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Current Affairs
International–Initiatives
on Environment
12, 2006 at the Partnership's inaugural Ministerial

ALLIANCE OF SMALL ISLAND STATES (AOSIS)
meeting in Sydney. As of 5 April 2011, the
Partnership formally concluded although a number
Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) is an of individual projects continue. The conclusion of
intergovernmental organization of low-lying coastal the APP and cancellation of many of its projects
and small Island countries. Established in 1990, the attracted almost no media comment.
main purpose of the alliance is to consolidate the Foreign, Environment and Energy Ministers
voices of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to from partner countries agreed to co-operate on the
address global warming. AOSIS has been very active development and transfer of technology which
from its inception, putting forward the first draft text enables reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that
in the Kyoto Protocol negotiations as early as 1994. is consistent with and complementary to the UN
Many of the member states were present at the Framework Convention on Climate Change and other
December 2009 United Nations Climate Change relevant international instruments, and is intended
Conference (COP15). Democracy Now! reported that to complement but not replace the Kyoto Protocol.,
members from the island state of Tuvalu interrupted Ministers agreed to a Charter, Communique and
a session on 10-December-2009 to demand that Work Plan that "outline a ground-breaking new
global temperature rise be limited to 1.5 degrees] model of private-public task forces to address climate
instead of the proposed 2 degrees. change,energy security and air pollution."
AOSIS has 42 members and observers from all Member countries account for over 50% of the
around the world, of which 36 are members of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, energy
United Nations. The alliance represents 28% of the consumption, GDP and population. Unlike the
developing countries, and 20% of the UN's total Kyoto Protocol (currently unratified by the United
membership. States), which imposes mandatory limits on
greenhouse gas emissions, the Partnership engages
ASIA-PACIFIC PARTNERSHIP ON CLEAN member countries to accelerate the development and
DEVELOPMENT AND CLIMATE deployment of clean energy technologies, with no
mandatory enforcement mechanism. This has led to
The Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean criticism that the Partnership is worthless, by other
Development and Climate, also known as APP, was governments, climate scientists and environmental
an international, voluntary, public-private groups. Proponents, on the other hand, argue that
partnership among Australia, Canada, India, Japan, unrestricted economic growth and emission
the People's Republic of China, South Korea, and reductions can only be brought about through active
the United States announced July 28, 2005 at an engagement by all major polluters, which includes
Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) India and China, within the Kyoto Protocol
Regional Forum meeting and launched on January framework neither India nor China are yet required
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International Initiatives on Environment
Canada became the 7th member of the APP at the Partners' respective national pollution reduction,
Second Ministerial Meeting in New Delhi on energy security and climate change objectives; and
October 15, 2007. Canada's Prime Minister Stephen provide a forum for exploring the Partners’ respective
Harper earlier expressed his intention to join the policy approaches relevant to addressing interlinked
Partnership in August 2007, despite some domestic development, energy, environment, and climate
opposition. change issues within the context of clean
Aims development goals, and for sharing experiences in
developing and implementing respective national
U.S. President George W. Bush called it a
development and energy strategies.
"new results-oriented partnership" that he said "will
allow our nations to develop and accelerate The Partnership's inaugural Ministerial
deployment of cleaner, more efficient energy meeting established eight government/business
technologies to meet national pollution reduction, taskforces through its Work Plan, posted on the APP
energy security and climate change concerns in ways website.
that reduce poverty and promote economic 1. cleaner fossil energy
development." John Howard, the former Australian 2. renewable energy and distributed generation
Prime Minister, described the pact as "fair and 3. power generation and transmission
effective"[citation needed]. However, the Worldwide 4. steel
Fund for Nature stated that "a deal on climate change
that doesn't limit pollution is the same as a peace 5. aluminum
plan that allows guns to be fired" whilst the British 6. cement
Governments' chief scientific adviser, Sir David King, 7. coal mining
in a BBC interview said he doubted the new deal 8. buildings and appliances
could work without setting caps on emissions, but Ministerial meetings
added it should be seen as a sign of progress on
climate change. Compared to the Kyoto Protocol, The inaugural ministerial meeting was held at
which so far requires no emission reductions from the Four Seasons Hotel and Government House in
India and China, the APP actively engages both Sydney, Australia on January 11 and 12, 2006.
countries through building market incentives to Asia-Pacific Partnership Ministers agreed and
reduce greenhouse emissions along with building released a:
capacity and providing clean technology transfers. • Charter that provides the framework and
Proponents argue that this approach creates a greater structure of the Partnership;
likelihood that both India and China will, sooner • Communiqué that highlights key outcomes
rather than later, effectively cut their greenhouse from this meeting; and
emissions even though they are not required to do
• Work Plan that maps out an intensive agenda
so under the Kyoto Protocol.
of work for the taskforces in the near-term.
Areas for collaboration
Partnership Ministers met again in New Delhi,
The intent is to create a voluntary, non-legally India on October 15, 2007, and released a second
binding framework for international cooperation to communique and admitted Canada as a Partner. The
facilitate the development, diffusion, deployment, Ministers also met in Shanghai, China on October
and transfer of existing, emerging and longer term 26–27, 2009 where they discussed the
cost- effective, cleaner, more efficient technologies accomplishments of the Partnership since the New
and practices among the Partners through concrete Delhi Ministerial, and received the results of a report
and substantial cooperation so as to achieve practical analyzing and evaluating the progress of the APP
results; promote and create enabling environments flagship projects.
to assist in such efforts; facilitate attainment of the

Current Affairs
Support energy-intensive sectors and activities. The

Partnership has worked to develop and implement
The Partnership has been publicly supported
detailed action plans across key sectors of the energy
as an alternative to the Kyoto Protocol by
economy, and to date has endorsed 175 collaborative
governments and business groups in some countries,
projects including 22 flagship projects across all the
particularly in countries where the Kyoto Protocol
seven Partner countries. These projects have, inter
has not been ratified. Many commentators have
alia, helped power plant managers improve the
particularly welcomed the fact that the Partnership
efficiency of their operations, trained cement plant
overcomes the impasse between developed and
operators how to save energy at their facilities,
developing countries under the United Nations
assisted in pushing solar photovoltaics toward
Framework Convention on Climate Change and the
commerciali-zation, and improved design,
Kyoto Protocol and has led to India and China taking
equipment and operations of buildings and
some steps to address their greenhouse gas emissions.
appliances. The Partnership has been widely noted
Mexico, Russia, and several ASEAN members have
for its innovative work in public-private sector
expressed interest in joining the Partnership in the
cooperation, and stands as an example of the benefits
future.
of international cooperative efforts in addressing
Criticism climate change.
The Partnership has been criticized by
environmentalists who have rebuked the proceedings THE INTERNATIONAL CARBON ACTION
as ineffectual without mandatory limits on PARTNERSHIP (ICAP)
greenhouse-gas emissions. A coalition of national
environment groups and networks from all of the
The International Carbon Action Partnership
APP countries issued a challenge to their
(ICAP) was founded on October 29, 2007, by a group
governments to make the APP meaningful by
of 15 governments in Lisbon, Portugal. ICAP is an
agreeing to mandatory targets, creating financial
international cooperation forum between states and
mechanisms with incentives for the dissemination
substate regions aiming to link regional Emission
of clean energy technologies, and create an action
Trading Schemes (ETS). ICAP is used as an open
plan to overcome the key barriers to technology
platform exchanging experiences and linking
transfer. U.S. Senator John McCain said the
possibilities in specific linking topics likeMRV,
Partnership "[amounted] to nothing more than a nice
carbon offsets or Carbon-Leakage. It is a group of
little public relations ploy.", while the Economist
countries and regions that support carbon trading and
described the Partnership as "patent fig-leaf for the
are actively developing or have developed cap-and-
refusal of America and Australia to ratify Kyoto".
trade systems. ICAP facilitates the linking of
In the year since the Partnership went into
established and emerging cap-and-trade programs by
effect, none of the parties have lowered emissions
promoting consistent regulatory frameworks across
of greenhouse gases.[citation needed] Although it
national borders.
should be noted that under the Kyoto Protocol
Australia is able to increase its emissions from 1990 History
levels to 108%. The International Carbon Action Partnership
Successes (ICAP) was founded on October 29, 2007. Leaders
of more than 15 governments met in Lisbon,
Proponents of the Partnership have lauded the
Portugal to launch the establishment of the
APP’s achievements since it’s inception in 2006. In
International Carbon Action Partnership (ICAP).
its over three years, the Partnership has established
ICAP is made up of countries and regions that have
a record of achievement in promoting collaboration
implemented or are actively pursuing the
between our governments and private sector in key
implementation of emission trading systems (ETS).

ICAP includes members from the European Union sharing, ICAP enhances the design of other market-
and the European Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS), based schemes by ensuring compatibility of design
Western Climate Initiative (WCI), Regional issues at an early stage. As a result, ICAP provides a
Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), and Australia, forum to ensure capability of existing and emerging
New Zealand and Norway. Japan and Ukraine are programs and enhances the promise for development
observers. of future linked carbon markets.
The Californian Governor Arnold To coordinate carbon market regulation an
Schwarzenegger declared during the founding: international clearinghouse should be installed. The
“This first of its kind partnership will provide International Carbon Action Partnership ICAP has
more incentives for clean-tech investment and already started preparing the linking of trading
economic growth while not letting polluters off the systems and could serve as a future regulatory body.
hook. And it will help renew the health of our General objectives:
planet." 1. Sharing best practice and learning from each
Many governments across the world have others' experiences
established or are developing cap-and-trade for 2. Ensuring that design compatibility issues are
greenhouse gas emissions (carbon markets). They recognized at an early stage.
include the European Union's trading system (EU 3. Facilitating future linking of trading programs.
ETS), the Norwegian trading programme, the New
Zealand trading system (NZ ETS), the Regional Structure
Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI) in the eastern ICAP is an open forum of governments and
region of the United States of America (USA), and public authorities working on carbon markets
the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which through cap and trade systems. While all members
includes western states from the USA and Canadian and observers meet in person two times a year, the
provinces. There is growing interest in other regions day to day work is carried out by the ICAP Steering
of the world in using carbon markets as a cost- Committee, supported by a Project Manager who is
efficient mechanism to reduce greenhouse gas based in Berlin, Germany. The Project Manager is
emissions, among others Japan, Mexico and the supervised by the Chair of the ICAP Steering
United States. Development and implementation of Committee. British Columbia has been elected as
carbon markets requires cooperation, and further Chair for 2009. To coordinate carbon market
consideration of how the various markets can regulation an international clearinghouse should be
facilitate the transition to a global low-carbon installed. The International Carbon Action
economy. The partnership provides a forum to share Partnership ICAP, founded in October 2007, has
experiences and knowledge. Sharing and evaluating already started preparing the linking of trading
best practices will help ICAP members determine systems and could serve as a future regulatory body.
the extent to which their respective programs can be Land use, Land-use Change and Forestry
supported by, and or benefit from, the ICAP process.
Land use, land-use change and forestry
ICAP was formed to contribute to the
(LULUCF) is defined by the United Nations Climate
establishment of a well-functioning global cap and
Change Secretariat as "A greenhouse gas inventory
trade carbon market. ICAP provides the opportunity
sector that covers emissions and removals of
for member countries and regions to share best
greenhouse gases resulting from direct human-
practices and learn from each other's experiences.
induced land use, land-use change and forestry
Linking current and emerging carbon markets at a
activities."
global level establishes a level playing field for
LULUCF has impacts on the global carbon
covered sectors and a consistent regulatory
cycle and as such these activities can add or remove
framework across national borders. Through this
carbon dioxide (or, more generally, carbon) from the

Current Affairs
atmosphere, contributing to climate change. the critically endangered status of a carnivore is the
LULUCF has been the subject of two major reports reduction in habitat for the African Wild Dog,
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Lycaon pictus.).
(IPCC). Additionally, land use is of critical Of particular concern is deforestation, where
importance for biodiversity. logging or burning are followed by the conversion
Land-use change can be a factor in CO2 of the land to agriculture or other land uses. Even if
atmospheric concentration, and is thus a contributor some forests are left standing, the resulting
to climate change. IPCC estimates that land-use fragmented landscape typically fails to support many
change (e.g. conversion of forest into agricultural species that previously existed there.
land) contributes a net 1.6 ± 0.8 Gt carbon per year
to the atmosphere. For comparison, the major source REDUCING EMISSIONS FROM
of CO2, namely emissions from fossil fuel DEFORESTATIONAND FOREST DEGRADATION
combustion and cement production amount to 6.3 (REDD)
± 0.6 Gt carbon per year. This decision sets out the
rules that govern how Kyoto Parties with emission Reducing Emissions from Deforestationand
reduction commitments (co-called Annex 1 Parties) Forest Degradation (REDD) is a set of steps designed
account for changes in carbon stocks in land use, to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce
land-use change and forestry. It is mandatory for the emissions of greenhouse gases fromdeforestation
Annex 1 Parties to account for changes in carbons and forest degradation. Its original objective is to
stocks resulting from deforestation, reforestation and reduce green house gases but it can deliver "co-
afforestation (B Article 3.3) and voluntary to account benefits" such as biodiversity conservation and
for emissions from forest management, cropland poverty alleviation.
management, grazing land management and "Reducing emissions from deforestation and
revegetation (B. Article 3.4). forest degradation" implies a distinction between the
The rules governing the treatment of land use, two activities. The process of identifying the two is
land-use change and forestry for the second what raises questions about how to measure each
commitment period are currently being renegotiated within the REDD mechanism, therefore their
as part of the Bali Action Plan under the Ad-Hoc distinction is vital. Deforestation is the permanent
Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex removal of forests and withdrawal of land from forest
1 Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP). use. Forest degradation refers to negative changes in
The most recent options for rule changes under the forest area that limit its production capacity.
consideration are summarized in a "Non-Paper" the REDD is sometimes presented as an "offset"
co-chairs of the contact group on LULUCF (as of scheme of the carbon markets and thus, would
June 12). produce carbon credits. Carbon offsets are
“emissions-saving projects or programmes” that in
Land use and biodiversity theory would “compensate” for the polluters’
The extent, and type of land use directly affects emissions. The “carbon credits” generated by these
wildlife habitat and thereby impacts local and global projects could then be used by industrialised
biodiversity. Human alteration of landscapes from governments and corporations to meet their targets
natural vegetation (e.g. wilderness) to any other use and/or to be traded within the carbon markets.
typically results in habitat loss, degradation, and However this perspective on REDD+ is contested
fragmentation, all of which can have devastating and hotly debated among economists, scientists and
effects on biodiversity. Land conversion is the single negotiators. Recent studies indicate such an offset
greatest cause of extinction of terrestrial species. An approach based on projects would significantly
example of land conversion being a chief cause of increase the transaction costs associated to REDD+

and would actually be the weakest alternative for a implemented in the short and medium term, was
national REDD+ architecture as regards set to be the 15th Conference of the Parties to the
effectiveness, efficiency, its capacity to deliver co UNFCCC (COP-15), which was held in Copenhagen
benefits (like development, biodiversity or human in December 2009.
rights) and its overal political legitimacy. Main actors
In recent years, estimates for deforestation and REDD activities are undertaken by national or
forest degradation were shown to account for 20- local governments, dominant NGOs, the private
25% of greenhouse gas emissions, higher than the sector, or any combination of these. It is being
transportation sector. Recent work shows that the pushed strongly by the World Bank and the UN for
combined contribution of deforestation, forest
setting up the bases for the carbon market and the
degradation and peatland emissions accounts for
legal and governance frameworks of countries
about 15% of greenhouse gas emissions, about the
same as the transportation sector. Even with these receiving REDD. A number of NGOs, development
new numbers it is increasingly accepted that agencies, research institutes and international
mitigation of global warming will not be achieved organizations support developing countries that wish
without the inclusion of forests in an international to engage in REDD activities. The World Banks's
regime. As a result, it is expected to play a crucial Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, the UN-REDD
role in a future successor agreement to the Kyoto Programme, and Norway's International Climate and
Protocol. Forest Initiative are such examples. The genuine
History actors of REDD, however, will be the populations
whose livelihoods derive from forests. Indigenous
In the 1997 global climate agreement, the
Peoples and forest-dependent communities will be
Kyoto Protocol, policies related to deforestation and
the front liners of REDD, and the success of REDD
degradation were excluded due to the complexity of
measurements and monitoring for the diverse activities will largely depend on their engagement.
ecosystems and land use changes. This exclusion There are many corporative and financial
resulted in the formation of the Coalition of lobbies behind the push for REDD. The REDD"+"
Rainforest Nations. Participant nations included is more than just avoided deforestation and forest
Papua New Guinea, Costa Rica and other forest degradation, it also includes the possibility of
nations. offsetting emissions through “sustainable forest
In 2005, at the 11th Conference of the Parties management”, “conservation” and “increasing forest
(COP-11), the Coalition of Rainforest Nations carbon stocks”. This is because a REDD strategy need
initiated a request to consider 'reducing emissions not refer solely to the establishment of national parks
from deforestation in developing countries.' The or protected areas; by the careful design of rules and
matter was referred to the Subsidiary Body for guidelines, REDD could include land use practices
Scientific and Technical Advice (SBSTA). The United such as shifting cultivation by indigenous
States challenged the proposal but failed in its communities and reduced-impact-logging, provided
attempts. sustainable rotation and harvesting cycles can be
Later, at the 2007 Bali UNFCCC meeting demonstrated.[11] Some argue that this is opening
(COP-13), an agreement was reached on “the urgent the door to logging operations in primary forests,
need to take further meaningful action to reduce displacement of local populations for
emissions from deforestation and forest “conservation”, increase of tree plantations. REDD+
degradation”. The deadline for reaching an is another extension of green capitalism, subjecting
agreement on the specifics of an international REDD the forests and its inhabitants to new ways of
mechanism, at least as regards to its being expropriation and enclosure at the hands of polluting
companies and market speculators.

Current Affairs
For example, at the global level, the role in the progression of REDD activities. As one
International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) of the financial contributors for the REDD program,
– an intergovernmental body that includes 60 the World Bank has created a $300 million fund,
countries of producers and consumers of wood in the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF). So far
tropical forests and the European Union, is a key actor small grants of $200,000 have been disbursed. This
in the push to approve REDD+. The ITTO has fund is aimed towards initiating REDD activities in
launched a thematic program on REDD and developing countries. In addition, another World
environmental services with an initial funding of Bank facility, the Carbon Partnership Facility (CPF),
US$3.5 million from Norway. In addition, the 45th is expected to be used in areas like the power sectors,
session of the ITTO Council held in November transportation, urban development and other areas
2009, recommended that efforts relating REDD+ related to energy efficiency where greenhouse gases
should focus on promoting “sustainable forest are generated.
management”. In this regard, this sector’s lobbying Although the World Bank declares its
seeks above all to include forest extraction inside commitment to fight against climate change, many
REDD under the guise of “sustainable management” civil society organisations and grassroots movements
in order to benefit from carbon markets while around the world view with scepticism the processes
maintaining business-as-usual. being developed under these funds. Among some of
On the other side, Indigenous Peoples are an the most worrying reasons are the weak (or inexistent)
important side of the actors scenario that most of consultation processes with local communities; the
the times is ignored. The International Indigenous lack of criteria to determine when a country is ready
Peoples Forum on Climate Change (IIPFCC) was to implement REDD projects (reddiness); the
explicit at the Bali climate negotiations in 2007: negative impacts such as deforestation and loss of
"REDD/REDD+ will not benefit Indigenous Peoples, biodiversity (due to fast agreements and lack of
but in fact will result in more violations of planning); the lack of safeguards to protect
Indigenous Peoples’ rights. It will increase the Indigenous Peoples' rights; and the lack of regional
violation of our human rights, our rights to our lands, policies to stop deforestation. During the UN climate
territories and resources, steal our land, cause forced negotiations in Copenhagen (2009) and Cancun
evictions, prevent access and threaten indigenous (2010) strong civil society and social movements
agricultural practices, destroy biodiversity and coalitions formed a strong front to fight the World
cultural diversity and cause social conflicts. Under Bank out of the climate.
REDD/REDD+, states and carbon traders will take The UNDP, UNEP and FAO set up the UN-
more control over our forests." REDD Programme, which is aimed at assisting
developing countries in addressing certain measures
Some grassroots organisations are already needed in order to effectively participate in the REDD
working to develop REDD activities with mechanism. These measures include capacity
communities and developing benefit-sharing development, governance, engagement of Indigenous
mechanisms to ensure REDD funds reach rural Peoples and technical needs. The first initial set of
communities as well as governments. Examples of nine countries were Bolivia, Democratic Republic
these include Plan Vivo projects in Mexico, of Congo, Indonesia, Panama, Papua New Guinea,
Mozambique and Cameroon. Paraguay, Tanzania, Vietnam, and Zambia. The total
Active international organizations number of funds allocated by the UN-REDD
Programme Policy Board to date is US$ 48.3
REDD has received strong support and push
million, allocated to eight of these countries. The
from international organizations and IFIs
Programme also ensures overall guidance through its
(International Financial Institutions).
global activities on Measuring, Verifying and
The World Bank presently plays an important Reporting (MRV) systems, engagement of indigenous

peoples and other forest-dependent communities, bribery thus far. In late October 2010, Wandojo
and governance; the Programme aims for multiple Siswanto, a lead delegate in Copenhagen and key
benefits from REDD for livelihoods and ecosystems. architect of REDD, was arrested and charged with
However, among other exclusions, the accepting bribes of up to US$10,000 from the
definition of forests currently adopted by the UN director of PT Masaro Radiokom, a
climate change convention (and therefore the telecommunications company. In Indonesia, the
UNDP, UNEP and FAO) contains a large loophole: forestry sector’s reputation has been referred to as
it fails to distinguish between natural forests and “a source of unlimited corruption,” by Indonesia’s
plantations, including eucalyptus, pines, acacias, oil Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK).
palm, and others. Biodiverse, natural forests could
Key questions
therefore be destroyed and replaced with plantations,
but this would not be treated as “deforestation” A number of questions are being discussed and
because – according to the definition - the area will inform the decisions on REDD at the upcoming
would still be covered by trees. The lack of a clear 16th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations
distinction is no accident. Defining a forest simply Framework Convention on Climate Change. They
in terms of tree cover - rather than complex include: Example of forest structure mapping done
ecosystems and the livelihoods of peoples interacting during ground survey. Similar data are used as a
with them – has long been used as a cover for the baseline for Monitoring, reporting and verification
expansion of industrial-scale plantations. The most of forest cover and allows to follow up carbon stock
plausible explanation, arguably, is that commercial volume in time.
interests take precedence over environmental and The structure of funding mechanisms
social objectives in the shaping of REDD policy.
[www.wrm.org.uy] Tying REDD into a broader system of carbon
trading could allow developed countries or private
Active governments firms to offset their own emissions and meet
The REDD mechanism has been well received emissions reductions targets. However, some
by some national governments. At the 2007 Bali developing countries, such as Brazil and China,
Conference, the Norwegian government announced maintain that developed countries must commit to
their International Climate and Forests Initiative, real emissions reductions, independent of any offset
which provided $500 million towards the creation mechanism. Setting reference levels to measure the
and implementation of national-based, REDD reduction in emissions.
activities in the nation of Tanzania. The Norwegian Will it be based on current emissions levels
government will work closely with international or historical deforestation rates, a business-as-usual
organizations such as UN-REDD to promote REDD scenario? Will countries with different forest covers
activities in the area. In addition, the Government and historic deforestation rates hold different
of Norway and United Kingdom contributed $200 interests in the way the reference levels are
million towards the Congo Basin Forest Fund to aid constructed? Involving countries with high forest
forest conservation actives in Central Africa. covers and low historic deforestation rates will be
Australia has joined the efforts to promote necessary to reduce perverse incentives.
REDD mechanisms. Their $200 million
International Forest Carbon Initiative focused on Distribution of benefits
developing REDD activities in the region, i.e., in How can the benefits from REDD be
areas like Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea. The distributed to forest communities in a just, equitable
governments of Spain and Denmark have recently way that minimizes capture of the benefits by
become donors to the UN-REDD Programme. national governments or local elites?
There have been a few cases of corruption and

