburgh Art Festival*
Chapter 10
Safeguarding
the freedom to create
Sara Whyatt
KEY FINDINGS
››› While some States have amended or abolished laws affecting freedom of artistic expression,
there remains a worrying disconnect between protective law and practice, with attacks on
freedom of artistic expression continuing to rise in 2020. To be effective, protective laws
must be supported by local monitoring systems and concrete implementation mechanisms.
››› C
ultural and human rights defenders, as well as civil society organizations, increasingly
engage in monitoring and advocating for freedom of artistic expression, including through
the provision of safe havens for artists at risk.
››› T here is a clear need for organizations with understanding and expertise of both human
rights and culture in all regions to fill persistent gaps in monitoring and reporting on
artistic freedom.
››› In the last four years, 54% of Parties report having taken measures to improve the status of
artists by adopting new or revising existing economic measures.
››› S tates are putting in place measures to ensure fair pay, remuneration and access to social
welfare benefits for artists, bringing them in line with the general workforce.
››› D
espite some progress, there remains a general lack of understanding of artistic freedom,
signifying a need for more capacity-building on the subject.
››› C
OVID-19 has exacerbated the pre-existing precariousness of working conditions among
artists and cultural professionals. States have been trying to meet the challenge through
emergency measures aimed at protecting the social and economic rights of artists and
cultural professionals.
Artistic freedom
consists of:
Freedom of artistic Social and economic
1 expression 2 rights of artists
PROGRESS
CHALLENGES
C O V I D -19 PA N D E M I C
DATA AND INFORMATION GAPS ATTACKS ON ARTIST S
Challenges to artistic
? Despite progress,
the term artistic
2018
2019
673
771
freedom intensified:
Artists were suddenly without
freedom has not yet income or social protection,
gained a common 2020 978 and sometimes silenced
understanding for speaking up about
among countries Attacks on freedom of artistic COVID-19 measures
expression continue to rise globally
– ranging from censorship to killings As digitalization
accelerates,
Persistent artistic freedom
information in the digital
gaps sphere becomes a
undermine the Only
53%
of Parties have growing concern
development independent bodies
of more that receive and
targeted policies monitor violations
Policies and measures promote and protect Policies and measures promote and protect
freedoms of creation and expression the social and economic rights of artists
and participation in cultural life and cultural professionals
music industry, where work has always to the informal nature of much cultural
INTRODUCTION been precarious and undervalued. They work, leaving them without support. This
hope that the experience has led to situation is ongoing at the time of writing.
A musical duo in the United Kingdom
the public and governments realising
was earning a precarious living through However, it is not all bad news. The
the importance of the arts in times of
small live performances, travelling sector’s suffering paradoxically led to
crisis, and that the crisis will spur a
around the country and occasionally broader public acknowledgement of its
transformation of the entire music value
abroad. When the COVID-19 pandemic pre-existing issues. As this chapter reveals,
chain to make sure that artists are given
struck, suddenly and without warning there is continuing engagement in the
a fair revenue.
they were unable to perform, and their right to artistic freedom, and its challenges
main source of income disappeared at the national and international levels.
overnight. Already earning very little, Since 2018, governments have enacted,
frequently performing for free simply
to get exposure, they had no resources
The state of artistic freedom or are preparing, Status of the Artist laws
and mechanisms to address the special
to fall back on. Faced with a health can tell us much about the state challenges that have always been faced by
emergency, it took a few months before of human rights in a territory artists and cultural professionals. Artistic
the government was able to give freedom is the freedom to imagine, create
emergency aid to artists like them. Until and distribute diverse cultural expressions
then, they had to rely on food packages free of governmental censorship, political
The difficulties faced by these artists
donated by friends, and, unable to interference or the pressures of non-State
hint at the severity of the impact on the
pay rent, feared losing their home. actors as enshrined in the International
livelihoods of artists in most countries
This disaster was averted when they Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
that have not been able to mobilize
successfully applied for a grant from It also includes the right of everyone
equivalent sums to support the cultural
Help Musicians’ coronavirus financial to take part in cultural life (Article 15,
and creative sector. Moreover, as access
hardship funding. Since March 2020, Paragraph 1 (a), of the International
to the Internet remains largely uneven,
this independent charity has supported Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
not all artists have had the same
over 19,000 musicians with over £11m Rights). As such, it is a fundamental aspect
opportunity to even attempt to make a
(approximately US$14.6 million) in of cultural rights, and the state of artistic
living online.
financial hardship funding across the freedom can tell us much about the state
United Kingdom1. The world has seen dramatic changes of human rights in a territory.
since the publication of the 2018 Global
As the duo had already started As mentioned in the other chapters,
Report, with the COVID-19 pandemic
developing an online presence, they since the 2018 Global Report, the
causing devastation across the globe
launched a series of live streamed quadrennial periodic report framework
and more than five million lives lost as
performances from their room. Viewers was redesigned to match the monitoring
of December 2021. The culture sector
paid a voluntary fee, which brought in framework of the 2005 Convention on
has been struck a particularly harsh
some income, although unfortunately the Protection and Promotion of the
blow in terms of economic losses (as
not all viewers contributed. As Diversity of Cultural Expressions. In this
outlined in Chapter 1), but also in terms
restrictions on performances eased, the
of freedom of artistic expression. This is framework, Parties’ implementation of
duo had survived but with a large debt
illustrated by the many reports of artists artistic freedom is measured according to
that will be difficult to repay – even
detained specifically for works that two main indicators, covering the policies
if their touring and performing work
criticize governments’ handling of the and measures that promote and protect
returns to pre-pandemic levels. They are
crisis (Freemuse, 2021). On the social freedom of creation and expression,
considering giving up working in the
and economic side, many artists found and those that promote and protect the
themselves without an income or any social and economic rights of artists
1. www.helpmusicians.org.uk/ medical or employment insurance due and cultural professionals.
This is illustrated through the work of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2015)
Freemuse, for instance, which produces • Target 8.5 – full and productive employment with equal pay
annual statistics on attacks against • Target 8.8 – labour rights and secure working conditions
artists around the world and across • Target 16.10 – protecting access to information and fundamental freedoms
creative sectors. Its records for the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention and Recommendation (No. 206) (2019)
period 2018 to 2020, compared with • The right of everyone to a world of work free from violence and harassment (Article 4)
2017, show a 20% rise in censorship • The need to develop an inclusive, integrated and gender-responsive approach for
against artists and cultural professionals. the prevention and elimination of violence and harassment in the world of work
The most serious attacks, namely (Article 4, Convention)
killings, imprisonments, detentions and
• Broad personal scope of protection (Article 2, Convention) and seeks to address
prosecutions, have all increased in recent violence and harassment that occurs ‘in the course of, linked with or arising out of
years. Other forms of repression make up work’, both in the formal and informal economy, and whether in the private or public
the bulk of abuses and include instances sector (Article 3, Convention)
of physical and online attacks and
• Adoption of appropriate measures for sectors or occupations and work arrangements
threats, banning of works and halting in which exposure to violence and harassment may be more likely, such as […]
of performances, denial of licences and entertainment (Paragraph 9, Recommendation)
restrictions on freedom of movement.
