Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Pollution
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol

Legislation to limit the environmental plastic and microplastic pollution

and their influence on human exposure☆
Ilaria Conti a, Carolina Simioni b, c, Gabriele Varano a, Cinzia Brenna a, Eva Costanzi a,
Luca Maria Neri a, c, *
a
Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
b
Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Ferrara, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
c
LTTA – Electron Microscopy Center, University of Ferrara, 44121, Ferrara, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Plastic pollution is an emerging problem and is a consequence of the post-consumer plastic waste accumulation
Plastic in the environment coupled to mismanaged waste programmes. Countries are counteracting the continuous
Microplastic growth of plastic litter with different strategies: introducing bans and limits on both plastic items and materials,
Additives
promoting plastic recycling and recovery strategies and encouraging voluntary clean up actions, as well as
Environmental pollutants
raising public awareness. However, the toxicity of plastics to the environment and organisms is not only related
Legislation
Seafood consumption to their polymer chains, but also to the fact that plastic materials contain hazardous additives and can adsorb
Human health environmental pollutants (i.e. heavy metals and persistent organic contaminants, respectively). The plastic/
additives/pollutants combination may be ingested by marine organisms and then enter in the food chain.
Therefore, legislation for additives and contaminants is crucial both to reduce environmental pollution and their
toxic effects on organisms, which of course includes humans. In this review, the current policies on plastics and
related contaminants are described focusing on current laws. Moreover, recommendations for seafood con­
sumption are suggested, since each fish or mollusc eaten may potentially result in plastic particles, additives or
contaminants ingestion.

1. Introduction corresponding to 30% of the entire world production (PlasticsEurope,

Plastic is an essential material highly integrated in peoples’ lives.
From industry to health care, each human activity involves the use of at
least one plastic object or a part of it (Rodrigues et al., 2019). Following
the production of the first semisynthetic plastic material at the end of the
XIX century (Alexander Parkes patented Parkesine also known as Xylonite
in 1861), several plastics were developed and became commercially
successful thanks to their numerous advantages (Corepla, 2020). Poly­
vinyl Chloride (PVC), Cellophane, Polyammide (PA; such as nylon),
Polyethylene (PE) and Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) are wide­
spread due to their easy production, cheapness and adaptability to
several life activities (CCME, 2019). In 2018, plastics production
reached 359 million tons in the world, of which 61.8 million tons were
produced in Europe. Indeed, Asia was responsible for about half of the
global plastic production (51%) with China’s contribution
2019).
The anthropocene is the era dominated by humans and plastic may
be identified as its distinctive geological indicator, due to the abundance
of plastic objects, debris and waste from the land to seafloors (Zalasie­
wicz et al., 2016). Some plastics have a lifespan of less than 1 year
whereas other have a service life of 50 years or more (PlasticsEurope,
2019). The global analysis of all manufactured plastics in 2015 showed a
dramatic situation: 79% of plastic was accumulated in landfills or in
natural environment, 12% was incinerated and only 9% was recycled
(Geyer et al., 2017). “Conversion Market & Strategy GmbH” evaluated
that, in Europe during the 2018, only 32.5% (average between 81%
within Europe and 19% outside Europe) of 29.1 million tons of
post-consumer waste plastic collected was recycled, and 42.6% was used
as energy recovery, while the remaining 24.9% was accumulated in
landfills. However, countries worldwide are developing policies against

This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Eddy Y. Zeng - © 2021 Elsevier Ltd.
☆

* Corresponding author. Department of Translational Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121, Ferrara, Italy.
E-mail addresses: ilaria.conti@unife.it (I. Conti), carolina.simioni@unife.it (C. Simioni), gabriele.varano@unife.it (G. Varano), cinzia.brenna@unife.it (C. Brenna),
eva.costanzi@unife.it (E. Costanzi), luca.neri@unife.it (L.M. Neri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117708
Received 8 January 2021; Received in revised form 30 June 2021; Accepted 1 July 2021
Available online 4 July 2021
0269-7491/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I. Conti et al.
plastic pollution, introducing regulations and recycling strategies.
Moreover, awareness is increasing to limit the environmental damage
due to plastic. For example, improperly disposed plastics can cross-link
with other pollutants and, through dietary accidental ingestion, poten­
tially extend to humans.
This review aims to focus on three major points: i) the existence of a
set of laws, regulations and actions to limit plastic use in order to
struggle the plastic environmental pollution; ii) analyse the character­
istics of plastic toxic components and contaminants, that may be spread
with different concentrations in the environment, reaching different
biota levels up to humans; iii) describe the putative hazardousness for
human health deriving from plastic contamination, with the dietary
example of seafood.
2. Physical and chemical characteristics of plastics
Plastics have brought to human life great advantages, including
safety, hygiene, comfort and wellbeing, although nowadays, plastic is
emerging as a huge problem due to its impact on environment and po­
tential damage to wildlife (Wright and Kelly, 2017). This material re­
quires a long time to totally degrade which, combined with the
single-use nature of the majority of plastic objects, results in
increasing pollution of atmosphere, soil and water due to plastics and
their fragments (Barnes et al., 2009, n.d.; Galafassi et al., 2019). Plastic
debris have been found in seafood (e.g. fish and shellfish), honey, sugar
(Liebezeit and Liebezeit, 2014, 2013), sea salt (Yang et al., 2015) and
bottled mineral water (Zuccarello et al., 2019). The embrittlement of
material into smaller particles is mainly caused by photo-oxidation from
oxygen reactive species and ultraviolet (UV) exposition that break the
chemical bonds of the plastic polymer chains (Andrady, 2011), as well as
mechanical stress and biotic fragmentation (Galafassi et al., 2019).
Altogether, friction of plastic products, transport in rivers, waves, wind
and bacteria action crumble larger plastic objects (Galafassi et al., 2019;
Lucas et al., 2008; Zhang et al., 2019a). Moreover, plastic microbeads
are voluntarily produced by humans for everyday life, and are contained
within several personal care products (e.g. scrub, toothpaste, shampoo,
deodorants, etc.) and pharmaceutical treatments (i.e. microbeads as
carriers of chemical compounds) contributing to the world plastic
pollution (Conkle et al., 2018; UNEP, 2015). Commonly, plastic objects
and their derived debris are easily transported by rivers, rainwaters, and
wind from the beaches and lands into the seas and oceans (Galafassi
et al., 2019), where they can be ingested by fish and other animals (e.g.
molluscs, birds and reptiles) then entering the food chain and eventually
arriving in humans, thus raising the issue of their biological effects
(Koelmans et al., 2016). A recent study evaluated the presence of up to 7
types of plastic particles and fibres within human stools (Schwabl et al.,
2019) and very recently, 12 plastic fragments with different shapes were
identified and characterized in human placentas raising concern for
foetus development (Ragusa et al., 2021).
MPs and NPs. Based on their dimensions, plastic debris are classified
as large fragments (>5 mm), named meso- or macro-plastics (meso­
plastics: 5–25 mm and macroplastics: >25 mm), and small particles (<5
mm), commonly termed as Microplastics (MPs) (Arthur et al., 2009a,b;
Blettler et al., 2017; Thompson et al., 2009). MPs are sub-grouped into
“small” and “large” items, whether their diameter is less than 1 mm or
from 1 to 5 mm, respectively (according to the “European MSFD Tech­
nical Subgroup on Marine Litter [Marine Strategy Framework Direc­
tive]”) (Galgani et al., 2013). Plastic particles with two dimensions in
the nanoscale (1–100 nm) are defined Nanoplastics (NPs) (Mattsson
et al., 2015). Moreover, MPs can be further distinguished as primary
MPs if they are produced intentionally by human (e.g. MPs in paints and
toothpastes), or secondary MPs when they result from biotic and abiotic
degradation processes of larger objects (Duis and Coors, 2016). Whereas
large objects can entangle birds, turtles, mammals, (such as dolphins),
small fragments can be swallowed by animals causing physical damage,
suffocation and death (Byard et al., 2020; Yong et al., 2020).