Current Affairs
• Participation of Indigenous peoples and Forest- REDD-Plus

Dependent Communities in the design, • In 2007, at the Conference of the Parties to
implementation and monitoring of REDD the UNFCCC in Bali (COP-13) an agreement
activities, and respect for their human rights. was reached called the Bali Action Plan. As
• Strategies to prevent "carbon leakage", caused defined, its aims are directed toward forest
by the displacement of deforestation to other conservation, sustainable forest management
areas. and the enhancement of carbon stocks.
• Achieving multiple benefits, for example the • REDD-plus calls for activities with serious
conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem implications directed towards the local
services (such as watersheds), and social communities, indigenous people and forests
benefits (for example income and improved which relate to reducing emission from
forest governance). deforestation and forest degradation. Therefore
Concerns this will involve enhancing existing forests and
• The availability of a large supply of potentially increasing forest cover. In order to meet these
cheap carbon credits could provide an avenue objectives, policies need to address
for companies in the developed world to enhancement of carbon stocks by providing
simply purchase REDD credits without funding and investments in these areas.
providing meaningful emission reductions at • In 2009, at COP-15 in Copenhagen, the
home. Copenhagen Accord of 18 December 2009
• Large number of carbon credits could swamp was reached, noting in section 6 the
developing carbon markets. However, they recognition of the crucial role of REDD and
could also facilitate ambitious emissions REDD-plus and the need to provide positive
targets in a post-Kyoto agreement. incentives for such actions by enabling the
• Putting a commercial value on forests neglects mobilization of financial resources from
the spiritual value they hold for Indigenous developed countries. The Accord goes on to
Peoples and local communities. note in section 8 that the collective
• There is no consensus on a definition for forest commitment by developed countries for new
degradation. and additional resources, including forestry
• The risk is that baselines are set unrealistically and investments through international
by developing country authorities and it's not institutions, will approach USD 30 billion for
actually accurate around the forest's carbon the period 2010 - 2012.
stocks
For an effective REDD+ mechanism
• There's risks the local inhabitants, the
communities that live in the forests, will be The complexity of the issue could be better
bypassed and they won't be consulted and so reflected in the way the question of agriculture is
they won't actually receive any revenues. approached for the REDD+ mechanism at the
• Some projects are unaccountable and dodgy international level. Although intensification – in
other words the increase in productivity per hectare
companies are taking advantage of the low
- is a key variable for long-term forest conservation,
governance. the problem cannot be resolved by this alone. The
• Fair distribution of REDD benefits will not scientific findings previously presented all indicate
be achieved without a prior reform in forest that there is no simple, unequivocal relationship
governance and more secure tenure systems between changes in agricultural systems and tropical
in many countries. deforestation. However, the major trend to follow

undoubtedly remains the increase in yields, without disseminating technologies among their
however basing this increase primarily on the potential users.
provision of chemical inputs that increase the (b) Harmonising sectoral public policies The
quantity of greenhouse gas emissions.
second way to interpret the need for public
One solution could theoretically lie in the
support policies amounts to accepting the
rapid dissemination of a type of intensive agriculture
in certain countries or regions – notwithstanding importance of harmonising measures that have
numerous problematic consequences, for example a direct or indirect impact on forest cover.
geographical specialisation implying a restrictive These are the “forest-related policies”, which
approach to the conservation of natural resources for include all sectors of activity that have a
the developing world. This option tends to maximise significant impact: trade, taxation,
use of favourable agricultural conditions in certain infrastructure, regional control, and
regions, in order to indirectly preserve other countries programmes encouraging human migration,
or regions with less favourable conditions (a strategy etc. A strategy that is limited to just one sector
known as “common agricultural pools”). of activity – here, agriculture – and not
It remains to be determined how a REDD+ harmonised with the other sectors of activity,
mechanism could represent an incentive for this such as the construction of road infrastructure,
global strategy, in the sense that areas that are would at best produce mixed, temporary
unsuited to agriculture would see an economic
results, and at worst be doomed to failure.
advantage in reaping the benefits of REDD+ and
Admittedly, some would argue that the “price
minimising their agricultural areas, and vice versa
for other regions. signal” a carbon market would produce is
Necessary public support policies itself capable of guiding decisions favourable
to reducing emissions and therefore the
Public support policies are necessary. This may harmonisation of policies if this harmonisation
be understood in at least four different ways.
will lead to the objective being met. This idea
(a) Fostering changes in agricultural technologies is somewhat disconnected from reality,
First, it means that we must not count on however, and political economy as well as
spontaneous changes in technologies that may governance issues must also be part of the
contribute to forest conservation objectives. analysis.
Farmers show a strong tendency to adopt (c) Adopting the PES principle The third way to
extensive systems when land is abundant in interpret public support policies is central.
order to compensate for the scarcity of other Indeed, some major opportunities exist for
factors of production such as labour and giving the principle of Payments for
capital. Environmental Services (PES) the position it
Consequently, counting on the spontaneous could well deserve in the future. The
innovation and adoption of new agricultural beneficiaries of an environmental service
technologies implies accepting an increase in establish voluntary contracts with the providers
clearing while forest resources are abundant, of this service (who control the natural
and waiting until this resource is almost resource) and condition their rewards on the
depleted before farmers attempt to remedy the maintenance of the service. In the case in
problem! A certain number of macro tools question, PES would consist in measures
must therefore be implemented, for example aimed at conditioning support for the adoption
management of the industry, taxation applied of sound agricultural technologies on the
to the agricultural sector, or the creation of absence of excessive forest clearing on nearby
an area network with agencies responsible for land. Farmers and landowners would thus

Current Affairs
benefit from the possibility of using

THE MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME
technologies capable of increasing their
(MAB)
production and income, and at the same time
the adverse consequences of forest clearing
could be minimised. In other words, the The Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB)
principle is to benefit from REDD+ funding of UNESCO was established in 1971 to promote
for an ecosystem service (climate regulation interdisciplinary approaches to management,
through CO2 emissions reductions), in order research and education in ecosystem conservation
to foster an agricultural revolution that would and sustainable use of natural resources.
serve the interests of poor populations The MAB programme’s primary achievement
suffering from under nourishment on the one is the creation of the World Network of Biosphere
hand, and on the other, would avoid losing Reserves since 1977. This World Network is more
precious time in meeting the food challenge than a listing - biosphere reserves exchange
(substantially higher global food production knowledge and experiences on sustainable
by 2050). PES would therefore make it development innovations across country and
possible to set up contracts aimed at covering continent borders - they exist in more than 100
the costs of investment and of the transition countries all across the world. Biosphere reserves are
towards new agricultural technologies. areas that are supposed to develop innovative
(d) Acting on global demand The fourth way to approaches, test them and share the results; more
importantly to combine many different approaches
interpret the need for support policies refers
in a vast diversity of policy and management fields,
to the issue of demand for agricultural
towards a balanced relationship between mankind
products. When production increases, demand
and nature.
also tends to rise in response to lower prices. In order for an area to be included into the
This is known as the “rebound effect”. It is World Network of Biosphere Reserves, work on the
based on the behaviour of consumers and their ground has to have started, appropriate information
tendency to increase their consumption when about the region gathered, the population needs to
purchasing power enables them to do so. It have agreed. Nominations then are prepared and
seems there are few remedies to this, since it submitted to UNESCO by national governments, in
is undoubtedly unrealistic to restrict most cases through MAB national committees.
consumers in their consumption choices. It Benefits gained from being part of the network
is sometimes suggested that action should include access to a shared base of knowledge and
focus on diets throughout the world, in both incentives to integrate conservation, development
developing and developed countries in order and scientific research to sustainably manage
to bring demand per capita into line globally, ecosystems.
for example by attempting to reduce the share Owing to the MAB programme’s focus to
of dairy products and meat. Another improving mankind's relationship with nature, MAB
alternative envisaged consists in setting up has gradually been seen as UNESCO’s, and as one
systems that would subject agricultural of the United Nations’s most important responses
products to a kind of tax based on their carbon to international dialogues such as the 1992 United
content but the implementation of such a Nations Conference on Environment and
system is still considered to be highly Development (UNCED) and the Convention on
problematic. Biological Diversity (CBD). Ahead of the 1990s, the
MAB programme was a research programme
organized along 14 large research projects addressing

ecosystems such as mountain areas, arid lands, etc. the first globalenvironmentalconference and the
During the initial years of the MAB programme, the precursor to the 1992 United Nations Earth Summit
designation of biosphere reserves focused on research in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
questions and on environmental conservation. The purpose of theconference was not to
Hence, there are several national parks among the discuss scientific or technological approaches to
areas included in the network - these mostly environmental problems but to coordinate
encompass isolated wilderness with outstanding international policy. A 27-nation committee held four
biodiversity values. In the early 1990s, the MAB meetings in the two years preceding the conference,
programme’s focus shifted to promoting interactions and in the months leading up to it they issued a report
of mankind with nature in terms of sustainable calling for "a major reorientation of man's values and
living, income generation and reducing poverty. In redeployment of his energiesand resources." In their
biosphere reserves, nature is not isolated from man, preliminary report, the committee emphasized their
but it is conserved through using it. Hence, they are political priorities: "The very nature ofenvironmental
problems—that is to say, their intricate
places where livelihood is sustained - even urban
interdependence—is such as to require political
greenbelts can be found among the biosphere choices." There was a remarkable lack of
reserves. divisiveness, once the conferencebegan, on most
In 1995, the second World Congress of issues under consideration. The Soviet Union and
Biosphere Reserves held in Seville formally defined the Eastern bloc did not attend because East
and designated a set of objectives and procedures Germany, which was not a member of the United
governing the recognition of potential biosphere Nations, had been denied full representation. But
reserves based on this strategic thrust (Seville Strategy 114 of the 132 member countries of the United
and the International Guidelines). Criteria have been Nations were there, and the sessions were
set to ensure that the objectives of the programme distinguished by what the New York Times called a
will be met. A regular evaluation of biosphere "groundswell of unanimity." A number of
reserves is obligatory. Therefore, many biosphere resolutions passed without a dissenting vote.
reserves which had been included during the 1970s Many believe the most important result of the
and 1980s have in the meantime either been conference was the precedent it set for international
withdrawn from the World Network or redefined so cooperation in addressing environmental
as to remain relevant to this new setting. All relevant degradation. The nations attending agreed that they
decisions in the MAB Programme are taken by an shared responsibility for the quality of the
intergovernmental committee, the MAB environment, particularly the oceans and the
International Co-ordinating Council (ICC): The 38 atmosphere, and they signed adeclaration of
members of the ICC are government representatives principles, after extensive negotiations, concerning
which are elected for a four-year term by the their obligations. The conference also approved an
UNESCO General Conference. The Secretariat of the environmentalfund and an "action program," which
MAB Programme is located with UNESCO
involved 200 specific recommendations for
Headquarters Paris. To date, 580 biosphere reserves
addressing such problems as global climatic change,
in 114 countries have been included in the World
Network of Biosphere Reserves. marine pollution, population growth, the dumping
of toxic wastes, and the preservation of biodiversity.
A permanentenvironmental unit was established for
UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE
coordinating these and other international efforts on
HUMAN ENVIRONMENT (1972)
behalf of the environment; the organization that
became the United Nations Environmenta
Held in Stockholm in 1972, the United
Programme was formally approved by the General
NationsConference on the Human Environment was Assembly 1later that same year and its base

Current Affairs
established in Nairobi, Kenya. This organization has moral, social and spiritual growth. In the long and
not only coordinated action but monitored research, tortuous evolution of the human race on this planet
collecting and dissemina-ting information, and it has a stage has been reached when, through the rapid
played an ongoing role in international negotiations acceleration of science and technology, man has
about environmental issues. The conference in acquired the power to transform his environment in
Stockholm accomplished almost everything the countless ways and on an unprecedented scale. Both
preparatory committee had planned. It was widely aspects of man's environment, the natural and the
considered successful, and many observers were man-made, are essential to his well-being and to the
almost euphoric about the extent of agreement. In a enjoyment of basic human rights the right to life
speech to the nations gathered in Stockholm, the itself.
anthropologist Margaret Mead called the event "a 2. The protection and improvement of the
revolution in thought fully comparable to the human environment is a major issue which affects
Copernican revolution by which, four centuries ago, the well-being of peoples and economic
men and women were compelled to revise their development throughout the world; it is the urgent
whole sense of the earth's place in the cosmos. desire of the peoples of the whole world and the duty
Today we are challenged to recognize as great a of all Governments.
change in our concept of man's place in the 3. Man has constantly to sum up experience
biosphere." and go on discovering, inventing, creating and
There were, however, some dissenting voices. advancing. In our time, man's capability to transform
Shirley Temple Black and others formally protested his surroundings, if used wisely, can bring to all
the fact that women were not fully represented at peoples the benefits of development and the
the gathering; only 11 delegations of the 114 nations opportunity to enhance the quality of life. Wrongly
represented included even one woman. A large or heedlessly applied, the same power can do
"counterconference" was held in Stockholm, incalculable harm to human beings and the human
consisting of a number of scientific and political environment. We see around us growing evidence
organizations, and environmenta-lists such as Barry of man-made harm in many regions of the earth:
Commoner argued that the official conference, dangerous levels of pollution in water, air, earth and
though valuable, had failed to address thesubjects living beings; major and undesirable disturbances to
that were most important to solving the the ecological balance of the biosphere; destruction
currentenvironmental crisis, particularly poverty and and depletion of irreplaceable resources; and gross
what he called "ecologically sound ways of deficiencies, harmful to the physical, mental and
producing goods." social health of man, in the man-made environment,
Declaration of the United Nations particularly in the living and working environment.
4. In the developing countries most of the
Conference on the Human Environment environmental problems are caused by under-
The United Nations Conference on the Human development. Millions continue to live far below
Environment, having met at Stockholm from 5 to 16 the minimum levels required for a decent human
June 1972, having considered the need for a existence, deprived of adequate food and clothing,
common outlook and for common principles to shelter and education, health and sanitation.
inspire and guide the peoples of the world in the Therefore, the developing countries must direct their
preservation and enhancement of the human efforts to development, bearing in mind their
environment, priorities and the need to safeguard and improve the
Proclaims that: environment. For the same purpose, the
1. Man is both creature and moulder of his industrialized countries should make efforts to
environment, which gives him physical sustenance reduce the gap themselves and the developing
and affords him the opportunity for intellectual,

countries. In the industrialized countries, organizations in many fields, by their values and the
environmental problems are generally related to sum of their actions, will shape the world
industrialization and technological development. environment of the future. Local and national
5. The natural growth of population governments will bear the greatest burden for large-
continuously presents problems for the preservation scale environmental policy and action within their
of the environment, and adequate policies and jurisdictions. International cooperation is also needed
measures should be adopted, as appropriate, to face in order to raise resources to support the developing
these problems. Of all things in the world, people countries in carrying out their responsibilities in this
are the most precious. It is the people that propel
field. A growing class of environmental problems,
social progress, create social wealth, develop science
because they are regional or global in extent or
and technology and, through their hard work,
continuously transform the human environment. because they affect the common international realm,
Along with social progress and the advance of will require extensive cooperation among nations
production, science and technology, the capability and action by international organizations in the
of man to improve the environment increases with common interest. The Conference calls upon
each passing day. Governments and peoples to exert common efforts
6. A point has been reached in history when for the preservation and improvement of the human
we must shape our actions throughout the world environment, for the benefit of all the people and
with a more prudent care for their environmental for their posterity.
consequences. Through ignorance or indifference we Principles
can do massive and irreversible harm to the earthly States the common conviction that:
environment on which our life and well being Principle 1
depend. Conversely, through fuller knowledge and Man has the fundamental right to freedom,
wiser action, we can achieve for ourselves and our equality and adequate conditions of life, in an
posterity a better life in an environment more in environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity
keeping with human needs and hopes. There are and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility
broad vistas for the enhancement of environmental to protect and improve the environment for present
quality and the creation of a good life. What is and future generations. In this respect, policies
needed is an enthusiastic but calm state of mind and promoting or perpetuating apartheid, racial
segregation, discrimination, colonial and other
intense but orderly work. For the purpose of attaining forms of oppression and foreign domination stand
freedom in the world of nature, man must use condemned and must be eliminated.
knowledge to build, in collaboration with nature, a Principle 2
better environment. To defend and improve the
The natural resources of the earth, including
human environment for present and future the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially
generations has become an imperative goal for representative samples of natural ecosystems, must
mankind-a goal to be pursued together with, and in be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future
harmony with, the established and fundamental generations through careful planning or
goals of peace and of worldwide economic and social management, as appropriate.
development. Principle 3
7. To achieve this environmental goal will The capacity of the earth to produce vital
demand the acceptance of responsibility by citizens renewable resources must be maintained and,
and communities and by enterprises and institutions wherever practicable, restored or improved.
at every level, all sharing equitably in common Principle 4
efforts. Individuals in all walks of life as well as Man has a special responsibility to safeguard

Current Affairs
and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its raw materials are essential to environmental
habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a management, since economic factors as well as
combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation, ecological processes must be taken into account.
including wildlife, must therefore receive Principle 11
importance in planning for economic development. The environmental policies of all States should
Principle 5 enhance and not adversely affect the present or future
The non-renewable resources of the earth must development potential of developing countries, nor
be employed in such a way as to guard against the should they hamper the attainment of better living
danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that conditions for all, and appropriate steps should be
benefits from such employment are shared by all taken by States and international organizations with
mankind. a view to reaching agreement on meeting the possible
Principle 6 national and international economic consequences
resulting from the application of environmental
The discharge of toxic substances or of other
substances and the release of heat, in such quantities measures.
or concentrations as to exceed the capacity of the Principle 12
environment to render them harmless, must be Resources should be made available to
halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible preserve and improve the environment, taking into
damage is not inflicted upon ecosystems. The just account the circumstances and particular
struggle of the peoples of ill countries against requirements of developing countries and any costs
pollution should be supported. which may emanate- from their incorporating
Principle 7 environmental safeguards into their development
States shall take all possible steps to prevent planning and the need for making available to them,
pollution of the seas by substances that are liable to upon their request, additional international technical
create hazards to human health, to harm living and financial assistance for this purpose.
resources and marine life, to damage amenities or Principle 13
to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea. In order to achieve a more rational
Principle 8 management of resources and thus to improve the
Economic and social development is essential environment, States should adopt an integrated and
for ensuring a favorable living and working coordinated approach to their development planning
environment for man and for creating conditions on so as to ensure that development is compatible with
earth that are necessary for the improvement of the the need to protect and improve environment for the
quality of life. benefit of their population.
Principle 14
Principle 9
Rational planning constitutes an essential tool
Environmental deficiencies generated by the
for reconciling any conflict between the needs of
conditions of under-development and natural
development and the need to protect and improve
disasters pose grave problems and can best be
the environment.
remedied by accelerated development through the
transfer of substantial quantities of financial and Principle 15
technological assistance as a supplement to the Planning must be applied to human
domestic effort of the developing countries and such settlements and urbanization with a view to avoiding
timely assistance as may be required. adverse effects on the environment and obtaining
maximum social, economic and environmental
Principle 10
benefits for all. In this respect projects which arc
For the developing countries, stability of prices designed for colonialist and racist domination must
and adequate earnings for primary commodities and be abandoned.

