Pak Study Project2

MATH PROJECT (BM1)
FRANK S. BRANDICK
BM1
1/5/23
MATH PROJECT (BM1)
Contents
Chapter 1: Preliminaries---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
1.1 Solving First-Degree Equations------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Step to solve--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
1.2 Solving second-degree Equations ----------------------------------------------------------- 7
Steps to solve:------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 7
1.3 Inequalities and their solution: --------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Example--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
1.4 Absolute value relationships------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Example--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
1.4 Rectangular Coordinate System-------------------------------------------------------------- 10
Example:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
Chapter 2: Linear Equations------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12
2.1 Characteristics of linear equations: ---------------------------------------------------------- 12
Examples:------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
2.2: Two variable linear equations with graphs: ---------------------------------------------- 13
Example---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14
2.3: Slope intercept form------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14
2.4: Equation of a straight line---------------------------------------------------------------------- 19
2.5: Linear Equations with more than two variables----------------------------------------- 21
Definition--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 21
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables------------------------------------------------- 21
Example------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 21
Chapter 3: Systems of Linear Equations----------------------------------------------------------- 22
3.1: Linear Equations in Two Variable----------------------------------------------------------- 22
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Definition-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables------------------------------------------------ 22
Gauss Elimination Method -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23
Solving two variable linear system via GEM---------------------------------------------------- 23
Chapter 4: Mathematical Functions---------------------------------------------------------------- 24
4.1 Functions in mathematics: ---------------------------------------------------------------- 24
A Condition for a Function: -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24
Example: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
4.2 Types of Functions: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
4.3 Graphical representation of functions: -------------------------------------------------- 28
1. One – one function (Injective function) ------------------------------------------------- 28
2. Many – one function ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 28
3. Onto – function (Surjective Function) ---------------------------------------------------- 29
4. Into – function ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29
5. Polynomial function --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
6. Linear Function --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30
7. Identical Function ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
8. Quadratic Function --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
9. Rational Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
10. Algebraic Functions -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33
11. Cubic Function -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34
12. Modulus Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
13. Signum Function ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
14. Greatest Integer Function ------------------------------------------------------------------- 35
15. Fractional Part Function -------------------------------------------------------------------- 36
16. Even and Odd Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
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17. Periodic Function -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
18. Composite Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
19. Constant Function ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
20. Identity Function --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38
Chapter 5 Linear Functions: --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
1. Linear Function Graph ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
2. Linear Function Table -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39
3. Linear Function Formula ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
4. Linear Function Characteristics ------------------------------------------------------------- 40
5. Linear Function Example ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
6. Example: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 40
7. Linear Cost functions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
8. Linear Revenue Functions ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
9. Linear Profit Functions ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
CHAPTER 6 Quadratic and polynomial functions ------------------------------------------------ 42
6.1 Quadratic Functions and Their Characteristics ------------------------------------------ 42
6.2 Quadratic Functions: Applications -------------------------------------------------------------- 42
Using the Parabola ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 42
6.3 Polynomial and Rational Functions------------------------------------------------------ 43
Polynomial Functions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
Rational Functions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43
CHAPTER 7 Exponential and logarithmic functions------------------------------------- 46
7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions------------------------------------------ 46
1. Exponential Function Formula-------------------------------------------------------- 47
2. Exponential Function Graph--------------------------------------------------- 48
3. Exponential Function Derivative --------------------------------------------- 50
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4. Exponential Series---------------------------------------------------------------- 50
5. Exponential Function Properties --------------------------------------------- 51
6. Exponential Function Rules ------------------------------------------------- 53
7. Exponential Functions Examples-------------------------------------------- 54
8. Solved Problems--------------------------------------------------------------------- 54
7.3 Applications of Exponential Functions---------------------------------------- 55
Applications of Exponential Functions------------------------------------------------- 55
7.4 Logarithms-------------------------------------------------------------------------- 57
7.5 Properties of logarithms-------------------------------------------------------- 58
CHAPTER 8 Mathematics of finance------------------------------------------------ 58
8.1 Interest and Its Computation----------------------------------------------------- 58
Simple Interest----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 58
What is Simple Interest? --------------------------------------------------------------- 58
Simple Interest Formula---------------------------------------------------------------- 59
Compound Interest ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 59
How to Calculate Interest on Interest ---------------------------------------------- 59
8.2 Single Payment Computations --------------------------------------------------- 60
Single Payment Compound-Amount Factor --------------------------------------- 60
8.3 Annuities and Their Future Value ---------------------------------------------- 60
Key Takeaways ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 60
Understanding the Future Value of an Annuity ----------------------------------- 60
Formula and Calculation of the Future Value of an Annuity ------------------ 61
Future Value of an Annuity Due --------------------------------------------------------- 61
Future Value of an Annuity Example -------------------------------------------------- 61
Future Value of an Annuity Due ---------------------------------------------------------------- 61
8.4 Annuities and Their Present Value ------------------------------------------------------ 62
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Present Value of an Annuity: Meaning, Formula, and Example--------------------- 62
What Is the Present Value of an Annuity? --------------------------------------------------- 62
Key Takeaways---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
Present Value of an Annuity--------------------------------------------------------------------- 62
CHAPTER 9 Matrix algebra--------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
9.1 Introduction to Matrices----------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Adding and Subtracting Matrices Concepts------------------------------------------------- 65
Multiplying Matrices Concepts------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
Introduction to Matrices and Determinants------------------------------------------------- 66
Concept of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors---------------------------------------------------- 66
9.2 Special Types of Matrices----------------------------------------------------------------- 66
9.3 Matrix Operations--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Operations on Matrices------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Addition of Matrices--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Subtraction of Matrices --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Scalar Multiplication of Matrices -------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Multiplication of Matrices ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 68
Properties of matrix multiplication ----------------------------------------------------------- 68
9.4 The Determinant--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
9.5 Cramer's Rule ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
Cramer’s Rule Formula ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70
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Chapter 1: Preliminaries
1.1 Solving First-Degree Equations
A linear equation is an equation that represents a line on the quadratic system.
The general form of this equation is ax + b = 0 in which a and b are integers and x is the
variable. This type of equation has only one solution and represents a parallel line with the y-
axis.
Equations are first-degree when they can be written in the form ax + bc, where x is a variable
and a. b, and c are known constants.
STEPS
1) Addition axiom: When two equal quantities are added on both sides of an equation,
the equation will remain equal.
2) Subtraction axiom: When two equal quantities are subtracted on both sides of an
equation the equation will remain equal.
3) Multiplication axiom: When we multiply both sides of an equation with the same
value, the equation will remain equal.
4) Division axiom: When we divide both sides of an equation with the same value (≠0),
the equation will remain equal.
5) Distributive axiom: a (b+c) = ab + ac.
Examples
1.3x-14-x-2(x+1) Write the equation.
3x+14-x-2x-2 Use the distributive property to remove parentheses. 3x+14=-x-2
Simplify.
4x+14=-2 Add x to both sides.
4x=-16 Add -14 to both sides,
X=-4 Divide both sides by 4.
1.2 Solving second-degree Equations:

A second-degree equation with one variable is an equation reducible to the form
ax2+bx+c=0, where x is the variable, a∈R∗ and b,c∈R. When solving such an equation, we
try to determine the values of the variable x, which are solutions to the equation ax2+bx+c=0.
The number of solutions to the equation ax2+bx+c=0 is indicated by the value of the
discriminant (b2−4ac) of it.
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Steps to solve:
1. The main steps in the problem-solving process are the following.

2. Change the quadratic equation to the form ax2+bx+c=0, if it is not already the
case.
3. Evaluate the discriminant b2−4ac and check whether it is worth continuing.
4. If b2−4ac<0, there is no solution.
5. If b2−4ac≥0, check if it is possible to factor easily.
6. Apply the rule of the zero product to find the values of x sought.
7. Give the solution set.
Example
For example, consider the equation 2x2+9x+5=−4.
Change the equation to the form ax2+bx+c=0 by adding 4 to each side of the equality.
2x2+9x+5=−4 → 2x2+9x+9=0
Evaluate the discriminant b2−4ac,
where a=2, b=9 and c=9. b2−4ac= (9)2−4(2)(9) =9
We can continue since the discriminant is positive.
2x2+9x+9 can be factored using the product-sum method.
2x2+9x+9=0 → (x+3) (2x+3) =0
Apply the zero-product rule.
x+3=0 ⇒ x=−3 or 2x+3=0⇒ x=−32
Therefore, the starting equation’s two solutions are −3 and −32.
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1.3 Inequalities and their solution:
Solving an equation or an inequality consists of finding all the values of the variable that
validate the starting equation. Certain rules must be followed when solving equations
and inequalities. It is always possible to check if the answer obtained is true by a simple
method of validation.
 The Transformation Rules

 Equivalent Equations
 Verifying a Solution
Each type of function has different features, which change the way to solve them.
However, they all respect the general rules for transforming an equation. It is possible to
solve them by following means.
 Solving a First-Degree Equation or Inequality

 Solving a Second-Degree Equation or Inequality
 Solving a Square Root Equation or Inequality with One Variable
 Solving an Exponential Equation or Inequality
 Solving an Equation or Inequality Containing an Absolute Value
 Solving a Greatest Integer Equation
 Solving a Rational Equation or Inequality
 Solving a Logarithmic Equation or Inequality
 Solving a Trigonometric Equation or Inequality
Example
2x+3=6 where the solution is 32
2x+3+5=6+5
2x+8=11 where the solution is 32
The two equations are equivalent since they have the same solution.
6−8x=1where the solution is 58

(6−8x) ÷2=1÷2
3−4x=12 where the solution is 58
The two equations are equivalent since they have the same solution.
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1.4 Absolute value relationships

The basic form of an absolute value function is f(x)=∣x∣ It is drawn with two straight lines called
branches.
In a graph, the basic absolute value function has the following characteristics.
 The graph of an absolute value function is symmetrical.