2
Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708
Dimension is not the only reason for plastic toxicity. Plastic mono­
mers and oligomers, resulting from incomplete polymerization reactions
and additives, commonly used for plastic production (i.e. solvents, cat­
alysts, antioxidants, plasticizers, elastomers), increase the contaminant
and toxic potential of plastics ((Rodrigues et al., 2019)). Metals (e.g.
Barium, Zinc [Zn], plasticizers (e.g. phthalates), solvents (e.g. benzene)
and the other additives, are not bound to the plastic polymer chains and
can be released in the environment (Crompton, 2007; Qian et al.,
2018b). Furthermore, plastic particles can adsorb environmental pol­
lutants such as metals, pesticides (e.g. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
[DDT]), antibiotics, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) (Ashton et al., 2010; Li et al., 2018).
Studies have reported the toxicity of environmental pollutants
adsorbed by plastics, based on the type of adsorbed molecules. For
example, the mortality and the altered development induced by gold
(Au) ions on Zebrafish larvae is increased in the presence of Polystyrene
(PS) nanoparticles, in a size and dose-dependent manner (Lee et al.,
2019). Vacuolization, expression of genes for detoxification (i.e. cyto­
chrome P450 1A1 enzyme [cyp1a1]) and response towards oxidative
stress (i.e. peroxideroxin 1 [prdx1] and glutathione s-transferase pi 1
[gstp1]) were observed within the liver of Zebrafish fed with
PCBs-adsorbed Low Density-Polyethylene (LD-PE) (Rainieri et al.,
2018). Furthermore, PS nanoparticles can adsorb an environmental
mixture of 36 PAHs modulating their toxicity on Zebrafish larvae (Tre­
visan et al., 2019).
A large body of laws has been developed by countries to reduce both
the use of toxic compounds for plastic production and environmental
contaminants, as well as improving the decrease of plastic use (Lam
et al., 2018; Qian et al., 2018a), to limit plastic-related pollution and
prevent its negative effects on the environment and therefore on
humans.
3. Policies about plastics
3.1. Legislation about plastics use and production
Regulations of plastics manufacturing and use, as well as subsidies to
promote their recycling, are increasing worldwide. In the United States
of America (U.S.), at least 471 local bag ordinances have been adopted in
28 states introducing 95 bills in 2019 with the aim to totally ban plastic
bags and to improve bag recycling (Laws, 2019). Eight American states
have banned single-use plastic bags starting from Hawaii in 2011, fol­
lowed by California (year 2014; the first American state to introduce an
uniform state-wide ban), New York and other five states in 2019 (Con­
necticut, Delaware, Maine, Oregon and Vermont) (NCSL, 2020). In other
U.S. states, fees (ranging from $0.05 to $1.00) have been imposed on the
basis of the thickness of the bag, such as, over 1.5 mil thick (0.04 mm) or
under 2.5–3.0 – 4.0 mil (0.06–0.08 – 0.10 mm, respectively) (CAW,
2019). Other than plastic bags, PS use has been banned in the city of
Hastings-on-Hudson (New York state) since 2014 and, a restriction on
single-use straws and PS containers has been placed in Vermont since
2019 (NCSL, 2020). Maine was the first state to introduce legislation
requiring recycling efforts at retail stores (year 1991), followed by
California, Delaware, New York and Rhode Island (NCSL, 2020).
In 2018, the governments of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, the
United Kingdom (UK) and the European Union (EU) signed the “Ocean
Plastic Charter” during the G7 reunion with the aim to prevent plastic
waste and unnecessary use of single-use plastics and to promote recy­
cling and research of plastic alternatives. In particular, by adopting
specific policies and working with industries, they aimed to reach: i)
100% recyclable or recoverable plastics by 2030; ii) at least 50% of
recycled content in plastic items by 2030; iii) at least 55% of recycled
packaging by 2030 and 100% of all plastic recovery by 2040; iv)
reduction in the use of plastic microbeads. Moreover, the Charter en­
courages campaigns of sensitization toward marine litter, through the
collection of data pollution and debris removal (Consillium, 2018). Later
I. Conti et al.
on, Canada approved the “Canada-wide action plan on zero plastic
waste”, since only 9% of all plastic was recycled in Canada and about 10,
000 metric tons of plastic (e.g. microbeads, clothing fibres, plastic bags,
bottles, straws) were estimated to enter the Great Lakes each year. The
plan consisted of two phases: the first one focuses on product design,
single-use plastics and recycling capacity, while the second phase aims
to prevent plastic pollution in oceans, lakes and waterways and promote
monitoring and cleaning actions (CCME, 2019).
In 2019, the EU approved the 2019/904 directive to limit the use of
certain plastic objects (single-use plastic objects such as dishes, forks,
knives, spoons and straws, but also balloons and balloon sticks and
cotton swabs) to reduce especially the marine pollution (EU directive
2019/904). Starting from 2021, every EU state will apply this directive;
for example, committing to recover at least 90% of plastic bottles.
Moreover, the directive sustains the technological development of waste
treatments, recycling, and the research of plastic alternatives, improving
the so called “circular economy”. Finally, it introduces the concept of
“responsibility of the manufacturer” applying fees on plastic manufac­
turers, and promotes campaigns for the public awareness concerning
plastic use (Law, 2019). However, this directive lacks does not apply to
plastic bags, that are instead pursued spontaneously by supermarket and
retailers of the single EU countries (Germany, Ireland, Norway,
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and UK) (Ayalon et al., 2009;
Commission, 2013; Luis and Spinola, 2010; Poortinga et al., 2013). The
introduction of a mandatory fee per plastic bag resulted in a reduction of
their consumption by up to 80% in Greece (€ 0.07 per bag) and more
than 90% in Portugal and Ireland (€0.10 and €0.22 per bag, respec­
tively) (Agency, 2019; Convery et al., 2007). Introduced in 1997, the
Danish Packaging Tax reduced by 70% the use of plastic materials by
charging for a wide variety of packaging materials (such as containers
for detergents or pet foods) but also including carrier bags (ECOTEC,
2001).
The introduction of fees or bans to reduce plastic consumption has
been a strategy adopted also by African and Asian countries. In
Bangladesh, a ban on LD-PE bags has been applied since 2002, while
Kenya limited the use, manufacture and import of plastic bags by
introducing a 38,000 USD fine and a punishment of up to 4 years in
prison (Mourshed et al., 2017; Rayne, 2008). Surprisingly, in South
Africa, the total ban on plastics <30 μm thick and the introduction of a
fee on bags >30 μm thick failed in the reduction of plastic bag con­
sumption (2002) (Dikgang and Visser 2012). Nevertheless, the Depart­
ment of Environmental Affairs of South Africa proposed a new
regulation to limit the plastic bag consumption based on their thickness
and to improve the recycling policy (Environmental Affairs, 2017).
Recently, the Delhi Pollution Control Committee has approved the ban
on plastics measuring less than 50 μm in the Indian capital, but not
single-use plastics (Hindustantimes, 2019).
