Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry (2021) 143:1815–1832

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-020-09468-3

Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer

Saman Rashidi1 · Faramarz Hormozi2   · Mohammad Mohsen Sarafraz3

Received: 19 January 2020 / Accepted: 17 February 2020 / Published online: 9 March 2020
© Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest, Hungary 2020

Abstract
Boiling process can be widely used in different industrial applications. In this two-phase heat transfer, the latent heat of
vaporization of a liquid is used for dissipating large amount of heat flux. This feature makes boiling process suitable for
thermal management of numerous thermal systems. Generally, boiling is a complex phenomenon due to the connection with
combination of phase change and perturbation in a region with irregular internal structure. The current paper focuses on
an in-depth review on the boiling subphenomena including the mechanisms involved in nucleation, bubble formation, and
micro-mechanisms involved in the boiling micro-layer. The boiling in pipe bundle is also investigated. The particulate foul-
ing of micro- and nanoparticles during boiling heat transfer is deeply studied, and techniques for the mitigation of fouling
are suggested. According to the results achieved from this review, the research gaps and current challenges are recognized
and highlighted for the future studies in this field.

Keywords  Boiling · Mechanism · Subphenomena · Pipe bundle · Fouling

Introduction moderate or high heat fluxes, which can be utilized in low

Two-phase mode of heat transfer has numerous applications
in different thermal systems. For example, about 60% of heat
exchangers, used in industries, work in a two-phase flow
mode. The two-phase heat exchangers can be employed in
the process and power industries, air-conditioning systems,
refrigerators, food industry, etc. Usually, the latent heat of
evaporation of a liquid–vapor mixture is employed in these
systems to enhance the transport ability and also to increase
the heat transfer rate [49]. Two-phase boiling process is
a highly impressive mechanism of heat transfer in low,
* Faramarz Hormozi
fhormozi@semnan.ac.ir
Saman Rashidi
samanrashidi@semnan.ac.ir
Mohammad Mohsen Sarafraz
mohammadmohsen.sarafraz@adelaide.edu.au
1
Department of Energy, Faculty of New Science
and Technologies, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran
2
Department of Chemical, Petroleum, and Gas Engineering,
Semnan University, Semnan, Iran
3
Centre for Energy Technology, School of Mechanical
Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA,
Australia
temperature differences. In recent years, many investigations
have been conducted about the thermal analysis on different
thermal systems [6, 10, 34, 35, 54, 59, 68]. In some studies,
the researchers performed some reviews on the two-phase
heat transfer systems. Asadi et al. [8] reviewed the pressure
drop value and heat transport features of single- and two-
phase micro-systems. They have focused on the correlations
presented to predict the pressure drop and heat transport in
these systems. They found that the numerical methods can
predict these features in single- and two-phase micro-sys-
tems with higher accuracy in comparison with the analytical
ones. Bandara et al. [9] performed a review on the two-phase
heat transfer without phase change in the micro-systems.
They considered both liquid–gas and immiscible liquid–liq-
uid flows to identify the key characteristics of each type of
flow. Note that two-phase flows without phase change can
enhance the heat transport in the micro-systems because of
the inner recirculation of the fluid and also due to the domi-
nance of the molecular forces (e.g., diffusion phenomenon
in mass transfer or conduction heat transfer in heat trans-
fer) the fluids. For example, Bandara et al. [9] concluded
that employing immiscible liquid–liquid flows can provide
higher heat transport improvement in comparison with the
liquid–gas flow because of the larger values of heat capac-
ity and thermal conductivity of liquids in comparison with