 For the basic absolute value function, the axis of symmetry is the line of equation
x=0.
The vertex of the graph of the basic absolute value function is the point (0,0).
The left branch has the equation y=−x
and the right branch has the equation y=x.
Example
1. Determine the properties of the absolute value function f(x)=−12∣x+1∣+2.
The vertex is (−1, 2) and the function opens downwards since a<0.
2. The domain of the function is the set of real numbers denoted as R.
3. The range of the function corresponds to the interval (−∞,2].
4. To calculate the y-intercept, simply replace x with 0. f(0)=−12∣0+1∣+2f(0)=32
To calculate the zeroes of the function, just replace f(x) with 0 and isolate x.
5. 0=−12∣x+1∣+2−2=−12∣x+1∣4=∣x+1∣
Here, use the definition of the absolute value.
6. 4=x+1−4=x+13=x−5=x
Therefore, the two zeroes are −5 and 3.
7. Variation: the function is increasing over (−∞,−1]
8. and decreasing over [−1,+∞). Extrema: a is negative, thus, the function has a
maximum of 2.
9. Sign — Positive and Negative Intervals: using the direction the function opens
and the zeroes found, the positive and negative intervals of of the function are
the following:
 it will be positive over [−5,3];
 it will be negative over (−∞,−5]∪[3,+∞).
 The equation for the axis of symmetry is x=−1.
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1.4 Rectangular Coordinate System

The rectangular coordinate system consists of two real number lines that intersect at a
right angle. The horizontal number line is called the x-axis, and the vertical number line
is called the y-axis. These two number lines define a flat surface called a plane, and
each point on this plane is associated with an ordered pair of
real numbers(x,y).
The first number is called the x-coordinate, and the second number is called the y-
coordinate. The Intersection of the two axes is known as the origin, which corresponds
to the point (0,0)
Figure
3.1.1
An ordered pair (x,y)represents the position of a point relative to the origin
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The x-coordinate represents a position to the right of the origin
1. if it is positive and to the left of the origin

2. if it is negative. The y-coordinate represents a position above the origin
3. if it is positive and below the origin
4. if it is negative. Using this system, every position (point) in the plane is uniquely
identified.
Example:
Calculate the distance between (−3,−1) and (−2,4)
Solution:
Use the distance formula
x1,y1(−3,−1)x2,y2(−2,4)
solution
before substituting values for the variables. This improves readability and reduces the
chance for errors.
d=√[(x2−x1)2+(y2−y1)2 ]
=√ [(−2−(−3))2+(4−(−1))2]
=√[ (−2+3)2+(4+1)2]
=√[ (1)2+(5)2]
=√(1+25)
=√26
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Chapter 2: Linear Equations

2.1 Characteristics of linear equations:
A linear equation is made up of two expressions set equal. There are some key features
common to all linear equations:
1. A linear equation only has one or two variables.

2. No variable in a linear equation is raised to a power greater than 1 or used as the
denominator of a fraction.
3. When you find pairs of values that make a linear equation true and plot those
pairs on a coordinate grid, all the points lie on the same line. The graph of a
linear equation is a straight line.
A linear equation in two variables can be described as a linear relationship between x

and y, that is, two variables in which the value of one of them (usually y) depends on the
value of the other one (usually x). In this case, x is the independent variable, and y
depends on it, so y is called the dependent variable.
Examples:
Example 1: distance = rate × time
In this equation, for any given steady rate, the relationship between distance and time
will be linear. However, distance is usually expressed as a positive number, so most
graphs of this relationship will only show points in the first quadrant. Notice that the
direction of the line in the graph below is from bottom left to top right. Lines that tend in
this direction have positive slope. A positive slope indicates that the values on both
axes are increasing from left to right.
Example 2: amount of water in a leaky bucket = rate of leak × time
In this equation, since you won't ever have a negative amount of water in the bucket,
the graph will show points only in the first quadrant. Notice that the direction of the line
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in this graph is top left to bottom right. Lines that tend in this direction have negative
slope. A negative slope indicates that the values on the y-axis are decreasing as the
values on the x-axis are increasing.
2.2: Two variable linear equations with graphs:
An equation is said to be linear equation in two variables if it is written in the form of ax

+ by + c=0, where a, b & c are real numbers and the coefficients of x and y, i.e a and b
respectively, are not equal to zero.
For example, 10x+4y = 3 and -x+5y = 2 are linear equations in two variables.
The solution for such an equation is a pair of values, one for x and one for y which
further makes the two sides of an equation equal.The solution of linear equations in two
variables, ax+by = c, is a particular point in the graph, such that when x-coordinate is
multiplied by a and y-coordinate is multiplied by b, then the sum of these two values will
be equal to c.
Basically, for linear equation in two variables, there are infinitely many solutions.
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Example
To find the solution of Linear equation in 2 variables, two equations should be known to
us.For Example,
5x + 3y = 30 ---- 1
The above equation has two variables namely x and y.
Graphically this equation can be represented by substituting the variables to zero.
The value of x when y=0 is
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6
and the value of y when x = 0 is,
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
2.3: Slope intercept form
The graph of the linear equation y = mx + c is a line with m as slope, m and c as the y-
intercept. This form of the linear equation is called the slope-intercept form, and the
values of m and c are real numbers.
The slope, m, represents the steepness of a line. The slope of the line is also termed as
gradient, sometimes. The y-intercept, b, of a line, represents the y-coordinate of the point where
the graph of the line intersects the y-axis.
Consider a line L with slope m cuts the y-axis at a distance of c units from the origin.
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Here, the distance c is called the y-intercept of the given line L.
So, the coordinate of a point where the line L meets the y-axis will be (0, c).
That means, line L passes through a fixed point (0, c) with slope m.
We know that, the equation of a line in point slope form, where (x 1, y1) is the point and
slope m is:
(y – y1) = m(x – x1)
Here, (x1, y1) = (0, c)
Substituting these values, we get;
y – c = m(x – 0)
y – c = mx
y = mx + c
Therefore, the point (x, y) on the line with slope m and y-intercept c lies on the line if
and only if y = mx + c
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Note: The value of c can be positive or negative based on the intercept is made on the
positive or negative side of the y-axis, respectively.
Slope Intercept Form Formula
As derived above, the equation of the line in slope-intercept form is given by:
y = mx + c
Here,
(x, y) = Every point on the line
m = Slope of the line
c = y-intercept of the line
Usually, x and y have to be kept as the variables while using the above formula.
Slope Intercept Form x Intercept
We can write the formula for the slope-intercept form of the equation of line L whose
slope is m and x-intercept d as:
y = m(x – d)
Here,
m = Slope of the line
d = x-intercept of the line
Sometimes, the slope of a line may be expressed in terms of tangent angle such as:
m = tan θ
Derivation of Slope-Intercept Form from Standard Form Equation
We can derive the slope-intercept form of the line equation from the equation of a
straight line in the standard form as given below:
As we know, the standard form of the equation of a straight line is:
Ax + By + C = 0
Rearranging the terms as:
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By = -Ax – C
⇒y = (-A/B) x + (-C/B)
This is of the form y = mx + c
Here, (-A/B) represents the slope of the line and (-C/B) is the y-intercept.
Slope Intercept Form Graph
When we plot the graph for slope-intercept form equation we get a straight line. Slope-
intercept is the best form. Since it is in the form “y=”, hence it is easy to graph it or solve
word problems based on it. We just have to put the x-values and the equation is solved
for y.
The best part of the slope-intercept form is that we can get the value of slope and the
intercept directly from the equation.
Examples
Example 1:
Find the equation of the straight line that has slope m = 3 and passes through the point
(–2, –5).
Solution:
By the slope-intercept form we know.
y = mx+c
Given,
m=3
As per the given point, we have;
y = -5 and x = -2
Hence, putting the values in the above equation, we get;
-5 = 3(-2) + c
-5 = -6+c
c = -5 + 6 = 1
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Hence, the required equation will be;
y = 3x+1
2.4: Equation of a straight line