A comprehensive study programme on PVC and its related effects on
human health and environment was undertaken by the European
Commission in 1999–2000, since, during the last decades, the point of
view of EU states on the use of PVC has been controversial (Commission,
2019). The results of the study, including technical and economic
judgements, were collected within the “Green Paper” and allowed spe­
cific aspects of the PVC life cycle to be restricted. (Commission-Envir­
onment, 2000). In 2018, the European Commission approved the
restriction of plastic materials (e.g. PVC, Polyvinylidene Chloride
[PVDC], Polyvinyl Acetate [PVA] and Polyurethanes [PUs]) containing
phthalates in concentrations equal to or higher than 0.1% by weight
(Law, 2018).
MPs. Because of the recent concern, limitations and bans have been
expanded to the small particles. The Government of the Netherlands has
banned microbeads in personal care products such as soaps, toothpastes,
scrubs and gels, since 2015 (Fela, 2014). Microbeads in cosmetic prod­
ucts have been prohibited since 2018 in the U.S. applying the
“Microbead-Free Water Act 2015”(H. R., 1321, 2015). Furthermore, the
“Ocean Plastic Charter” aimed to reduce by 2020 the use of plastic
3
Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708
microbeads in cosmetic and personal care products in the subscribing
countries (Consillium, 2018). Italy has been the first European country
to carry out the Charter banning plastic microbeads in some cosmetics
(excluding soaps and detergents) (Ministero dell’Ambiente, 2018a).
From 2018 the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) planned to limit
MPs, defined as solid polymers (particles and fibres) in commonly used
products. The proposal forbids items containing more than 1% w/w of
solid particles with a size range from 0.1 μm to 5 mm or more than 1%
w/w of solid fibres with a length from 0.3 μm to 15 mm. Moreover, the
plan excludes biodegradable, natural and soluble polymers (ECHA,
2020). However, this proposal has generated doubts regarding its effi­
cacy. Currently, it aims to reduce mainly cosmetic beads and agriculture
particles, disregarding the sources of secondary MPs (e.g. waste frag­
mentation and textile and tire wear) (Mitrano and Wohlleben, 2020).
Secondary MPs are difficult to regulate due to their tricky fate predic­
tion, although a correct and controlled waste management, as well as
use of alternatives materials (e.g. biodegradable plastics) could prevent
MPs generation.
3.2. Alternative strategies
The reduction of plastic pollution can be attempted by: i) recycling;
ii) energy recovery, iii) export to other countries and use of plastic al­
ternatives (PlasticsEurope, 2019; Rhodes, 2018). China was the main
market for the worldwide plastic post-consumer waste, where the
re-processing of plastic waste has been increasing since 2008 due to the
low waste quality requirement of the Chinese buyers (Brulliard et al.,
2012). However since 2017, a ban on plastic imports has been applied in
China which has had the effect of reducing plastic imports by 95% (Wen
et al., 2021). Different countries have introduced policies to reduce and
limit the export of plastic waste, implementing recycling and recovery
processes (PlasticsEurope, 2019).
Oxo-biodegradable plastics (oxo-plastics) and bioplastics have been
developed as plastic alternatives, but their use is still controversial. Oxo-
plastics are made of conventional plastics (e.g. PE, PET, Polypropylene
[PP] and PS) and metal catalysts (e.g. Iron [Fe], Cobalt [Co], Manganese
[Mn]) that cause the oxidation of the polymer chains for further
biodegradation (Rhodes, 2018). Evidence has revealed that the
oxo-plastics are not fully biodegradable, but rather are fragmented in
MPs hence increasing the pollution. The European Commission have
therefore banned their use (“The European Strategy for plastics in Cir­
cular economy”) (Europe, 2018). Bioplastics are generated from the
biomass of plants (1st generations: biomass used as food; 2nd genera­
tion: biomass not used as food) and biomass of algae (3rd generation).
However, many bioplastics may not be totally degraded without in­
dustrial facilities and the sustainability of their production is still under
discussion (Rhodes, 2018).
The promotion of recycling and its technological innovation have
been adopted from different institutions in order to both reduce the
plastic release in landfills and seas and improve the economy. For
example, the American clothing brand Patagonia is actively involved in
the fight against environmental pollution: 70% of its products are made
from recycled materials, including plastic bottles (UNEP, 2019a).
Following the 3Rs principle (Reuse, Recycle, Recover) several programs
have been adopted by different countries (Agamuthu et al., 2019). The
“European Strategy for Plastics in Circular economy”, the Indian “Plastic
Waste Management Rules” and the American “Marine Debris Act” and
“Save our Seas Act” of 2018 aim to increase recycling and, at the same
time, to reduce the macro- and micro-plastic waste in sea (Europe, 2018;
marinedebris.noaa, 2018; Moharir and Kumar, 2019). In Italy, the
recently approved directive “Save the Sea (Salva Mare)” allows fisher­
men to collect waste (including plastics) from the sea and bring them to
the coast for recycling (Ministero dell’Ambiente, 2019). Since over half
of the land-based plastic pollution in the oceans originates from just
five-countries, four of which are in South-East Asia, in 2019 the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Coordinating Body of
I. Conti et al.
the Seas of East Asia (COBSEA) have developed the initiative “SEA
Circular campaign” to inspire market-based solutions and encourage
enabling policies to solve marine plastic pollution at source in
South-East Asia (www.sos2019.sea-circular.org). However, the presence
of different types of mixed plastics containing several kinds of additives
hampers plastic reprocessing and recovery (Hopewell et al., 2009; Kutz,
2011).
Finally, energy recovery can counteract the plastic waste accumu­
lation through the litter incineration for energy production (Hopewell
et al., 2009). The U.S. incinerated 16% of more than 35 million tons of
manufactured plastic in 2017, whereas Europe recovered energy from
the 42.6% of 29.1 million tons of post-consumer plastic waste in 2018
(EPA, 2017; PlasticsEurope, 2019). The liquid fuel obtained by pyrolysis
reaction has a high calorific value (Sharuddin et al., 2017); however this
conversion may result in the emission of toxic atmospheric pollutants
(including dioxins, PAHs, and CO2) and other contaminants such as
metals (North E. J., 2014).
4. Legislation about additives and monomers
Plasticizers, catalysts, initiators, solvents, diluents, elastomers, sta­
bilisers (i.e. metal-, heat- and light stabilisers) and antioxidants are
added to the plastic polymer chains ensuring a high reaction yield and
stability of the output (Hahladakis et al., 2018). The type of additives
differs among the several plastics and within them: PVC requires the
highest number of additives, followed by PE, PP and PS (M. O. Rodrigues
et al., 2019). Since additives are not bound to the polymer chains, they
can potentially diffuse into the plastic matrix, migrate to the plastic
surface and be released into the surrounding environment (Hahladakis
et al., 2018). The diffusion of additives is an unwanted process which
could negatively affect exposed substances, such as food (Hahladakis
et al., 2018). About 100 compounds have been identified in 120
food-contact plastic products (e.g. bottles, bags), including phthalates
(plasticizers) (Qian et al., 2018a). Several plastics additives are known
as medium-high environmental and human hazardous compounds and
their use is already regulated. On the other hand, additives recognized as
low dangerous are neither classified nor limited (Groh et al., 2019).
Plasticizers represent 40% of plastic weight and are used to make the
materials more malleable and flexible (ATSDR, 2002). Great concern has
been addressed to “Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals” (EDC), such as
Bisphenols A and S (BPA, BPS) and phthalates, since evidence has shown
they can be released from the plastic materials. For example, BPA and
BPS monomers can diffuse from the plastic materials (i.e. food con­
tainers and water bottles) to food and water after heat exposition
(Thoene et al., 2020). Traces of BPS and BPA were found respectively in
81% and 97% of urine samples of Americans and Asians (Liao et al.,
2012). During the last decade, the EU, Canada, China and U.S. states
have banned BPA in food containers (i.e. bottles) for infants and children
(Act, 2010; CCEC, 2011; NCSL, 2015; Union, 2018). On the other hand,
the use of BPS is not regulated although studies have shown an
endocrine-disrupting action comparable to BPA (Rochester and Bolden,
2015).