Currently, just over half of the Parties Data collection, monitoring Its ‘Stand for Art’ programme supports
to the Convention (53%) report having and evaluation are key to a full artists at risk in the Arab States by
independent bodies that receive understanding of the scale of repression providing financial support for living
complaints or monitor violations and of artistic expression. However, there and airfare expenses, legal support and
restrictions to artistic freedom. This are relatively few rights organizations medical fees, and by putting artists in
means that, for many artists, there is monitoring and advocating on the contact with residencies in the Arab
nowhere to report a violation to their issue internationally or nationally. The States or abroad.
freedom of artistic expression. As shown struggle is exacerbated by a lack of
by Figure 10.3, percentages vary widely coordination between organizations. In
between regions, from 33% in Asia and this regard, there have been some calls
the Pacific to 75% in Western Europe for a coordination platform and a United In our international community of
and North America. Nations plan of action for the safety of artists, we have an obligation to be
artists (similar to the one established for sure that we don’t just get caught
the safety of journalists). up in our own rights and our own
circumstances. We must not forget
For many artists, Those organizations dedicated entirely our colleagues around the world …
there is nowhere to report to promoting freedom of artistic We should mobilize to do what
a violation to their freedom expression (through research and we can to reduce the risks that all
advocacy, housing or relocation grants our colleagues face.
of artistic expression or providing places of safety for artists Deeyah Khan
and cultural workers at risk or in exile) UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for artistic
are mostly based in the Northern freedom and creativity, speaking at the
National Commissions on Human Hemisphere – notably the Germany, online UNESCO ResiliArt debate ‘Artists and
Rights (NCHR) ensure the protection Creativity beyond Crisis’, 15 April 2020
Scandinavia, the United Kingdom
and promotion of human rights, beyond and the United States. These include
the simple presence of laws aimed Freemuse based in Denmark, Artists at
to guarantee those rights. While few Risk in Finland, International Cities of Limited resources, both in terms of
NCHRs single out artistic freedom as a Refuge Network (ICORN) in Norway, finances and expertise, are a key factor
right, many include breaches of the right Artists at Risk Connection in the United in the inconsistent coverage of artistic
within their broader remits of freedom States, the Martin Roth Initiative in freedom, notably in the developing
of expression. One country that does so Germany and PEN International. countries. Where this work is part of a
is The Gambia, where an independent larger cultural programme, there is often
Human Rights Commission was There are also notable organizations little or no expertise on human rights.
established in 2017 with a mandate that elsewhere such as Culture Resource Conversely, where it sits within a human
includes monitoring and investigating (Al-Mawred Al-Thaqafy), a regional rights programme, even those with a
artistic freedom, as well as obtaining organization seeking to support artistic focus on general freedom of expression,
redress for victims (NHRC, 2020). creativity in the Arab States. the bulk of expertise will be on media
rights advocacy with less knowledge of
the cultural sector.
Figure 10.3
Political crises and growing repression
Independent bodies to receive complaints and monitor violations in certain countries have led to some
and restrictions to artistic freedom organizations having to close or scale back
activities, which is part of a general global
Global total 53% pattern of shrinking civic space. As stated
in the UN 2020 Call to Action for Human
Western European and North American States 75% Rights, ‘The Highest Aspiration’, the space
for civil society actors to play a meaningful
Eastern European States 59%
role in political, economic and social life
Latin American and Caribbean States 47% by contributing to the development of
policies that affect their lives, including
Asian and Pacific States 33% by accessing information, engaging in
dialogue, expressing disagreement and
African States 48%
coming together to express their views, that
Arab States 45% is the space to exercise the right to freedom
of thought, conscience and religion, is
Source: BOP Consulting (2021). shrinking (UN, 2020b).
I
working on improving conditions for
artists to create, display and distribute
their work without threat or harassment, t is a well-known fact that those working in the arts and in culture in general
with a focus on developing countries. are ill-protected when it comes to their economic and social rights. The rights
The programme will focus on projects associated with battles won many years ago in other sectors – such as those
that increase capacity and networking fought for social security, social benefits and State recognition of the right
on an international level, developing a to remuneration for one's work – can, in the cultural sector, continue to be
shared understanding and knowledge questioned by a society which objects to the notion that cultural activities,
of how artists’ working conditions can and artistic activities in particular, constitute a productive industry akin to
be improved, with a view to attaining that of any other kind of economic activity. The severe crisis brought on by the
the SDGs. As such, the collaboration coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic generated empathy, at first, for the
is a step towards meeting SDG target most vulnerable sectors, whose needs were affected. Often, however, artists
16.10 on the protection of fundamental have been excluded; they have even been deemed not a priority. Paradoxically,
freedoms, as it contributes to ensuring the pandemic has given rise both to an extraordinary appreciation for cultural
freedom of expression and public access expressions and to contempt for musicians and for artists in general. In the
to information (through the arts). middle of the pandemic, we at the Ministry of Culture of Ecuador proposed
protocols which would allow musicians to work the weekend of Mother's Day,
UNESCO has also taken steps to entertaining the day's honourees with serenades performed in the streets in
reaffirm its commitment to artistic order to avoid physical contact. Our proposal was met with the accusation of
freedom. Since its redesign in 2017, unnecessary endangerment of public health. There was not the slightest empathy
the UNESCO Aschberg Programme for for those desperate musicians who had been receiving no income for months.
Artists and Cultural Professionals has Similarly, this inability to acknowledge that artists generate wealth with their
developed capacity-building materials work and that they have economic and social rights extends, for example, to the
on artistic freedom and conducted logic of the major communications and cable-television multinationals. Recently,
workshops in Ethiopia, Ghana, one of these multinational corporations, which in the rest of the world obtains
Indonesia and Namibia. In 2021, the licences and pays what is required by law, decided to sue the collectives which in
programme was enriched with a new Ecuador represent the creators of musical and audiovisual content; it argued that
component of direct annual technical charging for creative output of this kind constituted an abuse. The COVID-19 crisis
and financial support to governments must not make us forget that artists play a crucial role in the life and evolution of
and CSOs to establish appropriate our societies. It must not make us forget that artists should be able to contribute
frameworks for artistic freedom through to society's development and to carry out their duties on footing equal to that of
all other citizens.
capacity-building, design or revision
of laws, research and monitoring, Juan Fernando Velasco
communication and awareness raising Singer-songwriter and former Minister of Culture of Ecuador
at national and regional levels.
These initiatives run in parallel to those Western European and North American States 57%
based in the developed countries, with the
Eastern European States 36%
most prominent being the aforementioned
Freemuse and PEN International, Latin American and Caribbean States 14%
both of which have global remits. PEN
International, the international writer’s Asian and Pacific States 11%
association that celebrated its centenary
African States 14%
in 2021, has developed an extensive
membership base in over 100 countries Arab States 33%
that has long engaged in defending
freedom of expression. PEN America’s Source: BOP Consulting (2021).
The initiative challenges the idea that to advocacy on their behalf. Not only does for a rehearsal space, purchasing
African artists cannot find exile on the project provide exile for artists, but materials, hiring agents and other fees.
their own continent. According to their it also provides a safe place for the work Thus, projects that identify and provide
website, 51 human rights defenders have of persecuted artists and thus serves to for the special requirements of exiled
been supported so far. preserve human actions and knowledge artists are especially valuable in keeping
for current and future generations creativity and culture alive. The Swedish
The ICORN network remains the largest (UNESCO, 2020d). Society of Songwriters, Composers
provider of long-term but temporary and Authors, for example, gives them
placements for writers, journalists and membership equal to Swedish artists
artists at risk. Its network includes over during their stay.
70 cities in Brazil, Europe, Mexico and the Where possible, artists at risk
United States, with cities in Sweden and Where possible, artists at risk benefit
benefit from finding places of
Norway providing more than half of the from finding places of safety within
placements. The Helsinki-based Artists at safety within their region to their region to avoid the additional
Risk network also has residencies in 10 avoid the additional trauma of trauma of lengthy exile far away from
countries in Europe and North Africa, with lengthy exile far away from home home. The Fanak Fund, backed by the
a view to enabling artists who have fled French government, supports artists and
their countries to continue practising by cultural activists from conflict regions
building networks and skills. in the Arab-speaking world and Middle
Artists who are forced into exile due Eastern and North African artists who are
Since 2013, the ‘Safe Havens’ project to conflict in their home countries are in exile in their region. Through its ‘Ana
in Malmö, Sweden, has been hosting especially vulnerable. While some may Houna’ project, it works with partners in
meetings of artists, NGOs and government be able to access social welfare available Dohuk (Iraq), Istanbul and Lebanon, to
officials to enable artists in exile to share to all asylum seekers and refugees in provide accommodation, workplaces and
their experiences. This ensures that the the host country, they cannot afford the materials in placements of between three
voices of those who have experienced professional expenses vital to continuing and six months.