Definition
The equation of a straight line is
y=mx+c
m is the gradient and c is the height at which the line crosses the y-axis, also known as
the y-intercept. The gradient m is the slope of the line - the amount by which the y-
coordinate increases in proportion to the x-coordinate. If you have two points (x1,y1)
and (x2,y2) on the line, the gradient is m=y2−y1x2−x1
If you know one point (x1,y1)
on the line as well as its gradient m, the equation of the line is (y−y1)=m(x−x1)
If we are just given two points (x1,y1)
and (x2,y2)
, we must first work out the gradient using the gradient formula above, and then choose
either point to substitute into the straight line equation with this gradient.
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Worked Examples
Example 1
Find the equation of the line with gradient −2
that passes through the point (3,−4)
Solution
Put m=−2
, x1=3 and y1=−4 straight into the formula y−y1=m(x−x1)
y−y1=m(x−x1)
y+4=−2(x−3)
Expand the brackets and simplify.
y+4=−2x+6
y=−2x+2
2.5: Linear Equations with more than two variables

Definition

further makes the two sides of an equation equal.
Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables
The solution of linear equations in two variables, ax+by = c, is a particular point in the
graph, such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a and y-coordinate is multiplied by b,
then the sum of these two values will be equal to c.
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Example
To find the solution of Linear equation in 2 variables, two equations should be known to
us.
5x + 3y = 30
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6 and the value of y when x = 0 is,
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
Chapter 3: Systems of Linear Equations

3.1: Linear Equations in Two Variables
Linear equations in two variables, explain the geometry of lines or the graph of two
lines, plotted to solve the given equations. As we already know, the linear equation
represents a straight line. The plotting of these graphs will help us to solve the
equations, which consist of unknown variables. Previously we have learned to solve
linear equations in one variable, here we will find the solutions for the equations having
two variables.
Definition

further makes the two sides of an equation equal.
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Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables
The solution of linear equations in two variables, ax+by = c, is a particular point in the
graph, such that when x-coordinate is multiplied by a and y-coordinate is multiplied by b,
then the sum of these two values will be equal to c.
Example: 5x + 3y = 30
5x + 3(0) = 30
⇒ x = 6 and
5 (0) + 3y = 30
⇒ y = 10
Gauss Elimination Method
Gauss elimination method is used to solve a system of linear equations. Let’s recall the
definition of these systems of equations. A system of linear equations is a group of
linear equations with various unknown factors. As we know, unknown factors exist in
multiple equations. Solving a system involves finding the value for the unknown factors
to verify all the equations that make up the system.
Solving two variable linear system via GEM
In mathematics, the Gaussian elimination method is known as the row reduction

algorithm for solving linear equations systems. It consists of a sequence of operations
performed on the corresponding matrix of coefficients. We can also use this method to
estimate either of the following:
 The rank of the given matrix

 The determinant of a square matrix
 The inverse of an invertible matrix
To perform row reduction on a matrix, we have to complete a sequence of elementary

row operations to transform the matrix till we get 0s (i.e., zeros) on the lower left-hand
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corner of the matrix as much as possible. That means the obtained matrix should be an
upper triangular matrix. There are three types of elementary row operations; they are:
 Swapping two rows and this can be expressed using the notation ↔, for
example, R2 ↔ R3
 Multiplying a row by a nonzero number, for example, R 1 → kR2 where k is some
nonzero number
 Adding a multiple of one row to another row, for example, R 2 → R2 + 3R1
Name of the system of equations Number of solutions

Consistent independent system 1
Consistent dependent system Multiple or infinitely many
Inconsistent system 0
The obtained matrix will be in row echelon form. The matrix is said to be in reduced row-
echelon form when all the leading coefficients equal 1, and every column containing a
leading coefficient has zeros elsewhere. This final form is unique; that means it is
independent of the sequence of row operations used. We can understand this in a
better way with the help of the example given below.
Chapter 4: Mathematical Functions

4.1 Functions in mathematics:
A function is a rule that assigns to each element in the set of input values (the domain),
one and only one element in the set of output values (the range)
Functions are written as” f(x)= an algebraic expression”. Since y=f(x), f(x) is the same
thing as y. This notation expresses x as the input into the function, and f(x) as the output
from the function.
Functions on finite sets can be defined by listing all the assignments.
A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the
property that each input is related to exactly one output. Let A & B be any two non-
empty sets; mapping from A to B will be a function only when every element in set A
has one end, only one image in set B.
Another definition of functions is that it is a relation “f” in which each element of set “A”
is mapped with only one element belonging to set “B”. Also in a function, there can’t be
two pairs with the same first element.
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A Condition for a Function:
Set A and Set B should be non-empty.
In a function, a particular input is given to get a particular output. So, A function f: A->B
denotes that f is a function from A to B, where A is a domain and B is a co-domain.
 For an element, a, which belongs to A, a ∈ A, a unique element b, b ∈ B is there such

that (a,b) ∈ f.
The unique element b to which f relates a, is denoted by f(a) and is called f of a, or the
value of f at a, or the image of a under f.
 The range of f (image of a under f)

 It is the set of all values of f(x) taken together.
 Range of f = { y ∈ Y | y = f (x), for some x in X}
A real-valued function has either P or any one of its subsets as its range. Further, if its
domain is also either P or a subset of P, it is called a real function.
Vertical Line Test:
Vertical line test is used to determine whether a curve is a function or not. If any curve
cuts a vertical line at more than one points then the curve is not a function.
Question: Find the output of the function g(t) = 6t2 + 5 at
(i) t = 0
(ii) t = 2
Solution:
The given function is g(t) = 6t2 + 5
(i) At t = 0, g(0) = 6(0)2 + 5 = 5
(ii) At t = 2, g(2) = 6(2)2 + 5 = 29
Example:
If A={1,2,3,4} and B={r,s,t,u,v} then "f(1)=t,f(2)=s,f(3)=u,f(4)=t'' defines a function from A
to B. The assignment can be done quite arbitrarily, without recourse to any formula.
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4.2 Types of Functions:
There are various types of functions in mathematics which are explained below in detail.
The different function types covered here are:
 One – one function (Injective function)

 Many – one function
 Onto – function (Surjective Function)
 Into – function
 Polynomial function
 Linear Function
 Identical Function
 Quadratic Function
 Rational Function
 Algebraic Functions
 Cubic Function
 Modulus Function
 Signum Function
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4.3 Graphical representation of functions:

One – one function (Injective function)
If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in the co-domain, the
function is said to be one – one function.
For examples f; R R given by f(x) = 3x + 5 is one – one.
Many – one function
On the other hand, if there are at least two elements in the domain whose images are
same, the function is known as many to one.
For example f : R R given by f(x) = x2 + 1 is many one.
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Onto – function (Surjective Function)
A function is called an onto function if each element in the co-domain has at least one
pre – image in the domain.
Into – function
If there exists at least one element in the co-domain which is not an image of any
element in the domain then the function will be Into function.
(Q) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 1} = B be a mapping f : A B, find the nature of the given function
(P). F(x) = |x|
f (x) = |1|
Solution for x = 1 & -1
Hence, it is many one the Range of f(x) from [-1, 1] is [0, 1], which is not equal to the co-
domain.
Hence, it is into function.
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Let’s say we have function,
For different values of Input, we have different output hence it is one – one function also
it manages is equal to its co-domain hence it is onto also.
Polynomial function
A real-valued function f : P → P defined by
, where n ∈ N and h0 + h1 + … + hn ∈ P, for each a ∈ P, is called polynomial function.
 N = a non-negative integer.
 The degree of the Polynomial function is the highest power in the expression.
 If the degree is zero, it’s called a constant function.
 If the degree is one, it’s called a linear function. Example: b = a+1.
 Graph type: Always a straight line.
So, a polynomial function can be expressed as :
The highest power in the expression is known as the degree of the polynomial
function. The different types of polynomial functions based on the degree are:
1. The polynomial function is called a Constant function if the degree is zero.

