The Beginnings of Manuscript Illumination in Norman Sicily

Author(s): Hugo Buchthal

Source: Papers of the British School at Rome , 1956, Vol. 24, Studies in Italian Medieval
History (1956), pp. 78-85
Published by: British School at Rome

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40310580

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THE BEGINNINGS OF MANUSCRIPT ILLUMINATION
IN NORMAN SICILY

(Plates X-XIV)

When Maio of Bari was assassinated at Palermo on 10 November

remarkable career was brought to a premature end. Maio, a comm
layman, had risen in the Sicilian curia to the rank of chancellor of
kingdom under Roger II; William I had created him Grand Admiral
upon acceding to the throne in 1154.1 William lacked the politica
his father, and left the administration of Sicily entirely in his min
Maio asserted the prerogative of the crown against the feudal nob
large towns, and successfully intervened in the affairs of the Italian p
time when the struggle between emperor and pope was at its heigh
harsh policy provoked inevitably the implacable hatred of the Sicilian
resented his tyranny and envied his power. They accused him
personal ambition, even of sinister designs on the throne, and in the e
the plot which led to his murder.
The story of his lowly birth, his immorality and wanton cruelty, r
relish by the chronicler Hugo Falcandus,2 has been discredited by mod
ship. Falcandus favoured the claims of the nobility, and did his be
the reputation both of King William and of the all-powerful minister
the king's policy. Even Maio's enemies had to recognise his brillia
was the son of a protoiudex of Bari, an eminently capable administrato
of education. He was friendly with some of the leading scholars of the
at Maio's suggestion that Henricus Aristippus translated Diogenes L
it was to Maio that Cardinal Laborans dedicated one of his legal tre
was even capable of writing a commentary on the Lord's Prayer, de
son Stephen, composed in correct and fluent Latin and showing a c
familiarity with patristic and scholastic literature.5
The manuscript which included Maio's Expositio Orationis Dominicae
in the late twelfth or thirteenth century, and belonged to the Univers
of Turin;6 it was destroyed in the fire of 1904. Although there were s
in the text, its discoverer, O. Hartwig, who considered it unique, r
full in the appendix to his article on William I and Maio, published

1 On Maio see F. Giunta, Bizantini e ed., Bizantinismo

Palermo, 1929, p. 316. On the illuminations
nella Sicilia normanna, Palermo, 1950, in p. Cardinal Laborans' manuscript, cf. W. F.
110, where
references to earlier literature will be found. Volbach, 'Le Miniature nel Códice del Cardinale
2 On this chronicle, cf. G. Fasoli, ChronacheLaborante,' La Bibliofilia, xlii, 1940, p. 41 ff.
medievali di Sicilia, Catania, 1950, with bibliography. 6 Hartwicr, art. cit.< p. 438.
8 Gf. O. Hartwig, Re Guglielmo I e il suo «MS. MXX.k.III.3, fols. 94 ff.; cf. G. Pasini,
grande ammiraglio Maione di Bari,' Archivio Codices manuscripti Bibl. Reg. Taurinensis, Taurini,
storico per le provincie Napoletane, viii, 1883, p. 437 f.
1749, ii, p. 300; also Siragusa, op. cit.9 p. 318, n. 1.
4 Cf. G. B. Siragusa, // Regno di Guglielmo /, 2nd 7 Hartwig, art. at., p. 4b 1 ft.