Principle 16 technologies should be made available to

Demographic policies which are without developing countries on terms which would
prejudice to basic human rights and which are encourage their wide dissemination without
deemed appropriate by Governments concerned constituting an economic burden on the developing
should be applied in those regions where the rate of countries.
population growth or excessive population Principle 21
concentrations are likely to have adverse effects on States have, in accordance with the Charter of
the environment of the human environment and the United Nations and the principles of
impede development. international law, the sovereign right to exploit their
Principle 17 own resources pursuant to their own environmental
Appropriate national institutions must be policies, and the responsibility to ensure that
entrusted with the task of planning, managing or activities within their jurisdiction or control do not
controlling the 9 environmental resources of States cause damage to the environment of other States or
with a view to enhancing environmental quality. of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Principle 18 Principle 22
Science and technology, as part of their States shall cooperate to develop further the
contribution to economic and social development, international law regarding liability and
must be applied to the identification, avoidance and compensation for the victims of pollution and other
control of environmental risks and the solution of environmental damage caused by activities within
environmental problems and for the common good the jurisdiction or control of such States to areas
of mankind. beyond their jurisdiction.
Principle 19 Principle 23
Education in environmental matters, for the Without prejudice to such criteria as may be
younger generation as well as adults, giving due agreed upon by the international community, or to
consideration to the underprivileged, is essential in standards which will have to be determined
order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion nationally, it will be essential in all cases to consider
and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises the systems of values prevailing in each country, and
and communities in protecting and improving the the extent of the applicability of standards which are
environment in its full human dimension. It is also valid for the most advanced countries but which may
essential that mass media of communications avoid be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for
contributing to the deterioration of the environment, the developing countries.
but, on the contrary, disseminates information of an Principle 24
educational nature on the need to project and
improve the environment in order to enable mal to International matters concerning the
develop in every respect. protection and improvement of the environment
should be handled in a cooperative spirit by all
Principle 20 countries, big and small, on an equal footing.
Scientific research and development in the Cooperation through multilateral or bilateral
context of environmental problems, both national arrangements or other appropriate means is essential
and multinational, must be promoted in all countries, to effectively control, prevent, reduce and eliminate
especially the developing countries. In this adverse environmental effects resulting from
connection, the free flow of up-to-date scientific activities conducted in all spheres, in such a way
information and transfer of experience must be that due account is taken of the sovereignty and
supported and assisted, to facilitate the solution of interests of all States.
environmental problems; environmental

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Principle 25 whose sole purpose was to raise awareness of the

States shall ensure that international need for sustainable development. During this time
organizations play a coordinated, efficient and period, people in developed countries were starting
dynamic role for the protection and improvement to become more aware about environmental issues
of the environment. stemming from industrialization and growth.
Principle 26 Developed countries wanted to reduce the
Man and his environment must be spared the environmental impact of their growth. On the other
effects of nuclear weapons and all other means of hand, developing countries were becoming
mass destruction. States must strive to reach prompt discouraged because they were not at and could not
agreement, in the relevant international organs, on reach the higher levels of economic growth that
the elimination and complete destruction of such industrialized countries had. Because of this need
weapons. for growth, developing countries were desperate to
use cheap methods with high environmental impact
BRUNTLAND COMMISSION (1983) and unethical labor practices in their push to
industrialize. The United Nations saw a growing
Formally known as the World Commission on need for an organization to address these
Environment and Development (WCED), the environmental challenges which were intertwined
Brundtland Commission's mission is to unite with economic and social conditions as well.
countries to pursue sustainable development In December of 1983, the Secretary General
together. The Chairman of the Commission, Gro of the United Nations, Javier Pérez de Cuéllar, asked
the Prime Minister of Norway, Gro Harlem
Harlem Brundtland, was appointed by Javier Perez
Brundtland, to create an organization independent
de Cuellar, former Secretary General of the United
of the UN to focus on environmental and
Nations, in December 1983. At the time, the UN developmental problems and solutions after an
General Assembly realized that there was a heavy affirmation by the General Assembly resolution in
deterioration of the human environment and natural the fall of 1984. This new organization is the
resources. To rally countries to work and pursue Brundtland Commission, or referred to more
sustainable development together, the UN decided formally as the World Commission on Environment
to establish the Brundtland Commission. Gro and Development (WCED). The Brundtland
Harlem Brundtland who was the former Prime Commission was first headed by Gro Harlem
Minister of Norway and was chosen due to her strong Brundtland as Chairman and Mansour Khalid as
background in the sciences and public health. The Vice-Chairman. The organization aims to create a
Brundtland Commission officially dissolved in united international community with shared
December 1987 after releasing the Brundtland Report sustainability goals by identifying sustainability
in October of 1987. The organization, Center for Our problems worldwide, raising awareness about them,
Common Future, was started up to take the place of and suggesting the implementation of solutions. In
the Commission. The Center for Our Common 1987, the Brundtland Commission published the
Future was officially started in April of 1988. first volume of “Our Common Future,” the
History organization’s main report. “Our Common Future”
strongly influenced the Earth Summit in Rio de
After the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the Janeiro, Brazil in 1992 and the third UN Conference
Human Environment and the 1980 World on Environment and Development in Johannesburg,
Conservation Strategy of the International Union for South Africa in 2002. Also, it is credited with
the Conservation of Nature, the leaders of our world creating the most prevalent definition of
realized that we needed to create an organization sustainability, as seen below.

Events Before Brundtland Resolution establishing the Commission

During the 1980s it had been revealed that the The 1983 General Assembly passed Resolution
role bank had started to experience an expanded role 38/161 "Process of preparation of the Environmental
in intervening with the economic and social policies Perspective to the Year 2000 and Beyond",
of the Third World. This was most notable through establishing the Commission. In A/RES/38/161, the
the events at Bretton Woods in 1945. The ideas of General Assembly: Suggests that the Special
neo-liberalism and the institutions promoting Commission, when established, should focus
economic globalization dominated the political
mainly on the following terms of reference for its
agenda of the world's then leading trading nations:
work:
the United States under President Ronald Reagan and
Great Britain under Prime Minister Margaret (a) To propose long-term environmental strategies
Thatcher, both strident Conservative people. for achieving sustainable development to the
year 2000 and beyond;
These events would be the ones that lead us
into an era of free markets built on a distortion of (b) To recommend ways in which concern for the
the international regime forged in 1945 at Bretton environment may be translated into greater
Woods. Bretton Woods was transformed through the co-operation among developing countries and
1980s and 1990s, finally ending in 1995 with the between countries at different stages of
establishment of the World Trade Organization economic and social development and lead
channeled in by United States President Bill Clinton. to the achievement of common and mutually
Bretton Woods was formed as an arrangement among supportive objectives which take account of
the industrialized nation states, but was transformed the interrelationships between people,
into a global regime of ostensibly free markets that resources, environment and development;
privileged the multinational corporations and (c) To consider ways and means by which the
actually undermined the sovereignty of the very international community can deal more
national communities that established Bretton effectively with environmental concerns, in
Woods. the light of the other recommendations in its
The Brundtland Report was a response to the report;
conflict between the nascent regime promoting (d) To help to define shared perceptions of long-
globalized economic growth and the emerging term environmental issues and of the
ecological disaster on a global scale. The challenge appropriate efforts needed to deal successfully
posed in the 1980s was to harmonize prosperity with with the problems of protecting and enhancing
ecology. This meant that we needed to find a means the environment, a long-term agenda for action
of keeping growth without harming our during the coming decades, and aspirational
environment. To address the needs of what was then goals for the world community, taking into
perceived as the developing world (Third World), the account the relevant resolutions of the session
United Nations knew that there needed to be a of a special character of the Governing
balance of growth and perservation. This was to be Council in 1982;".
achieved by redefining the concepts of economic Modern Definition of Sustainable
development as the new idea of sustainable Development
development, as it was christened in the Brundtland The Brundtland Commission draws upon
Report. To comprehend this paradigm shift, we start several notions in their definition of sustainable
with what we intend by the key term: development. development, which has come to be the most
frequently cited definition of the concept to date.

Current Affairs
One element key to the formation of their to which they should be given overriding
definition is the unity of environment and priority; and
development. The Brundtland Commission argues • the idea of limitations which is imposed by
against the assertions of the 1972 Stockholm the state of technology and social organization
Conference on the Human Environment and provides
on the environment's ability to meet both
an alternative perspective on sustainable
present and future needs.
development, unique from that of the 1980 World
Conservation Strategy of the International Union for Most agree that the central idea of the
the Conservation of Nature. The Brundtland Brundtland Commission's definition of "sustainable
Commission pushed for the idea that while the development" is that of intergenerational equity. In
"environment" was previously perceived as a sphere sum, the "needs" are basic and essential, economic
separate from human emotion or action, and while growth will facilitate their fulfillment, and that
"development" was a term habitually used to equity is encouraged by citizen participation.
describe political goals or economic progress, it is Therefore, another characteristic that really sets this
more comprehensive to understand the two terms definition apart from others is in the element of
in relation to each other (We can better understand humanity that the Brundtland Commission
the environment in relation to development and we
integrates.
can better understand development in relation to the
environment, because they cannot and should not According to the Commission, all countries
be distinguished as separate entities). Brundtland need to start to unify their goals of economic and
argues: social development. The term development implies
"...the "environment" is where we live; and that there is a progressive transfor-mation of the
"development" is what we all do in attempting to economy and social society. To make development
improve our lot within that abode. The two are sustainable, there needs to be a more rigid political
inseparable." and social standard implemented by which all
The Brundtland Commission insists upon the companies and individuals need to.
environment being something beyond physicality, The particular ambiguity and openness-to-
going beyond that traditional school of thought to interpretation of this definition has allowed for
include social and political atmospheres and widespread support from diverse efforts, groups and
circumstances. It also insists that development is not organizations. It lays out a core set of guiding
principles that can be guided by an evolving global
just about how poor countries can ameliorate their
discourse. As a result of the work of the Brundtland
situation, but what the entire world, including
Commission, the issue of sustainable development
developed countries, can do to ameliorate our is on the agenda of numerous international and
communal situation. national institutions, as well as corporations and city
The term sustainable development was coined efforts. The particular definition gave light to new
in the paper "Our Common Future" that was perspectives on the sustainability of an ever-changing
released by the Brundtland Commission. Sustainable planet with an ever-changing population.
development is the kind of development that meets Brundtland Report
the needs of the present without compromising the
The Report of the Brundtland Commission,
ability of future generations to meet their own
Our Common Future, was published by Oxford
needs. The two key concepts of sustainable University Press in 1987. One version with links to
development are: cited documents is available. The Report was
• the concept of "needs" in particular the welcomed by the General Assembly in its resolution
essential needs of the world's poorest people, 42/187.

The report deals with sustainable development allow multiple problems (such as deforestation and
and the change of politics needed for achieving that. ozone depletion) to be looked at in a holistic
The definition of this term in the report is quite well approach.
known and often cited: Sustainability Efforts
"Sustainable development is development that The three main pillars of sustainable
meets the needs of the present without development include economic growth,
compromising the ability of future generations to environmental protection and social equality. While
meet their own needs". It contains within it two key many people agree that each of these three ideas
concepts: contribute to the overall idea of sustainability, it is
• the concept of 'needs', in particular the difficult to find evidence of equal levels of initiatives
essential needs of the world's poor, to which for the three pillars in countries' policies worldwide.
overriding priority should be given; and With the overwhelming number of countries that put
• the idea of limitations imposed by the state economic growth on the forefront of sustainable
development, it is evident that the other two pillars
of technology and social organization on the
have been suffering, especially with the overall well
environment's ability to meet present and
being of the environment in a dangerously unhealthy
future needs."
state. The Brundtland Commission has put forth a
Structure conceptual framework that many nations agree with
The Brundtland Commission was chaired by and want to try to make a difference with in their
former Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem countries, but it has been difficult to change these
Brundtland. Politicians, civil servants, and concepts about sustainability into concrete actions
environmental experts make up the majority of the and programs. Implementing sustainable
members. Members of the commission represent 21 development globally is still a challenge, but because
different nations (both developed and developing of the Brundtland Commission's efforts, progress has
countries are included). Many of the members are been made. After releasing their report, "Our
important political figures in their home country. Common Future," the Brundtland Commission
One example is William Ruckelshaus, former head called for an international meeting to take place
of the US Environmental Protection Agency. All where more concrete initiates and goals could be
members of the commission were appointed by both mapped out. This meeting was held in Rio de Janeiro,
Gro Harlem Brundtland and Mansour Khalid, the Brazil. A comprehensive plan of action, known as
Chairman and Vice Chairman. Agenda 21, came out of the meeting. Agenda 21
The commission focuses on setting up entailed actions to be taken globally, nationally, and
networks to promote environmental stewardship. locally in order to make life on Earth more
Most of these networks make connections between sustainable going into the future.
governments and non-government entities. One such Economic Growth
network is Bill Clinton's Council on Sustainable Economic Growth is the pillar that most
Development. In this council government and groups focus on when attempting to attain more
business leaders come together to share ideas on how sustainable efforts and development. In trying to
to encourage sustainable development. The build their economies, many countries focus their
Brundtland Commission has been the most efforts on resource extraction, which leads to
successful in forming international ties between unsustainable efforts for environmental protection
governments and multinational corporations. The as well as economic growth sustainability. While
1992 and 2002 Earth Summits were the direct result the Commission was able to help to change the
of the Brundtland Commission. The international association between economic growth and resource
structure and scope of the Brundtland Commission extraction, the total worldwide consumption of

Current Affairs
resources is projected to increase in the future. So the poorest 50% owning around 1% of the world’s
much of the natural world has already been wealth. The Brundtland Commission has made an
converted into human use that focus cannot simply impact in helping to reduce the number of people
remain on economic growth and omit the ever living on less than a dollar a day to just half of what
growing problem of environmental sustainability. it used to be, but this can also be attributed to
Agenda 21 reinforces the importance of finding ways growth in China and India.
to generate economic growth without hurting the Brutdland Report
environment. Through various trade negotiations "Finally, and Perhaps most important, the
such as improving access to markets for exports of report called for increased co-operation with
developing countries, Agenda 21 looks to increase Industry.” The Bruntland Report, or Our Common
economic growth sustainability in countries that need Future, is the report made by the World
it most. Commission on Environment and Development in
Environmental Protection 1987. It is often called the Bruntland report after
the chairperson of the commission, the then Prime
Environmental Protection has become more Minister of Norway, Mrs. Gro Harlem Bruntland.
important to government and businesses over the last The report is one of the seminal environmental
20 years, leading to great improvements in the documents of the 20th century. It is representative
number of people willing to invest in green of the growing global awareness in the second half
technologies. For the second year in a row in 2010, of the century of the enormous environmental
the United States and Europe had added more power problems facing the planet, and of a growing shift
capacity from renewable sources such as wind and towards global environmental action. As the report
solar. In 2011 the efforts continue with 45 new wind observes, humankind saw the earth from space for
energy projects beginning in 25 different states. The the first time only a few decades ago, and yet this
focus on environmental protection has transpired has had a profound impact on the way in which we
globally as well, including a great deal of investing perceive the earth and our place on it. The
in renewable energy power capacity. Eco-city Commission's brief was to re-examine the critical
development occurring around the world helps to environment and development problems on the
develop and implement water conservation, smart planet and to formulate realistic proposals to solve
them; to create a 'global agenda for change'. It was
grids with renewable energy sources, LED street
to work within the principle of Environmentally
lights and energy efficient building. The
Sustainable Development (ESD). The report
consumption gap remains, consisting of "roughly 80 represents a collective call to action, involving all
percent of the natural resources used each year are nation states as participants in finding solutions to
consumed by about 20 percent of the world's the 'tragedy of the commons'. In the words of
population." This level is striking and is still needing Bruntland, one of its goals was:
to be addressed now and throughout the future. "to help define shared perceptions of long-term
Social Equality environmental issues and the appropriate efforts
The Social Equality pillar of sustainable needed to deal successfully with the problems of
development focuses on the social well being of protecting and enhancing the environment, a long-
people. The growing gap between incomes of rich term agenda for action during the coming decades,
and poor is evident throughout the world with the and aspirational goals of the world community."
incomes of richer households increasing relative to (Bruntland 1987:ix). The report approaches the
the incomes of middle or lower class households. environmental and development issues which were
Global inequality has been declining, but the world (and still are) facing the world as one common
is still extremely unequal with the richest 1% of the challenge, to be solved by collective multilateral
world’s population owning 40% of the wealth and action rather than through the pursuit of national self-
interest. It examines population and human

resources, food security, species and ecosystems, de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992, Reaffirming the
energy, industry, and 'the urban challenge' of Declaration of the United Nations Conference on
humans in their built environment. Importantly, it the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm on
approaches these common concerns with a holistic 16 June 1972, and seeking to build upon it, With
perspective. For example, the report illustrates how the goal of establishing a new and equitable global
the problems of poverty and population are partnership through the creation of new levels of co-
interconnected. By examining the interactions operation among States, key sectors of societies and
between the problems facing the world, the report people, Working towards international agreements
develops common approaches to peace, security, which respect the interests of all and protect the
development and the environment. The report makes integrity of the global environmental and
institutional and legal recommendations for change developmental system, Recognizing the integral and
in order to confront common global problems. interdependent nature of the Earth, our home,
Critically amongst these recommendations is the Overview 172 governments participated, with 108
call for the development and expansion of sending their heads of state or government. Some
international institutions for co-operation, and legal 2,400 representatives of non-governmental
mechanisms to confront common concerns. The organizations (NGOs) attended, with 17,000 people
report was effectively calling for international action at the parallel NGO "Global Forum" (a.k.a. Forum
on issues of common concern. Finally, and perhaps Global), who had Consultative Status.
most importantly, the report called for increased co- The issues addressed included:
operation with industry. • systematic scrutiny of patterns of production
The Bruntland report has often been subject — particularly the production of toxic
to criticism, on the grounds that many of its components, such as lead in gasoline, or
'forecasts' did not come true. However such poisonous waste including radioactive
criticisms are perhaps missing the significance of the chemicals
report and the fact that despite inaccuracies in • alternative sources of energy to replace the
forecasting, the Bruntland report's premise of the use of fossil fuels which are linked to global
need for global environmental action has not been
climate change.
invalidated. The Bruntland report must, as with any
other historical document, be seen as a product of • new reliance on public transportation systems
its time. Viewed in the historical context of the late in order to reduce vehicle emissions,
1980's, the Bruntland report can be viewed as a congestion in cities and the health problems
landmark document in terms of furthering caused by polluted air and smog the growing
environmentalism in the following decades. Tangible scarcity of water An important achievement
results have flowed from the Bruntland report, such was an agreement on the Climate Change
as the emergence of International Agreement's such Convention which in turn led to the Kyoto
as the Montreal and Kyoto Protocols, and Agenda Protocol. Another agreement was to "not carry
21, which further enshrined the concept of out any activities on the lands ofindigenous
environmentally sustainable development. peoples that would cause environmental
degradation or that would be culturally
THE RIO DECLARATION ON ENVIRONMENT inappropriate".
AND DEVELOPMENT (1992) The Convention on Biological Diversity was
opened for signature at the Earth Summit, and made
Preamble a start towards redefinition of measures that did not
The United Nations Conference on inherently encourage destruction of
Environment and Development, Having met at Rio naturalecoregions and so-called uneconomic

Current Affairs
growth. Twelve cities were also honoured by the PRINCIPLE 3

Local Government Honours Award for innovative The right to development must be fulfilled so
local environmental programs. These included
as to equitably meet developmental and
Sudbury in Canada for its ambitious program to
rehabilitate environmental damage from the local environmental needs of present and future
mining industry, Austin in the United States for its generations.
green building strategy, and Kitakyushu in Japan for PRINCIPLE 4
incorporating an international education and training
In order to achieve sustainable development,
component into its municipal pollution control
environmental protection shall constitute an integral
program.
part of the development process and cannot be
The Earth Summit resulted in the following
considered in isolation from it.
documents:
• Rio Declaration on Environment and PRINCIPLE 5
Development All States and all people shall co-operate in
• Agenda 21 the essential task of eradicating poverty as an
indispensable requirement for sustainable
• Forest Principles
development, in order to decrease the disparities in
Moreover, two important legally binding standards of living and better meet the needs of the
agreements were opened for signature: majority of the people of the world.
• Convention on Biological Diversity PRINCIPLE 6
• Framework Convention on Climate Change The special situation and needs of developing
(UNFCCC). countries, particularly the least developed and those
Critics, however, point out that many of the most environmentally vulnerable, shall be given
agreements made in Rio have not been realized special priority. International actions in the field of
regarding such fundamental issues as fighting poverty environment and development should also address
and cleaning up the environment. the interests and needs of all countries.
The Green Cross International was founded to PRINCIPLE 7
build upon the work of the Summit. States shall co-operate in a spirit of global
Proclaims that: partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health
PRINCIPLE 1 and integrity of the Earth's ecosystem. In view of the
Human beings are at the centre of concerns different contributions to global environmental
for sustainable development. They are entitled to a degradation, States have common but differentiated
healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. responsibilities. The developed countries
acknowledge the responsibility that they bear in the
PRINCIPLE 2 international pursuit of sustainable development in
States have, in accordance with the Charter of view of the pressures their societies place on the
the United Nations and the principles of global environment and of the technologies and
international law, the sovereign right to exploit their financial resources they command.
own resources pursuant to their own environmental PRINCIPLE 8
and developmental policies, and the responsibility To achieve sustainable development and a
to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or higher quality of life for all people, States should
control do not cause damage to the environment of reduce and eliminate unsustainable patterns of
other States or of areas beyond the limits of national production and consumption and promote
jurisdiction.2. appropriate demographic policies.