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

1816
gases. However, the pumping power for such systems with
liquid–liquid flows is relatively larger than that of calculated
for the systems with liquid–gas flows, which can be attrib-
uted to the larger viscosity of liquids. Hence, these points
must be considered when a practical system is designed.
Fsadni and Whitty [23] reviewed the two-phase heat trans-
fer features in the helically coiled pipe heat exchangers.
Their assessment indicated that the boiling and condensing
heat transfer coefficients of R134a in the helically coiled
pipes are considerably larger than that of quantified for the
straight pipes. Zhang et al. [99, 100] performed a review on
the recent advances about the pump-aided two-phase flow
cooling modules. They reported that the usage of a mechani-
cal or hybrid pump, as a driver in the two-phase flow cooling
module, can induce some vibrations, which can affect the
flow resistance. This can also influence the efficiency of the
cooling module. Xu et al. [96] focused on the phase change
processes occurred during the heat transfer of nanofluids in
the porous media. They found that the large conductivity of
foams and nanofluids can enhance the thermal efficiency of
the boiling heat transfer. Rashidi et al. [67] evaluated the
potentials of dimpled surfaces for the thermal management
of different thermal energy modules. They concluded that
utilizing dimpled surfaces can further develop the super-
heated regions and the nucleation sites that can cause the
boiling thermal performance to be intensified.
Fig. 1  Some historical applica-
tions of boiling [7]
13
S. Rashidi et al.
Considering the importance of boiling two-phase heat
transfer for the industrial applications, this paper conducts
a review on the different aspects of this heat transfer mecha-
nism that includes the following sections.
Some information about the basic concepts, mecha-
nisms, and classifications in boiling heat transfer is pro-
vided in Sect. “Basic concepts in boiling heat transfer”. In
Sect. “Boiling in pipe bundle”, the boiling in pipe bundle
is investigated. In addition, the particulate fouling of nano-
particles and solid materials during boiling heat transfer is
investigated and some antifouling methods are proposed in
Sect. “Fouling during boiling heat transfer”. Finally, the
main results are summarized, the knowledge gaps and tech-
nical challenges are identified, and areas for future works are
suggested in Sect. “Concluding remarks and recommenda-
tions for the future work”.
Basic concepts in boiling heat transfer
Boiling is a liquid-to-vapor phase change process occurring
when a liquid is heated up to its boiling point. This won-
derful mechanism has been utilized in various applications
such that the human beings have employed it from antiq-
uity for basic applications to now [7]. Figure 1 depicts some
historical applications of boiling heat transfer mechanism.
Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer 1817
Generally, boiling is a physical process and molecules are
not chemically changed during this process. In this process,
vapor bubbles can be generated either on a hot surface or in
a superheated liquid substrate near a heating surface. It is a
complex phenomenon due to the existence of phase change
in an area with irregular internal structure. In this section,
some information about the basic concepts, mechanisms,
and classifications in boiling heat transfer is provided.
Classifications of boiling
Based on the nature of flow and operating temperature, boil-
ing can be classified into different groups, which are dis-
cussed as follows:
Classification based on nature of flow
Based on the condition of the flow, boiling can be classified
into two groups including pool and flow boiling.
Pool boiling The pool boiling is the most common type of
boiling, which occurs when a pool of liquid is exposed to a
heat flux, which can increase the temperature of the liquid to
its boiling point. In this type of boiling, the fluid is stagnant
and the bulk of the liquid is confined in a container. Any
movement in the layers of the fluid is due to the free convec-
tion and the interaction of the bubbles with the bulk of the
fluid together with bubble coalescence and buoyant forces.
Flow boiling In the flow boiling, forced convective heat
transfer together with nucleate boiling heat transfer is the
main mechanisms driving the flow boiling. Likewise, the liq-
uid phase moves around the heating surface due to an exter-
nal force created with a pump or turbine. Figure 2 represents
the classification of boiling phenomenon based on its type.
Classification based on surface superheat temperature
Based on surface superheat temperature, pool boiling can
be classified into four groups including natural convection,
nucleate, transition, and film boiling. The surface superheat
temperature, the excess temperature, is defined as the differ-
ence between the surface and the saturation temperatures.
Figure 3 represents the boiling curve for different values of
surface superheat temperature.
Natural convection boiling Thermodynamically speaking,
the boiling of pure liquid occurs when the surface and the
saturation temperatures are equal (Tsurface = Tsat). However,
in a real case phenomenon, the boiling can occur as the tem-
perature of liquid is a few degrees higher than saturation
temperature. To sustain the bubble formation over the sur-
face, the surface temperature should be slightly larger than
the saturation temperature. Hence, vapor can be detected
over the liquid surface, but generally, there are no bubbles.
By increasing the superheat temperature, onset of bubble
formation will occur, but below point A in Fig. 3, the fluid
flow is due to free convection currents and buoyant force.
Point A shows the onset of nucleate boiling.
Nucleate boiling The nucleate boiling is the most preva-
lent type of local boiling occurring in systems with high heat
flux (e.g., power production plants or pressurized water reac-
tors). In this type of boiling, bubbles are generated on the
heating surface and depart toward the free surface due to the
buoyant forces. Such behavior improves the heat transport
from the surface toward the bulk of the liquid as the thermal
energy released from the hot surface is absorbed by the bub-
bles and the captured vapor inside the bubbles can transfer
the heat within the bulk of the liquid.
Transition boiling When surface superheat tempera-
ture passes point C, the heat flux reduces. The heat flux in
nucleate boiling cannot exceed a specific value referred to
as “critical heat flux or CHF point.” At CHF point, the vapor
generated can create an insulation substrate on the surface,
which in turn decreases the rate of the heat transfer from the
heating surface toward the liquid. It is worth saying that a
large portion of heating surface is fully covered by the vapor.
Since the thermal conductivity of vapor is smaller than that
of liquid, the heat transfer resistance is grown around the
surface, resulting in a decrease in heat transfer coefficient
and heat transfer rate. Immediately after reaching the CHF
point, instability is generated and transition boiling occurs.
Transiting from nucleate boiling to the film boiling is iden-
tified as the “boiling crisis.” Note that point D, where the
heat flux has the minimum value, is referred to “Leidenfrost
point.” In the transition boiling regime, both nucleate and
film boiling partially occur within the system.
Film boiling By further increasing the heat flux and
beyond point D, a film of vapor forms on the surface. The
heating surface is completely covered with a film of vapor.
This considerably decreases the convective coefficient
because the vapor substrate has significantly lower heat
transport capability. Accordingly, the surface superheat tem-
perature jumps to a very large value. After the Leidenfrost
point shown in Fig. 3, a continuous vapor film covers the
surface and prevents the connection between the surface and
the liquid. In this state, both radiation and conduction occur
in the vapor. If the strength of material is not high enough
to withstand this temperature, the equipment can be failed
due to the surface damage. This phenomenon is known as
“burn out” point.
Classification based on subcooling temperature
According to the liquid bulk temperature, boiling can also
be categorized into two groups of saturated or subcooled
boiling.
Saturated boiling In the saturated boiling, the liquid
temperature is higher than the saturation temperature
13

1818 S. Rashidi et al.

Fig. 2  Schematic views of dif- Flow boiling

ferent types of boiling (https​://
www.nucle​ar-power​.net)
Pool boiling –1 atm

Heat flux

q″s/W m–2

Heat flux qs″ /W m–2

Natural convection boiling –1 atm Nucleate boiling –1 atm

Tbulk = 100 °C Tbulk = 100 °C

Tw = 103 °C Tw = 110 °C

Heat flux qs″ /W m–2 Heat flux qs″ /W m–2

Transition boiling –1 atm Film boiling –1 atm

Tbulk = 100 °C Tbulk = 100 °C

Tw = 170 °C Tw = 500 °C

Vapor pockets Vapor film

Heat flux qs″ /W m–2 Heat flux qs″ /W m–2

Subcooled boiling –1 atm Saturated boiling –1 atm

Tbulk = 90 °C Tbulk = 100 °C

Tw = 107 °C Tw = 107 °C

Heat flux qs″ /W m–2 Heat flux qs″ /W m–2

13
Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer 1819

Pool boiling modes –1 atm there is a liquid that its temperature is lower than the nor-
natural convection nucleate transition film mal boiling point of the same liquid.