persecution are considered when it comes their creative activities, such as paying
CHALLENGES SPECIFIC TO
THE DIGITAL ENVIRONMENT
Box 10.4 • Germany – several initiatives supporting freedom
An increasingly important field of
of artistic expression concern for artistic freedom is the
The German government is advancing freedom of artistic expression through a number digital sphere. Digital platforms are
of symbolic and practical measures in and outside the country. A 2018 agreement of the becoming essential tools for inspiration
governing coalition states that ‘Policy on culture and science, the media and education is and artistic exchange, as well as for
policy for an open society, for freedom of opinion and for scientific and artistic freedom. artists to showcase, disseminate and
Given the danger to artists, intellectuals, journalists, scientists and scholars worldwide sell their work. However, this also
who dare to voice criticism, but also owing to our historical responsibility, we support an brings the threat of censorship, both
initiative to ensure artistic and scientific freedom, freedom of the press and freedom of by governments and by companies,
opinion and expression, including with regard to exiles’ experiences’. with activist art and works exploring
women’s and gender issues being
This commitment has been carried out through a raft of practical actions such as particularly vulnerable. More broadly,
the establishment of the Martin Roth Initiative in 2018, a joint project of the Institut however, there is a frequent lack
für Auslandsbeziehungen (Institute for foreign relations) and the Goethe Institut. of diversity in terms of genres and
Its activities include advisory programmes and networking events for German and geographical regions in general. Amidst
international actors in the field of promotion of artistic freedom. The Initiative has the rise of large digital platforms, artists
helped more than 40 artists from countries where they are experiencing persecution, with may feel the need to self-censor their
around 60% finding placements in Germany. The focus is on enabling artists to continue works, or adapt them to specific, more
to practise outside their countries until they can return, or, if return is not possible, to commercial formats in order to reach
assist them in establishing their practice in host countries. an audience. Private companies are also
Meanwhile, in 2019, the city of Berlin joined ICORN, and launched the initiative playing a more direct role in regulating
‘Weltoffenes Berlin’ (Cosmopolitan Berlin), a fellowship granted to artists at risk of cultural content. Led by the need to
persecution. Working with cultural actors in Berlin, between 12 and 18 fellowships are regulate harmful content online (sexual
awarded annually, alongside advisory projects aimed at providing access to professional abuse, incitement to violence and hate
life through networks. speech), Internet companies seek to
ensure that inappropriate material is
Source: Germany QPR.
not posted on their sites.
Access to social welfare is dependent on include both contributory and non- European Union’s Workplan for Culture
membership of the Conseil National des contributory mechanisms to reflect the 2019-2022, which provides the European
Arts et des Lettres (National Council of atypical nature of cultural work (Galian, Commission and European States with a
Arts and Letters). Licata and Stern-Plaza, 2021). For strategy and a vision for culture (Council
example, more flexibility in the minimum of the European Union, 2018). Several
In some countries, professional bodies thresholds on income required for elements of the Workplan have already
are used to identify and certify a person’s eligibility to social protection schemes been implemented, including a study
status as an artist. In Croatia, freelancers would be a practical way of taking in 2020 and a Voices of Culture civil
must be registered by the Croatian account of the informal and irregular society-led brainstorming report in March
Freelance Artists Association to be nature of cultural work. A good example 2021, presenting recommendations to
eligible for social welfare. Decisions are is found in Uruguay, where an artist that the European Commission on the status
made by a panel comprised of a member contributes at least 150 working days and working conditions of artists and
of the Ministry of Culture and four or has held at least four contracts in the cultural and creative professionals.
other Association members, including year, even if the total working days is
a freelance artist working in the field of under 150, accrues a full year of service. In 2018, UNESCO conducted a
activity of the applicant. consultation with Member States
Since 2018, 35 States have reported on the implementation of the 1980
new or amended protection measures Recommendation concerning the Status
ENSURING ACCESS TO SOCIAL for artists and cultural professionals. of the Artist. Out of 42 responses from
WELFARE FOR ARTISTS In 2018, Austria carried out a review Parties to the Convention, 11 indicated
of the employment and income status having social security measures with
As mentioned earlier, the sporadic of artists, leading to a fair pay strategy special provisions for artists and cultural
and often low-paid nature of cultural and development of social security, professionals, with most of these providing
employment means that workers have pension and unemployment benefits, social insurance and retirement benefits.
insufficient or non-existent social as well as more generous emergency
welfare cover and do not receive fund terms. In Senegal, more than 450
benefits adequate to their needs. This workers benefitted from the new health
can deter artists and cultural workers care provision for cultural actors in Some States have put in place
from continuing or even entering 2019. Similarly, India reports setting unemployment regimes designed
the field, which deprives the cultural up a pension fund and a medical aid
fund for established artists. Costa Rica,
to support artists during these
sector of artistic expressions from
people with no other financial means. Oman, Poland, the Republic of Korea periods of hidden working time
This, in turn, affects the diversity of (Box 10.5) and Switzerland also report
cultural expressions. reviews of their social welfare provisions
for artists. The need to improve the social Fewer States report providing income
To change this, ILO points to the need and economic conditions of artists has protection and career transition schemes.
to develop and maintain systems that also been included in the Council of the However, creative work requires periods
where projects are in development
and during which there is no income,
and often none guaranteed for the
Box 10.5 • The Artist Welfare Law in the Republic of Korea
future, as when an artist takes part in a
In the Republic of Korea, the Artist Welfare Law came into effect in 2012 and has residency or other activities to develop
delivered over US$25 million in low-income subsidy grants of US$2,500 to 5,500 artists, and promote work. Some States have
with additional support granted to 240 elderly artists. Over 21,500 artists have benefited put in place unemployment regimes
from the Law since its inception. A new initiative instigated in 2019 provided emergency designed to support artists during these
loans for artists with health, tuition or housing needs of approximately US$4,000 with periods of hidden working time. France
favourable interest rates of 2.2%. These loans were almost doubled, and the interest rates and Belgium, for example, enable artists
halved, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. In the last six months of 2019 alone, to work on creating and developing
1,497 such loans were granted. In addition, artists’ workplace accident compensation without being required to take up other
insurance subsided by between 50% and 90%, with 3,235 artists benefitting from this employment that would curtail their
scheme in 2019. In May 2020, revisions to the Employment Insurance Act that could creative practice (EENCA, 2020). Many
benefit around 75,000 artists were passed through parliament. In recognition of the African governments are also showing
precarious nature of their work, artists who have been contracted to work within the interest in supporting artists and cultural
cultural sector will now be eligible for unemployment benefits of around 60% of Korean practitioners, but the lack of data on
average monthly income. the creative industries remains a major
Source: Republic of Korea QPR; Kim et al. (2020). challenge to develop more targeted
policy support for the sector.
FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION bargaining, and to better regulate access copyright infringements happen daily
AND COLLECTIVE BARGAINING to social security benefits (Cuny, 2020). in the online sphere, including through
In Morocco in 2016, consultation with file sharing or use of illegal streaming
Many professional sectors rely on the music and performing arts sectors services (Geiger, 2014). Australia,
collective bargaining to ensure better led to the introduction of revisions to Germany, Kenya and Norway all report
pay, benefits and working conditions. the Labour Code, which covers a broad having amended copyright legislation to
In some States, however, artists do range of workers, including technicians, take account of the specificities of the
not have the right to collective action, directors and mediators. The right of digital environment.
effectively limiting their ability to workers and employers to form and join
professionalize the sector. This is despite organizations; the effective recognition
the fact that the 1980 Recommendation of the right to collective bargaining
asks States to recognize the part and the right to social security are now Copyright legislation is an
played by professional and trade union encompassed in labour law. important tool to protect the
organizations in the protection of value of a creation by giving
employment and working conditions,
and to grant artists the right to be
ENSURING FAIR PAY AND WELFARE creators the opportunity to
members and to take collective action IN THE DIGITAL SPHERE protect it from unlicensed use,
(Guiding Principle VI.4).
Artists’ working conditions are also by recognizing their economic
precarious in the digital sphere. There is and moral rights
no doubt that digital transformation and
innovation have brought huge benefits
Several States are recognizing to the cultural sector, enabling greater
the importance of the right creativity and access to the public and
Copyright legislation is an important
tool to protect the value of a creation
to collective bargaining and audiences. However, the shift to online
by giving creators the opportunity
reflecting it in legislation and free streaming services often brings
to protect it from unlicensed use, by
little or no remuneration to creators.
recognizing their economic and moral
rights. Too often, however, policies
The importance of the role of trade unions are not effectively put into practice,
which has severe repercussions on the
in the defence of good work practices is There is no doubt that digital fair remuneration of creators and the
particularly evident in Chile, where the
transformation and innovation ultimate sustainability of diverse cultural
actors’ union, Sidarte, and the Performing
Arts Platform have brought together have brought huge benefits to and creative sectors.
trade unions and sector representatives the cultural sector, enabling States are reporting on various measures
to discuss issues around protection and greater creativity and access to aimed at strengthening new or existing
compliance. Sidarte has played a key role
in identifying a discrepancy in labour the public and audiences copyright legislation in their countries.