PRINCIPLE 9 or global environmental problems should, as far as

States should co-operate to strengthen possible, be based on an international consensus.
endogenous capacity-building for sustainable PRINCIPLE 13
development by improving scientific understanding States shall develop national law regarding
through exchanges of scientific and technological liability and compensation for the victims of
knowledge, and by enhancing the development, pollution and other environmental damage. States
adaptation, diffusion and transfer of technologies, shall also co-operate in an expeditious and more
including new and innovative technologies.3. determined manner to develop further international
PRINCIPLE 10 law regarding liability and compensation for adverse
Environmental issues are best handled with the effects of environmental damage caused by activities
participation of all concerned citizens, at the relevant within their jurisdiction or control to areas beyond
level. At the national level, each individual shall their jurisdiction.
have appropriate access to information concerning PRINCIPLE 14
the environment that is held by public authorities, States should effectively co-operate to
including information on hazardous materials and discourage or prevent the relocation and transfer to
activities in their communities, and the opportunity other States of any activities and substances that
to participate in decision-making processes. States cause severe environmental degradation or are found
shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and
to be harmful to human health.
participation by making information widely
available. Effective access to judicial and PRINCIPLE 15
administrative proceedings, including redress and In order to protect the environment, the
remedy, shall be provided. precautionary approach shall be widely applied by
PRINCIPLE 11 States according to their capabilities. Where there
States shall enact effective environmental are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of
legislation. Environmental standards, management full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason
objectives and priorities should reflect the for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation.
environmental and developmental context to which
they apply. Standards applied by some countries PRINCIPLE 16
may be inappropriate and of unwarranted economic National authorities should endeavour to
and social cost to other countries, in particular promote the internalization of environmental costs
developing countries. and the use of economic instruments, taking into
PRINCIPLE 12 account the approach that the polluter should, in
principle, bear the cost of pollution, with due regard
States should co-operate to promote a
to the public interest and without distorting
supportive and open international economic system
international trade and investment.
that would lead to economic growth and sustainable
development in all countries, to better address the PRINCIPLE 17
problems of environmental degradation. Trade policy Environmental impact assessment, as a
measures for environmental purposes should not national instrument, shall be undertaken for proposed
constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable activities that are likely to have a significant adverse
discrimination or a disguised restriction on impact on the environment and are subject to a
international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with decision of a competent national authority.
environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of PRINCIPLE 18
the importing country should be avoided. States shall immediately notify other States of
Environmental measures addressing trans-boundary any natural disasters or other emergencies that are

Current Affairs
likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the PRINCIPLE 26

environment of those States. Every effort shall be States shall resolve all their environmental
made by the international community to help States disputes peacefully and by appropriate means in
so afflicted. accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.
PRINCIPLE 19 PRINCIPLE 27
States shall provide prior and timely States and people shall co-operate in good
faith and in a spirit of partnership in the fulfilment
notification and relevant information to potentially
of the principles embodied in this Declaration and
affected States on activities that may have a significant
in the further development of international law in
adverse transboundary environmental effect and
the field of sustainable development. The Earth
shall consult with those States at an early stage and
Summit and Agenda 21.
in good faith.
From: Global Tomorrow Coalition Sustainable
PRINCIPLE 20 Development Tool Kit.
Women have a vital role in environmental Introduction
management and development. Their full
participation is therefore essential to achieve The United Nations Conference on
sustainable development. Environment and Development (UNCED), which
took place in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992, was a
PRINCIPLE 21 milestone event bringing together Heads of State and
The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth Chiefs of Government than any other meeting in the
of the world should be mobilized to forge a global history of international relations, along with senior
partnership in order to achieve sustainable diplomats and government officials from around the
development and ensure a better future for all. globe, delegates from United Nations agencies,
PRINCIPLE 22 officials of international organizations, and many
Indigenous people and their communities, thousands of nongovernmental organization (NGO)
and other local communities, have a vital role in representatives and journalists.
environmental management and development UNCED made it plain that we can no longer
because of their knowledge and traditional practices. think of environment and economic and social
States should recognize and duly support their development as isolated fields. In addition to major
identity, culture and interests and enable their international treaties and agreements concluded at
effective participation in the achievement of the Earth Summit on issues of global climate change,
sustainable development. biological diversity, deforestation, and
PRINCIPLE 23 desertification, the Declaration of Rio contains
The environment and natural resources of fundamental principles on which nations can base
people under oppression, domination and their future decisions and policies, considering the
occupation shall be protected. environmental implications of socio-economic
PRINCIPLE 24 development. Agenda 21 was a special product of
Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable the Earth Summit. It is a vast work program for the
development. States shall therefore respect 21st century, approved by consensus among the
international law providing protection for the world leaders in Rio, representing over 98% of the
environment in times of armed conflict and co- world's population. This historic document is 700
operate in its further development, as necessary. pages long and embraces all areas of sustainable
PRINCIPLE 25 development. A comprehensive blueprint for a
Peace, development and environmental global partnership, Agenda 21 strives to reconcile
protection are interdependent and indivisible. the twin requirements of a high quality environment
and a healthy economy for all people of the world,

while identifying key areas of responsibility as well prevailing social and economic structures and
as offering preliminary cost estimates for success. institutions.
The framing of Agenda 21 began well over a 1. Preamble
decade ago. By resolution 38/161 in December The preamble concludes, "Agenda 21 is a
1983, the UN General Assembly convened the dynamic program. It will be carried out over time
World Commission on Environment and by the various actors according to the different
Development (WCED), chaired by Ms. Gro Harlem situations, capacities and priorities of countries and
Brundtland, Prime Minister of Norway. The 22 regions...The process marks the beginning of a new
distinguished members of the WCED worked for global partnership..."
three years, conducting a series of public hearings
throughout the world, reviewing specially 2. Accelerating sustainable Development
commissioned research and reports, and carrying on Calls for a global partnership to provide a
extensive international dialogue, to produce their dynamic and growing world economy based on an
unanimous report, Our Common Future, which was "...open, equitable, secure, non-discriminatory, and
presented to the UN General Assembly in October predictable multilateral trading system," in which
1987 and disseminated world-wide. The report commodity exports of the developing countries can
placed the concept of sustainable development as find markets at fair prices free of tariff and nontariff
an urgent imperative on the global agenda, and led barriers.
directly to the decision by the United Nations to Cost: $8.8 billion
convene the 1992 Earth Summit.
3. Combating Poverty
Agenda 21 reflects not only the testimony and
counsel of the numerous technical and scientific Suggests that factors creating policies of
advisers mobilized by the UNCED Secretariat under development, resource management, and poverty be
the leadership of Maurice F. Strong, but painstaking integrated. This objective is to be sought by
negotiation by the delegates of 172 sovereign nations. improving access of the poor to education and health
The Preparatory Committee, or PrepCom, held four care, to safe water and sanitation, and to resources,
month-long meetings from August 1990 through the especially land; by restoration of degraded resources;
spring of 1992. For deliberation at the Earth Summit, by empowerment of the disadvantaged, especially
the 40 chapters of Agenda 21 were submitted in four women, youth, and indigenous peoples; by ensuring
sections to the corresponding four major committees that "women and men have the same right and the
of the delegates. Although Agenda 21 is a global means to decide freely and responsibly on the
consensus document, negotiation at Rio did not number of spacing of their children."
settle all disputes to the satisfaction of each Cost of implementation: $30 billion3.
participant...and not necessarily in the best interests 4. Changing Consumption Patterns
of all, seen from the broadest perspective. It is,
however, a unique step forward on the road toward "One of the most serious problems now facing
sustainability, and offers a bold plan to mobilize the planet is that associated with historical patterns
local, national, and global action. of unsustainable consumption, and production,
particularly in the industrialized countries."
Overview of Agenda 21
Social research and policy should bring
Section One : forward new concepts of status and lifestyles which
Social and Social and Economic Dimensions are "less dependent on the Earth's finite resources
The preamble and the following eight chapters and more in harmony with its carrying capacity."
consider the challenges that the adaptation of human Greater efficiency in the use of energy and resources-
behaviour to sustainable development pose to -for example, reducing wasteful packaging of

Current Affairs
products—must be sought by new technology and renewal projects in partnership with non-
new social values. Cost of implementation: The governmental organi-zations; improved rural living
recommended measures are unlikely to require conditions and land-use planning to prevent urban
significant new financial resources. sprawl onto agricultural land and fragile regions.
5. Population and Sustainability Cost of implementation: $218 billion4.
Urges governments to develop and implement 8. Making Decisions for sustainable
population policies integral with their economic Development
development programs. Health services should
Calls on governments to create sustainable
"include women-centered, women-managed, safe
development strategies to integrate social and
and effective reproductive health care and affordable,
accessible services, as appropriate, for the responsible environmental policies in all ministries and at all
planning of family size..." Health services are to levels, including fiscal measures and the budget.
emphasize reduction of infant death rates which Encourages nations and corporate enterprises
converge with low birth rates to stabilize world to integrate environmental protection, degradation,
population at a sustainable number at the end of the and restoration costs in decision-making at the
century. outset, and to mount without delay the research
Cost of implementation: $7 billion necessary to reckon such costs, to develop protocols
6. Protecting and Promoting Human Health bringing these considerations into procedures at all
levels of decision-making.
Calls for meeting basic health needs of all
populations; provide necessary specialized Cost of implementation: $63 million
environmental health services; co-ordinate Section Two: Conservation and
involvement of citizens, and the health sector, in Management of Resources
solutions to health problems. Health service The environment itself is the subject of chapters
coverage should be achieved for population groups 9 through 22, dealing with the conservation and
in greatest need, particularly those living in rural management of resources for development.
areas. The preventative measures urged include 9. Protecting the Atmospher
reckoning with urban health hazards and risks from Urges constraint and efficiency in energy
environmental pollution. production and consumption, development of
Cost of implementation: $273 billion renewable energy sources; and promotion of mass
7. Sustainable Human Settlements transit technology and access thereto for developing
Addresses the full range of issues facing urban- countries. Conservation and expansion of "all sinks
rural settlements, including: access to land, credit, for greenhouse gases" is extolled, and transboundary
and low-cost building materials by homeless poor pollution recognized as "subject to international
and unemployed; upgrading of slums to ease the controls." Governments need to develop more
deficit in urban shelter; access to basic services of precise ways of predicting levels of atmospheric
clean water, sanitation, and waste collection; use pollutants; modernize existing power systems to gain
of appropriate construction materials, designs, and energy efficiency; and increase energy efficiency
technologies; increased use of high-occupancy public education and labelling programs.
transportation and zicycle and foot paths; reduction Cost of implementation: $21 billion
of long-distance commuting; support for the 10. Managing Land Sustainably
informal economic sector; development of urban Calls on governments to develop policies that

take into account the land-resource base, population Cost of implementation: $31.25 billion
changes, and the interests of local people; improve 12. Combating Desertification and Drought
and enforce laws and regulations to support the
Calls for intensive study of the process in its
sustainable use of land, and restrict the transfer of
relation to world climate change to improve
productive arable land to other uses; use techniques forecasting, study of natural vegetation succession
such as landscape ecological planning that focus on to support large-scale revegetation and afforestation,
an ecosystem or a watershed, and encourage checking and reversal of erosion, and like small-and
sustainable livelihoods; include appropriate grand-scale measures. For inhabitants whose
traditional and indigenous land-use practices, such perilously adapted livelihoods are threatened or
as pastoralism, traditional land reserves, and erased, resettlement and adaptation to new life ways
terraced agriculture in land management; encourage must be assisted. Governments must: adopt
the active participation in decision-making of those national sustainable landuse plans and sustainable
affected groups that have often been excluded, such management of water resources; accelerate planting
as women, youth, indigenous people, and other programs; and help to reduce the demand for
local communities; test ways of putting the value fuelwood through energy efficiency and alternative
of land and ecosystems into national reports on energy programs.
economic performance; ensure that institutions that Cost of implementation: $8.6 billion.
deal with land and natural resources integrate 13. Sustainable Mountain Development
environmental, social, and economic issues into Calls for study, protection, and restoration of
planning. these fragile ecosystems and assistance to
Cost of implementation: $50 million5. populations in regions suffering degradation.
11. Combating Deforestation Governments should: promote erosion-control
Calls for concerted international research and measures that are low-cost, simple, and easily used;
conservation efforts to control harvesting of forests offer people incentives to conserve resources and use
and "uncontrolled degradation and conversion to environment-friendly technologies; produce
other types of land use," to develop the values of information on alternative livelihoods; create
standing forests under sustained cultivation by protected areas to save wild genetic material; identify
indigenous technologies and agroforestry, and to hazardous areas that are most vulnerable to erosion
expand the shrunken world-forest cover. floods, landslides, earthquakes, snow avalanches,
Governments, along with business, nongovernmental and other natural hazards and develop early-warning
and other groups should: plant more forests to systems and disaster-response teams; identify
reduce pressure on primary and old-growth forests; mountain areas threatened by air pollution from
breed trees that are more productive and resistant to neighbouring industrial and urban areas; and create
stress; protect forests and reduce pollutants that centres of information on mountain ecosystems.
affect them, including air pollution that flows across Cost of implementation: $13 billion.6.
borders; limit and aim to halt destructive shifting 14. Sustainable Agriculture and Rural
cultivation by addressing the underlying social and Development
ecological causes; use environmentally sound, more
Rising population food needs must be met
efficient and less polluting methods of harvesting;
through: increased productivity and co-operation
minimize wood waste; promote small-scale
involving rural people, national governments, the
enterprises; develop urban forestry for the greening
private sector, and the international community;
of all places where people live; and encourage low-
impact forest use and sustainable management of wider access to techniques for reducing food
areas adjacent to forests. spoilage, loss to pests, and for conserving soil and

Current Affairs
water resources; ecosystem planning; access of mineral resources in ways that cause less
private ownership and fair market prices; advice and environmental damage.
training in modern and indigenous conservation Cost of implementation: $20 billion.
techniques including conservation tillage, integrated 17. Protecting and Managing the Oceans
pest management, crop rotation, use of plant
Sets out goals and programs under which
nutrients, agroforestry, terracing and mixed cropping;
nations may conserve "their" oceanic resources for
and better use and equitable distribution of
their own and the benefit of the nations that share
information on plant and animal genetic resources.
oceans with them, and international programs that
Cost of implementation: $30.8 billion
may protect the residual commons in the interests
15. Conservation of Biological Diversity even of land-locked nations, such as: anticipate7.
Recognizing the need to conserve and and prevent further degradation of the marine
maintain genes, species, and ecosystems, urges environment and reduce the risk of long-term or
nations, with the co-operation of the United Nations, irreversible effects on the oceans; ensure prior
nongovernmental organizations, the private sector, assessment of activities that may have significant
and financial institutions, to: conduct national adverse impact on the seas; make marine
assessments on the state of biodiversity; develop environmental protection part of general
national strategies to conserve and sustain biological environmental, social, and economic development
diversity and make these part of overall national policies; apply the "polluter pays" principle, and use
development strategies; conduct long-term research economic incentives to reduce polluting of the seas;
into importance of biodiversity for ecosystems that improve the living standards of coast-dwellers;
produce goods and environmental benefits; protect reduce or eliminate discharges of synthetic chemicals
natural habitats; encourage traditional methods of that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in
agriculture, agroforestry, forestry, range and wildlife marine life; control and reduce toxic-waste
management which use, maintain, or increase discharges; stricter international regulations to reduce
biodiversity. the risk of accidents and pollution from cargo ships;
Cost of implementation: $3 billion. develop land-use practices that reduce run-off of soil
16. Management of Biotechnology and wastes to rivers, and thus to the seas; stop ocean
dumping and the incineration of hazardous wastes
Calls for the transfer of biotechnology to the
at sea.
developing countries and the creation of the
Cost of implementation: $13 billion.
infrastructure of human capacity and institutions to
put it to work there. Highlights need for 18. Protecting and Managing Fresh Water
internationally agreed principles on risk assessment Sets out measures, from development of long-
and management of all aspects of biotechnology, to: range weather and climate forecasting to cleanup of
improve productivity and the nutritional quality and the most obvious sources of pollution, to secure the
shelf-life of food and animal feed products; develop supply of fresh water for the next doubling of the
vaccines and techniques for preventing the spread human population. Focus is on developing low-cost
of diseases and toxins; increase crop resistance to but adequate services that can be installed and
diseases and pests, so that there will be less need maintained at the community level to achieve
for chemical pesticides; develop safe and effective universal water supply by 2025. The interim goals
methods for the biological control of disease- set for 2000 include: to provide all urban residents
transmitting insects, especially those resistant to with at least 40 liters of safe drinking water per
pesticides; contribute to soil fertility; treat sewage, person per day; provide 75% of urban dwellers with
organic chemical wastes, and oil spills more cheaply sanitation; establish standards for the discharge of
and effectively than conventional methods; and tap municipal and industrial wastes; have three-quarters
of solid urban waste collected and recycled, or

disposed of in an environmentally safe way; ensure national or regional level; ensure that the military
that rural people everywhere have access to safe water conforms to national environmental norms for
and sanitation for healthy lives, while maintaining hazardous-waste treatment and disposal; ban the
essential local environments; control water- export of hazardous wastes to countries that are not
associated diseases. equipped to deal with those wastes. Industry should:
Cost of implementation $54.7 billion.
treat, recycle, reuse, and dispose of wastes at or close
19. Safer use of Toxic Chemicals to the site where they are created.
Seeks objectives such as: full evaluation of Cost of implementation: $18.5 billion
500 chemicals before the year 2000; control of 21. Managing Solid Wastes and Sewage
chemical hazards through pollution prevention,
emission inventories, product labelling; use Governments should urge waste minimization
limitations, procedures for safe handling and and increased reuse/recycling as strategies toward
exposure regulations; phase-out or banning of high- sound waste treatment and disposal; encourage "life-
risk chemicals; consideration of policies based on cycle" management of the flow of material into and
the principle of producer liability; reduced risk by out of manufacturing and use; provide incentives
using less-toxic or non-chemical technologies; to recycling; fund pilot programs, such as small-scale
review of pesticides whose acceptance was based on and cottage-based recycling industries, compost
criteria now recognized as insufficient or outdated; production, irrigation using treated waste water, and
efforts to replace chemicals with other pest-control the recovery of energy from wastes; establish
methods such as biological control; provision to the
guidelines for the safe reuse of waste and encourage
public of information on chemical hazards in the
markets for recycled and reused products.
languages of those who use the materials;
development of a chemical-hazard labelling system Cost of implementation: $23.3 billion
using easily understandable symbols; control of the 22. Managing Radioactive Wastes
export of banned or restricted chemicals and Calls for increasingly stringent measures to
provision of information on any exports to the encourage countries to co-operate with international
importing countries. organizations to: promote ways of minimizing and
Cost of implementation: $600 million.8. limiting the creation of radioactive wastes; provide
20. Managing Hazardous Wastes for the sage storage, processing, conditioning,
transportation, and disposal of such wastes; provide
Seeks international support in restraint of the
developing countries with technical assistance to
trade and for containing the hazardous cargoes in safe
help them deal with wastes, or make it easier for
sinks. Governments should: require and assist in the such countries to return used radioactive material to
innovation by industry of cleaner production suppliers; promote the proper planning of safe and
methods and of preventive and recycling environmentally sound ways of managing radioactive
technologies; encourage the phasing out of processes wastes, possibly including assessment of the
that produce high risks because of hazardous waste environmental impact; strengthen efforts to
management; hold producers responsible for the implement the Code of Practice on the
environmentally unsound disposal of the hazardous Transboundary Movements of Radioactive Wastes;
wastes they generate; establish public information encourage work to finish studies on whether the
programs and ensure that training programs provided current voluntary moratorium on disposal of low-
for industry and government workers on hazardous- level radioactive wastes at sea should be replaced
by a ban; not promote or allow storage or disposal
waste issues, especially use minimization; build
of radioactive wastes near seacoasts or open seas,
treatment centres for hazardous wastes, either at the unless it is clear that this does not create an

Current Affairs
unacceptable risk to people and the marine sustainable development through their schooling;
environment; not export radioactive wastes to consult with and let youth participate in decisions
countries that prohibit the import of such waste. that affect the environment; enable youth to be
Cost of implementation: $8 million.9. represented at international meetings, and participate
in decision-making at the United Nations; combat
Section Three: Strengthening the Role of human rights abuses against youth and see that their
Major Groups children are healthy, adequately fed, educated, and
The issues of how people are to be mobilized protected from pollution and toxic substances; and
and empowered for their various roles in sustainable develop strategies that deal with the entitlement of
development are addressed in chapters 23 through young people to natural resources.
32. Cost of implementation: $1.5 million.
23. Preamble 26. Strengthening the Role of Indigenous
Peoples
"Critical to the effective implementation of the
objectives, policies, and mechanisms agreed to by Urges governments to enrol indigenous
Governments in all program areas of Agenda 21 will peoples in full global partnership, beginning with
be the commitment and involvement of all social measures to protect their rights and conserve their
groups..." patrimony; recognize that indigenous lands need to
be protected from environmentally unsound
24. Women in Sustainable Development activities, and from activities the people consider to
Urges governments to face the status question; be socially and culturally inappropriate; develop a
give girls equal access to education; reduce the national dispute resolution procedure to deal with
workloads of girls and women; make health-care settlement and land-use concerns; incorporate their
systems responsive to female needs; open rights and responsibilities into national legislation;
employment and careers to women; and bring recognize and apply elsewhere indigenous values,
women into full participation in social, cultural, and traditional knowledge and resource management
public life. Governments should: ensure a role for practices; and provide indigenous people with
women in national and international ecosystem suitable technologies to increase the efficiency of
management and control of environmental their resource management.
degradation; ensure women's access to property Cost of implementation: $3 million.
rights, as well as agricultural inputs and implements; 27. Partnerships with Nongovernmental
take all necessary measures to eliminate violence Groups [Civic Groups]
against women, and work to eliminate persistent
negative images, stereotypes, and attitudes, and Calls on governments and the United Nations
prejudices against women; develop consumer system to: invite nongovernmental groups to be
awareness among women to reduce or eliminate involved in making policies and decisions on
unsustainable consumption; and begin to count the sustainable development; make NGOs a part of the
value of unpaid work. review process and evaluation of implementing
Cost of implementation: $40 million. Agenda 21; provide NGOs with timely access to
25. Children and Youth in Sustainable information; encourage partnerships between NGOs
and local authorities; review financial and
Development administrative support for NGOs; utilize NGO
Calls on governments, by the year 2000, to expertise and information; and create laws enabling
ensure that 50% of their youth, gender balanced, have NGOs the right to take legal action to protect the
access to secondary education or vocational training; public interest.
teach students about the environment and Cost of implementation: no estimate.

28. Local Authorities organizations to support training in the

Calls on local authorities, by 1996, to environmental aspects of enterprise management.
undertake to promote a consensus in their local Business and industry should: develop policies that
populations on "a local Agenda 21;" and, at all result in operations and products that have lower
times, to invite women and youth into full environmental impacts; ensure responsible and
participation in the decision-making, planning, and ethical management of products and processes from
implementation process; to consult citizens and the point of view of health, safety, and the
community, business, and industrial organizations environment; make environmentally sound
to gather information and build a consensus on technologies available to affiliates in developing
sustainable development strategies. This consensus countries without prohibitive charges; encourage
would help them reshape local programs, policies,
overseas affiliates to modify procedures in order to
laws, and regulations to achieve desired objectives.
The process of consultation would increase people's reflect local ecological conditions and share
awareness of sustainable development issues. information with governments; create partnerships
Cost of implementation: $1 million. to help people in smaller companies learn business
29. Workers and Trade Unions skills; establish national councils for sustainable
development, both in the formal business
Challenges governments, businesses, and
community and in the informal sector, which
industries to work toward the goal of full
employment, which contributes to sustainable includes small-scale businesses, such as artisans;
livelihoods in safe, clean, and healthy environments, increase research and development of
at work and beyond, by fostering the active and environmentally sound technologies and
informed participation of workers and trade unions environmental management systems; report annually
in shaping and implementing environment and on their environmental records; and adopt
development strategies at both the national and environmental and sustainable development codes
international levels; increase worker education and of conduct.
training, both in occupational health and safety and Cost of implementation: no estimate.
in skills for sustainable livelihoods; and promote 31. Scientists and Technologists
workers' rights to freedom of association and the right Indicates that governments should: decide
to organize. Unions and employees should design how national scientific and technological programs
joint environmental policies, and set priorities to could help make development more sustainable;
provide for full and open sharing of information
improve the working environment and the overall
among scientists and decision-makers; fashion
environmental performance of business and develop national reports that are understandable and relevant
more collective agreements aimed at achieving to local sustainable development needs; form
sustainability. national advisory groups to help scientists and
Cost of implementation: $300 million.11. society develop common values on environmental
30. Business and Industry and developmental ethics; and put environment and
Calls on governments to: use economic development ethics into education and research
incentives, laws, standards, and more streamlined priorities. Scientists and technologies have special
responsibilities to: search for knowledge, and to help
administration to promote sustainably managed
protect the biosphere; increase and strengthen
enterprises with cleaner production; encourage the dialogue with the public; and develop codes of
creation of venture-capital funds; and co-operate with practice and guidelines that reconcile human needs
business, industry, academia, and international and environmental protection.