isolated columns Classification based on type of flow

bubbles slugs

heating curve
Flow boiling can be categorized into two groups of internal
q″s/W m–2 and external flow boiling.
External flow boiling External flow boiling occurs on a
107
heating surface. This type of boiling is similar to the pool
boiling; however, due to the movement of the liquid around
the heating surface, the heat transfer coefficient of the system
″
qmax C Critical heat flux
is larger and the heat flux required for the nucleate boiling is
106 E larger than that of required for the pool boiling heat transfer.
Boiling crisis
Internal flow boiling Internal flow boiling is a two-phase
DNB
flow in a pipe with hot walls or a duct. This type of boil-
ing is complex as there is no free surface for escaping the
105 vapor. Accordingly, both vapor and liquid are forced to move
B
together. Hence, vapor quality and quantity of the vapor
″
qmin
determines the dominant flow pattern inside the pipe or the
duct. Figure 4 represents the flow regimes for flow boiling
D Leidenfrost point
104 A in a pipe. When a subcooled liquid enters the pipe, the pri-
ONB mary heat transfer mechanism is single-phase forced convec-
cooling curve tive heat transfer at the inlet region of the pipe as there are
no bubbles. After forming vapor, the bubbles are dispersed
within the continuous liquid phase and migrate toward the
1 5 10 30 120 1000
upper region of the pipe and/or duct due to buoyant forces.
Superheat ∆Tsat = Twall – Tsat/°C
Together with the development of the boiling regime in the
pipe, the flow regime can be patterned to plug flow, annular
Fig. 3  Boiling curve in pool boiling mode of water (https​://www. flow, and mist flow. In a plug flow, the bubbles are merged
nucle​ar-power​.net)
together and the slugs of vapor are generated. In an annular
flow, the core of the flow includes vapor only, and the liquid
and occurs when the temperature of the system increases is placed near the walls. An annular flow has very large heat
or in a constant temperature and the pressure of system transfer coefficient. In a mist flow, some water droplets are
decreases approaching the boiling point. In this condi- dispersed in vapor flow. In this flow, a sharp reduction in
tion, the bubbles entering the cooling channel do not col- the heat transfer coefficient is occurred. Finally, in a single-
lapse and have tendency to merge with each other and phase flow, the liquid droplets are completely vaporized and
create vapor bubbles with larger size. This phenomenon vapor is superheated.
is referred to as saturated bubble coalescence. After that,
vapor bubbles are driven away through the liquid by buoy- Important factors in boiling heat transfer
ant forces, and finally, they get away from the free surface.
Subcooled boiling In the subcooled boiling, the tem- There are a number of key parameters affecting the perfor-
perature at various regions of the liquid is lower than the mance of the boiling heat transfer. The boiling process can
saturation temperature and the bubbles created on the heat- be controlled by different parameters summarized in Fig. 5.
ing surface are condensed inside the liquid. As a result, The effects of these parameters are discussed in the next sec-
tions of the paper. Figure 6 shows the influences of different

Fig. 4  Different flow regimes

in internal flow boiling (https​://
www.nucle​ar-power​.net)

Subcooled Bubbly Plug Annular Mist Superheated

liquid flow flow flow flow vapor

13

1820 S. Rashidi et al.

Boiling heat transfer

Pool boiling heat transfer Flow boiling heat transfer

Heat flux Surface properties Fluid properties Interaction of heated surface Flow rate Orientation n Nanofluid

High heat flux Low heat flux

Roughness Orientation Thickness

Viscosity Density Conductivity Surface tension

Diffusivity Coeff. of expansion Sp. heat Latent heat

Interaction between bubble Interaction between bubble Interaction between bubbles Interaction between
and liquid bulk and hot surface nucleation sites

Near surface Far away from surface

Meniscus Contact angle Nucleation site density Macro layer Micro layer Absorption
characteristics

Vapor stems Vapor Discrete Vapor columns

mushrooms bubble

Fig. 5  Important parameters affecting the boiling heat transfer [3]. (Color figure online)

This is because the micro-cavities and irregularities over

Fig. 6  Influences of different parameters on the boiling curve [5]
parameters on several mechanisms of boiling heat transfer.
Surface roughness is one of the strongest parameters which
can greatly influence the boiling performance of the system.
the heating surface can act as microscopic holes, which
are plausible sites for the nucleus to form. The rate of heat
transfer in the nucleate boiling heat transfer mechanism is
a direct function of the number of active nucleation sites
on the heating surface and the rate of bubble generation of
these sites. Providing irregularity on the heating surface by
ribs and artificial roughness can create an extra nucleation
sites during boiling process. As a result, usually, a rough
surface provides a larger heat transfer coefficient in boiling
process in comparison with the smooth one. The boiling heat
transfer enhances with the increase in the pressure as the
superheat at boiling onset reduces and the number of sites,
where bubbles are formed, increases at the same tempera-
ture. In addition, the pressure of the system affects the criti-
cal heat flux due to its effect on the thermo-physical proper-
ties including vapor density, surface tension, and latent heat
of vaporization. The values of critical heat flux increase with
increasing the pressure [55]. The nucleate boiling curves
for the subcooled and saturated liquids are same, although
high superheat is required for initiating the nucleate boiling.

13
Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer 1821

In the nucleate boiling mechanism, the effect of the shape,
inclination angle, and size of the heating surface are negligi-
ble. Surface roughness of the heating surface has negligible
influence on film boiling except the influence through heat
radiation, while scale, shape, and inclination angle affect
film boiling mode. The film boiling heat transfer improves
as subcooling increases. Finally, the increase in the liquid
velocity leads to increase in both nucleate and film boiling
heat fluxes and the critical heat flux.
Importance of critical heat flux and Leidenfrost
point in practical applications
As mentioned earlier, critical heat flux is largest heat flux in
the nucleate boiling mechanism and it can be identified by a
sharp decrease in the local heat transfer coefficient, which is
due to the replacement of liquid by vapor around the heating
surface [97]. The critical heat flux is strongly dependent on
the density of vapor and liquid phases and also the enthalpy
of vaporization. Interestingly, thermo-physical properties of
the liquid including thermal conductivity, specific heat, and
viscosity have no influences on the critical heat flux. The
critical heat flux is a crucial parameter in both fundamental
research and practical applications. The critical heat flux
affects the flow regime, pressure loss, and heat transfer in
the boiling systems. Figure 7 shows the variation of the flow
regime at the point of critical heat flux for boiling process.
If the critical heat flux occurs under bubbly flow condition,
the flow regime can change into an inverted annular flow due
to the generation of a stable vapor layer on the heat transfer
surface. Similarly, the slug flow can change into an inverted
slug flow and the annular flow into dispersed flow.
The importance of identification, prediction, and
improvement in the critical heat flux for different practical
applications is represented in Fig. 8. The critical heat flux
is important for various applications such as high-heat-flux
reactors, fossil power plants, fusion applications, electron-
ics cooling systems, and steam generators. Note that in
these applications, the critical heat flux has a strong effect
on the safety, integrity, and economic competitiveness of

Fig. 7  Variation of the flow

regime at critical heat flux point
[13]
INVERTED
Post–CHF INVERTED SLUG
ANNULAR BUBBLY DISPERSED
(ISLG)
(IAN)

IAN/ SLUG/ SLUG/ ANNULAR–MIST/

Transient BUB/IAN
ISLG ISLG ANM DISPERSED

BUBBLY SLUG/ ANNULAR–MIST/

SLUG (ANM)
Pre–CHF (BUB) ANM

Void fraction

Fig. 8  Importance of identifica-
tion, prediction, and improve- Nuclear fuel
ment in critical heat flux for Identification of development
different practical applications CHF mechanisms
[13]
Nuclear reactor
design and safety analysis