2. The polynomial function is called a Linear if the degree is one.
3. The polynomial function is Quadratic if the degree is two.
4. The polynomial function is Cubic if the degree is three.
Linear Function
All functions in the form of ax + b where a, b ∈ R & a ≠ 0 are called linear functions. The
graph will be a straight line. In other words, a linear polynomial function is a first-degree
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polynomial where the input needs to be multiplied by m and added to c. It can be

expressed by f(x) = mx + c.
For example, f(x) = 2x + 1 at x = 1
f(1) = 2.1 + 1 = 3
f(1) = 3
Another example of linear function is y = x + 3
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Identical Function
Two functions f and g are said to be identical if
(a) The domain of f = domain of g
(b) The range of f = the Range of g
(c) f(x) = g(x) ∀ x ∈ Df & Dg
For example f(x) = x
Solution: f(x) = x is defined for all x
But
is not defined of x = 0
Hence it is identical for x ∈ R – {0}
Quadratic Function
All functions in the form of y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ R, a ≠ 0 will be known as

Quadratic function. The graph will be parabolic.
, we will get its maximum on minimum value depends on the leading coefficient and that value
will be -D/4a (where D = Discriminant)
In simpler terms,
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A Quadratic polynomial function is a second degree polynomial, and it can be

expressed as;
F(x) = ax2 + bx + c, and a is not equal to zero.
Where a, b, c are constant, and x is a variable.
Example, f(x) = 2x2 + x – 1 at x = 2
If x = 2, f(2) = 2.22 + 2 – 1 = 9
For Example: y = x2
Rational Function
These are the real functions of the type
where f (a) and g (a) are polynomial functions of a defined in a domain, where g(a) ≠ 0.
 For example f : P – {– 6} → P defined by
 is a rational function.
 Graph type: Asymptotes (the curves touching the axes lines).
Algebraic Functions
An algebraic equation is known as a function that consists of a finite number of terms

involving powers and roots of independent variable x and fundamental operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
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For Example,
Cubic Function
A cubic polynomial function is a polynomial of degree three and can be expressed as;
F(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d and a is not equal to zero.
In other words, any function in the form of f(x) = ax 3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a, b, c, d ∈ R
&a≠0
For example: y = x3
Domain ∈ R
Range ∈ R
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Modulus Function
The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = |a| = a when a ≥ 0. and f(a) = -a when a <
0 ∀ a ∈ P is called the modulus function.
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P+ U {0}
Domain: R
Range: [0, ∞)
Signum Function
The real function f : P → P is defined by
is called the signum function or sign function. (gives the sign of real number)
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {1, 0, – 1}
For example: signum (100) = 1
signum (log 1) = 0
signum (x21) =1
Greatest Integer Function
The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = [a], a ∈ P assumes the value of the
greatest integer less than or equal to a, is called the greatest integer function.
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 Thus f (a) = [a] = – 1 for – 1 ⩽ a < 0

 f (a) = [a] = 0 for 0 ⩽ a < 1
 [a] = 1 for 1 ⩽ a < 2
 [a] = 2 for 2 ⩽ a < 3 and so on…
The greatest integer function always gives integral output. The Greatest integral value
that has been taken by the input will be the output.
For example: [4.5] = 4
[6.99] = 6
[1.2] = 2
Domain ∈ R
Range ∈ Integers
Fractional Part Function
{x} = x – [x]
It always gives fractional value as output.
For example:- {4.5} = 4.5 – [4.5]
= 4.5 – 4 = 0.5
{6.99} = 6.99 – [6.99]
= 6.99 – 6 = 0.99
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{7} = 7 – [7] = 7 –7 = 0
Even and Odd Function
If f(x) = f(-x) then the function will be even function & f(x) = -f(-x) then the function will be
odd function
Example 1:
f(x) = x2sinx
f(-x) = -x2sinx
Here, f(x) = -f(-x)
It is an odd function.
Example 2:
and
f(x) = f(-x)
It is an even function.
Periodic Function
A function is said to be a periodic function if a positive real number T exists, such that
f(u – t) = f(x) for all x ε Domain.
For example f(x) = sin x
f(x + 2π) = sin (x + 2π) = sin x fundamental
then period of sin x is 2π
Composite Function
Let A, B, C be three non-empty sets
Let f: A → B & g : G → C be two functions, then gof : A → C. This function is called the
composition of f and g given gof (x) = g(f(x)).
For example f(x) = x2 & g(x) = 2x
f(g(x)) = f(2x) = (2x)2 = 4x2
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g(f(x)) = g(x2) = 2x2
Constant Function
The function f : P → P is defined by b = f (x) = D, a ∈ P, where D is a constant ∈ P, is a

constant function.
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {D}
 Graph type: A straight line which is parallel to the x-axis.
In simple words, the polynomial of 0th degree where f(x) = f(0) = a 0 = c. Regardless of
the input, the output always results in a constant value. The graph for this is a horizontal
line.
Identity Function
P= set of real numbers
The function f : P → P defined by b = f (a) = a for each a ∈ P is called the identity

function.
 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P
 Graph type: A straight line passing through the origin.
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Chapter 5 Linear Functions: Applications

5.1 Linear Functions
What is a Linear Function?
A linear function is a function which forms a straight line in a graph. It is generally a

polynomial function whose degree is utmost 1 or 0. Although the linear functions are
also represented in terms of calculus as well as linear algebra. The only difference is
the function notation. Knowing an ordered pair written in function notation is necessary
too. f(a) is called a function, where a is an independent variable in which the function is
dependent. Linear Function Graph has a straight line whose expression or formula is
given by;
y = f(x) = px + q
It has one independent and one dependent variable. The independent variable is x and
the dependent one is y. P is the constant term or the y-intercept and is also the value of
the dependent variable. When x = 0, q is the coefficient of the independent variable
known as slope which gives the rate of change of the dependent variable.
What is a Nonlinear Function?
A function which is not linear is called nonlinear function. In other words, a function
which does not form a straight line in a graph. The examples of such functions are
exponential function, parabolic function, inverse functions, quadratic function, etc. All
these functions do not satisfy the linear equation y = m x + c. The expression for all
these functions is different.
Linear Function Graph
Graphing a linear equation involves three simple steps:
1. Firstly, we need to find the two points which satisfy the equation, y = px+q.
2. Now plot these points in the graph or X-Y plane.
3. Join the two points in the plane with the help of a straight line.
Linear Function Table
See the below table where the notation of the ordered pair is generalized in normal form
and function form.
A normal ordered pair A function notation ordered pair
(a,b) = (2,5) f(a) = y coordinate, a=2 and y = 5, f(2) = 5
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Using the table, we can verify the linear function, by examining the values of x and y.
For the linear function, the rate of change of y with respect the variable x remains
constant. Then, the rate of change is called the slope.
Linear Function Formula
The expression for the linear function is the formula to graph a straight line. The
expression for the linear equation is;
y = mx + c
where m is the slope, c is the intercept and (x,y) are the coordinates. This formula is
also called slope formula.
While in terms of function, we can express the above expression as.
f(x) = a x + b, where x is the independent variable.
Linear Function Characteristics
Let’s move on to see how we can use function notation to graph 2 points on the grid.
 Relation: It is a group of ordered pairs.

 Variable: A symbol that shows a quantity in a math expression.
 Linear function: If each term is either a constant or It is the product of a constant and
also (the first power of) a single variable, then it is called as an algebraic equation.
 Function: A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible
outputs. It has a property that each input is related to exactly one output.
 Steepness: The rate at which a function deviates from a reference
 Direction: Increasing, decreasing, horizontal or vertical.
Linear Function Example
Graphing of linear functions needs to learn linear equations in two variables.
Example:
Find an equation of the linear function given f(2) = 5 and f(6) = 3.
Solution: Let’s write it in an ordered pair
f(2) = 5, and f(6) = 3
(2, 5) (6, 3)
Find the slope.
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(2, 5) (6, 3)
Slope = -1/2
In the equation, substitute the slope and y intercept, write an equation like this: y =
mx+c
5 = -(½) (2) + b
5 = -1 + b
b=5+1
b = 6, which is a y-intercept.
y = mx+b
y = -(½) (x) + 6
In function Notation: f(x) = -(½) (x) + 6
Linear Cost functions

The cost function, C(x), is the total cost of manufacturing x units of the product.
Fixed costs are the costs that remain regardless of the company’s activity. Examples: building
fees (rent or mortgage), executive salaries. Variable costs are costs that vary with the
production or sales.
Linear Revenue Functions

The revenue function, R(x), is the total revenue realized from the sale of x units of the product.
Examples; wages of production staff, raw materials
Linear Profit Functions

The profit function, P(x), is the total profit realized from the manufacturing and sale of the x units
of product.
CHAPTER 6 Quadratic and polynomial functions

6.1 Quadratic Functions and Their Characteristics
A quadratic function is one of the form f(x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are numbers with a
not equal to zero. The graph of a quadratic function is a curve called a parabola.
Determining the Characteristics of a Quadratic Function Using Various Methods
Determine the following characteristics of the quadratic function

y=−2x2+4x+6y=−2x2+4x+6:
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• Opening of the graph
• y−y−intercept
• x−x−intercept(s)
• Vertex
• Axis of symmetry
• Domain
• Range
• Minimum/Maximum value
6.2 Quadratic Functions: Applications

Using the Parabola
A very common and easy-to-understand application of a quadratic function is the

trajectory followed by objects thrown upward at an angle. In these cases, the parabola
represents the path of the ball (or rock, or arrow, or whatever is tossed). If we plot
distance on the `x`-axis and height on the `y`-axis, the distance of the throw will be the
`x` value when `y` is zero. This value is one of the roots of a quadratic equation, or x-
intercepts, of the parabola. We know how to find the roots of a quadratic equation—by
either factoring, completing the square, or by applying the quadratic formula.
Let’s look at a throw made by a shot-putter. Notice that `x = 0` when the shot-putter has
the shot (a heavy metal ball) in his hand—the shot hasn't gone anywhere yet. The shot-
putter usually starts with the shot at his shoulder, so `y` (height) is not `0` when `x = 0`:
6.3 Polynomial and Rational Functions

Polynomial Functions
A polynomial function is a function that can be expressed in the form of a polynomial.