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 MANUSCRIPT ILLUMINATION IN NORMAN SICILY 79

In 1897 the Bibliothéque Nationale in Paris acquired another c

(nouv. acq. latin 1772), so far unnoticed.8 This manuscript is
better than the lost copy of Turin. It preserves the text complete,
us to fill the gaps of the published version and correct a great
mistakes in Hartwig's transcription. Moreover, it contains ill
style of which no exact parallels are known.
The manuscript in Paris is a de luxe copy executed with care
written in a beautiful hand in gold-powdered ink on parchment
there are two columns of writing to a page, leaving broad marg
that the lay-out of the text on the pages achieves an effect of disti
The title is inserted in a full-page architectural frame, and ther
initials at the beginning of the commentary to every passage of t
can be little doubt that this is the original dedicatory copy of the Exposi
Maio's order, and given by him to his son. As Maio is called Grand
title-page, the manuscript may thus be dated between 1154, the yea
ment to this office, and 1160, the year of his assassination. Th
evidence also suggests a date about the middle of the century
character of the letters points to an Italian scribe, but the script d
localise more closely its origin. If it was the original copy of M
presumably written at Palermo. So far only very few Latin manus
origin dating from this early period are known,9 and the distinct
of Sicilian hands still elude us. Moreover, none of these early
illuminated. The artistic decorations of the Paris copy of the Expo
of special interest as they are the only examples of Sicilian illu
period just after the middle of the twelfth century.
The first page of the manuscript (PL X) contains the title : Expo
Dominice Edita A Maione Magno Ammirato Ad Stephanum Ammiratum Filium
Suum, written in two columns of golden capital letters inside an arched frame - a
distinct echo of the lay-out of Canon Tables in Gospel manuscripts. The arches,
however, are merely superimposed on a full-page frontispiece of a type which
exists in several twelfth century manuscripts of Greek patristic texts, and which
must have been the Sicilian illuminator's main source of inspiration. Two examples
are the title pages in a Gregory Nazianzen in Paris10 and a John Climacus on Mount
Sinai (PL XI, a).11 It is true that here there are only two columns carrying a cusped
arch, and instead of the ornamental writing they frame human or animal figures.
ii, pt. i, Palermo 1934, p. 159; Madrid 132 (choir-
8 This manuscript was brought to my attention
by M. Jean Porcher, conservateur en chefbook),
du Madrid 289 (Troper), and Palermo,
département des manuscrits, to whom I am grate- Cathedral Library 544 (Missale gallicum). On
ful for his kind permission to publish it.the Mylast three manuscripts, cf. E. H. Kan toro wicz,
thanks are also due to Mile. M. Th. d'Alverny, Laudes Regiae, Berkeley (Calif.), 1946, p. 158 if.,
conservateur adjoint, for further information onwith bibliography.
this volume, and especially to Mr. John Beckwith 10 H. Omont, Miniatures des plus anciens Manuscrits
for reading the typescript of this article, and for grecs de la Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris, 1929, pl.
proposing stylistic alterations and offering manyCVI, no. 2.
helpful suggestions. 11 J. R. Martin, The Illustrations of the Heavenly
9 The following Latin manuscripts may be Ladder of John Climacus, Princeton, 1954 (Studies
roughly contemporary with Maio's Expositio :in Manuscript Illumination, No. 5), p. 87, fig. 174.
Palermo, Bibl. Comunale, MS. 2 Qq E 2 (Martyr- The miniature is here reproduced by kind per-
ology of the Palatine Chapel), cf. E. Stinco, /mission of the American Foundation for the Study
Manoscritti della Biblioteca Comunale di Palermo, vol.of Man.

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 80 THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME

But some features are common to all three frontisp

columns, the shapes of the capitals, the decorate
line connecting them. Moreover, in all three inst
in half by the picture frame. To this scheme the ar
the overall impression of a Canon Table. A close
the arches and of the architectural framework as a
Gospel of the thirteenth century (PI. XI, b)12 whic
Salvatore at Messina, and may have been copied in t
book imported from the Greek East. Other point
Latin Gospel books written in the scriptorium of t
during the third quarter of the twelfth century
latin 276), the arches of the Canon Tables (PI. XI,c )
rest again on similar capitals, of which the outer on
in the other (Vatican Library, Vat. lat. 5974), w
from an 'Umbro-Roman' Bible of the middle of t
corner palmettes, and the lunettes under the arc
(PI. XI, d). In this Vatican Gospel, which was pr
lunettes contain the title of the Canon written in g
piece there are vegetable scrolls on a gold ground
in Maio's title page may perhaps also be traced back
East. The crude imitation of a Byzantine palmet
spandrel between the arches recalls similar imitatio
more than genuine Byzantine work, and the interlac
which is ultimately of Italian origin, has a close par
of St. Mary Magdalene in Queen Melisende's Psalt
Two more features in the frontispiece of Maio's m
the character of the scrolls in the lunettes, and the
heads turned towards the centre, in the middle spa
in early Byzantine and Coptic art,17 is in the mi
through the Mediterranean area, from Egypt t
Muhammadan textiles.18 One of the closest surv
as in date, is a silk, the Chasuble of St. Edme' a
12 S. Samek Lodovici, 'Codici listed inminiati bizantini
the same author's Catalogue of Muhammadan
nella R. Biblioteca Universitaria di Messina,' textiles of the medieval period, London, 1924, no. 954;
or the Hispano-Moresque silk at Salamanca :
Accademie e Biblioteche d' Italia, xv, 1941, p. 403 ff.,
Tav. XI ; Biblioteca Nazionale di Palermo : O. v. Falke, Kunstgeschichte der Seidenweberei, new
ed., Berlin, 1921, fig. 147. The motif reappears
Mostra di Manoscritti in occasione deWVIII Congresso
internazionale di Studi bizantini, Palermo,moreover
1951, on a Byzantine tombstone of the
tav. 11. thirteenth century, cf. G. A. Soteriou, *A/5ajSiK<u
13 H. Buchthal, Miniature painting in the Latin
SLaKoa/irjueis els ra Bt>£avTivá ¡ivqiicZa t-Tjs 'EAAaSos
Kingdom of Jerusalem, Oxford, 1957, p. 25 if.;
Byzantinisch-neugriechische Jahrbiicher, xi, 1934/5,
Catalogue nos. 6, 7. p. 233 ff., fig. 35.
14 Ibid., p. 31. ±v <J1. U. Monneret de Villard, '11 Frammento di
10 Ibid., pl. 44 a. Hannover e la tessitura palermitana di stile
16 Ibid., pl. 19 c. bizantino,' Rivista deWIstituto nazionale d' Archeologia
17 Cl. E. Kitzinger, 'The Horse and Lion e Storia delVArte, Nuova Serie, ii, 1953, p. 164. A
Tapestry at Dumbarton Oaks,' Dumbarton Oaks
reproduction in colour may be found in A.
Papers, iii, 1946, p. 25 ff. Aufauvre and Ch. Fichot, Les Monuments de Seine-
18 Gf., e.g. the Byzantine silk reproduced in et-Marne, Paris, 1858, p. 126. I am much
A. F. Kendrick, Catalogue of early medieval woven indebted to Mr. John Beckwith for bringing this
fabrics (Victoria and Albert Museum), London, piece to my attention, and for his valuable advice
1925, no. 1026, pl. XII; the Mamluk example concerning Sicilian and Muhammadan textiles.