Current Affairs
Cost of implementation: $20 million. Cost of implementation: $561.5 billion per

32. Strengthening the Role of Farmers year total for all programs, including $141.9 billion
To develop sustainable farming strategies, in concessional financing.
calls on governments to collaborate with national 34. Technology Transfer
and international research centres and Economic assistance would move from the
nongovernmental organizations to: develop developed to the developing counties principally in
environmentally sound farming practices and the form of technology. Developing countries would
technologies that improve crop yields, maintain land be assisted in gaining access to technology and
quality, recycle nutrients, conserve water and energy, know-how in the public domain and to that
and control pests and weeds; help farmers share protected by intellectual property rights as well,
expertise in conserving land, water, and forest "taking into account developments in the process of
resources, making the most efficient use of chemicals negotiating an international code of conduct on the
and reducing or re-using farm wastes; encourage self- transfer of technology" proceeding under the United
sufficiency in low-input and low-energy Nations Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. To enhance
technologies, including indigenous practices; support access of developing countries to environmentally
research on equipment that makes optimal use of sound technology, a collaborative network of
human labour and animal power; delegate more laboratories is to be established.
power and responsibility to those who work the
land; give people more incentive to care for the land Cost of implementation: $500 million
by seeing that men and women can get land tenure, 35. Science for Sustainable Development
access to credit, technology, farm supplies, and Sustainable development requires expansion
training. Researchers need to develop environment- of the ongoing international collaborative enterprises
friendly farming techniques and colleges need to in the study of the geochemical cycles of the
bring ecology into agricultural training. biosphere and the establishment of strong national
Cost of implementation: no estimate. scientific enterprises in the developing countries.
Section Four: Means of Implementation The sciences link fundamental understanding of the
Chapters 33 through 40 deal with the ways Earth system to development of strategies that build
and means of implementing Agenda 21. upon its continued healthy functioning. "In the face
33. Financing Sustainable Development of threats of irreversible environmental damage, lack
of full scientific understanding should not be an
At UNCED, countries committed to the
excuse for postponing actions which are justified in
consensus of a global partnership, holding that the
their own right."13.
eradication of poverty "is essential to meeting
national and global sustainability objectives;" that Countries need to develop tools for
"the cost of inaction could outweigh the financial sustainable development, such as: quality-of-life
costs of implementing Agenda 21;" that "the huge indicators covering health, education, social welfare,
sustainable development programs of Agenda 21 and the state of environment, and the economy;
will require the provision to developing countries economic incentives that will encourage better
of substantial new and additional financial resource management; and ways of measuring the
resources;" and that "the initial phase will be environmental soundness of new technologies. They
accelerated by substantial early commitments of should use information on the links between the
concessional funding." Further, the developed state of ecosystems and human health when weighing
countries "reaffirmed their commitments to reach the the costs and benefits of different development
accepted United Nations target of 0.7% of GNP for policies, and conduct scientific studies to help map
concessional funding... as soon as possible." our national and regional pathways to sustainable

development. When sustainable development plans Assistance in the form of skills, knowledge,
are being make, the public should be involved in and technical know-how can come from the United
setting long-term goals for society. Nations, national governments, municipalities,
Cost of implementation: $3 billion. nongovernmental organizations, universities,
research centres, and business and other private
36. Education, Training , and Public organizations. The United Nations Development
Awareness Program has been given responsibility for mobilizing
Because sustainable development must international funding and co-ordination programs for
ultimately enlist everyone, access to education must capacity building.
be hastened for all children; adult illiteracy must be Cost of implementation: $650 million.14.
reduced to half of its 1990 level, and the curriculum
must incorporate environmental and developmental 38. Organizing for Sustainable
learning. Nations should seek to: introduce Development
environment and development concepts, including To the existing UN system, the General
those related to population growth, into all Assembly as the supreme deliberative and
educational programs, with analyses of the causes policymaking body, the Economic and Social
of the major issues. They should emphasize training Council as the appropriate overseer of system-wide
decision-makers; involve schoolchildren in local and coordination reporting to the General Assembly, the
regional studies on environmental health, including Secretary General as chief executive, and the
safe drinking water, sanitation, food, and the technical agencies seeing to their special functions,
environmental and economic impacts of resource Agenda 21 proposes to add a Commission on
use; set up training programs for school and university Sustainable Development to monitor
graduates to help them achieve sustainable implementation of Agenda 21, reporting to the
livelihoods; encourage all sectors of society to train General Assembly through ECOSOC. The
people in environmental management; provide Conference also recommended that the UN
locally trained and recruited environmental Secretary-General appoint a high-level board of
technicians to give local communities services they environment and development experts to advise on
require, starting with primary environmental care; other structural change required in the UN system.
work with the media, theatre groups, entertainment, The United Nations Environment Program will need
and advertising industries to promote a more active to develop and promote natural resource accounting
public debate on the environment; and bring and environmental economics, develop international
indigenous peoples' experience and under-standing environmental law, and advise governments on how
of sustainable development into education and to integrate environmental considerations into their
training. development policies and programs.
Cost of implementation: $14.6 billion. Cost of implementation: no estimate.
37. Creating Capacity for Sustainable 39. International Law
Development The major goals in international law on
Developing countries need more technical co- sustainable development should include: the
operation and assistance in setting priorities so that development of universally negotiated agreements
they can deal with new long-term challenges, rather that create effective international standards for
than concentrating only on immediate problems. For environmental protection, taking account of the
example, people in government and business need different situations and abilities of various countries;
to learn how to evaluate the environmental impact an international review of the feasibility of
of all development projects, starting from the time establishing general rights and obligations of nations
the projects are conceived. as in the field of sustainable development; and

Current Affairs
measures to avoid or settle international disputes in period (2008-2012) greenhouse gas emissions
the field of sustainable development. These limitations targets and the percentage change in their
measures can range from notification and talks on carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion
issues that might lead to disputes, to the use of the between 1990 and 2009. For more detailed country/
International Court of Justice. region information, see Kyoto Protocol and
Cost of implementation: no estimate. government action.
40. Information for Decision-Making Overview map of states committed to
Calls on governments to ensure that local greenhouse gas (GHG) limitations in the first Kyoto
communities and resource users get the information Protocol period (2008–2012): [vague] Dark grey =
and skills needed to manage their environment and Annex I Parties who have agreed to reduce their
resources sustainably, including application of GHG emissions below their individual base year
traditional and indigenous knowledge; more levels (see definition in this article)
information about the status of urban air, fresh water, Grey = Annex I Parties who have agreed to
land resources, desertification, soil degradation, cap their GHG emissions at their base year levels
biodiversity, the high seas, and the upper Pale grey = Non-Annex I Parties who are not
atmosphere; more information about population, obligated by caps or Annex I Parties with an
urbanization, poverty, health, and rights of access emissions cap that allows their emissions to expand
to resources. Information is also needed about the above their base year levels or Countries that have
relationships of groups, including women, not ratified the Kyoto Protocol[vague] For specific
indigenous peoples, youth, children and the disabled
emission reduction commitments of Annex I Parties,
with environment issues. Current national
see the section of the article on 2012 emission targets
accounting reckons environmental costs as
"externalities." Internalization of such costs, the and "flexible mechanisms".
amortization of non-renewable resources, and the The EU-region as a whole has in accordance
development of indicators of sustainability all require with the Kyoto Protocol committed itself to an 8%
not only new data but new thinking. reduction. However, many member states (such as
Cost of implementation: $2.1 billion. Greece, Spain, Ireland and Sweden) have not
committed themselves to any reduction while France
This overview is based in large measure on an
has committed itself not to expand its emissions (0%
article entitled "The Earth Summit's Agenda for
Change" by Michael Keating in the Earth Summit reduction). As to Greenland: is partly committed
Times, September 1992, published by the Centre for through Denmark. However nothing states that
Our Common Future, 52, rue des Paquis, 1201 Greenland has committed itself to a reduction
Geneva, Switzerland. towards Denmark.
The Kyoto Protocol is a protocol to the United
KYOTO PROTOCOL (1997) Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC or FCCC), aimed at fighting global
warming. The UNFCCC is an international
Participation in the Kyoto Protocol, as of
environmental treaty with the goal of achieving the
December 2011, Brown = Countries that have
"stabilization of greenhouse gas concen-trations in
signed and ratified the treaty (Annex I & II countries
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
in dark brown) Blue = No intention to ratify at this
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
stage. Dark blue = Canada, which withdrew from
climate system."
the Protocol in December 2011. Grey = no position
The Protocol was initially adopted on 11
taken or position unknown Kyoto Parties with first

December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, and entered into financial exchanges, projects that reduce emissions
force on 16 February 2005. As of September 2011, in non-Annex I countries, from other Annex I
191 states have signed and ratified the protocol. The countries, or from annex I countries with excess
only remaining signatory not to have ratified the allowances.
protocol is the United States. Other states yet to ratify Each Annex I country is required to submit an
Kyoto include Afghanistan, Andorra and South annual report of inventories of all anthropogenic
Sudan, after Somalia ratified the protocol on 26 July greenhouse gas emissions from sources and removals
2010. In 2011, Canada declared its intention to from sinks under UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.
withdraw from the Kyoto treaty. These countries nominate a person (called a
Under the Protocol, 37 countries ("Annex I "designated national authority") to create and
countries") commit themselves to a reduction of four manage its greenhouse gas inventory. Virtually all
greenhouse gases (GHG) (carbon dioxide, methane, of the non-Annex I countries have also established
nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride) and two groups a designated national authority to manage its Kyoto
of gases (hydrofluorocarbons andperfluorocarbons) obligations, specifically the "CDM process" that
produced by them, and all member countries give determines which GHG projects they wish to
general commitments. At negotiations, Annex I propose for accreditation by the CDM Executive
countries (including the US) collectively agreed to Board.
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% on The view that human activities are likely
average for the period 2008-2012. This reduction is responsible for most of the observed increase in
relative to their annual emissions in a base year, global mean temperature ("global warming") since
usually 1990. Since the US has not ratified the treaty, the mid-20th century is an accurate reflection of
the collective emissions reduction of Annex I Kyoto current scientific thinking.Human-induced warming
countries falls from 5.2 % to 4.2% below base year. of the climate is expected to continue throughout
Emission limits do not include emissions by the 21st century and beyond.
international aviation and shipping, but are in The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
addition to the industrial gases, chloro-fluorocarbons, Change (IPCC, 2007) have produced a range of
or CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 projections of what the future increase in global
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the mean temperature might be. The IPCC's projections
Ozone Layer. are"baseline" projections, meaning that they assume
no future efforts are made to reduce greenhouse gas
The benchmark 1990 emission levels accepted
emissions. The IPCC projections cover the time
by the Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC
period from the beginning of the 21st century to the
(decision 2/CP.3) were the values of "global
warming potential" calculated for the IPCC Second end of the 21st century. The "likely" range (as
Assessment Report. These figures are used for assessed to have a greater than 66% probability of
converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into being correct, based on the IPCC's expert judgement)
comparable CO2 equivalents (CO2-eq) when is a projected increased in global mean temperature
computing overall sources and sinks. over the 21st century of between 1.1 and 6.4 °C.
The Protocol allows for several "flexible The range in temperature projections partly
mechanisms", such as emissions trading, the clean reflects different projections of future greenhouse gas
development mechanism (CDM) and joint emissions. 22-24 Different projections contain
implementation to allow Annex I countries to meet different assumptions of future social and economic
their GHG emission limitations by purchasing GHG development (e.g., economic growth, population
level, energy policies), which in turn affects
emission reductions credits from elsewhere, through

Current Affairs
projections of future greenhouse gas (GHG) These emissions limitation commitments are listed
emissions. 22-24 The range also reflects uncertainty in Annex B of the Protocol.
in the response of the climate system to past and The Kyoto Protocol's first round commitments
future GHG emissions (measured by the climate are the first detailed step of the UN Framework
sensitivity) 22-24. Convention on Climate Change (Gupta et al., 2007).
Article 2 of the UNFCCC The Protocol establishes a structure of rolling
Most countries are Parties to the United emission reduction commitment periods, with
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change negotiations on second period commitments that
(UNFCCC). Article 2 of the Convention states its were scheduled to start in 2005 (see Kyoto
ultimate objective, which is to stabilize the Protocol#Successor for details). The first period
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere emission reduction commitments expire at the end
"at a level that would prevent dangerous of 2012. The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is
anthropogenic (i.e., human) interference with the the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations
climate system." The natural, technical, and social in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
sciences can provide information on decisions dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
relating to this objective, e.g., the possible climate system." Even if Annex I Parties succeed in
magnitude and rate of future climate changes. meeting their first-round commitments, much greater
However, the IPCC has also concluded that the emission reductions will be required in future to
decision of what constitutes "dangerous" interference stabilize atmospheric GHG concen-trations.
requires value judgements, which will vary between For each of the different anthropogenic GHGs,
different regions of the world. Factors that might different levels of emissions reductions would be
affect this decision include the local consequences required to meet the objective of stabilizing
of climate change impacts, the ability of a particular atmospheric concentrations (see United Nations
region to adapt to climate change (adaptive capacity), Framework Convention on Climate Change #
and the ability of a region to reduce its GHG Stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations).
emissions (mitigative capacity). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most important
Objectives anthropogenic GHG. Stabilizing the concentration
Kyoto is intended to cut global emissions of of CO2 in the atmosphere would ultimately require
greenhouse gases. the effective elimination of anthropogenic CO2
In order to stabilize the atmospheric emissions.
concentration of CO2, emissions worldwide would The five principal concepts of the Kyoto
need to be dramatically reduced from their present Protocol are:
level. • Commitments to the Annex-countries. The
The main aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to heart of the Protocol lies in establishing
contain emissions of the main anthropogenic (i.e., commitments for the reduction of greenhouse
human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways gases that are legally binding for Annex I
that reflect underlying national differences in GHG countries. Dividing the countries in different
emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the groups is one of the key concepts in making
reductions. The treaty follows the main principles commitments possible, where only the Annex
agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework I countries in 1997, were seen as having the
Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex
economic capacity to commit themselves and
I countries who have ratified the treaty must have
their industry. Making only the few nations
fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas
in the Annex 1 group committed to the
emissions limitations established for the Kyoto
Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012). protocols limitations.

• Implementation. In order to meet the reduction of 8% for the European Union and others,
objectives of the Protocol, Annex I countries to 7% for the United States (non-binding as the US
are required to prepare policies and measures has not ratified their signing of the Kyoto protocol
for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their in congress), 6% for Japan and 0% for Russia. The
respective countries. In addition, they are treaty permits emission increases of 8% for Australia
required to increase the absorption of these and 10% for Iceland. Emission limits do not include
gases and utilize all mechanisms available, emissions by international aviation and shipping.
such as joint implementation, the clean Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol,
development mechanism and emissions their 2012 commitments (% of 1990) and 1990
trading, in order to be rewarded with credits emission levels (% of all Annex I countries) [show]
that would allow more greenhouse gas Annex I countries can achieve their targets by
emissions at home. allocating reduced annual allowances to major
operators within their borders, or by allowing these
• Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries
operators to exceed their allocations by offsetting any
by establishing an adaptation fund for climate
excess through a mechanism that is agreed by all the
change.
parties to the UNFCCC, such as by buying emission
• Accounting, Reporting and Review in order allowances from other operators which have excess
to ensure the integrity of the Protocol. emissions credits.
• Compliance. Establishing a Compliance 38 of the 39 Annex I countries have agreed to
Committee to enforce compliance with the cap their emissions in this way, two others are
commitments under the Protocol. required to do so under their conditions of accession
into the EU, and one more (Belarus) is seeking to
2012 Bmission Targets and become an Annex I country.
"Flexible Mechanisms"
Flexible mechanisms
Thirty-nine of the forty Annex I countries have
The Protocol defines three "flexibility
ratified the Protocol. Of these, thirty-four have
mechanisms" that can be used by Annex I countries
committed themselves to a reduction of greenhouse
in meeting their emission reduction commitments
gases (GHG) produced by them to targets that are
(Bashmakov et al.., 2001, p. 402). The flexibility
set in relation to their 1990 emission levels, in
mechanisms are International Emissions Trading
accordance with Annex B of the Protocol. The targets
(IET), the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM),
apply to the four greenhouse gases carbon dioxide,
and Joint Implementation (JI). IET allows Annex I
methane, nitrous oxide, sulphur hexafluoride, and
countries to "trade" their emissions (Assigned
two groups of gases, hydrofluorocarbons and
Amount Units, AAUs, or "allowances" for short). For
perfluorocarbons. The six GHG are translated into
IET, the economic basis for providing this flexibility
CO2 equivalents in determining reductions in
is that the marginal cost of emission abatement
emissions. These reduction targets are in addition
differs among countries. Trade could potentially
to the industrial gases, chloro-fluorocarbons, or
allow the Annex I countries to meet their emission
CFCs, which are dealt with under the 1987 Montreal
reduction commitments at a reduced cost. This is
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
because trade allows emissions to be abated first in
Layer.
countries where the costs of abatement are lowest,
Under the Protocol, only the Annex I countries thus increasing the efficiency of the Kyoto agreement.
have committed themselves to national or joint The CDM and JI are called "project-based
reduction targets, (formally called "quantified mechanisms," in that they generate emission
emission limitation and reduction objectives" reductions from projects. The difference between IET
(QELRO) – Article 4.1) that range from a joint

Current Affairs
and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is • United Kingdom:

based on the setting of a quantitative restriction of • the UK Emissions Trading Scheme, which ran
emissions, while the CDM and JI are based on the from 2002–06. This was a scheme run by the
idea of "production" of emission reductions (Toth UK Government, which is now a participant
et al.., 2001, p. 660). The CDM is designed to in the EU ETS.
encourage production of emission reductions in non-
Annex I countries, while JI encourages production • the UK CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme, which
of emission reductions in Annex I countries. started in 2010, and is run by the UK
The production of emission reductions Government.
generated by the CDM and JI can be used by Annex North America
B countries in meeting their emission reduction
• Canada: emissions trading in Alberta, Canada,
commitments. The emission reductions produced by
which started in 2007. This scheme is run by
the CDM and JI are both measured against a
hypothetical baseline of emissions that would have the Government of Alberta.
occurred in the absence of a particular emission • United States:
reduction project. The emission reductions produced • the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative
by the CDM are called Certified Emission (RGGI), which started in 2009. This scheme
Reductions (CERs); reductions produced by JI are caps emissions from power generation in ten
called Emission Reduction Units (ERUs). The north-eastern US states (Connecticut,
reductions are called "credits" because they are Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,
emission reductions credited against a hypothetical New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York,
baseline of emissions [citation needed].
Rhode Island and Vermont).
International Emissions Trading
• emissions trading in California, which is
Main articles: Emissions trading and Carbon planned to start in 2012.
emission trading
A number of emissions trading schemes (ETS) • the Western Climate Initiative (WCI), which
have been, or are planned to be, implemented.. is planned to start in 2012. This is a collective
Asia ETS agreed between 11 US states and Canadian
provinces.
• Japan: emissions trading in Tokyo started in
2010. This scheme is run by the Tokyo Oceania
Metropolitan Government. • Australia: the New South Wales Greenhouse
Europe Gas Reduction Scheme (NSW), which started
in 2003. This scheme is run by the Australian
• European Union: the European Union Emission
State of New South Wales.
Trading Scheme (EU ETS), which started in
2005. This is run by the European • New Zealand: the New Zealand Emissions
Commission. Trading Scheme, which started in 2008.
• Norway: domestic emissions trading in Intergovernmental Emissions Trading
Norway started in 2005. This was run by the The design of the European Union Emissions
Norwegian Government, which is now a Trading Scheme (EU ETS) implicitly allows for trade
participant in the EU ETS. of national Kyoto obligations to occur between
• Switzerland: the Swiss ETS, which runs from participating countries (Carbon Trust, 2009, p. 24).
2008 to 2012, to coincide with the Kyoto Carbon Trust (2009, pp. 24–25) found that other
Protocol's first commitment period. than the trading that occurs as part of the EU ETS,

no intergovernmental emissions trading had taken its Kyoto quota, can sell the excess of its Kyoto quota
place. units (AAUs) to another Party. The proceeds from
the AAU sales should be “greened”, i.e. channeled
One of the environmental problems with IET
to the development and implementation of the
is the large surplus of allowances that are available. projects either acquiring the greenhouse gases
Russia, Ukraine, and the new EU-12 member states emission reductions (hard greening) or building up
(the Kyoto Parties Annex I Economies-in-Transition, the necessary framework for this process (soft
abbreviated "EIT": Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech greening).
Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Clean Development Mechanism
Poland, Romania, Russian Federation, Slovakia,
Slovenia, and Ukraine) have a surplus of allowances, Between 2001, which was the first year Clean
while many OECD countries have a deficit. Some Development Mechanism (CDM) projects could be
of the EITs with a surplus regard it as potential registered, and 2012, the end of the Kyoto
compensation for the trauma of their economic commitment period, the CDM is expected to
restructuring. When the Kyoto treaty was negotiated, produce some 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide
it was recognized that emissions targets for the EITs equivalent (CO2e) in emission reductions. Most of
might lead to them having an excess number of these reductions are through renewable energy, energy
allowances. This excess of allowances were viewed efficiency, and fuel switching (World Bank, 2010,
by the EITs as "headroom" to grow their economies. p. 262). By 2012, the largest potential for production
The surplus has, however, also been referred to by of CERs are estimated in China (52% of total CERs)
some as "hot air," a term which Russia (a country and India (16%). CERs produced in Latin America
with a surplus of allowances) views as "quite and the Caribbean make up 15% of the potential
offensive." total, with Brazil as the largest producer in the region
OECD countries with a deficit could meet (7%).
their Kyoto commitments by buying allowances from Joint Implementation
transition countries with a surplus. Unless other
commitments were made to reduce the total surplus The formal crediting period for Joint
in allowances, such trade would not actually result Implementation (JI) was aligned with the first
in emissions being reduced (see also the section commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, and did
below on the Green Investment Scheme). not start until January 2008 (Carbon Trust, 2009, p.
Green Investment Scheme 20). In November 2008, only 22 JI projects had been
officially approved and registered. The total projected
A Green Investment Scheme (GIS) refers to a
emission savings from JI by 2012 are about one tenth
plan for achieving environmental benefits from
that of the CDM. Russia accounts for about two-
trading surplus allowances (AAUs) under the Kyoto
Protocol. The Green Investment Scheme (GIS), a thirds of these savings, with the remainder divided
mechanism in the framework of International up roughly equally between the Ukraine and the EU's
Emissions Trading (IET), is designed to achieve New Member States. Emission savings include cuts
greater flexibility in reaching the targets of the Kyoto in methane, HFC, and N2O emissions.
Protocol while preserving environmental integrity of Stabilization of GHG concentrations
IET. However, using the GIS is not required under IPCC (2001, p. 122) assessed how the Kyoto
the Kyoto Protocol, and there is no official definition
first-round emission reduction commitments might
of the term.
be consistent with a long-term aim of stabilizing
Under the GIS a Party to the Protocol expecting GHG concentrations in the atmosphere. For a 450
that the development of its economy will not exhaust
ppmv target (energy-related CO2), some analysts