CHF Development of
experiment prediction methods Fossil-fueled boiler design

Tokamak
cooling systems
CHF
enhancement
Electronic
packaging

13

1822
modules and equipment. For example, the limitations of
the local heat flux are very important for the safety of the
reactors working at high heat flux, which can potentially
reach the CHF point. For both pressurized and boiling
water reactors, there are thermal and hydraulic phenom-
ena, leading to a sudden reduction in the performance of
heat transfer. These phenomena occur at the critical heat
flux following the earlier studies [13].
The Leidenfrost point is a critical temperature in boil-
ing process, in which the mechanism of heat transfer shifts
from “transition boiling” to the “film boiling.” The Lei-
denfrost temperature depends on the surface quality and
quantity of liquid surrounding the surface [45]. Above the
Leidenfrost temperature, the temperature of the surface
is sufficiently high to generate a vapor substrate through
which the liquid droplets do not fully penetrate. Figure 9
shows an ethanol droplet with red color, which is levitated
in the Leidenfrost situation on a pool of oil.
To supply the efficient heat transfer in flash evapora-
tion cooling and spray cooling, it is important to provide
an effective contact between the liquid and the heating
surface. However, when the surface temperature is very
high, a vapor substrate is generated instantly beneath the
droplet. This substrate blocks the connection between the
droplet and surface. This phenomenon is referred to as
“dynamic Leidenfrost influence” [65, 88]. Due to the low
thermal conductivity of vapor substrate, the heat transfer
is considerably decreased. Accordingly, it is critical to
employ techniques aiming at diminishing the Leidenfrost
influence for enhancing heat transfer in spray cooling pro-
cess. Researchers have investigated different approaches to
suppress the Leidenfrost effect including modification of
surface structure [12, 93], electrostatic suppression [87],
and the utilization of vibration with low frequency [58].
Fig. 9  An ethanol droplet with red color levitated in the Leidenfrost
situation on a pool of silicone oil V20 [48]
13
S. Rashidi et al.
Boiling in pipe bundle
The boiling in pipe bundle has many applications in dif-
ferent industrial thermal systems including shell and tube
heat exchangers, flooded evaporators, steam generators,
kettle reboilers employed in various refrigeration, power,
and chemical and petrochemical processing modules. The
heat transfer improvement in these applications can be
achieved employing a boiling liquid as the working fluid as
it has a considerably large value of heat transfer coefficient
due to the phase change process [69]. Some researchers
have focused on this topic, which are reviewed in the fol-
lowing sections:
Qiu and Liu [64] performed a study on the pool boiling
heat transfer of water on the heated pipes in a compact
staggered pipe bundle. It is worth saying that the flooded-
type evaporators in which a liquid is boiled on the outside
of a pipe bundle can be employed for different applications
including solar-powered absorption chiller, desalinization,
and other types of industrial heat exchangers. Qiu and
Liu [64] performed the study for various spaces between
the pipes in the bundle within the range of 0.15–4 mm.
The results showed that the utilization of the pipe bun-
dle provides larger value of boiling heat transfer, about
two to three times, in comparison with the single pipe.
Pipe spacing represented a great potential for increasing
and/or decreasing the boiling heat transfer coefficient in
a compact pipe bundle. The utilization of the bundle with
pipe spacing of 0.3 mm provided the highest heat transfer
improvement for the small and moderate values of heat
flux. In another investigation, Liu and Qiu [42] studied the
nucleate boiling heat transfer in the compact horizontal
pipe bundles with small pipe gaps. They considered roll-
worked pipe as the modified pipe and observed that the
small pipe gaps can improve the boiling heat transfer in a
smooth pipe bundle. For the flooded evaporators, nucleate
boiling heat transfer does not occur on the heating pipes
because the values of heat flux and the wall superheat of
heating pipes are very small. However, when the space
between the pipes in the bundle is very small, nucleate
boiling in restricted spaces can occur easily even for the
small values of low heat flux or wall superheat. The for-
mation of nucleate boiling can efficiently improve the heat
transfer efficiency of bundle evaporators [43].
In a series of experiments, Gupta [29] investigated the
nucleate boiling heat transfer in a heating 5 × 3 in-line hor-
izontal pipe bundle. The experiments were conducted in
pool and low cross-flow regime of saturated water around
the atmospheric pressure. Gupta [29] found that the heat
transfer coefficient has the lowest value on the bottom row
pipes and enhances in the upward direction with the high-
est values on the top row pipes. For a single-column pipe
Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer 1823

bundles, the bundle heat transfer coefficient is enhanced Two pipes in the
as the pitch-to-pipe diameter ratio decreases. In addition, Isolated single pipe: bundle heated:
the bundle heat transfer coefficient is improved by increas-
ing the number of rows in a column. In another similar
research, the convective boiling of R-123/oil mixture on
modified pipe bundles was studied by Kim et al. [40]. They
considered pores and connecting gaps in the bundle. The
schematic views of the modified pipes with pore, gaps,
and pore with connecting gaps are represented in Fig. 10.
Generally, for a single pipe, the heat transfer reduction by
oil is lower than that of observed in the bundle systems. Single pipe in Three pipes in the
This is due to the convective flow in a bundle that wipes bundle heated: bundle heated:
out the oil from the boiling surface [25, 52]. In addition,
this reduction is also less for a gapped pipe in comparison
with a pored pipe due to the same reason. However, the
boiling heat transfer rate is larger for a pored pipe in com-
parison with the gapped pipe [92]. As a result, modified
geometry with pores (for large value of heat transfer) and
gaps (for oil elimination) can be used when oil is added to
the working fluid.
Van Rooyen and Thome [94] developed a model to pre-
dict the pressure drop for the enhanced external boiling
Fig. 11  Different cases considered by Goel et al. [27]
pipe bundles. This prediction is required when designing
the flooded evaporators. It was observed that the frictional
pressure drop is associated with the vapor quality and the is further increased with the increase in the number of the
flow rate, while it is not related to the temperature and the heated pipes in the bundle.
type of pipe or refrigerant. Goel et al. [27] carried out an Abbas and Ayub [1] studied the N ­ H3 boiling on a triangu-
experimental investigation to study the bubble departure lar pitch plain pipe bundle in a flooded regime. The flooded
patterns in a horizontal pipe bundle under the cross-flow ­NH3 shell and tube heat exchangers are widely employed in
conditions. The considered cases in the study are represented the refrigeration modules for different fluid cooling appli-
in Fig. 11. They found that both the size and frequency of cations. Abbas and Ayub [1] found that at larger values of
departure increase with an increase in the wall superheat heat flux, the efficiency ratio between the bottom and top
and applied heat flux, while they are decreased by increas- rows is larger in comparison with the case with small heat
ing the mass flux. The departure sizes of the vapor bubbles flux. Moreover, they observed that the higher heat transfer
in a single pipe in a bundle and an isolated single pipe are coefficient can be achieved for ­NH3 boiling over a bundle in
equal, while they increase as the number of heated pipes in comparison with the single plain pipe.
its adjacency increases. The departure frequency of a single Kang [39] carried out an experimental investigation to
pipe in a bundle is very large in comparison with the depar- study the influence of the created angle on the pool boiling
ture frequency of an isolated single pipe. This frequency heat transfer of V-shaped pipes in the vertical alignment (see