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 MANUSCRIPT ILLUMINATION IN NORMAN SICILY 81

Hispano-Moresque workmanship or made under Hispano-Mor

We know that the royal silk-weaving establishment at Palerm
Roger II after the Peloponnesian campaign of 1147, when he tran
weavers from several Greek towns to Sicily.20 Our illuminato
the motif either from a Byzantine or Muhammadan silk whi
seen in the market of the capital, or from a Sicilian piece of ver
ship manufactured at Palermo. The purple colour in which th
may reflect the textile model.
The ornaments in the lunettes consist of floral scrolls springin
decorative leaf, and covering entirely the semicircles in regul
curves. It is at first sight tempting to connect them with the m
some of the arches of the nave in the Cappella Palatina at Pal
similar regular designs branching out over the whole surface in
The ornamental motifs in the mosaics, however, are abstract
predominantly geometrical nature. The scrolls in Maio's man
other hand, preserve enough of the vegetable character of the or
suggest that they are derived ultimately from decorated init
books of the first quarter of the century. Still, they are so regu
ranean intermediate stage through which the northern patterns
to the master of Palermo may be suspected. It appears that th
was again a manuscript from the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem
parallels are to be found in the illuminations of a Sacramentary
Angelica, D.7.3) and a Missal (Paris, B.N., latin 12056) which
use in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre just before the middle o
The initials in these two manuscripts contain vegetable scrolls in
stylisation and symmetry (PL XII, a, ¿,), which spread out in
rhythm, allowing some secondary scrolls to branch off and cove
completely as possible (PI. XII. c). The flowers at the terminal
by their regularity, and by their strong modelling in darker shades of
outlined in white. Some of the central petals, of a character
shape, grow over the nearest coil of the scroll (PI. XII, d). Th
mistakable identity, and it cannot be doubted that the scrolls
are based on it entirely. When they are placed side by side
comparable Italian illumination, a manuscript of the second quart
from Lucca,23 it springs to the eye how closely related the patter
and Palermo are to each other.
The same influence is clear in most of the illuminated initials throughout Maio's
manuscript. It is, if anything, even more marked here than in the title page.
There are not only the identical scrolls ending in stylised flowers with elongated central
petals (Pis. XII, e,f; XIII, a, d, e) but the shape of the letters is in most instances
exactly the same as in the Sacramentary and the Missal of the Holy Sepulchre,24
20 Gf. U. Monneret de Villard, 'La Tessitura 22 Buchthal, Miniature painting, p. 14 ff., nos. 2, 4.
palermitana sotto i Normanni e i suoi rapporti con 23 Gf. E. B. Garrison, A Lucchese Passionary in
l'arte bizantina/ Miscellanea Giovanni Mercati, iii,the Lateran,' in the author's Studies in the history of
Cittá del Vaticano, 1946 (Studi e Testi, no. 123),mediaeval Italian painting, i, 1953/4, fig. 255.
p. 464 ff. 24 Cf., e.g. our pl. XIII, a and Buchthal, Miniature
21 Cf. O. Demus, The Mosaics oj Gorman ¿icily, painting, pl. 29 d ; or the initial in Queen Melisende's
London, 1949, pl. 9. Psalter, ibid., pl. 15 b.

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82 THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME

and so is the design of the gold fields of geometric

contained : they follow closely the outlines of the l
any projecting parts.25 Finally, the small point
corners are imitations of those found in an initial i
above.26 There is, however, one characteristic diffe
are more lavishly employed, and appear wheneve
of the background (PL XIII, c, e). They have
Nothing could illustrate more clearly the derivative
The last four letters in Maio's manuscript are of
they have no backgrounds, and their forms and red
that they are inspired by initials in Greek manu
can be traced to contemporary volumes produce
interstice of the last letter (PL XIV, a), for inst
Byzantine parentage, which stand out effectively f
These initials are by another hand, in all probabi
the moment when the decoration of the Exposi
illuminator abandoned his task, and the scribe ha

The illuminations in Maio's book appear to be th

an art which is not founded on any local traditio
its own. The frontispiece is an original creation, in
several different sources are combined and re-inter
It achieves something of the effect of aristocrat
anxious to make an impression, might have had in
decoration of such a work. But the initials are m
an unsteady hand, without experience or convic
which are based on models from the Holy Sepulchre,
and one could hardly ask for more telling eviden
and how unimaginative this master was. Not only d
high standard of production of the volume as a
unfavourably with later Sicilian illumination. No
originality and superb quality, the virility and g
group of manuscripts written towards the end of th
scriptorium of Messina.28 This inadequacy must h
illuminator or by the patron, while the work was st
why towards the end a change of models, and of
The Greek patterns used for the last four initials w
Latin prototypes, and the desired result, an impres
more easily obtained. The standard of craftsma
in the preceding illuminations. But it need har
seriously impaired the homogeneity of the decorati

25 Cf., e.g. our pl. XIII, e and 28 H. Buchthal, 'A School

Buchthal, of Miniature Painting
Miniature
painting, pl. 24 a. in Norman Sicily,' in Late classical and mediaeval
m Ibid., pl. ijy a. studies in honor of A. M. Friend, Jr., Princeton, 1955,
260 Ibid., p. 32. pp. 312-339; A. Daneu Lattanzi, 'Due sconosciuti
"They are fols. 3 and 14 pl. XIII, c ; 6 and manoscritti di época normanna,' Atti del Convegno
26 (pl. XIII, d). internazionale di Studi Ruggeriani, Palermo, 1955.