The definition can be derived from the definition of a polynomial equation. A polynomial
is generally represented as P(x). The highest power of the variable of P(x) is known as
its degree. Degree of a polynomial function is very important as it tells us about the
behavior of the function P(x) when x becomes very large. The domain of a polynomial
function is entire real numbers (R).
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If P(x) = an xn + an-1 xn-1+.……….…+a2 x2 + a1 x + a0, then for x ≫ 0 or x ≪ 0, P(x) ≈ an

xn. Thus, polynomial functions approach power functions for very large values of their
variables.
Polynomial Function Examples
A polynomial function has only positive integers as exponents. We can even perform
different types of arithmetic operations for such functions like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division.
Some of the examples of polynomial functions are here:
 x2+2x+1
 3x-7
 7x3+x2-2
All three expressions above are polynomial since all of the variables have positive
integer exponents. But expressions like;
 5x-1+1
 4x1/2+3x+1
 (9x +1) ÷ (x)
are not polynomials, we cannot consider negative integer exponents or fraction

exponent or division here.
Rational Functions
A number that can be expressed in the form of
where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0, is a rational number.
Just like rational numbers, the rational function definition as:
Definition: A rational function R(x) is the function in the form
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial functions and Q(x) is a non-zero polynomial.
R(x) =
, Q(x) ≠ 0
From the given condition for Q(x), we can conclude that zeroes of the polynomial
function in the denominator do not fall in the domain of the function. When Q(x) = 1, i.e.
a constant polynomial function, the rational function becomes a polynomial function.
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Graphing Rational Functions
One very important concept for graphing rational functions is to know about their
asymptotes. An asymptote is a line or curve which stupidly approaches the curve
forever but yet never touches it. In fig. 1, an example of asymptotes is given.
Figure 1: Asymptotes
Asymptotes of Rational Functions
Rational functions can have 3 types of asymptotes:
1. Horizontal Asymptotes
2. Vertical Asymptotes
3. Oblique Asymptote
Horizontal Asymptotes
This literally means that the asymptote is horizontal i.e. parallel to the axis of the
independent variable. R(x) can only have a horizontal asymptote if
Degree of P(x) ≤ Degree of Q(x)
To determine the asymptotes, divide the numerator and the denominator of R(x) by
. After that, find the value R(x) approaches as x tends to a very large value. This value gives the
height of the asymptote.
Vertical Asymptotes
R(x) will have vertical asymptotes at the zeros of Q(x). This is because at the zeros of
Q(x), Q(x)=0. This means that just towards the left and right of the zero of Q(x), the
value of Q will be very small negative and positive number respectively. Value of R(x)
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will be a largely negative and positive number respectively, towards just left and right of
that point.
Oblique Asymptotes
R(x) will have oblique asymptote if it can be represented in the form
.
When Q(x) ≫ 0, R(x) ≈ T(x). The curve or line T(x) hence becomes an oblique asymptote.
To quote an example, let us take R(x) =
Here, the degree of P(x) is greater than that of Q(x). So, it can’t have a horizontal
asymptote. But it will have a vertical asymptote at x=-1. This is because that point is the
zero of its denominator polynomial.
It can also be written as R(x) =
. So, when x ≫ 0, R(x) ≈ x + 2. So, y = x + 2 will be an oblique asymptote. The graph of the
function and all the asymptotes are shown in fig. 2.
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Figure 2: A rational function with its asymptotes
CHAPTER 7 Exponential and logarithmic functions

7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions
An exponential function is a Mathematical function in the form f (x) = a x, where “x” is a

variable and “a” is a constant which is called the base of the function and it should be
greater than 0. The most commonly used exponential function base is the
transcendental number e, which is approximately equal to 2.71828.
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Exponential Function Formula
An exponential function is defined by the formula f(x) = a x, where the input variable x

occurs as an exponent. The exponential curve depends on the exponential function and
it depends on the value of the x.
The exponential function is an important mathematical function which is of the form
f(x) = ax
Where a>0 and a is not equal to 1.
x is any real number.
If the variable is negative, the function is undefined for -1 < x < 1.
Here,
“x” is a variable
“a” is a constant, which is the base of the function.
An exponential curve grows, or decay depends on the exponential function. Any

quantity that grows or decays by a fixed per cent at regular intervals should possess
either exponential growth or exponential decay.
Exponential Growth
In Exponential Growth, the quantity increases very slowly at first, and then rapidly. The
rate of change increases over time. The rate of growth becomes faster as time passes.
The rapid growth is meant to be an “exponential increase”. The formula to define the
exponential growth is:
y = a ( 1+ r )x
Where r is the growth percentage.
Exponential Decay
In Exponential Decay, the quantity decreases very rapidly at first, and then slowly. The
rate of change decreases over time. The rate of change becomes slower as time
passes. The rapid growth meant to be an “exponential decrease”. The formula to define
the exponential growth is:
y = a ( 1- r )x
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Where r is the decay percentage.
Exponential Function Graph
The following figure represents the graph of exponents of x. It can be seen that as the
exponent increases, the curves get steeper and the rate of growth increases
respectively. Thus, for x > 1, the value of y = f n(x) increases for increasing values of (n).
From the above, it can be seen that the nature of polynomial functions is dependent on
their degree. The higher the degree of any polynomial function, the higher its growth. A
function which grows faster than a polynomial function is y = f(x) = a x, where a>1. Thus,
for any of the positive integers n the function f (x) is said to grow faster than that of f n(x).
Thus, the exponential function having base greater than 1, i.e., a > 1 is defined as y =
f(x) = ax. The domain of exponential function will be the set of entire real numbers R and
the range are said to be the set of all the positive real numbers.
It must be noted that the exponential function is increasing and the point (0, 1) always
lies on the graph of an exponential function. Also, it is very close to zero if the value of x
is mostly negative.
Exponential function having base 10 is known as a common exponential function.

Consider the following series:
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The value of this series lies between 2 & 3. It is represented by e. Keeping e as the
base of the function, we get y = ex, which is a very important function in mathematics
known as a natural exponential function.
For a > 1, the logarithm of b to base a is x if a x = b. Thus, loga b = x if ax = b. This

function is known as logarithmic function.
For base a = 10, this function is known as a common logarithm and for the base a = e, it
is known as a natural logarithm denoted by ln x. Following are some of the important
observations regarding logarithmic functions which have a base a>1.
 The domain of log function consists of positive real numbers only, as we cannot interpret
the meaning of log functions for negative values.
 For the log function, though the domain is only the set of positive real numbers, the
range is a set of all real values, i.e. R
 When we plot the graph of log functions and move from left to right, the functions show
increasing behaviour.
 The graph of log function never cuts the x-axis or y-axis, though it seems to tend toward
them.
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 Logap = α, logbp = β and logba = µ, then aα = p, bβ = p and bµ = a

 Logbpq = Logbp + Logbq
 Logbpy = ylogbp
 Logb (p/q) = logbp – logbq
Exponential Function Derivative
Let us now focus on the derivative of exponential functions.
The derivative of ex with respect to x is ex, i.e. d(ex)/dx = ex
It is noted that the exponential function f(x) =e x has a special property. It means that the
derivative of the function is the function itself.
(i.e) f ‘(x) = ex = f(x)
Exponential Series
The exponential series are given below.
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Exponential Function Properties
The exponential graph of a function represents the exponential function properties.
Let us consider the exponential function, y = 2x
The graph of function y = 2x is shown below.
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Exponential Function Graph for y = 2x
The properties of the exponential function graph when the base is greater than 1 are
given below.
 The graph passes through the point (0,1).

 The domain is all real numbers
 The range is y>0
 The graph is increasing
 The graph is asymptotic to the x-axis as x approaches negative infinity
 The graph increases without bound as x approaches positive infinity
 The graph is continuous
 The graph is smooth
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Exponential Function Graph y=2-x
The graph of function y=2-x is shown above. The properties of the exponential function
and its graph when the base is between 0 and 1 are given.
 The line passes through the point (0,1)

 The domain includes all real numbers
 The range is of y>0
 It forms a decreasing graph
 The line in the graph above is asymptotic to the x-axis as x approaches positive infinity
 The line increases without bound as x approaches negative infinity
 It is a continuous graph
 It forms a smooth graph
Exponential Function Rules
Some important exponential rules are given below:
If a>0, and b>0, the following hold true for all the real numbers x and y:
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o ax ay = ax+y
o ax/ay = ax-y
o (ax)y = axy
o axbx=(ab)x
o (a/b)x= ax/bx
o a0=1
o a-x= 1/ ax
Exponential Functions Examples
The examples of exponential functions are:
 f(x) = 2x
 f(x) = 1/ 2x = 2-x
 f(x) = 2x+3
 f(x) = 0.5x
Solved Problems
Question 1:
Simplify the exponential function 2x – 2x+1
Solution:
Given exponential function: 2x – 2x+1
By using the property: ax ay = ax+y
Hence, 2x+1 can be written as 2x. 2