Fig. 10  Different modified dp g g
geometries considered by Kim dp
et al. [40]

Pp
Pp

Wt Ht Wt Ht Wt
Ht

Pf Pf Pf
(a) Pores (b) Gaps (c) Pores with connecting gaps

13

1824 S. Rashidi et al.

Supporter

100 L(400 Thermocouple

) 100
100 100 100
100

)
D(19
Ther
moco
uple

D(19)
)
P(95
φ L(400)

Inclined pipe bundle considered by Kang (2016) V-shape pipes considered by Kang (2017)

Fig. 12  Bundle pipes considered by Kang [38, 39]

Fig. 12). α is the angle between the lower pipes. Kang [39] A B C

observed that the bundle effect increases with an increase in
the angle between the lower pipes. In the pipe bundles, the
upper pipes are strongly affected by the lower ones and this
effect can be determined by defining an important parameter
referred to as “bundle effect.” The main reason for the heat
transfer improvement on the upper pipes is due to the con-
vective flow and fluid agitation created by the lower pipes
[37]. Bundle effect is specified as the ratio of the heat trans-
port coefficient for an upper pipe in a bundle with lower
pipes activated to that for the same pipe activated alone
in the bundle [51]. Kang [39] compared the results for the
V-shaped and the parallel pipes and found that the values of
the bundle effect for the V-shaped pipes are slightly larger
in comparison with the parallel ones. φ
Kang [38] studied the pool boiling heat transfer from an
inclined pipe bundle. They have focused on the combined
influence of an inclination angle and the heat flux of the A: affect by the convective flow and bubbles
lower pipe. The inclined pipe bundle considered by Kang B: affected by the convective flow
[38] is represented in Fig. 12. It was observed that the heat C: not affected by the lower side tube
transfer coefficient of the upper pipe is enhanced with an
increase in the heat flux of the lower pipe and the decrease Fig. 13  Affected areas by lower pipe [39]
in the inclination angle. Figure 13 shows the affected areas
in pool boiling by the lower pipe. Notably, the lower pipe has the magnitude of bundle effect. When the heat flux decreases
no influence on area labeled with “C.” With an increase in from bottom to top, the lower pipes are under the influence
the inclination angle reaching 90°, the bound of the area C of larger values of heat flux and the heat flux gently reduces
is developed to the other end of the pipe and the heat transfer toward top pipe. Hence, more bubbles can form and slide
rate of the bundle changes. along with the upper pipes contributing to the bundle effect.
Swain and Kumar Das [89] performed a study on the flow In another study, Swain et al. [90] repeated the problem of
boiling on plain pipe bundle. They considered both uniform Swain and Kumar Das [89] for a coated pipe bundle. Swain
and non-uniform heat flux values along with the height of et al. [90] found that the coated pipe bundles provide larger
the pipe bundle. For a real shell and tube heat exchangers, values of heat transfer rate and smaller values of wall super-
the heat flux is not uniform along with the height of pipe heats in comparison with the plain pipe bundles. Ahmadpour
bundle. Swain and Kumar Das [89] observed that the mean et al. [4] investigated the pool boiling on a staggered pipe
heat transfer rate for the bundle configuration is relatively bundle for four working fluids including ethanol, R134a,
larger than that of observed for the cases with a reducing pat- R22, and water. They used an Eulerian–Eulerian technique
tern for the heat flux from bottom to the top row in compari- to simulate the problem. The pipes in the bundle are heated,
son with the constant heat flux. This is due to the increase in and boiling occurs on the surface of the pipe bundle. They

13
Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer 1825

found that the bundle factor can be vanished at larger values
of heat flux. The bundle factor is defined as “the ratio of the
heat transfer coefficients for a pipe bundle to an isolated pipe
with a same heat flux.” They noticed that among all liquids
tested in their work, water with the saturation temperature
of 60 °C had the largest bundle effect. Zhang et al. [99, 100]
investigated the flow boiling heat transfer in the inclined rod
bundle with staggered arrangement. The rods were heated
electrically. Their results showed that the inclination angle
has negligible influence on the flow boiling heat transfer at
small values of heat flux. However, for larger values of heat
flux, the flow boiling heat transfer rate in the inclined rod
bundle has the lowest value, while the vertical rod bundle
provides the maximum value of flow boiling heat transfer
rate. Moreover, the ratio of the heat transfer rate in the hori-
zontal or vertical rod bundle to that of measured for the
inclined one is enhanced as the heat flux is increased. Chen
et al. [15] investigated the inception of the nucleate boiling
and flow boiling heat transfer in a “5 × 5” rod bundle in small
values of flow rate. They concluded that the wall superheat-
ing at the inception of nucleate boiling point is enhanced as
the heat flux increases, while it reduces with the increase in
the mass flux. For both saturated and subcooled flow boiling
in a “5 × 5” rod bundle, the influence of the heat flux on the
heat transfer is more considerable at larger values of flow
rates in comparison with the smaller values of the flow rates.
In light of the above-discussed topics, the details of the
studies conducted about the applications of boiling are sum-
marized in Table 1.
Fouling during boiling heat transfer
The boiling heat transfer in particulate working fluid is asso-
ciated with the formation of a layer of particles deposited
on the heating surface due to the evaporation of the working
fluid inside the micro-layer of the boiling. The formation
of fouling can induce a thermal resistance to the system,
a change in the pattern of bubble formation over the time,
and a significant reduction in the heat transfer coefficient.
In practical applications, the working fluids include certain
amount of suspended or dissolved materials with the poten-
tial to be deposited on the heating surface, which cause the
fouling phenomenon [57]. Normally, the thermal conduc-
tivity of the deposited substrate is low and the formation of
this substrate increases the thermal resistance and pressure
drop particularly in mini and narrow channels. As a result,
fouling decreases the efficiency of thermal systems, and in
some cases, it brings failure to the system [57]. Accordingly,
fouling phenomenon in thermal systems adds a major uncer-
tainty in the design and operation of the systems, which
should be considered in the long term [57]. Crystallization,
particle deposition, corrosion, chemical reaction, biological
deposition, and combined fouling are the main reasons of
fouling in thermal devices [20, 21].
The existence of bubbles decreases the boundary layer
resistance, which makes it easier for the foulant particles to
reach and stick to the heating surface [32]. In addition, the
bubble formed during boiling process can increase the turbu-
lence near the surface, which increases shear stress and leads
to the decrease in the rate of fouling through elimination or
suppression [32]. As a result, the boiling conditions can both
reduce and increase the fouling rate in thermal systems [32].
Fouling in boiling devices is generally associated with the
sedimentation of suspended particles and inorganic salts and