Barbados, Colombia, Gabon, Mexico and
law, which meant that some artists were Tanzania, for instance, all report on the
paying additional taxes, leading to an implementation of training programmes
amendment to the law in 2020 to resolve In response to this particular challenge or workshops to teach the public and
the problem. In Indonesia, the Media faced by the music and film industries, government officials about copyright,
and Creative Industries Workers Union, Cuba extended legal recognition having realised that legislation is worth
SINDIKASI, has played an important role to independent audiovisual and little if creators and officials alike do not
in identifying challenges and solutions for cinematographic companies in 2019 understand how it works.
cultural workers. It carried out a study on and extended social welfare rights to
low pay, overwork and lack of contracts, workers in this largely private sector. Several States also report on the
publishing a handbook giving advice on Italy similarly extended rights to cultural improvement in the organization of
issues including rights, dispute resolution workers in the digital field when it copyright-related matters. In Ethiopia
and sexual harassment. renewed its National Collective Labour and Djibouti, for example, new collective
Agreement in early 2020. management organizations have
Several States are recognizing the been created.
importance of the right to collective An increasing number of countries are
bargaining and reflecting it in legislation. acknowledging the urgency of amending A crucial problem for many collective
In 2019, for example, Colombia existing copyright and intellectual management organizations is the lack
amended the social security law to property laws, which are often not suited of capacity to enforce copyright policies
guarantee the right of actors to collective to the digital environment. Millions of when users refuse to pay what they owe.
D
through their sites, and to block
unauthorized access, which makes for
oing theatre in Beirut – between two wars (one not really over and the a fairer partnership between artists
other having already begun) and wearing two different masks (one laughing, the and big tech companies. Article 17
other crying) – is an act of defiance against war. War destroys people's life process of the Directive stipulates that online
by destroying the tools for memory. So artists stand up to war. They take what content-sharing service providers
is doomed to perish, people and stories, and in the space of a performance they must obtain an authorization from
undo what has been done by weapons and armies, creating a context in which right holders when uploading content
men and women can see that war does not have to decide their future. and must simultaneously take steps
As an actor, once you realize that you resemble the audience members, you share to avoid unauthorized uploads. The
their dreams and their suffering, that their fear is your fear, and that their future new rules also increase transparency
is also your own, you can no longer be satisfied with only putting on plays which in creators’ relationships with online
are literary or entertaining. Immersion in real life becomes the vital source of platforms and aim at guaranteeing the
your art, that which provides the material necessary to your creative energy. In full protection of EU citizens’ freedom
communion with poets, visual artists, musicians, video makers and other artists of expression online.
who share with you this inherent (intellectual and artistic) energy, you then
find the means for reinventing a culture and for communicating your people's These initiatives, as well as
hardships and hopes. improvements in status of the artist
From this point of view, supporting creativity is not about subsidizing it, but legislation and access to social welfare
rather about providing artists with the tools they need (spaces, equipment, for artists, are promising signs that
logistics) and making available to them the facilities necessary for their training, artists‘ and cultural professionals’
for the dissemination of their work, and for the exchange of their ideas and social and economic rights are starting
experiences. If patronage can pollute creativity at the root, it can serve to increase to be taken seriously, including
effectiveness further down the line. The objectives are thus clear: to protect and in the digital environment. Such
encourage diversity, to whet cultural appetites, and to foster the social recognition improvements have been shown to
of culture and the arts.
be of particular importance in light of
Roger Assaf the COVID-19 pandemic, which has
Actor and theatre director accelerated the already rapid digital
transition of the cultural sector.
Among the measures tracked by the These initiatives are just some examples of COVID-19 on the cultural sector.
Platform are those that provide direct of the innovative ways in which States This has enabled over 1,000 cultural
support for individual artists and cultural responded to the urgency of the professionals in more than 115 countries
professionals, including emergency pandemic’s effects on the sector. to share information and advocacy
grants, extension of social security efforts. At the time of writing,
benefits and State commissions to As the COVID-19 pandemic progresses, 275 debates have been hosted – 41.7%
support artists during the crisis. Several the impact on mental health globally organized or co-organized by CSOs – on
regional and international networks is being revealed, with early studies issues ranging from the role of creativity
collected and disseminated information carried out in several countries showing in raising awareness of the health crisis
on sectoral needs, policies and measures exponential increases in reported cases and combatting disinformation, to the
adopted, as well as relevant research and of depression, which in some cases aim of building a better future after
policy documents. are up fourfold compared with 2019 the pandemic.
(Abbott, 2021). The effect on the
Emergency grants can provide lifelines to cultural sector has been particularly
ensure income at times of crisis. In New acute. According to Muzik-Sen, the
Zealand, for example, emergency funding Turkish Musicians and Performers Lessons from this crisis show
was provided to 89 arts organizations Union, over 100 musicians in Turkey
that received up to US$30,000 for are believed to have died by suicide that the creative sector’s
creating new works or reframing an because of being unable to continue fragile ecosystem needs to be
existing project in light of the COVID-19 to practise (Tokyay, 2020). Similarly, in strengthened if it is to withstand
pandemic, encouraging new ways of Australia, there has been an increase
working. There are also Emergency Relief of people in the music industry taking
any future shocks
Grants of up to US$6,000 for individuals their own lives during the pandemic
experiencing devasting loss of income as (Marrozzi, 2021) – a sad pattern no
a direct result of the pandemic. Thirdly, doubt echoed in other countries and Lessons from this crisis show that the
anyone working in events, entertainment, cultural sectors. creative sector’s fragile ecosystem needs
tourism or hospitality was offered a to be strengthened if it is to withstand
12 week wage subsidy. Some States are already taking actions
to deal with the growing mental any future shocks. At times of crisis,
health crisis in the arts sector. For access to pre-existing data on the sector,
example, in Canada, US$261,705 has such as numbers of freelancers, allows
Emergency grants can provide been granted to the Fondation des for speedy support packages that in
turn enable the sector’s survival. As one
lifelines to ensure income artistes (Artists’ Foundation) of Québec
of the sectors hit hardest by sudden
to provide access to psychosocial
at times of crisis counselling for artists, artisans and
closures of public spaces, venues,
theatres and galleries, it is imperative
professional workers in the cultural
that support packages are provided, and
sector. Similarly, in South Africa,
that these are applied as a priority.
The sudden loss of income means that the SILAPHA Wellness programme
artists also lose out on welfare and on is providing assistance with mental
emergency benefits offered to other health management.
parts of the workforce. In Argentina, the
National Institute of Cinema and Audio-
visual Arts signed an agreement with the As we contemplate all of this
Argentine Film Industry Union to help As the COVID-19 pandemic about the artists we’ve lost to
support the film sector. The agreement COVID-19 in all regions of the
pays around US$64.000 in three
progresses, the impact world, … it’s really essential that
consecutive equal monthly instalments on mental health globally the international community and
to support workers in paying for medical is being revealed all of us work together to honour
care, medicines and other direct aid their memories by memorialising
(Télam Digital, 2020). Similarly, in their work, by supporting those
Iceland, the Artists’ Salary Fund, which who continue the artistic work,
annually assigns stipends to self- Sharing experiences and ideas to and by promoting and nourishing
employed artists in their field, allocated address this unprecedented crisis is cultural life for everyone.
a total of 2,200 months to artists in essential. UNESCO’s contribution was
Karima Bennoune
various fields, a 37% increase from the the April 2020 launch of its ResiliArt Former UN Special Rapporteur in the field
1,603 months allocated the year prior, in global movement of virtual debates to of cultural rights, speaking at the (online)
response to the pandemic. shed light on the far-reaching impact Safe Havens Global Live Stream, 2020
Annexes 287
2022 Global Report
Author biographies
Luis A. Albornoz
Director of the research group Audiovisual Diversity at Carlos III University of Madrid (UC3M), Spain
Chapter 2 • Ensuring a diversity of voices in the media
As a professor in the Communications and Media Studies Department of the Carlos III
University of Madrid (UC3M), Spain, Luis A. Albornoz teaches on the Audiovisual Geopolitics
course. He is Deputy Head of the Doctoral Programme in Media Research and the Master’s
Degree in Music Industry and Sound Studies. Luis A. Albornoz is an elected member of the
International Council of the International Association for Media and Communication Research
(IAMCR), holds a degree in Communication Sciences from the University of Buenos Aires,
Argentina, and a PhD from the Department of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising
at the Complutense University of Madrid. His latest published works include Power, Media
and Culture (Palgrave/IAMCR, 2015), Diversity and the Film Industry (UIS, 2016), Diversidad
e industria audiovisual: el desafío cultural del siglo XXI (FCE, 2017), Audiovisual Industries
and Diversity: Economics and Policies in the Digital Era (Routledge, 2019) and Grupo Prisa
(Routledge, 2020).