Phthalates are plasticizers which are necessary for PVC production
(Saal et al., 2008). Several compounds belong to this category and can
be classified as high (e.g. Benzyl Butyl Phthalate [BBP] and Di
(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate [DEHP]) and low molecular weight (e.g.
Dibutyl Phthalate [DBP] and DiisoButyl Phthalate [DIBP]) groups based
on their chemical properties (i.e. length and functional groups) (Gon­
sioroski et al., 2020). Phthalates are not chemically bound to the plastic
matrix; therefore, they can easily migrate outside and diffuse in the
environment (Kastner et al., 2012). Bans on the use of phthalates in
children’s toys have been applied in Canada, U.S. and EU (CIPSIA, 2008;
Erythropel et al., 2014; HPA, 2010; Law, 2005) Furthermore, the EU
have restricted the use of 4 phthalates (DEHP, DBP, BBP and DIBP) at a
concentrations of less than 0.1% by weight in plastic materials focusing
on PVC, PVDC, PVA and PUs, due to their potential toxic effect on
4
Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708
human health (Law, 2018).
As regards other recognized cancerogenic additives, limitations are
established differently by different countries, particularly regarding
environment pollution and occupational exposure. The World Health
Organization (WHO) suggests guidelines for proper use of benzene and
Cadmium (Cd) to limit their diffusion: 0.01 mg/L and 0.003 mg/L as
maximum concentrations of benzene and Cd in drinking water, respec­
tively (WHO, 2011, 2010). In U.S., the threshold of 5 ppb (parts per
billion) is defined as the maximum level of benzene in drinking water
and the threshold of 0.1 ppm limits the maximum 8-h exposure for
workers (ATSDR, 2007). The occupational limit of benzene is fixed at 1
ppm by the National Occupational Health and Safety Commission in
Australia (EPHC, 2003). In Europe, benzene is banned at a concentration
of more than 0.1% by weight as a component of materials and at a
concentration of more than 0.0005% by weight in toys (Law, 2009).
Since 2007, 24 American states (such as California, New York, Ohio)
have limited the use/possession/sale of several inhalant substances,
including toluene and benzene, in healthcare products and other objects
(e.g. glue) (S. S, 2009). Toluene use is permitted in Europe only as a
component of materials at a concentration lower than 0.1% by weight
(Law, 2009). Finally, a ban on plastics painted with or containing Cd at
concentrations of more than 0.01% by weight (e.g. PVC, PE, PP) has
been in force in Europe since 2009 (Law, 2009).
Limitations and bans on use of additives in materials, such as plastics,
are defined in Europe by the REACH (Registration, Evaluation,
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) regulation (Law, 2009).
REACH contains the restrictions, the fees, the application areas and the
related risks of several compounds, in order to protect human health and
environment (www.echa.europa.eu/it/regulations/reach/understandi
ng-reach). The “Chemical Management Plan” (CMP) of the Canadian
Government (www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/chemical-su
bstances/chemicals-management-plan.html) serves a similar purpose
as does the “Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) Modernization Act of
2015” of the U.S. EPA (www.congress.gov/bill/114th-congress/house-
bill/2576).
Furthermore, since the recent concern in the migration of plastic
additives to food, several countries have established regulations for food
packaging (Groh et al., 2019; Qian et al., 2018a). The Indian “Food
Safety and Standards (Packaging) Regulation, 2018”, the Chinese
“GB9685-2016” law and the European Regulation “EU No 10/2011”
selected the allowed plastic materials and additives, together with their
maximum and specific migration limits to food, and suggest packaging
solutions (e.g. PET bottles with PP or High-Density Polyethylene
([HD-PE] caps as packaging for milk) (China, 2016; India, 2018; Law,
2011).
Although they are not really additives, monomers are components of
plastic polymer chains resulting as a surplus of the polymerization re­
action, and they can be released as a consequence of plastic degradation.
Just like the polymers, the monomers can be distinguished as low, me­
dium and high hazard independently from the respective plastic mate­
rials (European Parliament and Council, 2008). In a study, the migration
of distyrene and tristyrene (styrene oligomers) from 180 PS packaging
materials to 30 food simulants and 100 food items was evaluated. The
highest migration of styrene oligomers resulted from the PS materials of
tray/pot/tub/cup, and 90% of fish/fish products/mollusc­
s/crustaceans/echinoderms analysed were recognized as drivers of
oligomers exposure compared to dairy products (i.e. less than 1% of
analysed dairy products contained distyrene and tristyrene) (Gelbke
et al., 2019). However, the exact amounts of monomers released from
plastic is not easily evaluated due to the variability of both the yield of
polymerization reactions and the plastic fragmentation processes.
However, guideline values of 0.0003 mg/L and 0.02 mg/L have been
defined by WHO for vinyl chloride and styrene, respectively. More
restrictive concentrations have been suggested in drinking water: up to
1 μg/L and 10 μg/L for styrene monomer and vinyl chloride, respectively
(WHO, 2011).
I. Conti et al.
5. Legislation about environmental contaminants adsorbed to
MPs
As well as the migration and the diffusion of additives from the
plastic materials to the surface and release to the environment, it is also
possible to observe the reverse process, i.e. the adsorption of compounds
on MPs and NPs (Gallo et al., 2018). Heavy metals (e.g. Al, Cu, Zn, Pb
and Ag) and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), such as PCBs, PAHs
and DDT are adsorbed on plastic surfaces concentrating themselves and
increasing their potential toxic effects on biota (J. P. Rodrigues et al.,
2019). For example, the benzo(a)pyrene, (a PAH) can be transferred and
accumulated both in the gills of adults Zebrafish and in the fatty tissue of
fish embryos treated with benzo(a)pyrene-coated MPs (Batel et al.,
2018). The adsorption process of Hydrophobic Organic Compounds
(HOCs) on plastic surfaces depends both on age and type of plastic
(polymer composition and structure), and by environmental factors such
as temperature, pressure, solar irradiation and water salinity (Gallo
et al., 2018). Expanded PS has shown a greater dioxin-like chemical
adsorption in comparison to other plastics, probably due to the presence
of additives and to the higher adsorption capability (Chen et al., 2019).
In the order, PS > PE > PP, there is an increasing general adsorption
strength of PAHs and PCBs from seawater onto plastics (Lee et al., 2014).
Moreover, the difference between MPs and NPs of the adsorption
capability may be related to the different available adsorption surface.
The larger surface-volume ratio of NPs, which can retain more POPs and
heavy metals in comparison to MPs, combined to its greater uptake by
membranes and tissues may potentially enhance the POPs/heavy metals
exposition of organisms (Velzeboer et al., 2014).
The hazardous potential role of plastics increases in the presence of
POPs and heavy metals, since they can transport the contaminants
following the water flow and protect the HOCs from the biodegradation
(Gallo et al., 2018). Indeed, the adsorbed contaminants can be released
back from the plastic surface to the environment (desorption) increasing
their accumulation into sediments and organisms (Teuten et al., 2007).
Reduction of the degradation of Phenanthrene (a PAH) by bacteria was
observed as a consequence of its sequestration by solid materials such as
plastics (i.e. Polycaprolactone [PCL] and PE) (Hatzinger and Alexander,
1997). The POPs-heavy metals/plastic complex can modulate the con­
taminants toxicity especially enhancing their dangerous effects on the
organisms, as previously described (Lee et al., 2019; Rainieri et al.,
2018; Yong et al., 2020). On the other hand, plastics can act also as
carriers of toxic microorganisms, such as toxic microalgae (Casabianca
Capellacci et al., 2019). Microbes may colonize the surface of plastic
debris (the biofilm is named “plastisphere”) altering the chemical
properties of the particles and changing their distribution and buoyant
capability (Caruso, 2019).