Table 1  Studies conducted References Type of research Type of fluid Type of boiling

on the boiling heat transfer in
bundle pipe Bundle pipe
Qiu and Liu [64] Experimental Water Pool boiling
Gupta [29] Experimental Distilled water Pool boiling
Gupta et al. [30] Experimental Water Pool boiling
Kim et al. [40] Experimental R-123 + alkylbenzene oil Flow boiling
Van Rooyen and Thome [94] Experimental R134a/R-236fa Flow boiling
Kang [32–39] Experimental Water Pool boiling
Abbas and Ayub [1] Experimental Ammonia Pool boiling
Goel et al. [27] Experimental Distilled water Pool boiling
Swain and Kumar Das [89] and Experimental Distilled water Flow boiling
Swain et al. [90]
Ahmadpour et al. [4] Numerical Ethanol/R134a/R22/water Pool boiling
Chen et al. [15] Experimental Distilled and deionized water Flow boiling
Zhang et al. [99, 100] Experimental Deionized water Flow boiling

13

1826 S. Rashidi et al.

Table 2  Different industrial applications of boiling heat transfer including fouling [22]

References Industrial application Type of heat exchanger Fluid medium/type of fouling

Behbahani et al. [11] Phosphoric acid production HTR1 test heater Phosphoric acid solution
Dooly and Glater [19] Desalination Distillation plant Sea water, crystallization fouling ­(CaCO3,
Mg(OH)2)
Gourdon et al. [28] Pulp mill Vertical one tube evaporator Black liquor; crystallization fouling
­(Na2CO3, ­Na2SO4)
Liu et al. [44] Pharmaceutical industry (production of Multiple-tube evaporator Alcohol and water extract of Gengnianan
Chinese patent medicine)
Müller-Steinhagen and Pulp and paper mill Multiple-effect evaporators Black liquor (­ CaCO3, silica, aluminum
Branch [56] silicates) or highly soluble (­ 2Na2SO4–
Na2CO3)
Polley and Pugh [62] Ret oiler Thermosiphon reboilers Chemical reaction fouling (e.g., in heat
exchangers used in preheat trains pro-
cessing in crude oil)
Rosencrance et al. [70] Concentration of radioactive waste 2H Radioactive waste; aluminosilicate deposi-
evaporator tion
Scurlock [86] Cryogenic plant Flat surface Liquid hydrogen, nitrogen, argon, oxygen,
R12
Terdtoon et al. [91] Economizer Thermosiphon economizer Pitting corrosion and scale deposition

corrosion that can lead to the decrease in the heat transfer
rate [50]. Moreover, the irradiated corrosion products can be
transported in the device and provide serious problems [50].
Table 2 provides different industrial applications of boiling
heat transfer that suffer from the fouling due to different
mechanisms. This table shows that crystallization fouling of
particulate fluids is one important technical challenge which
needs further research.
Some researchers have focused on the fooling occurred
during the boiling process. Miiller-Steinhagen [53] per-
formed a short review on the fouling formation in the boiling
of cryogenic liquids. Miiller-Steinhagen [53] observed that
the significant fouling can form in the boiling of cryogenic
liquids, even if these liquids have great purity. Due to local
supersaturation near the nucleus, the impurities can solidify
on the heating surface. The fouling formation rate increases
as the wall superheat and system pressure increase. Fukada
et al. [24] created some fouling scales on the wire with small
diameter and studied the influence of scale on the bubbling
pattern and nucleate pool boiling heat transfer. For better
understanding, the nucleate pool boiling around bare and
scale wires is depicted in Fig. 14. It is observed that the
bubble departure is more intensified on the surface with the
scale in comparison with the bare one. Also, the bubbling is
enhanced on the scale wire because the hydrophilic porous
surface of the fouling scale can provide the enough number
of active sites for the nucleating bubbles. Generally, the wet-
tability of the fouling wire is found to be larger as compared
with the bare one [61]. Accordingly, the bubble departure
size on the scale wire is smaller in comparison with the
bare wire.
Malayeri et al. [47] investigated the fouling during the
pool boiling of ­CaSO4 solutions on the outer surfaces of
pipe bundles. The fouling formation in pool boiling occurs in
various systems including steam generators and kettle reboil-
ers in which nucleate boiling is the dominant mechanism. In
these systems, the fouling formation on the heating surfaces
leads to the increase in the cost of the operation and main-
tenance due to the decrease in the heat transfer rate and the
augmentation of the wall temperature of the boiler in order

Bare wire Scale wire

Fig. 14  Nucleate pool boiling around the bare and scale wires with radius of 0.1 mm and heat flux of 2 MW m−2 [24]