Lydia Deloumeaux
Associate Programme Specialist, Culture and Communication Unit,
UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS)
Chapter 6 • Global flow of cultural goods and services: still a one-way trade
Lydia Deloumeaux is an economist and statistician who has specialized in culture for more than
15 years. She manages the UIS culture databases and leads the methodological and indicator
work on expenditure on cultural and natural heritage (SDG 11.4.1), feature films, cultural
employment and international trade in cultural goods and services. She writes reports and
analytical articles on those same topics. Since 2007, she has been involved in implementing the
2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions and
measurement issues related to the diversity of cultural expressions. She provides training and
technical assistance to developing countries on cultural statistics and indicators, as well as on
the contribution of the cultural sector in the economy. She is the co-author of the 2009 UNESCO
Framework for Cultural Statistics.
Véronique Guèvremont
Professor at the Faculty of Law of Université Laval, Canada
Chapter 7 • Protecting diversity: still room to defend a legitimate public policy objective
outside the Convention
Véronique Guèvremont is professor at the Faculty of Law of Université Laval (Quebec, Canada).
She holds the UNESCO Chair on the Diversity of Cultural Expressions and is co-leader for Arts,
Media and Cultural Diversity within the International Observatory on the Societal Impacts
of Artificial Intelligence and Digital technologies (OBVIA/OIISIAN). She graduated from the
University of Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne and has been teaching international cultural and
economic law since 2006. From 2003 to 2005, she was an associate expert with UNESCO's
former Division of Cultural Policies and Intercultural Dialogue during the negotiation of the
2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions.
Her most recent research and publications focus on cultural rights, the treatment of cultural
goods and services in trade agreements, the preservation of the diversity of cultural expressions in
the digital age and the cultural dimension of sustainable development. Since 2015, she has been
part of the EU/UNESCO Expert Facility for the implementation of the Convention.
Yarri Kamara
Independent cultural policy researcher and advisor, essayist and literary translator
Chapter 8 • Culture and sustainable development: a still untapped potential
Yarri Kamara is an independent cultural policy researcher and advisor based in Burkina Faso.
She worked on a wide range of development interventions before specializing in cultural policy
and its links to sustainable development. She has undertaken work for the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), the World Bank, the United Kingdom Department for International Development, the
French Development Agency (AFD), as well as multiple African government agencies. She was
a former fellow at the International Institute for Environment and Development. In the field of
culture, she has regularly collaborated with UNESCO since 2004. Recent collaborations include
serving on the panel of experts for the International Fund for Cultural Diversity, and supporting
the internal creation of a culture and sustainable development knowledge platform. Yarri Kamara
is an experienced interdisciplinarian who is also a research associate at Institut Free Afrik,
an essayist and a literary translator. Her working languages are English, French and Italian.
Ojoma Ochai
Managing Partner, Creative Economy Practice at CC Hub, Nigeria
ew opportunities and challenges for inclusive cultural and creative industries
Chapter 3 • N
in the digital environment
Ojoma Ochai is a creative economy expert with over 15 years’ experience supporting the
development of the global creative economy through contributions to various initiatives including
capacity-building, technical assistance to the public and private sector and leading international
cooperation projects in the cultural and creative industries. She has worked on various international
arts, creative and digital sector development efforts, including World Bank support for Nigeria’s
music and film sector and alongside the Swedish Arts Council. Ojoma Ochai worked at the British
Council for many years, and her most recent posting in the organization was as its Regional
Director for Arts and Creative Economy Programmes in sub-Saharan Africa until October 2021. She
was nominated as Young Person of the Year by the Future Awards in 2010; is a Fellow of the DEVOS
Institute of Arts Management, University of Maryland, United States; an Associate Fellow of the
Nigerian Leadership Institute; and sits on the board of the African Technology and Creative Group.
Ojoma Ochai is a member of the EU/UNESCO Expert Facility for the implementation of the 2005
Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions.
Sara Whyatt
Researcher and former Deputy-Director of PEN International
Chapter 10 • Safeguarding the freedom to create
Sara Whyatt is a campaigner and researcher on freedom of artistic expression and human
rights, notably as director of PEN International’s freedom of expression programme for over
20 years and previously as a coordinator in Amnesty International’s Asia Research Department.
At PEN, she worked with its global membership on mobilizing its campaigns for writers at risk,
as well as on thematic issues. In 2013, she took up freelance consultancy, working on projects
for, inter alia, Freemuse, Culture Action Europe, PEN, the Swedish Arts Council and the Council
of Europe. She was the author of the chapter on freedom of artistic expression for UNESCO’s
2018 Global Report Re|Shaping Cultural Policies: Advancing Creativity for Development
monitoring the implementation of the 2005 Convention on the Protection and Promotion of
the Diversity of Cultural Expressions.
Affirming that cultural diversity is a defining characteristic of Recognizing that the diversity of cultural expressions, including
humanity, traditional cultural expressions, is an important factor that allows
individuals and peoples to express and to share with others their
Conscious that cultural diversity forms a common heritage of ideas and values,
humanity and should be cherished and preserved for the benefit
of all, Recalling that linguistic diversity is a fundamental element of
cultural diversity, and reaffirming the fundamental role that
Being aware that cultural diversity creates a rich and varied education plays in the protection and promotion of cultural
world, which increases the range of choices and nurtures expressions,
human capacities and values, and therefore is a mainspring for
sustainable development for communities, peoples and nations, Taking into account the importance of the vitality of cultures,
including for persons belonging to minorities and indigenous
Recalling that cultural diversity, flourishing within a framework of peoples, as manifested in their freedom to create, disseminate
democracy, tolerance, social justice and mutual respect between and distribute their traditional cultural expressions and to have
peoples and cultures, is indispensable for peace and security at access thereto, so as to benefit them for their own development,
the local, national and international levels,
Emphasizing the vital role of cultural interaction and creativity,
Celebrating the importance of cultural diversity for the full which nurture and renew cultural expressions and enhance the
realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms role played by those involved in the development of culture for
proclaimed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the progress of society at large,
other universally recognized instruments,
Recognizing the importance of intellectual property rights in
Emphasizing the need to incorporate culture as a strategic sustaining those involved in cultural creativity,
element in national and international development policies, as
well as in international development cooperation, taking into Being convinced that cultural activities, goods and services have
account also the United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000) both an economic and a cultural nature, because they convey
with its special emphasis on poverty eradication, identities, values and meanings, and must therefore not be
treated as solely having commercial value,
Taking into account that culture takes diverse forms across time
and space and that this diversity is embodied in the uniqueness Noting that while the processes of globalization, which have
and plurality of the identities and cultural expressions of the been facilitated by the rapid development of information and
peoples and societies making up humanity, communication technologies, afford unprecedented conditions
for enhanced interaction between cultures, they also represent
Recognizing the importance of traditional knowledge as a a challenge for cultural diversity, namely in view of risks of
source of intangible and material wealth, and in particular imbalances between rich and poor countries,
the knowledge systems of indigenous peoples, and its positive
contribution to sustainable development, as well as the need for Being aware of UNESCO’s specific mandate to ensure respect for
its adequate protection and promotion, the diversity of cultures and to recommend such international
agreements as may be necessary to promote the free flow of
Recognizing the need to take measures to protect the diversity ideas by word and image,
of cultural expressions, including their contents, especially in
situations where cultural expressions may be threatened by the Referring to the provisions of the international instruments
possibility of extinction or serious impairment, adopted by UNESCO relating to cultural diversity and the
exercise of cultural rights, and in particular the Universal
Emphasizing the importance of culture for social cohesion in Declaration on Cultural Diversity of 2001,
general, and in particular its potential for the enhancement of
the status and role of women in society, Adopts this Convention on 20 October 2005.