In addition to plastics, also the concentration and types of POPs and
heavy metals, combined with the exposure time, influence the adsorp­
tion process and the potential contaminants/plastic complex assembly.
Increasing sediment concentrations of Copper (Cu) and Zn have been
shown to induce DNA damage and mortality in Alitta virens worms in a
dose-dependent manner during the last decade along southern UK coasts
(Watson et al., 2018). The adsorption of metals increases with increasing
exposure time. The concentrations of Chromium (Cr), Mn, Co, Nickel
(Ni), Lead (Pb) and Zn increased on PET, PVC, LD-PE and PP debris over
a 12-months study period, in a time-dependent manner (Rochman et al.,
2014a).
Several countries have restricted the use of heavy metals and organic
contaminants to reduce environment pollution. Guideline values of the
maximum concentration of POPs and heavy metals in water have been
suggested by WHO to promote national and international policies that
reduce their ingestion, such as, [benzo(a)pyrene] = 0.0007 mg/L (some
POPs’ guideline values are described in Table S.1, supplementary ma­
terials) (WHO, 2011). The “Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants” is an international environmental agreement proposed in
2001, which aims to limit the POPs use and production: in 2019 it was
5
Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708
signed by 184 worldwide countries and the EU (United Nations, 2020).
The Stockholm Convention initially regulated 12 POPs [i) 8
organo-chloride pesticides (e.g. aldrin, DDT, toxaphene), ii) 2 industrial
chemicals (i.e. hexachlorobenzene and PCB) and iii) 2 groups of indus­
trial by-products (i.e. dioxins and furans)] with three strategies: A)
Elimination, B) Restriction and C) Unintentional Production (Europe,
2009). It was further extended to 28 POPs (ENB, 2019). In Europe,
different legislations have been adopted since 2004 to apply the Stock­
holm Convention, such as the REACH Regulation (2006), the Regulation
No 689/2008 forbidding to export 10 of the 12 listed POPs, Council
Directives 96/59/E and 2000/76/EC both limiting the PCBs use and
dioxins/furans emissions, respectively (Europe, 2009). For example, the
PAHs (e.g. benzo(a)pyrene) cannot be used at a concentration higher
than 0.0001% by weight to produce pneumatics (Law, 2009). In Canada,
the “Chemical Management Act” and the policies “Canadian Environ­
ment Protection Act 1999”, “Pest Control Product Act” and “Toxic
Substances Management policy” describe and regulate the chemical
substances (including POPs) in food, drugs, pesticides and products
(Environment and Climate Change, 2019). In China, the National Peo­
ple’s Congress approved several laws (e.g. “Law of Marine Environment
Protection” and “Laws of Prevention and Control of Atmospheric
Pollution”) and ordinances (e.g. “Regulations of Pesticide Labels and
Instructions Management”) to restrict and manage the POPs in the
environment (Zhao et al., 2019a). Other conventions that regulated
marine contaminants have been signed, such as i) the “Convention for
the Protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic”
(OSPAR Convention) approved by the states that overlook the
North-East Atlantic Ocean and which aims to reduce especially the
POPs, PAHs and Mercury (Hg) emissions (OSPAR, 2010) and the ii)
“Long-Range Transboundary Air pollution (LRTAP) signed by 51 parties
(e.g. Canada, U.S., EU) in 1979, to develop strategies to combat air
pollutants, including PAHs and dioxins (UNECE, 2011).
As regards heavy metals, the WHO suggest guideline values for their
content in water (see values described in Table S.1, supplementary
materials) (WHO, 2011). In Europe, the REACH regulation manages the
limits of As, Cd, Cr, Hg, Ni and Pb. In particular, a total ban on Hg and
Hg-containing products has been introduced in order to protect the
environment and human beings (Law, 2009). Currently, Hg is recog­
nized by WHO as one of the ten most dangerous chemicals for humans
because of its neurotoxic and immunotoxic effects (Bjorklund et al.,
2017). The use of other heavy metals (As, Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb) is only
limited (Law, 2009). In the U.S., both a ban on Hg use and the prohi­
bition of its export have been introduced in 2008 and 2013 respectively,
through the “Mercury Export Ban Act”. Moreover, the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) is collecting data to write guidelines to
prevent the contamination and take actions on food, cosmetics and di­
etary supplements contaminated by As, Cd, Hg and Pb (FDA, 2020). For
example, to reduce risks on infant health, such as cancer and neuro­
developmental effects, the FDA considers the concentration limit of 100
μg/kg for As in infant rice cereals (FDA, 2016).
The combination of the natural water, soil and air composition, the
geography (e.g. groundwater, river, sea), the weather and human habits
influence the contaminant concentration. The major source of human
exposure to environmental contaminants is water, followed by soil and
air, as evaluated in 3855 volunteers from six Chinese cities. Water
contributed for at least 76% of Hg, Cd, As, Pb and Cr ingestion, with
differences between urban and rural areas suggesting a multifactorial
situation (Rowbotham et al., 2000). Multiple evaluated exposure routes
(e.g. food consumption, soil and groundwater) allowed the determina­
tion of more restricted quality standards for heavy metals in Norway and
Sweden in comparison to the highest values of U.S. and Belgium (i.e.
standard [Hg] in soil = 1 mg/kg in Norway and Sweden compared to 15
mg/kg and 23 mg/kg in Belgium and U.S., respectively) (Chen et al.,
2018). Hence, a common worldwide regulation on heavy metals may be
difficult to apply, but rather a comprehensive knowledge of natural
properties will be useful to develop more suitable environmental
I. Conti et al.
protection policies (Zhao et al., 2019b).
Metals and organic contaminants, together with plastic debris, can
be transported and accumulated far away from the place of production
following wind, river, and sea currents. The “Great Pacific Garbage
Patch” (GPGP), extending between California and Hawaii, is an example
of a plastic accumulation zone in remote areas, such as oceans. A recent
study predicted at least 79,000 tons of plastics in GPGP, floating within
an area of 1.6 million Km2 (Lebreton et al., 2018). Moreover, highly
polluted regions may be of great political concern, since plastics may be
associated with several hazardous contaminants (Rochman et al.,
2014a). Ocean currents have been estimated to transport POPs, such as
PCBs, Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) and Perfluorooctanoic
Acid (PFOA), on their own or associated with buoyant plastics, towards
the Arctic influencing its ecosystem (Zarfl and Matthies, 2010). High
concentrations of MPs at the ice surface have been show to change sea
ice salinity and reflectivity (Geilfus et al., 2019). Hence, environmental
contaminants are potentially a global problem for both inhabited places
and empty landscapes, just like for climate change.
6. Educational programs and voluntary campaigns
Regardless of the policies adopted by countries, awareness of envi­
ronment pollution is resulting in voluntary campaigns to reduce both
plastic consumption and pollution. In Portugal, after the introduction of
a bag fee, 52% of supermarket customers changed their behaviour by
totally filling the purchased single-use plastic bags, allowing a decrease
64% of bag consumption (Luis and Spinola, 2010). In 2004, the “Code of
Practice for the Management of Plastic Bags” was struck between the
Australian Retailer Association (ARA) and the Environment Protection
and Heritage Control (EPHC) for the voluntary reduction of plastic bags
(Associations, 2004): interestingly, reduction in plastic bag consumption
was registered both in the supermarkets participating to the agreement
and also in supermarkets that did not participate (Associations, 2005).