Current Affairs
suggested that the first-round Kyoto commitments international aviation and shipping. Kyoto Parties
were inadequately stringent (IPCC, 2001, p. 122; can use land use, land use change, and forestry
Morita et al., 2001, pp. 152–153). The first-round (LULUCF) in meeting their targets (Dessai, 2001, p.
Kyoto commitments were assessed to be consistent 3). LULUCF activities are also called "sink" activities.
with emission trajectories that achieve stabilization Changes in sinks and land use can have an effect on
at 550 ppmv or higher. Other analysts suggested that the climate (IPCC, 2007). Particular criteria apply
to the definition of forestry under the Kyoto Protocol.
the first-round commitments could be weaker and
Forest management, cropland management,
still allow for a long-term 450 ppmv target (IPCC, grazing land management, and revegetation are all
2001, p. 122). eligible LULUCF activities under the Protocol
Details of the agreement (Dessai, 2001, p. 9). Annex I Parties use of forestry
According to a press release from the United management in meeting their targets is capped.
Nations Environment Program: Common but differentiated responsibility
"After 10 days of tough negotiations, ministers Annual carbon emissions from various global
and other high-level officials from 160 countries regions during the period 1800–2000 AD
reached agreement this morning on a legally binding The UNFCCC adopts a principle of "common
Protocol under which industrialized countries will but differentiated responsibilities." The parties agreed
reduce their collective emissions of greenhouse gases that:
by 5.2%. The agreement aims to lower overall 1. the largest share of historical and current global
emissions from a group of six greenhouse gases by emissions of greenhouse gases originated in
2008–12, calculated as an average over these five developed countries;
years. Cuts in the three most important gases –
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous 2. per capita emissions in developing countries
oxide (N2O) – will be measured against a base year are still relatively low;
of 1990. Cuts in three long-lived industrial gases - 3. the share of global emissions originating in
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), developing countries will grow to meet social
and sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) – can be measured and development needs.
against either a 1990 or 1995 baseline." Emissions
National limitations range from 8% reductions
Per-capita emissions are a country's total
for the European Union and others, to 7% for the
emissions divided by its population (Banuri et al..,
US, 6% for Japan, 0% for Russia, and permitted
1996, p. 95). Per-capita emissions in the
increases of 8% for Australia and 10% for Iceland.
industrialized countries are typically as much as ten
The agreement supplements the United
times the average in developing countries (Grubb,
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
2003, p. 144). This is one reason industrialized
(UNFCCC) adopted at the Earth Summit in Rio de
countries accepted responsibility for leading climate
Janeiro in 1992, which did not set any limitations
change efforts in the Kyoto negotiations. In Kyoto,
or enforcement mechanisms. All parties to UNFCCC
the countries that took on quantified commitments
can sign or ratify the Kyoto Protocol, while non-
for the first period (2008–12) corresponded roughly
parties to UNFCCC cannot. The Kyoto Protocol was
to those with per-capita emissions in 1990 of two
adopted at the third session of the Conference of
tonnes of carbon or higher. In 2005, the top-20
Parties to the UNFCCC (COP 3) in 1997 in Kyoto,
emitters comprised 80% of total GHG emissions
Japan. Most provisions of the Kyoto Protocol apply
(PBL, 2010. See also the notes in the following
to developed countries, listed in Annex I to
section on the top-ten emitters in 2005). Countries
UNFCCC.
with a Kyoto target made up 20% of total GHG
National emission targets exclude
emissions.

Another way of measuring GHG emissions is small differences between countries are not
to measure the total emissions that have significant. CO2 emissions from the decay of
accumulated in the atmosphere over time (IEA, 2007, remaining biomass after biomass burning/
p. 199). Over a long time period, cumulative deforestation are not included.
emissions provide an indication of a country's total
contribution to GHG concentrations in the • 1 excluding underground fires.
atmosphere. The International Energy Agency (IEA, • 2 including an estimate of 2000 million tonnes
2007, p. 201) compared cumulative energy-related CO2 from peat fires and decomposition of
CO2emissions for several countries and regions. peat soils after draining. However, the
Over the time period 1900–2005, the US accounted uncertainty range is very large.
for 30% of total cumulative emissions; the EU, 23%; • 3 Industrialised countries: official country data
China, 8%; Japan, 4%; and India, 2%. The rest of reported to UNFCCC
the world accounted for 33% of global, cumulative,
energy-related CO2 emissions. Financial commitments
Top-ten emitters The Protocol also reaffirms the principle that
What follows is a ranking of the world's top developed countries have to pay billions of dollars,
ten emitters of GHGs for 2005 (MNP, 2007). The and supply technology to other countries for climate-
first figure is the country's or region's emissions as related studies and projects. The principle was
a percentage of the global total. The second figure originally agreed in UNFCCC. One of them is called
is the country's/region's per-capita emissions, in The Adaptation Fund", that has been established by
units of tons of GHG per-capita: the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol of the UN
1. China1 – 17%, 5.8 Framework Convention on Climate Change to
finance concrete adaptation projects and
2. United States3 – 16%, 24.1
programmes in developing countries that are Parties
3. European Union-273 – 11%, 10.6 to the Kyoto Protocol.
4. Indonesia2 – 6%, 12.9 Revisions
5. India – 5%, 2.1
The protocol left several issues open to be
6. Russia3 – 5%, 14.9 decided later by the sixth Conference of Parties
7. Brazil – 4%, 10.0 (COP). COP6 attempted to resolve these issues at
8. Japan3 – 3%, 10.6 its meeting in the Hague in late 2000, but was unable
9. Canada3 – 2%, 23.2 to reach an agreement due to disputes between the
10. Mexico – 2%, 6.4 European Union on the one hand (which favoured a
Notes tougher agreement) and the United States, Canada,
Japan and Australia on the other (which wanted the
• These values are for the GHG emissions from
agreement to be less demanding and more flexible).
fossil fuel use and cement production. In 2001, a continuation of the previous
Calculations are for carbon dioxide (CO2), meeting (COP6bis) was held in Bonn where the
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and required decisions were adopted. After some
gases containing fluorine (the F-gases HFCs, concessions, the supporters of the protocol (led by
PFCs and SF6). the European Union) managed to get Japan and
• These estimates are subject to large Russia in as well by allowing more use of carbon
uncertainties regarding CO2 emissions from dioxide sinks.
deforestation; and the per country emissions COP7 was held from 29 October 2001 through
of other GHGs (e.g., methane). There are also 9 November 2001 in Marrakech to establish the final
other large uncertainties which mean that details of the protocol.

Current Affairs
The first Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto • and that the share of global emissions from
Protocol (MOP1) was held in Montreal from 28 developing countries would grow to meet their
November to 9 December 2005, along with the 11th development needs.
conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (COP11). This mandate was recognized in the Kyoto
SeeUnited Nations Climate Change Conference. Protocol in that developing countries were not
On 3 December 2007, Australia ratified the subject to emission reduction commitments in the
protocol during the first day of the COP13 in Bali. first Kyoto commitment period. However, the large
Of the signatories, 36 developed C.G. potential for growth in developing country emissions
countries (plus the EU as a party in the European made negotiations on this issue tense (Grubb, 2003,
Union)agreed to a 10% emissions increase for pp. 145–146). In the final agreement, the Clean
Iceland; but, since the EU's member states each have Development Mechanism was designed to limit
individual obligations, much larger increases (up to emissions in developing countries, but in such a way
27%) are allowed for some of the less developed EU that developing countries do not bear the costs for
countries (see below Kyoto Protocol#Increase in limiting emissions. The general assumption was that
greenhouse gas emission since 1990). Reduction developing countries would face quantitative
limitations expire in 2013. commitments in later commitment periods, and at
Enforcement the same time, developed countries would meet their
If the enforcement branch determines that an first round Base year.
annex I country is not in compliance with its The choice of the 1990 main base year
emissions limitation, then that country is required remains in Kyoto, as it does in the original
to make up the difference during the second Framework Convention. The desire to move to
commitment period plus an additional 30%. In historical emissions was rejected on the basis that
addition, that country will be suspended from good data was not available prior to 1990. The 1990
making transfers under an emissions trading program. base year also favoured several powerful interests
Negotiations including the UK, Germany and Russia (Liverman,
2008, p. 12). This is because the UK and Germany
Article 4.2 of the UNFCCC commits had high CO2 emissions in 1990.
industrialized countries to "[take] the lead" in In the UK following 1990, emissions had
reducing emissions (Grubb, 2003, p. 144). The initial declined because of a switch from coal to gas ("dash
aim was for industrialized countries to stabilize their for gas"), which has lower emissions than coal. This
emissions at 1990 levels by the year 2000. The was due to the UK's privatization of coal mining and
failure of key industrialized countries to move in this its switch to natural gas supported by North sea
direction was a principal reason why Kyoto moved reserves. Germany benefitted from the 1990 base
to binding commitments. year because of its reunification between West and
At the first UNFCCC Conference of the Parties East Germany. East Germany's emissions fell
in Berlin, the G77 (a lobbying group that represents dramatically following the collapse of East German
133 developing countries, of which China is an industry after the fall of the Berlin Wall. Germany
associate (Dessai, 2001, p. 4)) was able to push for could therefore take credit for the resultant decline
a mandate where it was recognized that (Liverman, in emissions.
2008, p. 12). Japan promoted the idea of flexible baselines,
• developed nations had contributed most to and favoured a base year of 1995 for HFCs. Their
the then-current concentrations of GHGs in HFC emissions had grown in the early 1990s as a
the atmosphere substitute for CFCs banned in the Montreal Protocol
• developing country emissions per-capita were (Liverman, 2008, p. 13). Some of the former Soviet
still relatively low satellites wanted a base year to reflect their highest

emissions prior to their industrial collapse. Grubb (2003, p. 151), the only common theme of
EIT countries are privileged by being able to these indicators was that each proposal suited the
choose their base-year nearly freely.[citation needed] interests of the country making the proposal.
However the oldest base-year accepted is 1986. The final commitments negotiated in the
[citation needed]. Protocol are the result of last minute political
Emissions cuts compromises (Liverman, 2008, pp. 13–14). These
include an 8% cut from the 1990 base year for the
The G77 wanted strong uniform emission cuts
EU, 7% for the US, 6% for Canada and Japan, no
across the developed world of 15% (Liverman, 2008,
cut for Russia, and an 8% increase for Australia. This
p. 13). Countries, such as the US, made suggestions
sums to an overall cut of 5.2% below 1990 levels.
to reduce their responsibility to reduce emissions.
Since Australia and the US did not ratify the treaty
These suggestions included:
(although Australia has since done), the cut is
• the inclusion of carbon sinks (e.g., by including
reduced from 5.2% to about 2%.
forests, that absorb CO2 from the atmosphere).
Considering the growth of some economies
• and having net current emissions as the basis and the collapse of others since 1990, the range of
for responsibility, i.e., ignoring historical implicit targets is much greater (Aldy et al., 2003,
emissions. p. 7). The US faced a cut of about 30% below"
The US originally proposed for the second business-as-usual" (BAU) emissions (i.e., predicted
round of negotiations on Kyoto commitments to emissions should there be no attempt to limit
follow the negotiations of the first (Grubb, 2003, emissions), while Russia and other economies in
p. 148). In the end, negotiations on the second transition faced targets that allowed substantial
period were set to open no later than 2005. Countries increases in their emissions above BAU. On the
over-achieving in their first period commitments can other hand, Grubb (2003, p. 151) pointed out that
"bank" their unused allowances for use in the the US, having per-capita emissions twice that of
subsequent period. most other OECD countries, was vulnerable to the
The EU initially argued for only three GHGs suggestion that it had huge potential for making
to be included – CO2, CH4, and N2O – with other reductions. From this viewpoint, the US was obliged
gases such as HFCs regulated separately (Liverman, to cut emissions back more than other countries.
2008, p. 13). The EU also wanted to have a "bubble" Flexibility mechanisms
commitment, whereby it could make a collective
Negotiations over the flexibility mechanisms
commitment that allowed some EU members to
included in the Protocol proved controversial (Grubb,
increase their emissions, while others cut theirs. The
2003, p. 153). Japan and some EU member states
most vulnerable nations – the Alliance of Small
wanted to ensure that any emissions trading would
Island States (AOSIS) – pushed for deep uniform cuts
be competitive and transparent. Their intention was
by developed nations, with the goal of having
to prevent the US from using its political leverage
emissions reduced to the greatest possible extent.
to gain preferential access to the likely surplus in
The final days of negotiation of the Protocol
Russian emission allowances. The EU was also
saw a clash between the EU and the US and Japan
anxious to prevent the US from avoiding domestic
(Grubb, 2003, p. 149). The EU aimed for flat-rate
action to reduce its emissions. Developing countries
reductions in the range of 10–15% below 1990
were concerned that the US would use flexibility to
levels, while the US and Japan supported reductions
its own advantage, over the interests of weaker
of 0–5%. Countries that had supported
countries.
differentiation had different ideas as to how it should
be calculated, and many different indicators were Compliance
proposed: relating to GDP, energy intensity (energy The protocol defines a mechanism of
use per unit of economic output), etc. According to "compliance" as a "monitoring compliance with the

Current Affairs
commitments and penalties for non-compliance." total carbon dioxide emissions for 1990 of the
According to Grubb (2003, p. 157), the explicit Annex I countries, have deposited their instruments
consequences of non-compliance of the treaty are of ratification, acceptance, approval or accession."
weak compared to domestic law. Yet, the The EU and its Member States ratified the
compliance section of the treaty was highly contested Protocol in May 2002. Of the two conditions, the
in the Marrakesh Accords. According to Grubb "55 parties" clause was reached on 23 May 2002
(2003), Japan made some unsuccessful efforts to when Iceland ratified the Protocol. The ratification
"water-down" the compliance package. byRussia on 18 November 2004 satisfied the "55%"
2000 onwards clause and brought the treaty into force, effective 16
When George W. Bush was elected US February 2005, after the required lapse of 90 days.
president in 2000, he was asked by US Senator Hagel As of November 2009, 187 countries and one
what his administration's position was on climate regional economic organization (the EC) have ratified
change. Bush replied that he took climate change the agreement, representing over 63.9% of the 1990
"very seriously," but that he opposed the Kyoto emissions from Annex I countries.
treaty, because "it exempts 80% of the world, Government action and emissions
including major population centers such as China
and India, from compliance, and would cause Annual per capita carbon dioxide emissions
serious harm to the US economy" (Dessai, 2001, p. (i.e., average emissions per person) from fuel
5). Almost all world leaders (e.g., China, Japan, combustion between 1990-2009 for the Kyoto Annex
South Africa, Pacific islands) expressed their I and non-Annex I Parties. Annual carbon dioxide
disappointment over President Bush's decision not emissions from fuel combustion between 1990-2009
to support the treaty (Dessai, 2001, p. 6). for the Kyoto Annex I and non-Annex I Parties. Main
In order for the Protocol to enter into legal article: Kyoto Protocol and government action. See
effect, it was required that the Protocol was ratified also: List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
by 55 Parties including 55% of 1990 Annex I per capita, List of countries by carbon dioxide
emissions (Dessai, 2001, p. 3). The US accounted emissions, and List of countries by ratio of GDP to
for 36% of emissions in 1990, and without US carbon dioxide emissions
ratification, only an EU+ Russia + Japan + small Annex I
party coalition could place the treaty into legal effect. Total aggregate GHG emissions excluding
A deal was reached in the Bonn climate talks (COP- emissions/removals from land use, land use change
6.5), held in 2001. According to the EU, the Kyoto and forestry (LULUCF, i.e., carbon storage in forests
Protocol had been saved (Dessai, 2001, p. 8). For and soils) for all Annex I Parties taken together
the G77/China, the Bonn agreement represented the
(including the USA) decreased from 19.0 to 17.8
"triumph of multilateralism over unilateralism"
(Dessai, 2001, p. 8). thousand teragrams (Tg, which is equal to 109 kg)
CO2 equivalent, a decline of 6.0% during the 1990-
Ratification process 2008 period. Several factors have contributed to this
The Protocol was adopted by COP 3 on 11 decline. The first is due to the economic restructuring
December 1997 in Kyoto, Japan. It was opened on in the Annex I Economies in Transition (the EITs –
16 March 1998 for signature by parties to UNFCCC.
see Intergovernmental Emissions Trading for the list
Article 25 of the Protocol specifies that the of EITs). Over the period 1990-1999, emissions fell
Protocol enters into force "on the ninetieth day after
by 40% in the EITs following the collapse of central
the date on which not less than 55 Parties to the
Convention, incorporating Parties included in Annex planning in the former Soviet Union and east
I which accounted in total for at least 55% of the European countries. This lead to a massive

contraction of their heavy industry-based economies, Olivier et al. (2011), the Kyoto Parties with a target
with associated reductions in their fossil fuel will comfortably exceed their collective target, with
consumption and emissions. a projected average reduction of 16% for 2008-2012.
Emissions growth in Annex I Parties have also This projection excludes both LULUCF and credits
been limited due to policies and measures (PaMs). generated by the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM).
In particular, PaMs were strengthened after 2000,
As noted in the preceding section, between
helping to enhance energy efficiency and develop
1990–1999, there was a large reduction in the
renewable energy sources. Energy use also decreased
emissions of the EITs. The reduction in the EITs is
during the economic crisis in 2007-2008.
largely responsible for the total (aggregate) reduction
Projections
(excluding LULUCF) in emissions of the Annex I
UNFCCC (2011) made projections of changes countries, excluding the USA. Emissions of the
in emissions of the Annex I Parties and the Annex II countries (Annex I minus the EIT countries)
effectiveness of their PaMs. It was noted that their have experienced a limited increase in emissions from
projections should be interpreted with caution. For 1990–2006, followed by stabilization and a more
the 39 Annex I Parties, UNFCCC (2011) projected marked decrease from 2007 onwards.
that existing PaMs would lead to annual emissions The emissions reductions in the early nineties
in 2010 of 17.5 thousand Tg CO2 eq, excluding by the 12 EIT countries who have since joined the
LULUCF, which is a decrease of 6.7% from the 1990 EU, assist the present EU-27 in meeting its collective
level. Annual emissions in 2020 excluding LULUCF Kyoto target. At the end of 2010, the EU-15 was on
were projected to reach 18.9 thousand Tg CO2 eq, track to achieve its Kyoto target, but three EU-15
which is an increase of 0.6% on the 1990 level. Member States (Austria, Italy and Luxembourg) were
UNFCCC (2011) made an estimate of the total not on track to meet their burden-sharing targets.
effect of implemented and adopted PaMs. Projected Other countries not on course to meet their Kyoto
savings were estimated relative to a reference target include Liechtenstein, Switzerland, Australia,
(baseline) scenario where PaMs are not Canada (Canada withdrew from the Kyoto treaty in
implemented. PaMs were projected to deliver 2011), [7] New Zealand and Spain. In order to meet
emissions savings relative to baseline of about 1.5 their targets, these countries would need to purchase
thousand Tg CO2 eq by 2010, and 2.8 thousand Tg emissions credits from other Kyoto countries. As
CO2 eq by 2020. In percentage terms, and using noted in the section on Intergovernmental Emissions
annual emissions in the year 1990 as a reference Trading, purchasing surplus credits from the EIT
point, PaMs were projected to deliver at least a 5.0% countries would not actually result in total emissions
reduction relative to baseline by 2010, and a 10.0% being reduced. An alternative would be the purchase
reduction relative to baseline in 2020. Scenarios of CDM credits or the use of the Green Investment
reviewed by UNFCCC (2011) still suggested that Scheme.
total Annex I annual emissions would increase out
to 2020 (see the preceding paragraph). Canada's environment minister, Peter Kent,
informed a day after the 2011 United Nations
Annex I Parties with targets
Climate Change Conference that Canada will
Collectively the group of industrialized withdraw from the Kyoto accord (see the section on
countries committed to a Kyoto target, i.e., the thewithdrawal of Canada).
Annex I countries excluding the USA, have a target Annex I Parties without Kyoto targets
of reducing their GHG emissions by 4.2% on
Belarus, Malta, and Turkey are Annex I Parties
average for the period 2008-2012 relative to the base
but do not have Kyoto targets. The US has a Kyoto
year, which in most cases is 1990. According to