I. OBJECTIVES AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES 3. Principle of equal dignity of and respect for all cultures
The protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural
Article 1 – Objectives expressions presuppose the recognition of equal dignity of
and respect for all cultures, including the cultures of persons
The objectives of this Convention are:
belonging to minorities and indigenous peoples.
(a) to protect and promote the diversity of cultural expressions;
4. Principle of international solidarity and cooperation
(b) to create the conditions for cultures to flourish and to freely International cooperation and solidarity should be aimed at
interact in a mutually beneficial manner; enabling countries, especially developing countries, to create and
strengthen their means of cultural expression, including their
(c) to encourage dialogue among cultures with a view to cultural industries, whether nascent or established, at the local,
ensuring wider and balanced cultural exchanges in the world in national and international levels.
favour of intercultural respect and a culture of peace;
5. Principle of the complementarity of economic and
(d) to foster interculturality in order to develop cultural cultural aspects of development
interaction in the spirit of building bridges among peoples;
Since culture is one of the mainsprings of development, the
(e) to promote respect for the diversity of cultural expressions cultural aspects of development are as important as its economic
and raise awareness of its value at the local, national and aspects, which individuals and peoples have the fundamental
international levels; right to participate in and enjoy.
(f) to reaffirm the importance of the link between culture 6. Principle of sustainable development
and development for all countries, particularly for developing Cultural diversity is a rich asset for individuals and societies. The
countries, and to support actions undertaken nationally and protection, promotion and maintenance of cultural diversity are
internationally to secure recognition of the true value of this link; an essential requirement for sustainable development for the
benefit of present and future generations.
(g) to give recognition to the distinctive nature of cultural
activities, goods and services as vehicles of identity, values and 7. Principle of equitable access
meaning; Equitable access to a rich and diversified range of cultural
expressions from all over the world and access of cultures to the
(h) to reaffirm the sovereign rights of States to maintain,
means of expressions and dissemination constitute important
adopt and implement policies and measures that they deem
elements for enhancing cultural diversity and encouraging
appropriate for the protection and promotion of the diversity of
mutual understanding.
cultural expressions on their territory;
8. Principle of openness and balance
(i) to strengthen international cooperation and solidarity in a
spirit of partnership with a view, in particular, to enhancing When States adopt measures to support the diversity of cultural
the capacities of developing countries in order to protect and expressions, they should seek to promote, in an appropriate
promote the diversity of cultural expressions. manner, openness to other cultures of the world and to ensure
that these measures are geared to the objectives pursued under
the present Convention.
Article 2 – Guiding principles
1. Principle of respect for human rights and fundamental II. SCOPE OF APPLICATION
freedoms
Cultural diversity can be protected and promoted only if human Article 3 – Scope of application
rights and fundamental freedoms, such as freedom of expression,
information and communication, as well as the ability of This Convention shall apply to the policies and measures
individuals to choose cultural expressions, are guaranteed. No adopted by the Parties related to the protection and promotion
one may invoke the provisions of this Convention in order to of the diversity of cultural expressions.
infringe human rights and fundamental freedoms as enshrined
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or guaranteed by III. DEFINITIONS
international law, or to limit the scope thereof.
Article 4 – Definitions
2. Principle of sovereignty
States have, in accordance with the Charter of the United For the purposes of this Convention, it is understood that:
Nations and the principles of international law, the sovereign
1. Cultural diversity
right to adopt measures and policies to protect and promote the
diversity of cultural expressions within their territory. “Cultural diversity” refers to the manifold ways in which the
cultures of groups and societies find expression. These expressions
are passed on within and among groups and societies.
4. Cultural activities, goods and services Article 6 – Rights of parties at the national level
“Cultural activities, goods and services” refers to those activities,
goods and services, which at the time they are considered as 1. Within the framework of its cultural policies and measures as
a specific attribute, use or purpose, embody or convey cultural defined in Article 4.6 and taking into account its own particular
expressions, irrespective of the commercial value they may have. circumstances and needs, each Party may adopt measures aimed
Cultural activities may be an end in themselves, or they may at protecting and promoting the diversity of cultural expressions
contribute to the production of cultural goods and services. within its territory.
(a) to create, produce, disseminate, distribute and have access These measures should be implemented in a manner which does
to their own cultural expressions, paying due attention to the not have a negative impact on traditional forms of production.
special circumstances and needs of women as well as various
social groups, including persons belonging to minorities and Article 11 – Participation of civil society
indigenous peoples;
(b) to have access to diverse cultural expressions from within Parties acknowledge the fundamental role of civil society in
their territory as well as from other countries of the world. protecting and promoting the diversity of cultural expressions.
Parties shall encourage the active participation of civil society in
2. Parties shall also endeavour to recognize the important their efforts to achieve the objectives of this Convention.
contribution of artists, others involved in the creative process,
cultural communities, and organizations that support their Article 12 – Promotion of international cooperation
work, and their central role in nurturing the diversity of cultural
expressions. Parties shall endeavour to strengthen their bilateral, regional
and international cooperation for the creation of conditions
Article 8 – Measures to protect cultural expressions conducive to the promotion of the diversity of cultural
expressions, taking particular account of the situations referred
1. Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 5 and 6, a Party to in Articles 8 and 17, notably in order to:
may determine the existence of special situations where cultural
expressions on its territory are at risk of extinction, under serious (a) facilitate dialogue among Parties on cultural policy;
threat, or otherwise in need of urgent safeguarding.
(b) enhance public sector strategic and management capacities
2. Parties may take all appropriate measures to protect and in cultural public sector institutions, through professional and
preserve cultural expressions in situations referred to in international cultural exchanges and sharing of best practices;
paragraph 1 in a manner consistent with the provisions of this
Convention. (c) reinforce partnerships with and among civil society, non-
governmental organizations and the private sector in fostering
3. Parties shall report to the Intergovernmental Committee and promoting the diversity of cultural expressions;
referred to in Article 23 all measures taken to meet the
exigencies of the situation, and the Committee may make (d) promote the use of new technologies, encourage partnerships
appropriate recommendations. to enhance information sharing and cultural understanding, and
foster the diversity of cultural expressions;
Article 9 – Information sharing and transparency (e) encourage the conclusion of co-production and co-distribution
agreements.
Parties shall:
(a) provide appropriate information in their reports to UNESCO Article 13 – Integration of culture in sustainable
every four years on measures taken to protect and promote the development
diversity of cultural expressions within their territory and at the
international level; Parties shall endeavour to integrate culture in their development
policies at all levels for the creation of conditions conducive
(b) designate a point of contact responsible for information to sustainable development and, within this framework, foster
sharing in relation to this Convention; aspects relating to the protection and promotion of the diversity
of cultural expressions.
(c) share and exchange information relating to the protection
and promotion of the diversity of cultural expressions.
Article 14 – Cooperation for development
Article 10 – Education and public awareness Parties shall endeavour to support cooperation for sustainable
development and poverty reduction, especially in relation to
Parties shall: the specific needs of developing countries, in order to foster
(a) encourage and promote understanding of the importance the emergence of a dynamic cultural sector by, inter alia, the
of the protection and promotion of the diversity of cultural following means:
expressions, inter alia, through educational and greater public
(a) the strengthening of the cultural industries in developing
awareness programmes;
countries through:
(b) cooperate with other Parties and international and regional (i) creating and strengthening cultural production and
organizations in achieving the purpose of this article; distribution capacities in developing countries;
(c) endeavour to encourage creativity and strengthen production (ii) facilitating wider access to the global market and
capacities by setting up educational, training and exchange international distribution networks for their cultural activities,
programmes in the field of cultural industries. goods and services;
4. To facilitate the collection of data, UNESCO shall pay (d) to take whatever other measures it may consider necessary to
particular attention to capacity-building and the strengthening of further the objectives of this Convention.
expertise for Parties that submit a request for such assistance.
Article 23 – Intergovernmental Committee
5. The collection of information identified in this Article shall
complement the information collected under the provisions of 1. An Intergovernmental Committee for the Protection and
Article 9. Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, hereinafter
referred to as “the Intergovernmental Committee”, shall
be established within UNESCO. It shall be composed of
V. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER INSTRUMENTS representatives of 18 States Parties to the Convention, elected for
Article 20 – Relationship to other treaties: a term of four years by the Conference of Parties upon entry into
mutual supportiveness, complementarity force of this Convention pursuant to Article 29.
and non‑subordination
2. The Intergovernmental Committee shall meet annually.
1. Parties recognize that they shall perform in good faith their
3. The Intergovernmental Committee shall function under the
obligations under this Convention and all other treaties to
authority and guidance of and be accountable to the Conference
which they are parties. Accordingly, without subordinating this
of Parties.