Local and international associations or institutions are promoting
events to increase public awareness. Smartphone tools have been
developed to teach recycling methods to children (e.g. the Italian phone
application named “Junker APP” www.junkerapp.it). Education cam­
paigns for young people have promoted the fight against marine plastic
pollution (e.g. the “Tide Turners Plastic Challenge Badge” supported by
the UK Department of Environment, Food and Agriculture (UNEP,
2019b)) and movies have been produced to increase the awareness of
the environmental situation, such as the “Plastic Ocean” (directed by
Malcom Wood), one of the most awarded environmental documentaries
of 2017 (UNEP, 2017). During the 2018 World Environment Day (June
5th), a new coalition on health/environment/climate change was
founded by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the WHO
and UNEP with the aim to “Beat Plastic Pollution” (WMO, 2018). Within
this movement, several campaigns have been launched to stop marine
pollution (i.e. CleanSeas; www.cleanseas.org) and to discourage con­
sumption of single-use straws (i.e. StopSucking; www.plasticfreeme.
org/stopsucking). Finally, international projects have been funded,
such as Plastic Busters MPAs (starting date: February 1, 2018; www.plast
icbustersmpas.interreg-med.eu) and NET4mPLASTIC (starting date:
January 1, 2019; www.italy-croatia.eu/web/netformplastic) to preserve
the biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea and to evaluate the plastic
pollution in the Adriatic Basin, respectively.
Taken together, the actions adopted by different countries aim to
reduce the plastic consumption by changing human behaviour. In
addition, the search of alternative solutions improving the economy is
promoted, such as the substitution of “old” plastic bags with biode­
gradable plastic bags in Italy, since 2018 (Ministero dell’Ambiente,
2018b). Although a total ban of plastics may be difficult because of their
importance in human life, a greater public consciousness, the
improvement of recycling systems associated with the development of
alternatives (i.e. biodegradable plastics) has the capability to reduce the
plastic litter. Furthermore, the reduced amount of plastic
6
Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708
post-consumption waste, combined with the removal of plastic items
from beaches (“beach cleaning” campaigns), have the capability to
reduce the plastic litter and both macro- and micro-plastics (primary and
secondary MPs) pollution, resulting in long-term environmental benefits
(Andrady, 2011).
A summary of the strategies applied to counteract plastic pollution is
described in Fig. 1.
7. Human exposure to plastics may create health risks: the
example of seafood consumption
7.1. Toxicity for mammals to plastics
Although plastic polymer chains are mainly considered as inert
materials, the compounds enclosed within their matrix, as well as the
plastic debris themselves, can exert toxic effects towards the environ­
ment and the organisms, including humans (Galafassi et al., 2019).
There are several lines of evidence which demonstrate how dangerous
MPs and NPs can be. PS-MPs have shown to accumulate in the livers,
kidneys and guts of mice when treated with a plastic particles + water
mixture (exposure concentrations: 0.01, 0.1 and 0.5 mg PS-MPs/day),
inducing the expression of enzymes involved in the oxidative stress
response (i.e. Superoxide Dismutase 1 [SOD1] and Glutathione Peroxi­
dase 1 [GSH-Px]) and altering the lipid metabolism (i.e. decreased levels
of total Cholesterol and triglycerides were observed) in liver (Deng et al.,
2017). Furthermore, the hydrophobic chains of MPs and NPs could
potentially dissolve in the lipid bilayer of cell membranes altering its
structure and functions and leading to cell death (Hollóczki and Gehrke,
2019).
Functional monomers. Because of their different compositions in
terms of atoms, bonds and functional groups, plastic materials can exert
different toxic effects on organisms, such as carcinogenesis, reproduc­
tive toxicity, respiratory or skin hazards (Lam et al., 2018). The polymer
families of PUs, Polyacrylonitriles (PANs), PVC, Epoxy Resins and
Styrenic Copolymers are classified as the most dangerous plastics since
they are made of carcinogenic monomers, some of which are also
mutagenic (Lithner et al., 2011). Although its monomer (vinyl chloride)
is a recognized animal and human carcinogen, PVC is one of the largest
manufactured plastics in the world (IARC, 2020; Kielhorn et al., 2000).
The PVC monomer is metabolized by liver enzymes (i.e. Cytochrome
P450 Isoenzyme 2E1 [CYP2E1]) generating reactive intermediates, such
as chloroethylene oxide, which can react with DNA molecules and result
in mutagenic effects (Dogliotti, 2006). Vinyl chloride has been associ­
ated with Liver Angiosarcoma (LAS) and Hepatocellular Carcinoma
(HCC) (Brandt-Rauf et al., 2012). A recent study showed the develop­
ment of an angiosarcoma in a vinyl chloride-exposed worker, as
consequence of the KRAS gene G12D point mutation, which is a char­
acteristic of vinyl chloride-induced LAS (Guido et al., 2016).
Additives. The plastic additives BPA, its analogue BPS and phtha­
lates are identified as EDC, since evidence has shown that they interfere
with the endocrine system both in animals and in humans (Palanza,
2017). Bisphenols were first synthesized as synthetic estrogens in the
1930s, although they are commonly used as plasticizer agents (Acconcia
et al., 2015). A recent study showed the estradiol-mimic action of BPA in
the GT1-7 neuronal cell line (Acconcia et al., 2015). Moreover, BPA
changed the expression of genes encoding for the Estrogen Receptors
α/β/γ (ERα, ERβ and ERγ, respectively) and DNA Methyltransferase 1
and 3A (DNMT1 and DNMT3A) reducing the maternal behaviour in
mice (Kundakovic et al., 2013). Although generated to replace BPA, also
BPS has shown alteration of mammary MCF-12A (Michigan Cancer
Foundation-12A) epithelial cell organization comparable to BPA, sug­
gesting a probable contribution to breast cancer development (Atlas and
Dimitrova, 2019). Phthalates have been reported to extend their endo­
crine disrupting toxicity also in the offspring (Gonsioroski et al., 2020).
The treatment with DBP in utero of female rats increased the betaine
expression and decreased the level of Betaine Homocysteine
I. Conti et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram describing the source of the plastic environmental pollution and the national/international strategies to counteract it. BPA = Bisphenol A;
Cd = Cadmium; Hg = Mercury; Pb = Lead; PAHs = Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon; PCBs = Polychlorinated Biphenyls; POPs = Persistent Organic Pollutants; PVC
= Polyvinyl Chloride.
S-Methyltransferase (BHMT) reducing the spermatogenesis in the F1–F2
and F3 generations (Yuan et al., 2017). In a Chinese cross-sectional
study, metabolites of DEHP and DBP were related to spermactocyte
apoptosis and DNA damage in semen samples of 1247 men (You et al.,
2015).
Other plastic additives, such as benzene (solvent), Cd (stabilizer) and
1,3-butadiene (elastomer) are recognized as cancerogenic compounds
by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (IARC,
2020). Benzene is known to cause acute leukaemia, in particular, Acute
Myeloid Leukaemia (AML) and Acute Non-Lymphocytic Leukaemia
(ANLL), inducing the clonal proliferation of bone marrow cells by its
metabolites (e.g. benzene epoxide, phenol, hydroquinone) (Arnold
et al., 2013; Meek and Klaunig, 2010). In addition, recent studies have
associated benzene with lung cancer (Loomis et al., 2017; Warden et al.,
2018). Cd is linked to lung, prostate and kidney cancers (Rapisarda
et al., 2018), while exposure to 1,3-butadiene leads to leukaemia
development and progression (Cheng et al., 2007; Huy et al., 2018).