Thus the given function is written as:
2x-2x+1 = 2x-2x. 2
Now, factor out the term 2x
2x-2x+1 = 2x-2x. 2 = 2x(1-2)
2x-2x+1 = 2x(-1)
2x-2x+1 = – 2x
Therefore, the simplification of the given exponential function 2x – 2x+1 is – 2x.
Question 2:
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Solve the exponential equation: (¼)x = 64
Solution:
Given exponential equation is:
(¼)x = 64
Using the exponential rule (a/b)x = ax/bx, we get;
1x/4x = 43
1/4x = 43 [since 1x = 1]
(1)(4-x) = 43
4-x = 43
Here, bases are equal.
So, by equating the power we have;
x = -3
7.2
7.3 Applications of Exponential Functions

Applications of Exponential Functions
For her eighth birthday, Shelley’s grandmother gave her a full bag of candy. Shelley
counted her candy and found out that there were 160 pieces in the bag. As you might
suspect, Shelley loves candy, so she ate half the candy on the first day. Then her
mother told her that if she eats it at that rate, the candy will only last one more day—so
Shelley devised a clever plan. She will always eat half of the candy that is left in the bag
each day. She thinks that this way she can eat candy every day and never run out.
How much candy does Shelley have at the end of the week? Will the candy really last
forever?
Let’s make a table of values for this problem.
You can see that if Shelley eats half the candies each day, then by the end of the week
she only has 1.25 candies left in her bag.
Let’s write an equation for this exponential function. Using the formula , we can see that
is 160. The number of candies she starts out with and is , so our equation is
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Now let’s graph this function. The resulting graph is shown below.
So, will Shelley’s candy last forever? We saw that by the end of the week she has 1.25
candies left, so there doesn’t seem to be much hope for that. But if you look at the
graph, you’ll see that the graph never really gets to zero. Theoretically there will always
be some candy left, but Shelley will be eating very tiny fractions of a candy every day
after the first week!
This is a fundamental feature of an exponential decay function. Its values get smaller
and smaller but never quite reach zero. In mathematics, we say that the function has an
asymptote at ; in other words, it gets closer and closer to the line but never quite meets
it.
Problem-Solving Strategies
1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan – Translate.
3. Carry out the plan – Solve.
4. Look – Check and Interpret.
We can use this plan to solve application problems involving exponential functions.
Compound interest, loudness of sound, population increase, population decrease or
radioactive decay are all applications of exponential functions. In these problems, we’ll
use the methods of constructing a table and identifying a pattern to help us devise a
plan for solving the problems.
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Real-World Application: Investing Money
Suppose $4000 is invested at 6% interest compounded annually. How much money will
there be in the bank at the end of 5 years? At the end of 20 years?
Step 1: Read the problem and summarize the information.
$4000 is invested at 6% interest compounded annually; we want to know how much

money we have in five years.
Assign variables:
Let
time in years
Let
amount of money in investment account
Step 2: Look for a pattern.
We start with $4000 and each year we add 6% interest to the amount in the bank.
The pattern is that each year we multiply the previous amount by the factor of 1.06.
Let’s fill in a table of values:
We see that at the end of five years we have $5352.90 in the investment account
7.4 Logarithms
logarithm, the exponent or power to which a base must be raised to yield a

given number. Expressed mathematically, x is the logarithm of n to the base b if
bx = n, in which case one writes x = logb n. For example, 23 = 8; therefore, 3 is the
logarithm of 8 to base 2, or 3 = log2 8. In the same fashion, since 102 = 100, then
2 = log10 100. Logarithms of the latter sort (that is, logarithms with base 10) are
called common, or Briggsian, logarithms and are written simply log n.
Invented in the 17th century to speed up calculations, logarithms vastly reduced

the time required for multiplying numbers with many digits. They were basic in
numerical work for more than 300 years, until the perfection of mechanical
calculating machines in the late 19th century and computers in the 20th century
rendered them obsolete for large-scale computations. The natural logarithm (with
base e ≅ 2.71828 and written ln n), however, continues to be one of the most
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useful functions in mathematics, with applications to mathematical models

throughout the physical and biological sciences.
7.5 Properties of logarithms
Logarithms were quickly adopted by scientists because of various useful

properties that simplified long, tedious calculations. In particular, scientists could
find the product of two numbers m and n by looking up each number’s logarithm
in a special table, adding the logarithms together, and then consulting the table
again to find the number with that calculated logarithm (known as its
antilogarithm). Expressed in terms of common logarithms, this relationship is
given by log mn = log m + log n. For example, 100 × 1,000 can be calculated by
looking up the logarithms of 100 (2) and 1,000 (3), adding the logarithms together
(5), and then finding its antilogarithm (100,000) in the table. Similarly, division
problems are converted into subtraction problems with logarithms:
log m/n = log m − log n. This is not all; the calculation of powers and roots can be
simplified with the use of logarithms. Logarithms can also be converted between
any positive bases (except that 1 cannot be used as the base since all of its
powers are equal to 1)
CHAPTER 8 Mathematics of finance

8.1 Interest and Its Computation
Simple Interest
Simple interest is a method to calculate the amount of interest charged on a sum at a

given rate and for a given period of time. In simple interest, the principal amount is
always the same, unlike compound interest where we add the interest of previous years
principal to calculate the interest of the next year.
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the concept of borrowing money and the simple
interest that is derived from borrowing. You will also be introduced to terms such as
principal, amount, rate of interest, and time period. Through these terms, you can
calculate simple interest using the simple interest formula.
What is Simple Interest?
Simple interest is a quick and easy method to calculate interest on the money, in the
simple interest method interest always applies to the original principal amount, with the
same rate of interest for every time cycle. When we invest our money in any bank, the
bank provides us interest on our amount. The interest applied by the banks is of many
types one of them is simple interest. Now, before going deeper into the concept of
simple interest, let's first understand what is the meaning of a loan.
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A loan is an amount that a person borrows from a bank or a financial authority to fulfill
their needs. Loan examples include home loans, car loans, education loans, and
personal loans. A loan amount is required to be returned by the person to the authorities
on time with an extra amount, which is usually the interest you pay on the loan.
Simple Interest Formula
Simple interest is calculated with the following formula: S.I. = P × R × T, where P =
Principal, R = Rate of Interest in % per annum, and T = Time, usually calculated as the
number of years. The rate of interest is in percentage r% and is to be written as r/100.
 Principal: The principal is the amount that initially borrowed from the bank or invested.
The principal is denoted by P.
 Rate: Rate is the rate of interest at which the principal amount is given to someone for a
certain time, the rate of interest can be 5%, 10%, or 13%, etc. The rate of interest is
denoted by R.
 Time: Time is the duration for which the principal amount is given to someone. Time is
denoted by T.
 Amount: When a person takes a loan from a bank, he/she has to return the principal
borrowed plus the interest amount, and this total returned is called Amount.
Amount = Principal + Simple Interest
A = P + S.I.
A = P + PRT
A = P(1 + RT)
Compound Interest
Interest on interest also referred to as compound interest is the interest earned when
interest payments are reinvested. Compound interest is used in the context of bonds.
Coupon payments from bonds are assumed to be reinvested at some interest rate and
held until the bond is sold or matures.
Compound interest refers to the interest owed or received on an investment, and it

grows at a faster rate than simple interest.
How to Calculate Interest on Interest
When calculating interest-on-interest, the compound interest formula determines the

amount of accumulated interest on the principal amount invested or borrowed. The
principal amount, the annual interest rate, and the number of compounding periods are
used to calculate the compound interest on a loan or deposit.
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The formula to calculate compound interest is to add 1 to the interest rate in decimal
form, raise this sum to the total number of compound periods, and multiply this solution
by the principal amount. The original principal amount is subtracted from the resulting
value.
8.2 Single Payment Computations