Convention to any other treaty,
(a) they shall foster mutual supportiveness between this 4. The Members of the Intergovernmental Committee shall be
Convention and the other treaties to which they are parties; and increased to 24 once the number of Parties to the Convention
(b) when interpreting and applying the other treaties to which reaches 50.
they are parties or when entering into other international
5. The election of Members of the Intergovernmental Committee
obligations, Parties shall take into account the relevant
shall be based on the principles of equitable geographical
provisions of this Convention.
representation as well as rotation.
2. Nothing in this Convention shall be interpreted as modifying
6. Without prejudice to the other responsibilities conferred upon
rights and obligations of the Parties under any other treaties to
it by this Convention, the functions of the Intergovernmental
which they are parties.
Committee shall be:
Article 21 – International consultation and coordination (a) to promote the objectives of this Convention and to
encourage and monitor the implementation thereof;
Parties undertake to promote the objectives and principles of
(b) to prepare and submit for approval by the Conference
this Convention in other international forums. For this purpose,
of Parties, upon its request, the operational guidelines for
Parties shall consult each other, as appropriate, bearing in mind
the implementation and application of the provisions of the
these objectives and principles.
Convention;
(c) to transmit to the Conference of Parties reports from Parties
VI. ORGANS OF THE CONVENTION to the Convention, together with its comments and a summary of
Article 22 – Conference of Parties their contents;
(d) to make appropriate recommendations to be taken in
1. A Conference of Parties shall be established. The Conference
situations brought to its attention by Parties to the Convention
of Parties shall be the plenary and supreme body of this
in accordance with relevant provisions of the Convention, in
Convention.
particular Article 8;
2. The Conference of Parties shall meet in ordinary session every (e) to establish procedures and other mechanisms for
two years, as far as possible, in conjunction with the General consultation aimed at promoting the objectives and principles of
Conference of UNESCO. It may meet in extraordinary session if this Convention in other international forums;
it so decides or if the Intergovernmental Committee receives a
request to that effect from at least one-third of the Parties. (f) to perform any other tasks as may be requested by the
Conference of Parties.
3. The Conference of Parties shall adopt its own rules of procedure.
7. The Intergovernmental Committee, in accordance with its
4. The functions of the Conference of Parties shall be, inter alia: Rules of Procedure, may invite at any time public or private
(a) to elect the Members of the Intergovernmental Committee; organizations or individuals to participate in its meetings for
consultation on specific issues.
(b) to receive and examine reports of the Parties to this
Convention transmitted by the Intergovernmental Committee; 8. The Intergovernmental Committee shall prepare and submit
(c) to approve the operational guidelines prepared upon its to the Conference of Parties, for approval, its own Rules of
request by the Intergovernmental Committee; Procedure.
3. If good offices or mediation are not undertaken or if there (c) A regional economic integration organization and its
is no settlement by negotiation, good offices or mediation, a Member State or States which have agreed on a distribution of
Party may have recourse to conciliation in accordance with responsibilities as provided in subparagraph (b) shall inform the
the procedure laid down in the Annex of this Convention. The Parties of any such proposed distribution of responsibilities in the
Parties shall consider in good faith the proposal made by the following manner:
Conciliation Commission for the resolution of the dispute. (i) in their instrument of accession, such organization shall
declare with specificity, the distribution of their responsibilities
4. Each Party may, at the time of ratification, acceptance,
with respect to matters governed by the Convention;
approval or accession, declare that it does not recognize the
conciliation procedure provided for above. Any Party having (ii) in the event of any later modification of their respective
made such a declaration may, at any time, withdraw this responsibilities, the regional economic integration organization
declaration by notification to the Director-General of UNESCO. shall inform the depositary of any such proposed modification
of their respective responsibilities; the depositary shall in turn
Article 26 – Ratification, acceptance, approval or inform the Parties of such modification;
accession by Member States (d) Member States of a regional economic integration
organization which become Parties to this Convention shall be
1. This Convention shall be subject to ratification, acceptance, presumed to retain competence over all matters in respect of
approval or accession by Member States of UNESCO in which transfers of competence to the organization have not been
accordance with their respective constitutional procedures. specifically declared or informed to the depositary;
2. The instruments of ratification, acceptance, approval or (e) “Regional economic integration organization” means an
accession shall be deposited with the Director-General of organization constituted by sovereign States, members of
UNESCO. the United Nations or of any of its specialized agencies, to
which those States have transferred competence in respect of
Article 27 – Accession matters governed by this Convention and which has been duly
authorized, in accordance with its internal procedures, to become
1. This Convention shall be open to accession by all States not a Party to it.
Members of UNESCO but members of the United Nations, or of
any of its specialized agencies, that are invited by the General 4. The instrument of accession shall be deposited with the
Conference of UNESCO to accede to it. Director-General of UNESCO.
2. This Convention shall also be open to accession by territories Article 28 – Point of contact
which enjoy full internal self-government recognized as such
by the United Nations, but which have not attained full Upon becoming Parties to this Convention, each Party shall
independence in accordance with General Assembly resolution designate a point of contact as referred to in Article 9.
1514 (XV), and which have competence over the matters
governed by this Convention, including the competence to enter
into treaties in respect of such matters.
1. This Convention shall enter into force three months after 1. A Party to this Convention may, by written communication
the date of deposit of the thirtieth instrument of ratification, addressed to the Director-General, propose amendments to
acceptance, approval or accession, but only with respect to those this Convention. The Director-General shall circulate such
States or regional economic integration organizations that have communication to all Parties. If, within six months from the date
deposited their respective instruments of ratification, acceptance, of dispatch of the communication, no less than one half of the
approval, or accession on or before that date. It shall enter into Parties reply favourably to the request, the Director-General shall
force with respect to any other Party three months after the deposit present such proposal to the next session of the Conference of
of its instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession. Parties for discussion and possible adoption.
2. For the purposes of this Article, any instrument deposited 2. Amendments shall be adopted by a two-thirds majority of
by a regional economic integration organization shall not be Parties present and voting.
counted as additional to those deposited by Member States of
3. Once adopted, amendments to this Convention shall be
the organization.
submitted to the Parties for ratification, acceptance, approval or
accession.
Article 30 – F ederal or non-unitary constitutional systems
4. For Parties which have ratified, accepted, approved or acceded
Recognizing that international agreements are equally binding to them, amendments to this Convention shall enter into force
on Parties regardless of their constitutional systems, the three months after the deposit of the instruments referred
following provisions shall apply to Parties which have a federal to in paragraph 3 of this Article by two-thirds of the Parties.
or non-unitary constitutional system: Thereafter, for each Party that ratifies, accepts, approves or
accedes to an amendment, the said amendment shall enter into
(a) with regard to the provisions of this Convention, the force three months after the date of deposit by that Party of its
implementation of which comes under the legal jurisdiction of instrument of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession.
the federal or central legislative power, the obligations of the
federal or central government shall be the same as for those 5. The procedure set out in paragraphs 3 and 4 shall not apply
Parties which are not federal States; to amendments to Article 23 concerning the number of Members
of the Intergovernmental Committee. These amendments shall
(b) with regard to the provisions of the Convention, the enter into force at the time they are adopted.
implementation of which comes under the jurisdiction of
individual constituent units such as States, counties, provinces, or 6. A State or a regional economic integration organization
cantons which are not obliged by the constitutional system of the referred to in Article 27 which becomes a Party to this
federation to take legislative measures, the federal government Convention after the entry into force of amendments in
shall inform, as necessary, the competent authorities of constituent conformity with paragraph 4 of this Article shall, failing an
units such as States, counties, provinces or cantons of the said expression of different intention, be considered to be:
provisions, with its recommendation for their adoption. (a) Party to this Convention as so amended; and
(b) a Party to the unamended Convention in relation to any Party
Article 31 – Denunciation not bound by the amendments.