Another highly hazardous additive is toluene (solvent), that causes
headache and nausea after inhalation, skin and eye irritation after
contact and organ damage (i.e. Central Nervous System and liver) and it
could be responsible for leukoencephalopathy, dementia and death if
ingested or inhaled long-term (EPA, 2012; Filley et al., 2004).
At present only few data, deriving especially from occupational
studies, show the consequence of plastic exposition to humans (Yong
et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2019a); an example includes, interstitial lung
disease evaluated in 4% of nylon workers in Canada and U.S. (Boag
et al., 1999; Eschenbacher et al., 1999). However, the results obtained
by both in vitro and in vivo studies could explain the putative toxic
consequences on humans following prolong plastic exposure, supporting
the necessity of limiting plastic production and discharge.
7.2. MPs ingestion by fish and shellfish
The increasing consumption of plastics, coupled with their huge
leakage, leads to the increase of plastic items and MPs within lands and
waters. A recent report has predicted that oceans will contain more
7
Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708
plastics than fish by year 2050 (Forum, 2016). Up to 80% of mis­
managed waste from land contributes to plastic litter in oceans (Jam­
beck et al., 2015), and nearly 6% of the total plastic wasted mass has
been estimated to flow into rivers (Kataoka and Nihei, 2020). An
average of 12.7 million tons and 2.41 million tons of plastic waste were
estimated to enter the oceans from 192 coastal countries and from rivers
all over the world, respectively (Jambeck et al., 2015; Lebreton et al.,
2017).
All plastics and plastic debris in the seas can be eaten by fishes and
other marine species. Confusing the plastics with food, marine organ­
isms can ingest the particles according to their habitats and the frag­
ments characteristics (e.g. size and colour). For example, PVC particles
smaller than 0.5 mm were ingested more frequently from benthic ho­
lothurians compared to particles of other sizes, while white/clear and
blue particles were commonly found in the stomachs of the Myctophidae
fish (Boerger et al., 2010; Wright et al., 2013). Plastic deposition in the
water sediments may be promoted by the density of plastic particles
(influenced also by contaminants and micro-organisms) potentially
exposing the bottom fauna to a higher plastic and related contaminants
(e.g. dioxins and PCBs) pollution (Choy et al., 2019; Haegerbaeumer
et al., 2019; Wright et al., 2013).
After ingestion, the plastics particles/items exert toxic effects in
marine organisms and may also accumulate in organ tissues. MPs altered
the transcription of genes involved in the shell development (e.g. chitin
synthase), in the immunomodulation (e.g. myticin C and mytilin B) and
genes codifying lysosomal enzymes (e.g. catepsin-L) in Mytilus gallo­
provincialis mussel treated with PS (Capolupo et al., 2018). The accu­
mulated small MPs (<4 μm) were translocated from the digestive system
to the gills, as evaluated in HD-PE MPs treated mussels (Fernández and
Albentosa, 2019). Moreover, the adsorbed POPs and heavy metals
enhance the potential hazard of plastics items. Down-regulation of
Choriogenin (Chg H) gene expression in males and female fishes
together with reduced expression of Vitellogenin (Vtg I) and ERα in fe­
males were observed in Japanese Medaka (Oryzias latipes) treated with
marine-derived PCBs/PAHs/PBDEs adsorbed PE particles, potentially
resulting in endocrine dysfunction (Rochman et al., 2014b).
I. Conti et al. Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708

Besides direct ingestion of plastic items by marine organism, a tro­ particles were detected in 9 pelagic fishes out of the 84 sampled fishes
phic transfer of MPs/NPs may be hypothesized from planktivorous or­ (from 1 to 3 items/individuals) in the North Baltic and Baltic Sea
ganisms to larger predators (Zhang et al., 2019b). Both microalgae (e.g. (Rummel et al., 2016). Considering an estimated average of 2 parti­
Thalassiosira weissflogii) and rotifers (i.e. Brachionurs picatilis), that are cles/individual common to marine and freshwater fishes (obtained from
the food source of small fishes and invertebrates, incorporated or the above studies) and the average weight of 350 g for commercial fishes
adsorbed Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) NPs on their surface (Ven­ (Barboza et al., 2020; Collard et al., 2018), the putative human plastic
ancio et al., 2019). Secondary ingestion of plastics, i.e. the ingestion of a ingestion following fish consumption can be calculated. The top
prey that had already eaten plastic items, was also observed. In the worldwide fish consumers will ingest 91 (China) and 937 (Maldives)
stomach of a little Alle alle auk (bird) a goosefish was found (Lophius plastic particles per capita/year, respectively, while the lower con­
americanus), which had eaten a ball of nylon fishing line (Perry et al., sumers will eat 1 (South Africa) and 3 (Bolivia) particles per capita/year.
2013). In Europe, the top fish consumers will ingest 87.5 (freshwater fish;
Plastics/MPs/NPs and related contaminants ingested by marine or­ Finland) or 397 (marine fish; Iceland) particles per capita/year while,
ganisms can reach humans through the food chain, where they might the lower consumers will eat 4.5 (Denmark; freshwater fish) or 12
accumulate in tissue and promote pathologies, such as cancer (Schirinzi (marine fish; Hungary) particles per capita/year.
et al., 2017). Considerations on appropriate seafood consumption may An estimation of plastic particles ingestion following molluscs, ma­
be suggested to reduce the MPs uptake by human, since plastic parti­ rine fish and freshwater fish consumption are described in Table 1.
cles/additives/contaminants ingestion may be hazardous and damaging Following the ingestion, the MPs may accumulate in the human
to health. Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT), enter in the body fluid or be excreted
(Wright and Kelly, 2017). The accumulation of plastic particles in the
7.3. Estimation of MPs/additives/environmental contaminants ingestion human GIT may change the gut microbiome resulting in gut microbiota
by human dysbiosis and disorders in other organs (e.g. liver), as observed in PS
treated mice (Jin et al., 2019; Lu et al., 2018). Moreover, MPs may enter
The global human fish consumption was over 151 million tons dur­ the body fluids following i) the uptake via endocytosis by the Microfold
ing 2016. This figure includes more than 8 million tons of crustaceans, (M) cells of the Peyer’s patches and ii) the persoption route (transition of
18 million tons of aquaculture molluscs and about 55 million tons of particles up to 130 μm in diameter through gaps at the villus tips)
caught fish, resulting in a per capita estimated consumption of 20.3 kg of (Wright and Kelly, 2017). Within the circulation, macrophages can carry
fish and fishery products (FAO, 2018). In light of these data the conse­ insoluble particles, while blood proteins can interact with plastic par­
quences of MPs and related contaminants ingestion should be consid­ ticles (i.e. Human Serum Albumin) translocating the plastic items to­
ered for human food safety. ward secondary targets, such as the liver and spleen. Recently, the term
The maximum limits for heavy metals and organic contaminants in “plasticenta” has been coined to identify the presence of MPs in human
fishes, molluscs, and crustaceans vary from country to country. For placenta (Ragusa et al., 2021), showing indubitably that MPs may reach
example, the EU No 1881/2006 limits the Hg content to 0.50 mg/kg for the tissues in depth within the human body, where particles could cause
fishes/crustaceans/molluscs and up to 1.00 mg/kg for some species of inflammation and alter biological processes (Geiser et al., 2014; Kihara
fish (e.g. Anguilla eel) (Law, 2006). The Health Canada and Canadian et al., 2019; Kreyling et al., 2002). The presence of 20 plastic particles in
Food Inspection Agency limits only Hg and Pb (0.50 mg/kg as allowed 10 g of stools collected from eight healthy persons documented the
concentration) (Canada, 2018). Higher concentrations of heavy metals plastics ingestion (Schwabl et al., 2019). However, currently, the ratio
and POPs (e.g. [Hg] = 1.50 mg/kg) have been approved by the between eliminated and tissue uptaken particles is not yet well known.