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 MANUSCRIPT ILLUMINATION IN NORMAN SICILY 83

So far this is the only manuscript known to be illuminated i

might be led to conclude that Maio's Expositio represented as un
its own day as it appears to the modern student. The scope and ori
of the volume would have amply justified so singular an experime
have been no opportunity to repeat it. However, this is a fall
The influence of the style of the initials in Maio's manuscript can
Sicilian illuminations. It is unlikely that those later works all
private book, so there existed, presumably, other manuscripts
relatives of the dedicatory copy of the Expositio. The Latin script
must have produced several volumes decorated in the same styl
have survived or perhaps still await discovery.
It is true that this impact on the main group of Sicilian illumina
produced at Messina during the last ten or fifteen years of the N
is not immediately obvious. The initials from Messina are a ne
those in the Expositio itself. They are the contemporaries of
Monreale, and in many ways are related to them : accordingly, the
is much stronger than in Maio's manuscript. They show moreo
of the styles of the Latin East and of Central Italian illuminati
different elements and motifs are blended together into a deco
generosity and exuberance as to have few equals in contempo
One small group of decorated letters, however, stands apart, and d
this general pattern. The initial here reproduced (PI. XIV, ¿)29
scrolls which lack the firm movement and the elaborate model
initials from Messina. Instead of the large Byzantine palmettes
found at the terminals30 there are the characteristic small flower
central petals projecting over the nearest coil, almost identical wit
manuscript. It is evident that the entire ornament covering the in
on a model similar to the Expositio and probably contemporary w
also produced in the scriptorium of Palermo. Comparable initi
manuscripts of this group from Messina; the influence of Pal
striking in a Gospel book now in the Cathedral of Cittá Nobile
The second type of decorated letter in Maio's manuscript,
based on Byzantine illumination direct, survives in an even g
examples. Many of the small initials which adorn practically
Missal in Madrid, the finest existing specimen from Messina,32
sister manuscripts, may be traced back to letters of exactly this s
refined versions of the golden scrollwork as it is found in PL
conspicuous elaboration of this style occurs in a Gospel book in
lat. 42), another member of the group from Messina (PL XIV, r).3
tuous letters drawn in red and gold achieve a superb decorative ef
represent another link between the scriptoria of Palermo and Mes

29 From Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional, MS Latini,

Codices Vaticani 6, i, Roma, 1902, p. 52, where
it is dated p.
cf. Buchthal, School of Miniature Painting, in the
322.fifteenth century. This manu-
80 Ibid., figs. 13, 14, 19,22. script was brought to my attention by Dr. O.
8i (Ji. ibid., p. ó'¿V. Paecht, who was the first to point out its correct
™ Ibid., p. 315 tt. date and place of origin.
33 Cf. M. Vattasso and Pio Franchi de Gavaheri,

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84 THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME

Our last comparison concerns a manuscript which

thirteenth century. It is a Bible in Madrid which h
it was written in 1259, in the reign of King Manfre
initials in which the motif of the addorsed bir
tempting to connect them with the birds on the title pa
the motif may of course have reached the thirteenth
than an illuminated manuscript from Palermo35 : i
popular on textiles. The comparison with Maio's
all due caution, perhaps more in the way of a c
surviving material from this period is so scanty th
should be entirely neglected.

Even without this last example, the main point w

have become sufficiently clear. The influence o
illuminations of Maio's manuscript is too marked an
from a single isolated product of a passing capri
Expositio must be regarded as the only surviving m
ably justified in speaking of a school of illumination
time when Maio was Grand Admiral - the earlies
the predecessor of that of Messina. It derived its m
initials in manuscripts written in the scriptorium of
and thus reflects the close ecclesiastical and comme
Sicily and the Crusading Kingdom throughout t
probably never know the full extent of the produc
Palermo. That the manuscripts from Messina ha
of a viceroy of Sicily who transferred them en bloc
manuscripts now at Madrid there is no illuminat
hope of new spectacular discoveries in Sicilian l
quantity as well as in quality the production of
Messina.
A last question that remains to be answered concerns the part which the Grand
Admiral may have played personally in sponsoring the art of illumination in Norman
Sicily. The composite character of the decorations in the Expositio goes far to
prove that the volume was one of the first to be embellished in this way, and in this
particular scriptorium. The striking contrast between the mediocrity of the initials
and the high quality of the frontispiece, which was executed with particular care,
seems to indicate that the latter was carried out according to special instructions :
the noble author himself may have supplied the copy of the Byzantine manuscript
whose frontispiece served as one of the models. As far as can be judged, the art of
the frontispiece was not taken up by the illuminators of Messina, probably because
it was devised for this particular book and never repeated. The point cannot be