1. Any Party to this Convention may denounce this Convention.
Article 34 – Authoritative texts
2. The denunciation shall be notified by an instrument in writing
deposited with the Director-General of UNESCO. This Convention has been drawn up in Arabic, Chinese,
English, French, Russian and Spanish, all six texts being equally
3. The denunciation shall take effect 12 months after the receipt authoritative.
of the instrument of denunciation. It shall in no way affect the
financial obligations of the Party denouncing the Convention Article 35 – Registration
until the date on which the withdrawal takes effect.
In conformity with Article 102 of the Charter of the United
Nations, this Convention shall be registered with the Secretariat
Article 32 – Depositary functions
of the United Nations at the request of the Director-General of
The Director-General of UNESCO, as the depositary of this UNESCO.
Convention, shall inform the Member States of the Organization,
the States not members of the Organization and regional
economic integration organizations referred to in Article 27, as
well as the United Nations, of the deposit of all the instruments
of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession provided for
in Articles 26 and 27, and of the denunciations provided for in
Article 31.
CARICOM Caribbean Community and Common Market FCS 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics
COMTRADE United Nations International Trade Statistics FTA Free Trade Agreement
Database G20 Group of Twenty
ICORN International Cities of Refuge Network Ofcom Office of Communications (United Kingdom)
IETM International network for contemporary OHCHR Office of the United Nations
performing arts High Commissioner for Human Rights
IFACCA International Federation of Arts Councils and OIF Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Culture Agencies (International Organization of La Francophonie)
IFCD International Fund for Cultural Diversity OLOOP Ljubljana Institute for Contemporary Textile Art
and Design
IFPI International Federation of the Phonographic
Industry OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation
in Europe
ILO International Labour Organization
PACE Pan-African Creative Exchange
IPBES Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services PACER Plus Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change PASOC Programme d’Appui à la Société Civile
(Civil Society Support Programme)
ISIC International Standard Industry Classification
of all Economic Activities PMA Public Media Alliance
ISP Internet Service Providers Plataforma de Reguladores del Sector Audiovisual
PRAI
ITC International Trade Centre de Iberoamerica (Ibero-American Platform for
Regulators of the Audiovisual Sector)
ITU International Telecommunication Union
PSM Public Media Service
LDCs Least-developed countries
QPR Quadrennial Periodic Report
LGBTIQ+ Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex
and Queer RCEP Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
MCM Meeting of Cultural Ministers (Australia) RSF Reporters Without Borders
MENA Middle East and North Africa SAMRO Southern African Music Rights Organization
MERCOSUR Southern Common Market SASFED South African Screen Federation
MFN Most Favoured Nation SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SINDIKASI Media and Creative Industry Workers Union VAT Value Added Tax
for Democracy (Indonesia) V-Dem Varieties of Democracy Institute (Sweden)
SMEs Small and medium-sized enterprises VLR Voluntary local review
SVOD Subscription Video on Demand VNR Voluntary national review
TFEU Treaty on the Functioning of the VOD Video on Demand
European Union
VR Virtual Reality
UBS Union Bank of Switzerland WACC World Association for Christian
UCC Uganda Communications Commission Communication
UCL University College London (United Kingdom) WAVE Women Audio Visual Education
UCLG United Cities and Local Governments WCT WIPO Copyright Treaty
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and WIPO World Intellectual Property Organization
Development WTO World Trade Organization
UNDP United Nations Development Programme XR Extended Reality
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Photo credits
Cover © Enrique Larios, The Lovers, 2019*
p. 16 Be Kind, 2020 (digital), Osinachi / Private Collection / © Osinachi. All Rights Reserved 2021 / Bridgeman Images*
p. 19 © Reena Kallat, Woven Chronicle, 2015, electrical wires, speakers, circuits boards, 10 min single channel audio*
p. 30 © Alina Grubnyak / Unsplash.com
p. 32 © Ismail Zaidy, In Touch, 2019, Morocco*
p. 35 © Sasha Zaitseva, Eden Mask, 2021, Paris, France*
p. 37 © Rocca Luis César, Daydreaming, 2020, México*
p. 38 © vnwayne fan / Unsplash.com
p. 42 © Serge Kutuzov / Unsplash.com
p. 51 © Anuvith Premakumar / Unsplash.com
p. 55 © Tapio Haaja /Unsplash.com
p. 60 © Victor /Unsplash.com
p. 65 © Joel Filipe /Unsplash.com
p. 68 © Luis Valladolid / Unsplash.com
p. 75 © Mitch Rosen /Unsplash.com
p. 81 © Kobe Subramaniam / Unsplash.com
p. 90 © Thanun Sritippho (Note Thanun), The waterfall of life, 2019, Tokyo, Japan*
p. 105 © Luis Benito / Unsplash.com
p. 110 © Ahmad Odeh / Unsplash.com
p. 116 © Andrei Dinu, Alexandra Pirici, Aggregate, performative environment, 2017-2019. Exhibition view Art Basel Messeplatz*
p. 123 © Fernand De Canne / Unsplash.com
p. 129 © Johannes Breitschaft / Unsplash.com
p. 133 © lucas law / Unsplash.com
p. 138 © Reena Kallat, Woven Chronicle, 2015, electrical wires, speakers, circuits boards, 10 min single channel audio*
p. 142 © Meryl McMaster, Murmur I, 2013, Canada*
p. 149 © jana müller / Unsplash.com
p. 155 © Rawpixel.com / Shutterstock.com*
p. 162 © Indra Utama / Unsplash.com
p. 171 © Alvan Nee / Unsplash.com
p. 175 © Jr Korpa / Unsplash.com
p. 180 © africa924 / Shutterstock.com*
p. 182 © Fernando Poyón, Estrategia para no olvidar [Rub'eyal richin man yamestan] [A strategy not to forget], 2019, Guatemala*
p. 193 © Samantha Weisburg / Unsplash.com
p. 204 © Vanessa Barragão, Botanical Tapestry, 2019, Heathrow Airport*
p. 208 © SCOWCZA, Synthetic seabed: a new life for garbage?, 2021*
p. 213 © Matteo Catanese / Unsplash.com
p. 216 © Saffu / Unsplash.com
p. 220 © USGS / Unsplash.com
p. 225 © Martijn Baudoin / Unsplash.com
p. 236 © Chiron Duong, DIARY OF CHRYSANTHEMUM, 2019, Viet Nam*
p. 240 © Victoria Villasana, Fibonacci sequence, 2017, Mexico*
p. 249 © Hulki Okan Tabak / Unsplash.com
p. 255 © Noah Buscher / Unsplash.com
p. 257 © Tobias Arhelger / Shutterstock.com*
p. 260 © Tran Thanh / Unsplash.com
p. 262 © Shilpa Gupta, For, in your tongue, I cannot fit, 2017-18. Photograph by Pat Verbruggen. Sound Installation with 100 speakers,
microphones, printed text and metal stands, commissioned by YARAT Contemporary Art Space and Edinburgh Art Festival*
p. 271 © Austin Neill / Unsplash.com
p. 279 © Lysander Yuen / Unsplash.com
p. 281 © Marius George Oprea / Unsplash.com
The images marked with an asterisk (*) in this publication do not fall
p. 282 © Velizar Ivanov / Unsplash.com
under the abovementioned CC_BY_ SA licence and may not be used
or reproduced without the prior permission of the copyright holders.
328
RE | SHAPING
POLICIES FOR
CREATIVIT Y
The Global Report series monitors the implementation
of the 2005 Convention on the Protection and
Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions,
as well as progress towards achieving the United
Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
within and with the cultural and creative sectors.
Its 2022 edition revolves around two major questions:
What is the state of the cultural and creative sectors?
What policy changes to promote sustainable, human
rights-based systems of governance for culture
and equitable access to cultural opportunities
and resources have resulted from stakeholders’
implementation and ownership of the Convention?
In line with the 2015 and 2018 editions, this third
edition of the Report presents the latest policy
developments to support creativity and sheds light
on current and future challenges in areas such as
the digital environment, media diversity, sustainable
development, mobility of artists and cultural
professionals, gender equality and artistic freedom.
The trends, innovative practices, gaps and
recommendations that emerge from the 2022 edition
provide valuable evidence to inform the policy
dialogue leading up to the UNESCO World Conference
on Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development
– MONDIACULT 2022. With the mission to contribute
to the 2030 Agenda, it feeds into a renewed vision of
cultural policies based on a better understanding of
what impacts the diversity of cultural expressions and
the avenues for anchoring culture and creativity in the
broader public policy spectrum.
en.unesco.org/creativity
9 789231 005039