Australian Government (Code, 2016). A comparison of the maximum Furthermore, additives and environmental pollutants carried by
concentrations allowed for heavy metals and POPs in Australia, Canada plastic particles can be ingested and may exert toxic effects on human
and Europe is described in Table S.2, supplementary materials. health (Renzi et al., 2018). Assuming an average particle diameter of 25
Putative MPs ingested by humans can be calculated based on data μm and a density of 0.92 g/cm3 (density of LD-PE, one of the most
regarding seafood MP uptake (shellfish and fish). An average of 0.36 common MPs polymer) (Bouwmeester et al., 2015), each particle would
plastic particles/g and 0.47 particles/g (wet weight) were respectively
observed in commercially available Mytilus edulis (mussel) and Cras­ Table 1
sostrea gigas (oyster) (Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014). Consid­ Estimated MPs ingestion following seafood consumption.
ering 250g as an average portion of mussels and 100g as an average
Seafood Average MPs Country Human Estimated MPs
portion of oysters, a person may ingest respectively 90 and 50 plastic content Consumption ingestion
particles per meal (Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014). However, (kg/capita/year) (MPs/capita/
shellfish consumption depends on the country: for example, in Africa year)
there is the lowest mollusc consumption (i.e. about 0 kg/capita/year), Molluscs 0.42 China 9 3720
while China has the top consumption with 9 kg/capita/year. In Europe, particles/g Ethiopia 0 0
the major mollusc consumer is Spain (7 kg/capita/year) while the wet weight of Spain 7 2980
lowest are the eastern countries, for example, Slovakia (0.03 kg/capi­ mollusc Slovakia 0.03 13
Marine Fish 2 particles/ Maldives 164 937
ta/year) (FAO, 2019). Based on the average of MPs detected in mus­ fish Bolivia 0.5 3
sels/oysters described above (i.e. 0.42 particles/g wet weight of Iceland 69.5 397
molluscs) (Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen, 2014), the ingestion of Hungary 2 12
plastic particles can be calculated. For the top worldwide consumer Freshwater 2 particles/ China 16 91
Fish fish South 0.2 1
(China) eating shellfish will introduce into the body up to 3720 MPs per
Africa
capita/year and in Europe, the number of ingested plastic particles will Finland 15.5 87.5
range from 2980 particles per capita/year of Spain to the 13 MPs per Denmark 0.8 4.5
capita/year of Slovakia, thus highlighting the higher risk of sea-sided
Average MPs content: 0.42 particles/g wet weight of molluscs (Van Cau­
and fish consuming countries. wenberghe and Janssen, 2014); 2 particles/fish as estimated by Conti I. et al.
For a total amount of MPs ingestion, the consumption of fish must be Listed countries are the top and low seafood consumers in the world and in
added to that of shellfish. However, fish makes a modest contribution to Europe, respectively. The estimated ingested MPs following fish consumption
putative human plastic ingestion. A maximum of 1 MP was detected in 7 are calculated considering 350 g as the average weight for marine/freshwater
benthic fishes out of the 206 individuals analysed, while 16 plastic fish (Barboza et al., 2020; Collard et al., 2018).

8
I. Conti et al.
be equivalent to 7.5 pg of plastic. A recent research evaluated an average
additives content of about the 4% of plastic weight (Bouwmeester et al.,
2015). Hence, the ingestion of 3717 MPs (the highest hypothesized MPs
intake through seafood consumption previous described) would lead to
the assumption of 1.11 μg of additives. Finally, up to 2750 ng/g of PCBs
and up to 24,000 ng/g of PAHs were evaluated in MPs deposited at
beaches (EFSA, 2016). Assuming that these POPs may be completely
released from the plastic items, the 3717 MPs would lead to the inges­
tion of 76.67 pg of PCBs and 669 pg of PAHs.
Consumption of molluscs can potentially result in a higher amount of
plastic ingestion compared to eating fish, probably due to their filter
feeder characteristics (De Witte et al., 2014): up to 3000 MPs per cap­
ita/year and up to 900 MPs per capita/year for the molluscs and the fish
consumption, respectively. However, the place of seafood origin affects
the putative ingestion of plastics. For example about 80 MPs were
detected in only 100 g of oysters from the Chinese mariculture bay of the
Maowei Sea, a worldwide oyster exporter (Zhu et al., 2019). Moreover,
the weather could influence the plastic and related contaminants
exposure. The wind, sea storms and river floods could transport plastics
and the other compounds from the land to the sea, increasing their
availability for organisms (Ferreira et al., 2021; Su et al., 2020).
Considering that the worst weather conditions are related to the cold
seasons, we could hypothesize that consumption of fish and molluscs
during the winter enhances the potential human exposure to plastic and
related contaminants. Hence, a reduced seafood consumption during
winter or after a storm in the production site could limit the exposure to
a larger MPs ingestion. From a seafood consumer point of view,
end-users should control the food origin and prefer fish rather than
shellfish. Finally, a better regulation may prevent plastic environmental
pollution, thus decreasing its uptake by organisms.
8. Conclusions
In this review we have discussed the different strategies acted by
national and international organizations to counteract the increasing
worldwide-spread persistent plastic waste. Moreover, the putative
ingestion of plastic particles and associated contaminants by human has
been investigated focusing on seafood consumption: an important part
of the human diet, acting as a source of both polyunsaturated fatty acids
(e.g. omega-3 and omega-6), that can prevent coronary diseases, and
minerals (e.g. Fe, Ca and Phosphorus) (Pal et al., 2018). Despite addi­
tives and environmental contaminants already being regulated, new
legislations are urgently needed to manage the plastic issue. Future di­
rections regarding the plastic management could be suggested by the
3Rs principle (Agamuthu et al., 2019). Combination of the reduction in
plastic consumption, banning single-use items, and their replacement,
promoting plastic alternatives, should contribute to significantly
decrease the environmental pollution. Furthermore, plastic is not an
endless material due to the progressive limitation of its source (hydro­
carbons obtained by crude oil and natural gas (Rhodes, 2018)). The
rapid and continuous economic growth of several countries requires
huge oil consumption (He et al., 2017), that combined with the
decreasing fossil fuels reserves may boost their price, influencing and
increasing the cost of all their derivatives including plastic items.
Reduction in plastic production and use can prevent the environmental
pollution, thus avoiding the plastic toxicity on organisms, as conse­
quence of both its inhalation and ingestion. Although the effects of
plastic additives and contaminants alone on human health are well
studied, the acute and long-term toxicities of plastics and the plasti­
c/additives and plastic/additives/contaminants complexes are not fully
clarified. Further studies will be necessary to evaluate incorporation,
accumulation and toxicity of plastics and related contaminants on
humans, which may help to implement plastic policies ensuring a
globally common legislation strategy and allowing to both reduce plastic
contamination and its toxic effect on living organisms, including
humans.
9
Environmental Pollution 288 (2021) 117708
Funding
This work was supported by the European Regional Development
Fund “2014–2020 Interreg V-A Italy-Croatia CBC Programme, New
Technologies for macro and Microplastic Detection and Analysis in the
Adriatic Basin (project acronym: NET4mPLASTIC; CUP
F76C19000000007)”.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
Authors are grateful to International Business Corporation (IBM)
Italy for collaboration and support in the legislative research through
the sharing of informatic tools. Authors are grateful to Prof. Umberto
Simeoni, Prof. Carmela Vaccaro and Dr. Corinne Corbau for helpful
discussion.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117708.
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