Current Affairs
target of a 6% reduction relative to the 1990 level, emissions for 70 Parties, whereas for 45 Parties the
but has not ratified the treaty. Emissions in the US agriculture sector was the largest. Per capita
have increased 11% since 1990, and according to emissions (in tonnes of CO2-eq, excluding LUCF)
Olivier et al. (2011), it will be unable to meet its averaged 2.8 tonnes for the 122 non-Annex I Parties.
original Kyoto target. • The Africa region's aggregate emissions were
If the US had ratified the Kyoto Protocol, the 1.6 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions
average percentage reduction in total GHG emissions of 2.4 tonnes.
for the Annex I group would have been a 5.2% • The Asia and Pacific region's aggregate
reduction relative to the base year. Including the US emissions were 7.9 billion tonnes, with per
in their calculation, Olivier et al. (2011) projected capita emissions of 2.6 tonnes.
that the Annex I countries would collectively achieve • The Latin America and Caribbean region's
a 7% reduction relative to the base year, which is aggregate emissions were 2 billion tonnes,
lower than the original target of a 5.2% reduction.
with per capita emissions of 4.6 tonnes.
This projection excludes expected purchases of
emissions credits. • The "other" region includes Albania, Armenia,
Azerbaijan, Georgia, Malta, Republic of
Non-Annex I
Moldova, and the former Yugoslav Republic
UNFCCC (2005) compiled and synthesized of Macedonia. Their aggregate emissions were
information reported to it by non-Annex I Parties.
0.1 billion tonnes, with per capita emissions
Most non-Annex I Parties belonged in the low-
of 5.1 tonnes.
income group, with very few classified as middle-
income. Most Parties included information on Parties reported a high level of uncertainty in
policies relating to sustainable development. LUCF emissions, but in aggregate, there appeared to
Sustainable development priorities mentioned by only be a small difference of 1.7% with and without
non-Annex I Parties included poverty alleviation and LUCF. With LUCF, emissions were 11.9 billion
access to basic education and health care (UNFCCC, tonnes, without LUCF, total aggregate emissions
2005, p. 6). Many non-Annex I Parties are making were 11.7 billion tonnes.
efforts to amend and update their environmental Trends
legislation to include global concerns such as climate
In several large developing countries and fast
change (UNFCCC, 2005, p. 7).
growing economies (China, India, Thailand,
A few Parties, e.g., South Africa and Iran,
Indonesia, Egypt, and Iran) GHG emissions have
stated their concern over how efforts to reduce
increased rapidly (PBL, 2009). For example,
emissions could affect their economies. The
economies of these countries are highly dependent emissions in China have risen strongly over the 1990–
on income generated from the production, 2005 period, often by more than 10% year.
processing, and export of fossil fuels. Emissions per-capita in non-Annex I countries are
still, for the most part, much lower than in
Emissions
industrialized countries. Non-Annex I countries do
GHG emissions, excluding land use change
not have quantitative emission reduction
and forestry (LUCF), reported by 122 non-Annex I
Parties for the year 1994 or the closest year reported, commitments, but they are committed to mitigation
totalled 11.7 billion tonnes (billion = actions. China, for example, has had a national
1,000,000,000) of CO2-eq. CO2 was the largest policy programme to reduce emissions growth,
proportion of emissions (63%), followed by methane which included the closure of old, less efficient coal-
(26%) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (11%). fired power plants.
The energy sector was the largest source of Cost estimates

Barker et al. (2007, p. 79) assessed the emission reduction commitments may demand more
literature on cost estimates for the Kyoto Protocol. stringent emission reductions (Aldy et al.., 2003, p.
Due to non-US participation in the Kyoto treaty, costs 9). In 2001, sixteen national science academies
estimates were found to be much lower than those stated that ratification of the Protocol represented a
estimated in the previous IPCC Third Assessment "small but essential first step towards stabilising
Report. Without US participation, and with full use atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases."
Some environmentalists and scientists have
of the Kyoto flexible mechanisms, costs were
criticized the existing commitments for being too
estimated at less than 0.05% of Annex B GDP. This
weak (Grubb, 2000, p. 5). The lack of quantitative
compared to earlier estimates of 0.1–1.1%. Without emission commitments for developing countries led
use of the flexible mechanisms, costs without US to the governments of the United States, and also
participation were estimated at less than 0.1%. This Australia under Prime Minister John Howard
compared to earlier estimates of 0.2–2%. These cost deciding not to ratify the treaty (Stern 2007, p. 478).
estimates were viewed as being based on much Australia, under former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd,
evidence and high agreement in the literature. has since ratified the treaty, which took effect in
Views on the Protocol March, 2008.
Main article: Views on the Kyoto Protocol In May 2010 the Hartwell Paper was
Gupta et al. (2007) assessed the literature on published by the London School of Economics. The
climate change policy. They found that no authors argued that after what they regard as the
authoritative assessments of the UNFCCC or its failure of the 2009 Copenhagen Climate Summit,
Protocol asserted that these agreements had, or will, the Kyoto Protocol "has failed to produce any
succeed in solving the climate problem. In these discernable real world reductions in emissions of
assessments, it was assumed that the UNFCCC or greenhouse gases in fifteen years" and that this failure
its Protocol would not be changed. The Framework opened an opportunity for a re-orientation towards
Convention and its Protocol include provisions for a climate policy based on human dignity instead of
future policy actions to be taken. human sinfulness. [unbalanced opinion].
World Bank (2010, p. 233) commented on Withdrawal of Canada
how the Kyoto Protocol had only had a slight effect In 2010, Canada, Japan and Russia stated that
on curbing global emissions growth. The treaty was they would not take on further Kyoto targets. The
negotiated in 1997, but by 2005, energy-related Canadian government invoked Canada's legal right
emissions had grown 24%. World Bank (2010) also to formally withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol on
stated that the treaty had provided only limited December 12, 2011. Canada was committed to
financial support to developing countries to assist cutting its greenhouse emissions to 6% below 1990
them in reducing their emissions and adapting to levels by 2012, but in 2009 emissions were 17%
climate change. Some of the criticism of the Protocol higher than in 1990. Environment minister Peter
has been based on the idea of climate justice Kent cited Canada's liability to "enormous financial
(Liverman, 2008, p. 14). This has particularly centred penalties" under the treaty unless it withdrew. He
on the balance between the low emissions and high also suggested that the recently signed Durban
vulnerability of the developing world to climate agreement may provide an alternative way forward.
change, compared to high emissions in the Canada's decision was strongly criticised by
developed world. representatives of other signatory countries, including
Some environmentalists have supported the France and China. A spokesperson for the island
Kyoto Protocol because it is "the only game in town," nation of Tuvalu, significantly threatened by rising
and possibly because they expect that future sea levels, accused Canada of an "act of sabotage"
against his country. Australian government minister

Current Affairs
Greg Combet, however, defended the decision, Zhenhua, says he is concerned that developed nations
saying that it did not mean Canada would not are reluctant to reduce their own greenhouse gas
continue to "play its part in global efforts to tackle emissions, which many scientists say exacerbate
climate change". global warming. He also called on developed
Canada's Environment Minister Peter Kent
countries to provide financial and technical aid to
leaves after announcing that Canada will formally
withdraw from the Kyoto protocol on climate help developing nations fight against and cope with
change, on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, December the effects of climate change.
12, 2011. China is calling Canada's decision to Successor
withdraw from the Kyoto Protocol "regrettable" and Main article: Post–Kyoto Protocol negotiations
says it goes against the efforts of the international
on greenhouse gas emissions
community. Canada's move comes days after
climate-change negotiators met to hammer-out a In the non-binding 'Washington Declaration'
global deal in Durban, South Africa. agreed on 16 February 2007, heads of governments
Foreign Ministry spokesman Liu Weimin from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia,
expressed China's dismay at the news that Canada United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil,
had pulled out of the Kyoto Protocol. China,India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in
He says the timing is particularly bad, because principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto
negotiators at the just-concluded Durban conference Protocol. They envisage a global cap-and-trade
made what he described as important progress on system that would apply to both industrialized
the issue of the Kyoto Protocol's second nations anddeveloping countries, and hoped that
commitment period. Liu says Canada's move goes this would be in place by 2009.
against the efforts of the international community On 7 June 2007, leaders at the 33rd G8
and is regrettable. He says Beijing hopes Canada will summit agreed that the G8 nations would "aim to
face up to its obligations, honor its commitments at least halve global CO2 emissions by 2050". The
and actively participate in international efforts to
details enabling this to be achieved would be
fight climate change. Canada Monday announced
negotiated by environment ministers within the
that it is pulling out of the Kyoto Protocol, a treaty
hammered out in 1997 that calls for major United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
industrialized nations to reduce their greenhouse gas Change in a process that would also include the
emissions. The United States never ratified the Kyoto major emerging economies.
Protocol. The accord recognizes China as a A round of climate change talks under the
developing country and so does not impose auspices of the United Nations Framework
mandated emissions reduction targets on Beijing. Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Vienna
China and the United States are the world's Climate Change Talks 2007) concluded in 31 August
two biggest emitters of carbon gases that many 2007 with agreement on key elements for an
scientists say exacerbate global warming. Liu effective international response to climate change.
indicated that Ottawa's decision will not affect A key feature of the talks was a United Nations
Beijing's actions. He says China has been actively report that showed how efficient energy use could
participating in the international effort against yield significant cuts in emissions at low cost.
climate change and made what he describes as The talks were meant to set the stage for a
"utmost efforts" for the Durban meeting's success. major international meeting to be held in Nusa Dua,
He says this will continue in the future. Bali, which started on 3 December 2007.
The Chinese negotiator at Durban, Xie The Conference was held in December 2008

in Poznan, Poland. One of the main topics on this conferece a multi-stakeholder consultation took
meeting was the discussion of a possible place.
implementation of avoided deforestation also known
asReducing emissions from deforestation and forest JOHANNESBURG SUMMIT 2002
degradation (REDD) into the future Kyoto Protocol.
After the lack of progress leading to a binding What is Johannesburg Summit 2002?
commitment or an extension of the Kyoto Johannesburg Summit 2002 – the World
commitment period in climate talks at COP 15 in Summit on Sustainable Development – brought
Copenhagen, Denmark in 2009, there were and will together tens of thousands of participants, including
be several further rounds of negotiation COP 16 in heads of State and Government, national delegates
Cancun, Mexico in 2010, COP 17 in South Africa and leaders from non-governmental organizations
in 2011, and in Qatar in 2012 (COP 18). Because (NGOs), businesses and other major groups to focus
any treaty change will require the ratification of the the world's attention and direct action toward
text by various countries'. meeting difficult challenges, including improving
people's lives and conserving our natural resources
1997 : RIO +5 CONFERENCE, NEW YORK in a world that is growing in population, with ever-
increasing demands for food, water, shelter,
sanitation, energy, health services and economic
The Rio+5 Conference was the first security.
comprehensive status review of work to implement
the UNCED's agreements. This Conference aimed
Why Now?
to revive and strengthen commitment to sustainable At the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, the
development, ascertain failures and identify the international community adopted Agenda 21, an
reasons in each case, recognize achievements, set unprecedented global plan of action for sustainable
priorities and determine problems that had not been development. But the best strategies are only as good
addressed sufficiently in Rio. as their implementation. Ten years later, the
The description of sustainable development in Johannesburg Summit presents an exciting
Agenda 21 called for a total shift in the status quo opportunity for today's leaders to adopt concrete
of prevalent value systems and institutional steps and identify quantifiable targets for better
processes. Such global change could never have implementing Agenda 21.
occurred over night. When progress was assessed at When & Where Was It?
Rio+5 (New York, 1997) a number of gaps were The Summit took place in Johannesburg, South
identified, particularly with regards to social equity Africa from 26 August to 4 September 2002. The
and poverty. This was largely reflected by falling Summit was held in the Sandton Convention Centre,
levels of official development assistance (ODA) and just outside Johannesburg. A non-governmental
growing international debt along with failures to forum took place at the nearby NASREC Centre and
improve technology transfer, capacity building for numerous other parallel events also took place around
participation and development, institutional Johannesburg at the same time.
coordination, and reduce excessive levels of
Who Went?
production and consumption. The review meeting
called for the ratification, reinforcement and stronger Broad participation and inclusiveness are key
implementation of the growing number of to the success of sustainable development. All
international agreements and conventions which refer sectors of society have a role to play in building a
to environment and development. future in which global resources are protected, and
In the prepartory process in the lead up to the prosperity and health are within reach for all of the

Current Affairs
world's citizens. Therefore, in addition to The Bureau for CSD10 guided the process and
governments, there was active participation at the raised political awareness and support for the
Summit by representatives from business and Summit amongst member governments and
industry, children and youth, farmers, indigenous major groups.
people, local authorities, non-governmental
organizations, scientific and technological
Secretary General’s Advisory Panel
communities, women and workers and trade unions. The Secretary-General of the United Nations,
These represent the Major Groups identified in Kofi Annan, convened a Panel of Eminent Persons
Agenda 21. to explore the challenges of sustainable development
Side Events and make recommendations to him for meeting them
through the Summit process. The Secretary-General
Side events are events that take place in the asked Panel members to help raise political
margins of official inter-governmental meetings, awareness of the Summit process, both generally and
organised for the purpose of sharing experiences and within their own individual spheres of influence and
increasing opportunities for dialogue among the impact.
official meeting's participants. A number of side
events coordinated by the UN was held during the Ligistics
Preparatory Committee (PrepCom) meetings inside Logistical organization of the Summit within
the Sandton Convention Centre throughout the South Africa was managed by the Johannesburg
Summit itself. World Summit Company (JOWSCO), on behalf of
Parallel Events the Government of South Africa.
Greening the Summit
Around the time of the Summit, a number of
additional events - known as parallel events - took Since the Summit was the biggest international
place in the Johannesburg area. These events were gathering ever held in Africa, the "Greening the
convened and managed by organisations or groups WSSD" Initiative was established to ensure that the
that are independent of the United Nations. The Summit was organized along environmental "best
Johannesburg World Summit Company (JOWSCO) practice" lines and that minimal waste was generated
by the thousands of delegates that descended on
- a non-profit company that is wholly owned by the
Johannesburg.
South African government and which managed
logistical operations on behalf of the Summit’s host
Copenhagen
nation — coordinated logistics for these parallel Climate Council (2007) And Summit (2009)
events. Click here for more information on parallel The Copenhagen Climate Council is a global
events. collaboration between international business and
science founded by the leading independent think
Who Organised the Summit? tank in Scandinavia, Monday Morning, based in
The tenth session of the UN Commission on Copenhagen. The councilors of the Copenhagen
Sustainable Development (known as CSD10) acted Climate Council have come together to create global
as the Preparatory Committee for the Summit which awareness of the importance of the UN Climate
was the central organising body. CSD10 had four Summit (COP15) in Copenhagen, December 2009,
preparatory meetings for the Summit during 2001- and to ensure technical and public support and
2002, known as PrepComs. These meetings were assistance to global decision makers when agreeing
held as follows: on a new climate treaty to replace the Kyoto Protocol
from 1997.
• CSD10 sessions were steered by a Bureau Organization
which consisted of 2 representatives from each
region of the world (10 members in total). The Copenhagen Climate Council was
founded in 2007 by the leading independent think

tank in Scandinavia, Monday Morning, head- The document will serve as input at the World
quartered in Copenhagen, Denmark. Business Summit on Climate Change, outlining key
Purpose elements for further discussion and inclusion in the
recommendations to be delivered to the UN Summit.
The purpose of the Copenhagen Climate
Council is to create global awareness of the Membership
importance of the UN Climate Summit (COP15) in Copenhagen Climate Council comprises 30
Copenhagen, December 2009. Leading up to this global climate leaders representing business, science,
pivotal UN meeting, the Copenhagen Climate and public policy from all parts of the world.
Council works on presenting innovative yet • Business leaders are selected to represent
achievable solutions to climate change, as well as global companies and innovative
assess what is required to make a new global treaty entrepreneurs, who, through their actions,
effective. The Council will seek to promote reveal that sustainable, climate-responsible
constructive dialogue between government and business is both necessary and profitable.
business, so that when the world's political leaders
• Scientists are gathered to ensure that the work
and negotiators meet in Copenhagen, they will do
of the Council is underpinned by rigorous
so armed with the very best arguments for
analysis.
establishing a treaty that can be supported by global
business. By promoting and demonstrating • Policy makers with experience in public policy
innovative, positive, and meaningful business are included in the Council to ensure that the
leadership and ideas, the Copenhagen Climate work is informed by knowledge of what is
Council aims to demonstrate that achieving an required to assist high-level, complex policy
effective global climate treaty is not only possible, negotiations.
but necessary. The strategy is built upon the Activities
following principles:
The central aim of the Copenhagen Climate
• Creating international awareness of the Council is to create global awareness to the urgency
importance of the Copenhagen UN Climate of reaching a global agreement on how to tackle
Summit and the successor treaty to the Kyoto climate change at the UN Climate Conference in
Protocol. Copenhagen, December 2009. To achieve this end,
• Promoting constructive dialogue between the Copenhagen Climate Council provides a Web
government, business, and science. 2.0 climate website – 'The Climate Community' –
• Inspiring global business leaders by which features latest climate news, intelligence,
demonstrating that tackling climate change solutions and points of view, an online climate
also has the potential to create huge community, as well as the rest of the Copenhagen
Climate Council activities, such as the 'World
opportunities for innovation and economic
Business Summit on Climate Change'; launching the
growth.
'Thought Leadership Series'; launching the 'Climate
Manifesto LIFE' film, book, and digital exhibition; co-hosting
Published in November 2007, on the eve of with CITRIS the scientific conference 'Unlocking the
the UN COP13 Climate Change Conference in Bali Climate Code: Innovation in Climate and Energy';
– the instigation night of the Bali Road Map. The and the Poznan side event 'Business Requirements
document outlines what the Council believes is of a Post-2012 Climate Treaty'. Recently, the
required to tackle climate change and how this can Copenhagen Climate Council has also hosted a
be achieved through a new global treaty. The Business Roundtable in Beijing.
Manifesto articulates a clear goal for the maximum The Climate Community
level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere by 2050.

Current Affairs
The Climate Community is the official website thinkers to put forward recommendations for the next
of the Copenhagen Climate Council. The website international framework on climate change to replace
is based on Web 2.0 principles, and hooks the user the Kyoto Protocol after 2012. Among the prominent
up with the worlds leading climate stakeholdersand participants so far are Al Gore, Chairman of
offers possibility for the user to give voice and Generation Investment Management; Anders Fogh
influence the global climate agenda. The Climate Rasmussen, Prime Minister of Denmark; and Sir
Community aims to bring the latest and most Richard Branson, Founder and CEO of the Virgin
relevant news, insights, and intelligence that equips Group.
the user to navigate the climate challenges and turn At the summit, chief executives will discuss
risks into opportunities. The Climate Community how business can help solve the climate crisis
features an extensive news section with Top Stories, through innovative business models, new
Daily News Summaries, Points of Views, and a partnerships and the development of low carbon
Weekly Roundup, searchable by date, region and technologies. They will send a message to the
sector. negotiating governments on how to remove barriers
Exclusive news features so far include and create incentives for implementation of new
interviews with U.S. Energy Secretary Steve Chu, UN solutions in a post-Kyoto. The results of the World
Climate Chief Yvo de Boer, the Danish Climate Business Summit on Climate Change will be
minister Connie Hedegaard, IPCC Chairman presented to the Danish government, host of COP15,
Rajendra Pachauri, Professor Daniel Kammen, Lars and to world leaders negotiating the terms of the next
Josefsson, CEO of Vattenfall. The Climate international climate treaty.
Community also features regular updates on the Thought Leadership Series
COP15 negotiation process and important upcoming The Copenhagen Climate Council Thought
events. The unique content on Community also Leadership Series on Climate Change is a publication
includes selected and in-depth descriptions of that will be published in hardcopy and on the
innovative business solutions. A valuable feature on Copenhagen Climate Council Home Page in the lead
the Community is the Climate Intelligence Archive, up to the World Business Summit on Climate
which selects and list key international policies, Change in May 2009. The Thought Leadership Series
research reports, government agencies, NGOs, presents a collection of inspirational, concise and
inspiring media sources, and upcoming climate clearly argued pieces from some of the world's most
events. renowned thinkers and business leaders on climate
The Climate Community also hosts an online change. The objective of the pieces is to assist in
Virtual Summit, which is an integral part of the enhancing the public and political awareness of the
World Business Summit on Climate Change to take actions that could have a significant impact on
place in May 2009. The Virtual Summit will global emissions growth and to disseminate the
facilitate knowledge sharing and collaboration, as message that it is time to act hence a new UN
well as be a testing ground for new ideas and climate treaty will be developed in December 2009.
partnerships through interactive web 2.0 tools. The Thought Leadership Series is aimed at elucidating
World Business Summit on Climate Change and creating awareness of the key elements in the
The World Business Summit on Climate business and policy response to the climate problem.
Change takes place six months prior to the pivotal The rationale for the Thought Leadership Series is
UN climate change conference (COP15) in firstly to change the focus from stating we have a
Copenhagen, December 2009. The summit brings problem to communicating the solutions to the
together business chief executives with the world's problem, and secondly to show the potential and
top scientists, economists, civil society, media opportunities inherent in tackling climate change.
leaders, government representatives and other leading

The themes of the Thought Leadership series the real motivations, which has made pioneers,
are: community leaders and others act on climate
• 01 Tackling Emissions Growth: The Role of changes. Through compelling and evocative story-
Markets and Government Regulation telling, the audiences will themselves feel the
urgency of the quest and be inspired to take action.
• 02 Achieving low emissions energy systems Climate LIFE will be a follow-up to Al Gore's 'An
in rapidly developing economies inconvenient truth'. Where Al Gore opened the
• 03 Drawing down CO2 from the atmosphere world's eyes to the massiveness of climate change,
• 04 The role of city planning and buildings in Climate LIFE intends to tell the new convenient truth
tackling emissions growth of climate change - that the knowledge and solutions
we know today give us the opportunity to create
• 05 Achieving the capital investment required communities that enhance quality of life; that it is
to tackle climate change possible to build a greener, safer and more sustainable
• 06 The CEO's survival guide to climate change Earth. Climate Life - the 5th revolution aims to show
• 07 Adapting to the impacts of climate change that the precondition for the success is already
present. A short feature will be launched at the World
• 08 Role of Information and Communications
Business Summit on Climate Change and
Technology in Addressing Climate Change
subsequently it will be shown at events, on the web,
• 09 Beyond a global agreement: Scenarios from and will also be distributed to TV broadcasters across
the future the world. The film is produced in collaboration with
Climate LIFE Koncern Film and TV.
Climate LIFE is a film, book and digital The LIFE Digital exhibition
exbition project initiated by the Copenhagen Climate The LIFE digital Exhibition is intended to
Council. Climate LIFE is intended to be “a virtual demonstrate what makes Climate LIFE possible.
tour of how communities across the globe can both When launched on the web, it will explore the
fight climate change and adapt to a warming world”. delivery model necessary to achieve the vision of
The purpose of Climate LIFE is to encourage Climate LIFE. Looking at the political, economic and
awareness of and appreciation for the human and cultural systems as well as the technological and
commercial potential in a low carbon future. The biological process that will underpin low carbon
Copenhagen Climate Council With hopes for living in the future, the exhibition will present a
Climate LIFE to act as a catalyst for a new public variety of practical solutions and their implications,
discourse on climate change. highlighting the state of the art in movement, energy
FILM : “Climate LIFE - the 5th revolution” production and efficient consumption, water and
waste management etc. The exhibition aims to use
Climate LIFE - the 5th revolution is an
the latest social software advances and interactive
“emotional and strong story” of a journey across the
tools to illustrate the challenges, how they affect
world in search of the solutions so urgently needed
people, and the possibilities for getting involved.
for avoiding a world climate life gone a wreck. It is
produced in the realisation that we need a new Unlocking the Climate Code: Innovation in
climate agenda in order to achieve a transition to a Climate and Energy
sustainable society. The Copenhagen Climate On June 19, 2008, Copenhagen Climate
Council has stated it is “necessary” to tell the story Council and Center for Information Technology
of climate change using a new positive language that Research in the Interest of Society (CITRIS) co-hosted
can appeal to new audiences. Particularly, the an energy conference named Unlocking the Climate
Copenhagen Climate Council wishes to use Code: Innovation in Climate and Energy. The aim
“evocative and emotional storytelling” to get behind