13
Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer 1827
to overcome the thermal resistance of the surface. In addi-
tion, the lifetime of the system decreases with an increase
the boiler metal wall temperature. Malayeri et al. [47] found
that generally, the deposits on the bottom pipe in the bun-
dle are somewhat adherent and dense. The increased bubble
formation has tendency to enhance the bundle heat transfer
rate and the shear force on pipe surfaces that both decrease
the creation of deposits. Meantime, the local concentration
and saturation influence have tendency for increasing the
deposit rate. Finally, if any deposition layer is formed on the
top pipes, then the deposits are only created on the top side.
Haghshenasfard et al. [31] developed a numerical model to
evaluate the ­CaSO4 fouling under subcooled flow boiling.
Haghshenasfard et al. [31] found that the deposition rate
is increased with an increase in the surface temperature.
The fouling resistance increases, while the deposition rate
reduces as the fluid velocity increases. The fouling rate is not
affected by the bulk temperature. Abd-Elhady and Malayeri
[2] investigated the effects of crystallization fouling on the
heat transfer in the heat exchanger pipe. They found that the
crystallization fouling can transform the single-phase con-
vective heat transfer to a bubbly two-phase subcooled boil-
ing heat transfer. Figure 15 shows the process of the fouling
formation and the corresponding change in the temperature
of surface of the heated pipe. As shown in the figure, the
temperature of the surface increases above the boiling tem-
perature of the liquid when the fouling substrate forms and
this leads to the formation of some small bubbles. Notably,
the fouling phenomenon can aggravate the detrimental effect
of fouling on the efficiency of heat exchangers and, accord-
ingly, needs some strategies to prevent fouling.
Peyghambarzadeh et  al. [63] evaluated the potentials
of asymptotic model to predict the C ­ aSO4 fouling during
the subcooled flow boiling. High accuracy, simplicity, and
physically sounder predicting ability of the model for the
nucleate boiling fraction are some advantages of the model
for the prediction of fouling phenomena under the boiling
conditions. The nucleate boiling fraction is a very important
Ts < Tboiling
CaSO4 solution
Tbulk ~ 42 °C
FL
Ts = 80 °C Ts > 100 °C
Heating
surface (a) Induction period
(Single-phase flow)
Convective heat transfer
Fig. 15  Process of the fouling substrate formation and the corresponding change in the temperature of surface of the heated pipe [2]
parameter in the fouling phenomena under boiling processes.
Notably, the other models, such as Chen model [14], pre-
sented to predict the fouling during the subcooled flow boil-
ing cannot predict the nucleate boiling fraction with high
accuracy.
Sarafraz and Hormozi [73] investigated the effects of nan-
oparticle fouling of copper oxide/ethylene glycol nanofluid
on the convective boiling in the annular heat exchanger. It
was found that the fouling resistance and flow boiling heat
transfer rate increase with the mass and heat fluxes. In addi-
tion, the fouling resistance considerably increases, while the
flow boiling heat transfer rate decreases with increasing the
solid volume fraction of nanoparticles. Generally, depositing
the nanoparticles near the heated section can decrease the
wettability of the surface. This leads to covering the heated
section by the bubbles and decreasing the heat transfer rate.
In another study, Sarafraz et al. [79] performed an experi-
mental study on the fouling formation of non-functionalized
and functionalized CNT-based nanofluids during the pool
boiling process. The results revealed that the utilization of
functionalized CNT-based nanofluid significantly improves
the heat transfer rate and critical heat flux point. It should
be noted that the functionalized CNT-based nanofluid does
not affect the roughness of surface significantly and has high
wettability in comparison with the CNT nanofluid. Although
fouling formation of functionalized CNT is negligible in
comparison with CNT, the smaller contact angle between
the surface and liquid droplet leads to absorbing more liq-
uid by the porous fouling substrate. Accordingly, there is
more liquid on the surface to rewet the dry-out regions.
Consequently, considerable improvement in critical heat
flux point is registered for functionalized CNT-based nano-
fluid as compared with CNT. From the viewpoint of fouling
characteristic, asymptotic pattern for fouling resistance can
be observed for CNT, while the rectilinear fouling pattern
can be observed for the functionalized CNT. At some criti-
cal values of vapor quality, all liquid film can be evaporated,
which this situation is named by dry-out.
Ts = Tboiling Ts > Tboiling
Stem
bubbles
Ts = 110 °C
(b) FL growth (c) FL growth cont.
(Single-phase flow) (Two-phase flow)
Subcooled flow boiling
13