Single Payment Compound-Amount Factor
As explained earlier, the future value of money after n period with an interest rate of i
can be calculated using the Equation 1-1: F=P(1+i)n which can also be written
regarding Table 1-1 notation as: F=P*F/Pi,n.
With an investment that pays simple interest, the amount of interest accumulated each
period depends solely on the amount invested, not on prior interest earned and left in
the account. The following single payment equation applies to simple interest: F = P (1
+ I * n)
8.3 Annuities and Their Future Value
The future value of an annuity is the value of a group of recurring payments at a certain
date in the future, assuming a particular rate of return, or discount rate. The higher the
discount rate, the greater the annuity's future value. As long as all of the variables
surrounding the annuity are known such as payment amount, projected rate, and
number of periods, it is possible to calculate the future value of the annuity.
Key Takeaways
 The future value of an annuity is a way of calculating how much money a series of
payments will be worth at a certain point in the future.
 By contrast, the present value of an annuity measures how much money will be required
to produce a series of future payments.
 In an ordinary annuity, payments are made at the end of each agreed-upon period. In an
annuity due, payments are made at the beginning of each period.
 To calculate the future value of an annuity, you must know the annuity payment amount,
number of periods, and projected rate of return.
 Because annuity due payments often entail having an additional compounding period,
the future value of an annuity due will usually be higher than the future value of an
annuity.
Understanding the Future Value of an Annuity
Because of the time value of money, money received or paid out today is worth more
than the same amount of money will be in the future. That's because the money can be
invested and allowed to grow over time. By the same logic, a lump sum of $5,000 today
is worth more than a series of five $1,000 annuity payments spread out over five years.
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Ordinary annuities are more common, but an annuity due will result in a higher future
value, all else being equal.
Formula and Calculation of the Future Value of an Annuity
The formula for the future value of an ordinary annuity is as follows. (An ordinary
annuity pays interest at the end of a particular period, rather than at the beginning, as is
the case with an annuity due.)
P=PMT×((1+r)n−1)rwhere:P=Future value of an annuity streamPMT=Dollar amount of e
ach annuity paymentr=Interest rate (also known as discount rate)n=Number of periods i
n which payments will be madeP=PMT×r
((1+r)n−1)where:P=Future value of an annuity streamPMT=Dollar amount of each annui
ty paymentr=Interest rate (also known as discount rate)n=Number of periods in which p
ayments will be made
Future Value of an Annuity Due
With an annuity due, where payments are made at the beginning of each period, the
formula is slightly different. To find the future value of an annuity due, simply multiply
the formula above by a factor of (1 + r). So:
P=PMT×((1+r)n−1)r×(1+r)P=PMT×r
((1+r)n−1)×(1+r)
Future Value of an Annuity Example
Assume someone decides to invest $125,000 per year for the next five years in an
annuity they expect to compound at 8% per year. In this example, the series of
payments is a regular annuity in which the payments are made at the end of each
period. The expected future value of this payment stream using the above formula is as
follows:
Future value=$125,000×((1+0.08)5−1)0.08=$733,325Future value=$125,000×0.08
((1+0.08)5−1)=$733,325
Future Value of an Annuity Due
Assume the same example as above was an annuity due. This means each of the
$125,000 payments was made at the beginning of each period. Its future value would
be calculated as follows:
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Future value=$125,000×((1+0.08)5−1)0.08×(1+0.08)=$791,991Future value
=$125,000×0.08
((1+0.08)5−1)×(1+0.08)=$791,991
All else being equal, the future value of an annuity due will be greater than the future
value of an ordinary annuity because it has had an extra period to accumulate
compounded interest. In this example, the future value of the annuity due is $58,666
more than that of the ordinary annuity.
8.4 Annuities and Their Present Value
Present Value of an Annuity: Meaning, Formula, and Example

What Is the Present Value of an Annuity?
The present value of an annuity is the current value of future payments from an annuity,
given a specified rate of return, or discount rate. The higher the discount rate, the lower
the present value of the annuity.
Present value (PV) is an important calculation that relies on the concept of the time
value of money, whereby a dollar today is relatively more "valuable" in terms of its
purchasing power than a dollar in the future.
Key Takeaways
 The present value of an annuity refers to how much money would be needed today to
fund a series of future annuity payments.
 Because of the time value of money, a sum of money received today is worth more than
the same sum at a future date.
 You can use a present value calculation to determine whether you'll receive more money
by taking a lump sum now or an annuity spread out over a number of years.
1:08
Present Value of an Annuity
Understanding the Present Value of an Annuity
An annuity is a financial product that provides a stream of payments to an individual

over a period, typically in the form of regular installments. Annuities can be either
immediate or deferred, depending on when the payments begin. Immediate annuities
start paying out right away, while deferred annuities have a delay before payments
begin.
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Because of the time value of money, money received today is worth more than the
same amount of money in the future because it can be invested in the meantime. By the
same logic, $5,000 received today is worth more than the same amount spread over
five annual installments of $1,000 each.
Present value is an important concept for annuities because it allows individuals to

compare the value of receiving a series of payments in the future to the value of
receiving a lump sum payment today. By calculating the present value of an annuity,
individuals can determine whether it is more beneficial for them to receive a lump sum
payment or to receive an annuity spread out over a number of years. This can be
particularly important when making financial decisions, such as whether to take a lump
sum payment from a pension plan or to receive a series of payments from an annuity.
Present value calculations can also be used to compare the relative value of different
annuity options, such as annuities with different payment amounts or different payment
schedules.
Present Value and the Discount Rate
The discount rate is a key factor in calculating the present value of an annuity. The
discount rate is an assumed rate of return or interest rate that is used to determine the
present value of future payments.
The discount rate reflects the time value of money, which means that a dollar today is
worth more than a dollar in the future because it can be invested and potentially earn a
return. The higher the discount rate, the lower the present value of the annuity, because
the future payments are discounted more heavily. Conversely, a lower discount rate
results in a higher present value for the annuity, because the future payments are
discounted less heavily.
In general, the discount rate used to calculate the present value of an annuity should
reflect the individual's opportunity cost of capital, or the return they could expect to earn
by investing in other financial instruments. For example, if an individual could earn a 5%
return by investing in a high-quality corporate bond, they might use a 5% discount rate
when calculating the present value of an annuity. The smallest discount rate used in
these calculations is the risk-free rate of return. U.S. Treasury bonds are generally
considered to be the closest thing to a risk-free investment, so their return is often used
for this purpose.
It's important to note that the discount rate used in the present value calculation is not
the same as the interest rate that may be applied to the payments in the annuity. The
discount rate reflects the time value of money, while the interest rate applied to the
annuity payments reflects the cost of borrowing or the return earned on the investment.
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CHAPTER 9 Matrix algebra

9.1 Introduction to Matrices
A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions, organized in
rows and columns. You will get a complete matrix introduction following all the
parts :
 Introduction to matrix algebra
 Introduction to matrices and determinants
 Introduction of eigenvalues and eigenvectors
 Introduction to matrix algebra
All these are introductions to matrices with applications in statistics. So, now at
first, it's important to get a brief introduction about matrices.
Introduction to Matrices
In mathematics, a matrix is also known as matrices. It is a rectangular array of
numbers, figures, or expressions, organized in rows and columns. Matrices are
usually written in box brackets. In matrices, the horizontal and vertical lines of
entries are rows and columns. The size of a matrix is determined by the number
of rows and columns that it holds. A matrix with m rows and n columns is named
an m × n matrix or M-by-N matrix, while m and n are described its dimensions.
The dimensions of the resulting matrix are 2 × 3 up (read “two by three”) as there
are 2 rows and 3 columns.
A=
[19−2013]
[15−6]
The individual parts that are the numbers, symbols, or expressions in a matrix
are named as their entries.
Given that they are the equivalent size-means having the same number of rows
and the equal number of columns), 2 matrices can be plus or minus part by part.
The rule for matrix multiplication, though, is that 2 matrices can be multiplied only
when the number of columns in the 1st matches the number of rows in the
second. Any matrix can be multiplied partwise by a scalar from its related area.
Matrices that have a singular row are named row vectors, and those which have
a single column are described column vectors. A matrix that has an equal
number of rows and columns is defined as a square matrix. In some connections,
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like computer-based algebra programs, it is helpful to study a matrix with no rows

or no columns, named an empty matrix.
This was just a small matrix introduction and an intro to matrices. Now let's talk
about the different applications of matrices.
Several operations can be used to change matrices like matrix addition,
subtraction, and scalar multiplication. These form the basic methods to work with
matrices.
These methods can be used in estimating totals, differentiation, and information
of products. Take an example of sodas that come in 3 different flavors: lime,
orange, and berry, and two different packages: bottle and can. Two tables
summing the total sales within last month and this month are recorded to show
the amounts. Matrix plus, minus, and scalar multiply can be used to find such
things as the sales of the end month and the sales of the present month, the
average sales for all flavors, and the packaging of soda in the 2 months.
Introduction to Matrix Algebra: Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication

Here, we will go through an introduction to matrices with applications in statistics
and basic mathematics.
Adding and Subtracting Matrices Concepts
We use matrices to list information or to represent systems. Because the entries

are numbers, we can apply methods on matrices. We plus or minus matrices by
adding or subtracting corresponding entries.
To do this, the entries must correspond. Therefore, the plus and minus of
matrices are only applicable when the matrices have equal dimensions.
Adding matrices is very simple. Just add each element in the first matrix to the
corresponding element in the second matrix. One of the basic methods that can
be done on matrices is the addition process. Just as we plus two or more
integers, two or more matrices can also be added similarly. This is identified as
the Addition of Matrices.
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Multiplying Matrices Concepts
When the number of columns of the 1st matrix should match the number of rows
of the 2nd matrix. In other words, To multiply an m × n matrix by an n × p matrix,
the ns need to be the equivalent, and the result is an m×p matrix.
(m × n) × (n × p) → m × p
Scalar multiplication is usually multiplying a value through all the parts of a
matrix, whereas matrix multiplication is multiplying every part of each row of the
first matrix times every element of each column in the second matrix. Scalar
multiplication is much more manageable than matrix multiplication; though, a
pattern does exist.
When multiplying matrices, the parts of the rows in the 1st matrix are multiplied
with corresponding columns in the 2nd matrix. Each note of the resultant matrix
is estimated one at a time.
Introduction to Matrices and Determinants