Current Affairs
of the conference was to identify the critical research Europe; Dr. Zhengrong Shi, Founder and CEO of
and development achievements necessary for a Suntech; Steve Harper of Intel; Susanne Stormer from
successful transition to a low carbon economy. Novo Nordisk; Michael Zarin of Vestas; and Thomas
Conference participants will present and debate Becker, the lead climate negotiator for the Danish
relevant policy and business models that can support government that will host the UN COP15 climate
technology innovation in carbon emissions summit in December, 2009. The session was
reduction. In an effort to create models of the moderated by Nick Rowley, strategic director at
relationships in business, policy, and technology to Copenhagen Climate Council.
help guide innovative and rational decision making Read the entire news summary from Poznan
at the 2009 UN Summit, a suite of tools was side event here.
developed, better known as the Climate Navigator.
Business Roundtable in Beijing
According to Gary Baldwin, Director of Special
Projects at CITRIS, the Climate Navigator will have On November 11, 2008, the Copenhagen
several interrelated parts and functions. It will serve Climate Council hosted a roundtable meeting[4]
as an Internet-based community forum for with some of the most prominent business leaders
researchers, policy makers, and business leaders, in China and the Danish Minister for Climate and
allowing politicians and others to direct questions EnergyConnie Hedegaard. According to the
to experts or open on-line discussions about specific Copenhagen Climate Council, conclusion of the
proposals. It will also be a digital library, organizing summit was clear: “Climate change is becoming an
the growing base of knowledge about how business important issue for Chinese CEOs, and opportunities
models and policy can influence technology. In in energy-efficient products and renewable energy are
addition, the Navigator will employ new technology a driver for change.”
itself, including computer modeling applications "Chinese business leaders recognize that
developed by Dan Kammen's lab at Berkeley. sustainable development is a corporate responsibility,
Business Requirements of a and that the need for creating economic growth in
China should meet the needs of sound environment
Post-2012 Climate Treaty
protection. I encourage all industries to respond and
On December 8, 2008, the Copenhagen to collaborate – hand in hand – on tackling the
Climate Council hosted an official side event at the challenge. I want to make sure that our children can
UN COP14 Summit on Climate Change in Poznan, live on a beautiful planet with blue sky and clean
Poland from December 1-10, 2008. The theme air. We are dedicated to this," said Li Xiaolin,
wasBusiness Requirements to a Post-2012 Climate chairwoman and CEO of China Power International,
Treaty. At the event, Council representatives from one of Chinas five-biggest energy suppliers.
business and science presented their key principles Read the entire news summary from Business
for a new treaty. The thoughts presented at the event Roundtable in Beijing here.
will feed into the development of the final
recommen-dations delivered by international BALI ACTION
business leaders at the World Business Summit on
Climate Change, to be held in Copenhagen in May,
2009. Bali Action Plan (BAP) After the 2007 United
Nations Climate Change Conference on the island
The speakers delivered their views on what Bali in Indonesia in December, 2007 the
they would toast to in Copenhagen. They included: participating nations adopted the Bali Road Map as
Copenhagen Climate Council Chairman Tim a two-year process to finalizing a binding agreement
Flannery; Robert Purves from World Wildlife in 2009 in Copenhagen. The conference
FundInternational; Jerry Stokes, president of Suntech
encompassed meetings of several bodies, including

the 13th Conference of the Parties to the United developed and developing countries. Although there
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change were not specific numbers agreed upon in order to
(COP 13) and the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the cut emissions, the Decision recognized that there was
Kyoto Protocol (MOP 3 or CMP 3). a need for "deep cuts in global emissions" (plural
The Bali Road Map includes the Bali Action countries proposed 100% reduction in 2050) and that
Plan (BAP) that was adopted by Decision 1/CP.13
"developed country emissions must fall 10-40%
of the COP-13. It also includes the Ad Hoc Working
Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties by 2020".
under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) negotiations Mitigation
and their 2009 deadline, the launch of the Adaptation Enhanced action on mitigation of climate
Fund, the scope and content of the Article 9 review change includes, inter alia:
of the Kyoto Protocol, as well as decisions on • Nationally appropriate mitigation
technology transfer and on reducing emissions from commitments or actions by all developed
deforestation. countries.
Bali Action Plan
• Nationally appropriate mitigation actions
Pillars (NAMAs) by developing countries.
The Conference of Parties decided to launch • Cooperative sectorial approaches and sector-
a comprehensive process to enable the specific actions (CSAs).
implementation of the Convention through long- • Ways to strengthen the catalytic role of the
term cooperative action, now, up to and beyond convention.
2012, by addressing: (the called pillars or building
blocks) Forests
• A shared vision for long-term cooperative The nations pledge "policy approaches and
action, including a long-term global goal for positive incentives" on issues relating to reducing
emission reductions. emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
• Enhanced national/international action on (REDD) in developing countries; and enhancement
mitigation of climate change. offorest carbon stock in developing countries This
• Enhanced action on adaptation. paragraph is referred to as “REDD-plus”.
• Enhanced action on technology development Adaptation
and transfer to support action on mitigation
and adaptation. The nations opt for enhanced co-operation to
"support urgent implementation" of measures to
• Enhanced action on the provision of financial
resources and investment to support action protect poorer countries against climate change,
on mitigation and adaptation and technology including NAPAs. impacts.
cooperation. Technology
Cutting emissions In technology development and transfer, the
The nations acknowledge that evidence for nations will consider how to facilitate the transfer
of clean and renewable energy technologies from
global warming is unequivocal, and that humans
industrialised nations to the developing
must reduce emissions to reduce the risks of "severe countries.This includes, inter alia:
climate change impacts" and emphasized the
• Removal of obstacles to, an provision of
urgency to address climate change. There was a
financial and other incentives for, scaling up
strong consensus for updated changes for both
the development and transfer of technology

Current Affairs
to developing country Parties in order to outcome to the COP15/MOP 5. The Group must
promote access to affordable environmentally develop its working programme in its first session
sound technologies (renewable energies, in a coherent and integrated manner.
electric vehicles). The AWG-LCA and AWG-KP presented draft
• Ways to accelerate the deployment, diffussion conclusions to COP15 and CMP5, which contained
many unresolved issues. These working groups are
and transfer of such technologies.
now due to report to COP16 and CMP6 in Mexico.
• Cooperation on research and development of Timescales
current, new and innovative technology,
including win-win solutions. Four major UNFCCC meetings to implement
the Bali Road Map were planned for 2008, with the
• The effectiveness of mechanism and tools for first to be held in either March or April and the
technology coosperation in specific sectors. second in June, with the third in either August or
Finance September followed by a major meeting in Poznan,
Provision of financial resources and Poland in December 2008. The negotiations process
investment includes: was scheduled to conclude at the United Nations
Climate Change Conference 2009 in Copenhagen,
• Improved access to predictable and sustainable
Denmark.
financial resources and the provision of new
and additional resources, including official and
DURBAN CONFERENCE
concessional funding for developing country
Parties (dcP).
• Positive incentives for dcP for national THE 2011 UNITED NATIONS CLIMATE
mitigation strategies and adaptation action. CHANGE CONFERENCE was held in Durban, South
• Innovative means of funding for dcP that are Africa, from 28 November to 11 December 2011 to
establish a new treaty to limit carbon emissions.
particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts
The conference agreed to a legally binding deal
of climate change in meeting the costs of
comprising all countries, which will be prepared by
adaptation.
2015, and to take effect in 2020. There was also
• Incentivisation of adaptation actions on the progress regarding the creation of a Green Climate
basis of sustainable development policies. Fund (GCF) for which a management framework was
• Mobilization of funding and investment, adopted. The fund is to distribute US$100 billion
including facilitation of climate-friendly per year to help poor countries adapt to climate
investment choices. impacts.
• Financial and technical support for capacity- While the president of the conference, Maite
building in the assessment of costs of Nkoana-Mashabane, declared it a success, scientists
adaptation in developing countries, to aid in and environmental groups warned that the deal was
determining their financial needs. not sufficient to avoid global warming beyond 2 °C
Ad Hoc Working Groups as more urgent action is needed.
The Conference decided establish a subsidiary Background
bodies under the Convention to conduct the process, The conference was officially referred to as the
the Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term 17th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP
Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA) and the Ad Hoc 17) to the United Nations Framework Convention
Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 7th session
I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP), that of the Conference of the Parties serving as the
were to complete their work in 2009 and present the meeting of the Parties (CMP 7) to the Kyoto

Protocol. In addition, the two permanent subsidiary proposal as "intriguing", Black noted that although
bodies of the UNFCCC – the Subsidiary Body for it would theoretically enable developing countries
Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the to use their numerical superiority to adopt any kind
Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) – were of world-wide binding obligation, in practical terms
likely to hold their 35th sessions. The 2010 United they would still need the approval of rich countries
Nations Climate Change Conference extended the to secure funding.
mandates of the two temporary subsidiary bodies –
the Ad Hoc Working Group on Further
IPCC
Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc Working Group Change (IPCC) warned in November 2011 that
on Long-term Cooperative Action under the extreme weather will strike as climate change takes
Convention (AWG-LCA) – so they were expected to hold. Heavier rainfall, storms and droughts can cost
meet as well. A primary focus of the conference was billions and destroy lives. Estimates suggest that
to secure a global climate agreement as the Kyoto every dollar invested in adaptation to climate change
Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012) could save $60 in damages.
was about to end. It was also expected to focus on
India
"finalising at least some of the Cancun Agreements",
reached at the 2010 Conference, such as "co- India's representative at the conference,
operation onclean technology", as well as "forest Jayanthi Natarajan stated that India "will never be
protection, adaptation to climate impacts, and intimidated by any threat or pressure". Natarajan
finance – the promised transfer of funds from rich responded to European Union Climate
countries to poor in order to help them protect CommissionerConnie Hedegaard, saying that:
forests, adapt to climate impacts, and "green" their We have shown more flexibility than virtually
economies". any other country. But equity is the centrepiece, it
A month before the Conference began, the cannot be shifted. This is not about India. Does
BBC highlighted two contentious proposals which fighting climate change mean we have to give up
had been submitted – one by Russia, the other by on equity? We have agreed to protocol and legal
Papua New Guinea, both aiming to amend the instrument. What's the problem in having one more
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate option? India will never be intimidated by any threat
Change. Russia's proposal would bring about a or any kind of pressure. What's this legal instrument?
"periodic review" whereby countries currently How do I give a blank cheque? We're talking of
categorised as "poor" could be recategorised as livelihoods and sustainability here. I'm not accusing
"rich", and thus obliged to shoulder greater anybody, but there are efforts to shift the (climate)
obligations in the combat against climate change. problem to countries that have not contributed to
BBC Environment correspondent Richard Black it. If that is done, we're willing to reopen the entire
commented that the proposal would be "provocative Durban Package. We did not issue a threat. But are
and explosive, if Russia pushes it", because we being made into a scapegoat? Please don't hold
potentially affected countries, such as China and us hostage.
Brazil, would "push back very strongly". Papua New People's Republic of China
Guinea's proposal, submitted by Ambassador Kevin
Xie Zhenhua, head of the Chinese delegation,
Conrad with the support ofMexico, would introduce stated that the People's Republic of China was
a "last resort" mechanism to break any deadlocks in willing to make binding commitments to limited
climate change negotiations through a three-quarters greenhouse gases in 2020 if they appropriately took
majority vote, thus clarifying the decision-making into account historical contributions of greenhouse
process under the Convention. Describing the gases by developed countries such as the United

Current Affairs
States and European states and sustainable economic through international law, not national,
needs of developing countries such as China and voluntarism."
India. Christiana Figueres, executive secretary of the
Greenpeace UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
Greenpeace issued a statement calling on said: "I salute the countries who made this agreement.
conference participants to ensure a peak in global They have all laid aside some cherished objectives
emissions by 2015, continue the Kyoto Protocol and of their own to meet a common purpose, a long-
provide a mandate for a comprehensive legally term solution to climate change." Kumi Naidoo of
binding instrument, deliver climate finance and set Greenpeace International said: "Right now the global
up a framework for protecting forests in developing climate regime amounts to nothing more than a
countries. voluntary deal that's put off for a decade. This could
Durban Platform take us over the 2 °C threshold where we pass from
danger to potential catastrophe." U.S. Senator Jim
After two weeks of negotiations a deal was Inhofe, who opposes government energy regulations
reached only on the last day, Sunday 11 December, such as cap-and-trade and has called man-made
after a 60-hour marathon negotiation session. climate change a hoax, cheered what he called the
Negotiators agreed to be part of a legally binding setting aside of "any remote possibility of a UN global
treaty to address global warming. The terms of the warming treaty" and described the conference
future treaty are to be defined by 2015 and become outcome as "the complete collapse of the global
effective in 2020. The agreement, referred to as the warming movement and the failure of the Kyoto
"Durban platform", is notable in that for the first process". Inhofe said that the message from
time it includes developing countries such as China Washington, including from President Obama and
and India, as well as the US which refused to sign the Democratic leadership of the U.S. Senate, to the
the Kyoto Protocol. The agreement entails the delegates of the conference was that they are being
continuation of the Kyoto protocol in the interim, ignored. German media criticised the outcome as
although only some countries including members of "almost useless", saying the pledges are vague and
the EU are likely to commit. the timeline is slow, the main merit being that the
Green fund talks have been kept alive.
The conference led to progress regarding the
creation of a Green Climate Fund for which a 2010 UNITED NATIONS CLIMATE CHANGE
management framework was adopted. The fund is CONFERENCE
to distribute US$100bn per year to help poor
countries adapt to climate impacts. The 2010 United Nations Climate Change
Responses Conference was held in Cancún, Mexico, from 29
After the con1ference concluded, Michael November to 10 December 2010. The conference
Jacobs of the Grantham Research Institute on is officially referred to as the 16th session of the
Climate Change and the Environment in London, Conference of the Parties (COP 16) to the United
said: "The agreement here has not in itself taken us Nations Framework Convention on Climate
off the 4 °C path we are on... But by forcing Change(UNFCCC) and the 6th session of the
countries for the first time to admit that their current Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of
policies are inadequate and must be strengthened by the Parties (CMP 6) to the Kyoto Protocol. In
2015, it has snatched 2 °C from the jaws of addition, the two permanent subsidiary bodies of the
impossibility. At the same time it has re-established UNFCCC – the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and
the principle that climate change should be tackled Technological Advice (SBSTA) and the Subsidiary

Body for Implementation (SBI)– held their 33rd The outcome of the summit was an agreement
sessions. The 2009 United Nations Climate Change adopted by the states' parties that called for a large
Conference extended the mandates of the two "Green Climate Fund", and a "Climate Technology
temporary subsidiary bodies, the Ad Hoc Working Centre" and network. It looked forward to a second
Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol.
under the Kyoto Protocol (AWG-KP) and the Ad Hoc The agreement recognizes that climate change
Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action
represents an urgent and potentially irreversible threat
under the Convention (AWG-LCA), and they met as
well. to human societies and the planet, which needs to
be urgently addressed by all Parties. It affirms that
Background climate change is one of the greatest challenges of
Following the non-binding Copenhagen our time and that all Parties must share a vision for
Accord put forth in 2009, international expectations long-term cooperative action in order to achieve the
for the COP16 conference were reduced. Four objective of the Convention, including through
preparatory rounds of negotiations (i.e. sessions of achievement of a global goal. It recognizes that
the AWG-KP and the AWG-LCA) were held during warming of the climate system is scientifically based
2010. The first three of these were in Bonn, Germany, and that most of the observed increase in global
from 9 to 11 April, 1 to 11 June (in conjunction with average temperatures since the mid twentieth century
the 32nd sessions of SBSTA and SBI), and 2 to 6
are very likely due to the observed increase in
August. The Bonn talks were reported as ending in
failure. The fourth round of talks in Tianjin, China, anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations, as
made minimal progress and was marked by a clash assessed by the IPCC in its Fourth Assessment Report.
between the US and China. The Ambo declaration The agreement further recognizes that deep
was adopted at the Tarawa Climate Change cuts in global greenhouse gas emissions are required,
Conference on the 10th November 2010 by with a view to reducing global greenhouse gas
Australia, Brazil, China, Cuba, Fiji, Japan, Kiribati, emissions so as to hold the increase in global average
Maldives, Marshall Islands, New Zealand, Solomon temperature below 2°C above pre-industrial levels,
Islands and Tonga. It calls for more and immediate and that Parties should take urgent action to meet
action, and was slated to be presented at COP 16. this long-term goal, consistent with science and on
Expectations the basis of equity; and recognizes the need to
consider, in the context of the first review,
In August 2010, Ban Ki-moon stated that he
strengthening in relation to a global average
doubted whether member states would reach a
"globally agreed, comprehensive deal," suggesting temperature rise of 1.5°C. The agreement also notes
instead that incremental steps might come. After the that addressing climate change requires a paradigm
Tianjin talks in October Christiana Figueres, shift towards building a low-carbon society.
executive secretary of the UN Framework The agreement calls on rich countries to
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), said, reduce their greenhouse gas emissions as pledged in
"This week has got us closer to a structured set of the Copenhagen Accord, and for developing
decisions that can be agreed in Cancun ... This is countries to plan to reduce their emissions.
the greatest societal and economic transformation The agreement includes a "Green Climate
that the world has ever seen." Other commentators Fund," proposed to be worth $100 billion a year by
spoke of a positive spirit of negotiation and of paving 2020, to assist poorer countries in financing
the way for agreement in Cancun. emission reductions and adaptation. There was no
Outcome agreement on how to extend the Kyoto Protocol, or
how the $100 billion a year for the Green Climate

Current Affairs
Fund will be raised, or whether developing countries international support and to facilitate matching
should have binding emissions reductions or whether of finance, technology and capacity-building
rich countries would have to reduce emissions first. support to these actions. Once support has
Reuters Environment Correspondent Alister Doyle been provided they are called internationally
reported that to most delegates, though they approved supported mitigation actions (ISMAs), that
it, the agreement “fell woefully short of action will be subject to international measurement,
needed.” The New York Times described the reporting and verification.
agreement as being both a "major step forward" given
that international negotiations had stumbled in
Finance
recent years, and as being "fairly modest" as it did It takes note of the collective commitment by
not require the changes that scientists say are needed developed countries to provide new and additional
to avoid dangerous climate change. John Vidal, resources, including forestry and investments through
writing in The Guardian, criticised the Cancun international institutions, approaching USD 30
agreements for not providing leadership, for not billion for the period 2010–-2012 and recognizes
specifying how the proposed climate fund will be that developed country Parties commit, in the
financed, and for not stating that countries had to context of meaningful mitigation actions and
"peak" their emissions within 10 years and then
transparency on implementation, to a goal of
rapidly reduce them for there to be any chance to
avert warming. Also criticised were the deferral of mobilizing jointly USD 100 billion per year by 2020
decisions on the legal form of and level of emission to address the needs of developing countries.
reductions required. TECHNOLOGY
Adaptation In technology development and transfer,
It decides to establish the Cancun Adaptation decides to establish a Technology Mechanism,
Framework and the Adaptation Committee, invites which will consist of a Technology Executive
Parties to strengthen and, where necessary, establish
Committee and a Climate Technology Centre and
regional adaptation centres and networks and notes
that an international centre to enhance adaptation Network. The Climate Technology Centre and
research and coordination could also be established Network and the Technology Executive Committee
in a developing country. shall relate so as to promote coherence and synergy.
Mitigation The Technology Executive Committee shall further
• Developed countries should submit annual implement the framework of the Convention
greenhouse gas inventories and inventory (technology transfer framework) and Committee
reports and biennial reports on their progress. shall comprise 20 expert members. The Climate
• Agrees that developing country Parties will Technology Centre shall facilitate a Network of
take nationally appropriate mitigation actions national, regional, sectoral and international
in the context of sustainable development, technology networks, organizations and initiatives
supported and enabled by technology, Capacity-building
financing and capacity-building, aimed at It reaffirms that capacity-building is essential
achieving a deviation in emissions relative to to enable developing country Parties to participate
"business as usual" emissions in 2020. It fully in addressing the climate change challenges,
decides to set up a registry to record nationally and to implement effectively their commitments
appropriate mitigation actions seeking under the Convention.

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Current Affairs News for UPSC, IAS, Govt Exams:

12, 2006 at the Partnership's inaugural Ministerial

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Support energy-intensive sectors and activities. The

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• Participation of Indigenous peoples and Forest- REDD-Plus

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benefit from the possibility of using

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Principle 16 technologies should be made available to

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Principle 25 whose sole purpose was to raise awareness of the

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Events Before Brundtland Resolution establishing the Commission

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growth. Twelve cities were also honoured by the PRINCIPLE 3

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PRINCIPLE 9 or global environmental problems should, as far as

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likely to produce sudden harmful effects on the PRINCIPLE 26

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28. Local Authorities organizations to support training in the

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Cost of implementation: $20 million. Cost of implementation: $561.5 billion per

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and the project-based mechanisms is that IET is • United Kingdom:

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