1828
In series of experiments, Sarafraz et al., Salehi and Hor-
mozi, and Kamel et al. [36, 72, 85] assessed the effect of the
particle morphology, particle size, and stability of the nano-
suspensions on the rate of particulate fouling on the surface
and it was identified that the ratio of particle size to mean
surface roughness plays a key role in heat transfer behavior
of the nanofluids. If the ratio is relatively lower than unity,
the heat transfer coefficient of the system decreases with
time spanning. However, for ratio ≫ 1, the heat transfer coef-
ficient of the system is improved as the irregularity of the
surface increases. This is because, for a very small particle,
the roughness of the surface is filled with nanoparticles,
resulting in a massive decrease in number of nucleation sites
[60, 71, 64–76, 78, 80, 83].
However, for the large particles, the particulate fouling
layer is not uniform and includes a porous and irregular
external surface which is plausible for the formation of the
bubbles. Thus, they reported some enhancement and dete-
rioration in heat transfer coefficient for various nanofluids
and proved their findings. Finally, they recommended that
more research should be dedicated to the fouling mitigation
using active and/or passive techniques [77, 79, 81, 82, 84].
Antifouling techniques
Fouling can be removed by routine clean-in-place tech-
niques. Generally, these techniques are active mitigation
methods and need external energy, e.g., electrical energy
and fouling inhibitor [66]. Electroless nickel–phosphorous,
e.g., Ni–Cu–P, as a surface treatment is effectively used to
inhabit the fouling [16, 41]. In addition, combining PTFE,
which has very low surface energy, with Ni–Cu–P matrix
is useful for improving the properties of deposits including
dry lubricity, surface free energy, wear resistance, and small
friction [17, 101]. Gao et al. [26] compared the antifouling
(a)
Mild steel
Fig. 16  Fouling morphology on the mild steel and Ni–Cu–P–PTFE deposit surfaces [18]
13
S. Rashidi et al.
features of the surface of Ni-based implanted pipe with other
alternatives such as carbon steel, brass, and stainless steel
pipes. They demonstrated that Ni-based implanted pipe can
have potentially better antifouling feature in comparison
with other pipes. This indicates that the fouling cannot be
formed easily on the surface of Ni-based implanted pipe
during boiling process. In addition, this pipe has better heat
transfer ability. These features make this pipe suitable for
the industrial applications. Cheng et al. [18] investigated
the antifouling effect of Ni–Cu–P-PTFE deposit surface dur-
ing flow boiling of water. Figure 16 discloses the fouling
morphology on the mild steel and Ni–Cu–P-PTFE deposit
surfaces during the boiling water for 20 h. As shown in this
figure, the rate of fouling adhering on the Ni–Cu–P-PTFE
surface is considerably reduced as compared with that of
mild steel surface. In addition, the fouling is more uniform
distributed on the Ni–Cu–P-PTFE surface.
Low-energy surfaces provided by a few types of surface
coating is a technique employing to diminish the fouling
layer from the surfaces. Yan et al. [98] and Wang and Liu
[95] used titanium dioxide coating on the heating surface to
improve the pool boiling and decrease the fouling formation
rate during the boiling processes. Yan et al. [98] reported
that the utilization of titanium dioxide coating with thick-
ness in nanometer scale can decrease the fouling consider-
ably due to smaller values of surface free energy. Wang and
Liu [95] found that the pool boiling heat transfer on coated
surfaces is higher in comparison with the bar surfaces due
to the nano- and micro-structured surfaces that can grow
the number of nucleation sites. Lv et al. [46] investigated
the potentials of the super-hydrophobic titanium-based
nanoporous coating for enhancing the nucleate pool boiling
heat transfer and decreasing the fouling rate. It was found
that the heat transfer efficiency of the super-hydrophobic
titanium-based nanoporous coating is higher in comparison
(b)
Ni–Cu–P–PTFE deposit surface
Fundamental and subphenomena of boiling heat transfer 1829
with the super-hydrophilic titanium-based nanoporous sur-
face or the bare titanium layer because of the larger density
of nucleation sites. Moreover, the super-hydrophobic nano-
porous coating provides smaller values of fouling resistance
and superior antifouling efficiency during pool boiling of
calcium carbonate solution in comparison with the bare or
super-hydrophilic surface.
Concluding remarks and recommendations
for the future work
This paper focused on the in-depth review on the boiling
subphenomena including the mechanisms involved in nucle-
ation, bubble formation, and micro-mechanisms involved in
the boiling micro-layer. The boiling in pipe bundle was also
studied. The particulate fouling of micro- and nanoparticles
during boiling heat transfer was investigated, and techniques
for the mitigation of fouling were proposed. The main find-
ings of this review and some offers for the future studies in
this field are presented as follows:
Conclusions
The main results of this review are:
• The critical heat flux affects the flow regime, pressure
loss, and heat transfer in the boiling systems, and it is
important for various applications such as nuclear power
plants, fossil power plants, fusion applications, electron-
ics cooling systems, and steam generators. In these appli-
cations, the critical heat flux has considerable effects on
the safety, integrity, and economic viability of the mod-
ules and equipment.
• Modification of surface structure, electrostatic suppres-
sion, and usage of vibration with low frequency are some
techniques used to suppress the Leidenfrost influence.
Notably, to supply the efficient heat transfer in spray
cooling and flash evaporation cooling, it is important to
provide an effective contact between the heated surface
and liquid. This can be achieved by diminishing the Lei-
denfrost influence.
Boiling in the pipe bundle
• The usage of pipe bundle provides larger value of boil-
ing heat transfer, about two to three times, in compari-
son with the single pipe. Pipe spacing has a consider-
able influence on the boiling heat transfer in a compact
pipe bundle. For flooded evaporators, nucleate boil-
ing heat transfer does not occur on the heated pipes
because the values of heat flux and wall superheat of
heated pipes are very small. However, when the space
between pipes in bundle is very small, nucleate boil-
ing in restricted spaces occurs. The small pipe gaps
can considerably improve the boiling heat transfer in
a smooth pipe bundle. The main reason for the heat
transfer improvement on the upper pipes in the bundle
is due to the convective flow and fluid agitation created
by the lower pipes.
• In bundle systems, the heat transfer reduction by oil-
in-oil-based systems is lower than that of quantified for
the single pipes. This is due to the convective flow in a
bundle that eliminates oil from the boiling surface.
Fouling during boiling heat transfer
• The thermal conductivity of the deposited substrate is
low, and the formation of this substrate increases the
heat resistance and pressure drop. As a result, fouling
decreases the efficiency of the thermal system that can
finally cause operational failures. Moreover, fouling
increases the maintenance costs of the thermal systems.
• The existence of gas bubbles of boiling decreases the
boundary layer resistance, which makes it easier for
foulant particles to reach and attach to the heating sur-
face. In addition, the bubbles formed during boiling
process can increase the turbulence near the surface
increasing shear stress and lead to the decrease in the
rate of fouling through elimination or suppression. Due
to local supersaturation near the nucleated bubbles, the
impurities can solidify on the heating surface. The foul-
ing rates usually increase as the wall superheat and
system pressure increase.
• The deposits on the bottom pipe in the bundle are
somewhat adherent and dense.
• The crystallization fouling can transform the single-
phase convective heat transfer to bubbly two-phase
subcooled boiling heat transfer.
Antifouling techniques
• Electroless nickel–phosphorous, e.g., Ni–Cu–P, as a
surface treatment is effectively used to inhabit the foul-
ing during the boiling process. In addition, combining
PTFE, which has very low surface energy, with the
Ni–Cu–P matrix is useful for improving the properties
of deposits including dry lubricity, surface free energy,
wear resistance, and small friction.
• Low-energy surfaces provided by a few types of surface
coating are a technique, which can be used to diminish
the fouling. Titanium dioxide coating can be used on
the heated surface to improve pool boiling and decrease
the fouling during the boiling processes.
13

1830
Recommendations for the future work
The following recommendations are made for the future
work:
• The results of the previous study showed that the boil-
ing heat transfer is improved by depositing the impuri-
ties of the tap water [33]. As a result, it is suggested
to perform more studies about the boiling of this fluid
under different conditions to evaluate its potentials for
the practical applications.
• Local boiling phenomenon, in which there are both
boiling and non-boiling regimes on the surface, can be
observed when using the two-phase jet impingement
for electronic cooling. This phenomenon can poten-
tially have interesting effects on the temperature of the
surface and causes non-uniform temperature distribu-
tion. The creation of non-uniform temperature distri-
bution can decrease the thermal performance of the
cooling system. However, the textured surfaces can be
used to address this issue and create a more uniform
boiling heat transfer on all over surface.
• The literature review reveals that most of the studies
performed on the boiling process over the pipe bun-
dles and boiling of lubricant are experimental. In con-
trast, the numerical studies are limited on these topics.
Due to the recent progress in the numerical methods
developed for simulating two-phase flows, it is recom-
mended to perform more numerical studies in these
topics.
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