Now let's understand the concept of matrices and determinants, and their
relation.
A determinant seems very much like a matrix, but it is, really, pretty different.
Unlike a matrix, a determinant isn’t simply an array of numbers. It also has a
value, which can be determined using methods. The other major difference to
take note of now is that even though in a matrix, the number of rows does not
have to equal the number of columns. In a determinant, they need to be equal. In
short, all determinants are square.
Concept of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Here’s a short introduction to eigenvalues and eigenvectors with matrix –
For a square matrix B, and Eigenvector and Eigenvalue make equation as :
B×x=λ×x
9.2 Special Types of Matrices

Matrix refers to a rectangular array of numbers. A matrix consists of rows and columns.
These rows and columns define the size or dimension of a matrix. The various types of
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matrices are row matrix, column matrix, null matrix, square matrix, diagonal matrix,
upper triangular matrix, lower triangular matrix, symmetric matrix, and antisymmetric
matrix.
9.3 Matrix Operations
Matrix operations mainly involve three algebraic operations which are addition of
matrices, subtraction of matrices, and multiplication of matrices. Matrix is a rectangular
array of numbers or expressions arranged in rows and columns. Important applications
of matrices can be found in mathematics.
All these operations on matrices are covered in this article along with their properties
and solved examples.
Operations on Matrices
Addition, subtraction and multiplication are the basic operations on the matrix. To add or
subtract matrices, these must be of identical order and for multiplication, the number of
columns in the first matrix equals the number of rows in the second matrix.
 Addition of Matrices
 Subtraction of Matrices
 Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
 Multiplication of Matrices
Addition of Matrices
If A[aij]mxn and B[bij]mxn are two matrices of the same order, then their sum A + B is a
matrix, and each element of that matrix is the sum of the corresponding elements. i.e. A
+ B = [aij + bij]mxn
Consider the two matrices A & B of order 2 x 2. Then the sum is given by:
Properties of Matrix Addition: If a, B and C are matrices of same order, then
(a) Commutative Law: A + B = B + A
(b) Associative Law: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
(c) Identity of the Matrix: A + O = O + A = A, where O is zero matrix which is additive

identity of the matrix,
(d) Additive Inverse: A + (-A) = 0 = (-A) + A, where (-A) is obtained by changing the
sign of every element of A which is additive inverse of the matrix,
(e)
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(f) tr(A ± B) = tr(A) ± tr(B)
(g) If A + B = 0 = B + A, then B is called additive inverse of A and also A is called the

additive inverse of A.
Subtraction of Matrices
If A and B are two matrices of the same order, then we define
Consider the two matrices A & B of order 2 x 2. Then the difference is given by:
We can subtract the matrices by subtracting each element of one matrix from the
corresponding element of the second matrix. i.e. A – B = [a ij – bij]mxn
Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
If A = [aij]m×n is a matrix and k any number, then the matrix which is obtained by
multiplying the elements of A by k is called the scalar multiplication of A by k and it is
denoted by k A thus if A = [aij]m×n.
Then
Properties of Scalar Multiplication: If A, B are matrices of the same order and λ

and μ are any two scalars then;
(a) λ(A + B) = λA + λB
(b) (λ + μ)A = λA + μA
(c) λ(μA) = (λμA) = μ(λA)
(d) (-λA) = -(λA) = λ(-A)
(e) tr(kA) = k tr(A)
Multiplication of Matrices
If A and B be any two matrices, then their product AB will be defined only when the
number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B.
If
will be a matrix of order m×p where
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Properties of matrix multiplication
(a) Matrix multiplication is not commutative in general, i.e. in general
(b) Matrix multiplication is associative, i.e. (AB)C = A(BC).
(c) Matrix multiplication is distributive over matrix addition, i.e. A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C
and (A + B)C = AC + BC.
(d) If A is an m × n matrix, then
(e) The product of two matrices can be a null matrix while neither of them is null, i.e. if
AB = 0, it is not necessary that either A = 0 or B = 0.
(f) If A is an m × n matrix and O is a null matrix then
i.e. the product of the matrix with a null matrix is always a null matrix.
(g) If AB = 0 (It does not mean that A = 0 or B = 0, again the product of two non-zero
matrices may be a zero matrix).
(h) If AB = AC , B ≠ C (Cancellation Law is not applicable).
(i) tr(AB) = tr(BA)
(j) There exist a multiplicative identity for every square matrix such AI = IA = A
9.4 The Determinant
In mathematics, the determinant is a scalar value that is a function of the entries of

a square matrix. It characterizes some properties of the matrix and the linear map
represented by the matrix. In particular, the determinant is nonzero if and only if the
matrix is invertible and the linear map represented by the matrix is an isomorphism.
The determinant of a product of matrices is the product of their determinants (the
preceding property is a corollary of this one). The determinant of a matrix A is
denoted det(A), det A, or |A|. The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix is
and the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix is
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The determinant of a n × n matrix can be defined in several equivalent ways. Leibniz formula
expresses the determinant as a sum of signed products of matrix entries such that each
summand is the product of n different entries, and the number of these summands is the
factorial of n (the product of the n first positive integers). The Laplace expansion expresses
the determinant of a n × n matrix as a linear combination of determinants of submatrices.
Gaussian elimination expresses the determinant as the product of the diagonal entries of a
diagonal matrix that is obtained by a succession of elementary row operations.
9.5 Cramer's Rule
Cramer’s rule is one of the important methods applied to solve a system of equations. In
this method, the values of the variables in the system are to be calculated using the
determinants of matrices. Thus, Cramer’s rule is also known as the determinant
method.
Cramer’s Rule Formula
Consider a system of linear equations with n variables x₁, x₂, x₃, …, xₙ written in the
matrix form AX = B.
Here,
A = Coefficient matrix (must be a square matrix)
X = Column matrix with variables
B = Column matrix with the constants (which are on the right side of the equations)
Now, we have to find the determinants as:
D = |A|, Dx1, Dx2, Dx3,…, Dxn
Here, Dxi for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n is the same determinant as D such that the column is
replaced with B.
Thus,
x1 = Dx1/D; x2 = Dx2/D; x3 = Dx3/D; ….; xn = Dxn/D {where D is not equal to 0}
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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MATH PROJECT (BM1)

1.1 Solving First-Degree Equations------------------------------------------------------------- 6

1.2 Solving second-degree Equations ----------------------------------------------------------- 7

1.3 Inequalities and their solution: --------------------------------------------------------------- 8

1.4 Absolute value relationships------------------------------------------------------------------- 9

1.4 Rectangular Coordinate System-------------------------------------------------------------- 10

Chapter 2: Linear Equations------------------------------------------------------------------------ 12

2.1 Characteristics of linear equations: ---------------------------------------------------------- 12

2.2: Two variable linear equations with graphs: ---------------------------------------------- 13

2.3: Slope intercept form------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14

2.4: Equation of a straight line---------------------------------------------------------------------- 19

2.5: Linear Equations with more than two variables----------------------------------------- 21

Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables------------------------------------------------- 21

Chapter 3: Systems of Linear Equations----------------------------------------------------------- 22

3.1: Linear Equations in Two Variable----------------------------------------------------------- 22

Solution of Linear Equations in Two Variables------------------------------------------------ 22

Gauss Elimination Method -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 23

Solving two variable linear system via GEM---------------------------------------------------- 23

Chapter 4: Mathematical Functions---------------------------------------------------------------- 24

4.1 Functions in mathematics: ---------------------------------------------------------------- 24

A Condition for a Function: -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 24

4.2 Types of Functions: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

4.3 Graphical representation of functions: -------------------------------------------------- 28

1. One – one function (Injective function) ------------------------------------------------- 28

2. Many – one function ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

3. Onto – function (Surjective Function) ---------------------------------------------------- 29

4. Into – function ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 29

5. Polynomial function --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

6. Linear Function --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 30

7. Identical Function ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32

8. Quadratic Function --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32

9. Rational Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33

10. Algebraic Functions -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 33

11. Cubic Function -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34

12. Modulus Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35

13. Signum Function ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 35

14. Greatest Integer Function ------------------------------------------------------------------- 35

15. Fractional Part Function -------------------------------------------------------------------- 36

16. Even and Odd Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 37

17. Periodic Function -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37

18. Composite Function ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37

19. Constant Function ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38

20. Identity Function --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38

Chapter 5 Linear Functions: --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39

1. Linear Function Graph ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39

2. Linear Function Table -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 39

3. Linear Function Formula ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 40

4. Linear Function Characteristics ------------------------------------------------------------- 40

5. Linear Function Example ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 40

7. Linear Cost functions ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

8. Linear Revenue Functions ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

9. Linear Profit Functions ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

CHAPTER 6 Quadratic and polynomial functions ------------------------------------------------ 42

6.1 Quadratic Functions and Their Characteristics ------------------------------------------ 42

6.2 Quadratic Functions: Applications -------------------------------------------------------------- 42

Using the Parabola ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 42

6.3 Polynomial and Rational Functions------------------------------------------------------ 43

Polynomial Functions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43

Rational Functions --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 43

CHAPTER 7 Exponential and logarithmic functions------------------------------------- 46

7.1 Characteristics of Exponential Functions------------------------------------------ 46

1. Exponential Function Formula-------------------------------------------------------- 47