34 Cf. Patronato della Biblioteca Nacional. prossima alia 'Bibbia di Manfredi.' Palermo, 1955.
Catálogo de Codices Latinos. I (Bíblicos), por36Martín
Cf. L. T. White, Latin monasticism in Norman
de la Torre y Pedro Longás, Madrid, 1935, no. 14,
Sicily, Cambridge (Mass.), 1938 (The Mediaeval
p. 58 ff. (MS. 229). Academy of America, Publication no. 31), p. 211.
35 On the group of manuscripts connected 37 with
De la Torre and Longás, op. cit.9 p. VIII.
King Manfred, cf. A. Daneu Lattanzi, Una Bibbia

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 MANUSCRIPT ILLUMINATION IN NORMAN SICILY 85

proved, but it seems likely that Maio had the title-page produc
partly because the Expositio was his own work and partly because
interest in the output of the scriptorium and was eager to pr
activities. His selection of a manuscript of one of the Greek fa
for the frontispiece of his book speaks eloquently for his literary
appear to have matched the unlimited ambition which he displaye
politics, and which eventually precipitated his untimely death.
However this may be, the Paris manuscript of the Expositio wil
as one of the most valuable original documents from Norma
because of its association with an interesting personality in the m
Latin state of the twelfth century, but also because it is the earliest
Latin book produced on the island - the precursor of greater th
Hugo Buchthal.

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 PLATE X

{Bibliotheque National f, Paris)

Manuscript Illumination in Norman Sicily (pp. 78-85)

Paris, Bibl. Nat., nouv. acq. latin 1772, fo. 2V.

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 PLATE XI

(Library of Congress, Washington) (After Accad. e Bibl. a" Italia, xv, 1941, PL XI

a. Sinai Monastery, gr. 418, fo. 2. b. Messina, Bibl. Universitaria, S. Salvatore 88 fo. 20v.

{Bibhotheque Nattonale, Paris) (Vatican Library)

c. Paris, Bibl. Nat., latin 276, fo. 5. d. Vatican Library, Vat. lat. 5974, fo. 4.

Manuscript Illumination in Norman Sicily (pp. 78-85)

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 PLATE XII

a. Paris, Bibl. Nat., latin 12056, fo. 105.

b. Paris, Bibl. Nat., latin

12056, fo. 151.

c. Paris, Bibl. Nat., latin 12056,

fo. 228v.

d. Rome, Biblioteca Angelica D.7.3., fo. 139*.

e. Paris, Bibl. Nat., nouv. acq. f. Paris, Bibl. Nat., nouv. acq.
latin 1772, fo. 10. latin 1772, fo. llv.
(a. Sansaim, Rome, the rest Bibliotheque Nationale, Peris)

Manuscript Illumination in Norman Sicily (pp. 78-85)

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 PLATE XIII

LO

á CM

1^

t I
ft

>
3 >*
O 00
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é |
3

.si
I

<3

Manuscript Illumination in Norman Sicily (pp. 78-85)

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 PLATE XIV

(Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris)

a. Paris, Bibl. Nat., nouv. acq. latin 1772, fo. 41V.

{Magullón, Madrid)
b. Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional 6, fo. 134v.

(Vatican Library) {Magullón, Madrid)

c. Vatican Library, Vat. lat. 42, fb. 3. d. Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional 229, fo. 152.
Manuscript Illumination in Norman Sicily (pp. 78-85)

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