Nondestructive

Testing Methods

Training Workbook
EW-512-6

Written by
the Staff of Hobart Institute
of Welding Technology

Additional copies can be obtained from:

Hobart Institute of Welding Technology
400 Trade Square East
Troy, Ohio 45373
www.welding.org
(937) 332-5433

© 2009. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, 400 Trade Square East, Troy, Ohio, U.S.A.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
ISBN: 978-1-936058-23-5

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

iii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPIC PAGE

Glossary of Welding Terms v

Introduction to Nondestructive Testing Methods 1

Principles of Visual Testing 7

Principles of Penetrant Testing 13

Principles of Magnetic Particle Testing 19

Principles of Ultrasonic Testing 25

Principles of Radiographic Testing 30

iv
TOPIC 1

INTRODUCTION TO NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

OBJECTIVE
To be able to define and identify the purpose for nondestructive testing and the symbols used to indicate

INTRODUCTION

This section includes an overview of nondestruc-

tive testing, its purpose, the basic principles in-
volved with the most common types, giving a de-
scription of the symbols used to indicate methods
of inspection.

Visual Testing

Nondestructive testing is an evaluation process in

which no damage occurs to completed welds or
to the surrounding structure provided the proper
procedures are followed. It is used to qualify pro-
cedures, welders, and to monitor the quality of
production welding.

Penetrant Testing

Nondestructive testing, whether in the shop or

field, can be used for detecting small discontinui-
ties and defects quickly and effectively. The most
common methods for nondestructive testing are:
Visual
Penetrant
Magnetic particle
Ultrasonic
Radiographic
Magnetic Particle Testing

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

1
 When choosing an inspection method, take into
consideration the advantages and limitations of the
method.

Ultrasonic Testing

The sensitivity of each method reflects its ability to

respond to a discontinuity’s size, shape and loca-
tion. Visual inspection is limited to discontinuities
exposed to the surface. Radiographic inspection
could be used to detect discontinuities on or below
the surface. The method to employ is based largely
on the degree of quality required for the weldment.

For example, to verify quality, visual or magnetic

particle inspection may be all that is required for low
pressure piping, whereas high pressure piping may
require radiographic testing.

Radiographic Testing

Cooperation between design, welding, and quality

engineers is required to determine which testing
methods to use in order to meet the testing require-
ments of the weldment.

Once the decision is made, it becomes the quality

assurance engineer’s responsibility to provide the
qualified inspector with the details of the inspection
requirements, so the weld can be inspected cor-
rectly.

Magnetic Particle Testing

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 PT
PN-17
PT

1 45
1
GTAW
4 11 4
1
4 45
Methods of indicating inspection type will be nec-
essary
Methods when nondestructive
of indicating testingtype
inspection is required.
will be
This
neceisssgenerally
ary when done
nondeon
strengineering
uctive testingdrawings
is requiredby
.
the use
This is ofgenerally
nondestructive
done on testing symbolsdrawings
engineering and writ-
ten
by procedures.
the use of nondestructive testing symbols and
written procedures.

11 14

II. NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST

SYMBOLS
II. NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST
SYMBOLS
Nondestructive testing symbols are standardized
MT 6
much like the symbols
Nondestructive testing used for welding.
symbols A refer-
are standardized
ence line is used in the same manner
much like the symbols used as welding
for welding. A
symbols, and is as long as necessary for adding
reference line is used in the same manner as
information.
welding symbols, and is as long as necessary for
adding information.
RT 25% An arrow is used to direct the information to the de-
sired location. It can be placed at either end of the
reference
An arrowline, pointing
is used up orthe
to direct down, on either
information to side
the
where welds are to be placed.
desired location. It can be placed at either end of
the reference line, pointing up or down, on either
side where welds are to be placed.

Other side
Arrow side

The side of the joint the arrow points to is referred

Other side Arrow side toThe
as side
the “arrow side”.
of the joint theThe opposite
arrow points side is called
to is referred
the “other side”. It is important because it specifies
to as the “arrow side”. The opposite side is called
which side side”.
the “other of the Itwelded joint isbecause
is important to be inspected.
it specifies
which side of the welded joint is to be inspected.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

©2009, Hobart Institute of Welding Technology 3 EW 512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods
3
 The
The symbols initials to
symbols use initials to indicate
indicate the
the test
test
VT method
method to
to be
be used.
used. They
Theyare:
are:
PT VT
VT == visual
visual testing
testing
PT
PT == penetrant
penetrant testing
testing
MT
MT == magnetic
magnetic particle
particle testing
testing
UT
UT == ultrasonic
ultrasonic testing
testing
RT
RT == radiographic
radiographic testing
testing

Other side
Other side
Arrow side
Arrow side When
When the symbol is
the test symbol is located
located below
below the the
reference
reference line, it signifies that inspection
inspection isis to
to be
be
Arrow side Other side Arrow side performed
performed on the arrow
arrow side
side of
ofthe
thejoint.
joint. When
When
placed
placed above the line, it indicates
indicates the
the inspection
inspection
Other side is
is to
to be
be performed
performed on
on the
the other
other side.
side.
Other side
Arrow side

Arrow side
Other
side

The
The test symbol can be placed on on both
both sides
sides of
of
RT + PT the
the reference line to indicate that each
each side
sideofofthe
the
RT weld
weld is
is to
to be
be inspected.
inspected.

The
The symbol is centered between aa break
break inin the
the
UT reference
reference line when it doesn’t matter
matter on
on which
which
side
side the inspection is
is to
to be
be performed.
performed. In In all
all
cases,
cases, the
the inspection is for 100%
100% of of the
the weld
weld
unless
unless otherwise
otherwise noted.
noted.

Details,
Details, such as testing procedures,
procedures, specification,
specification,
processes,
processes, or pertinent information
or other pertinent information areare
A-12 sometimes
sometimes placed at the end of of the
the reference
referenceline
line
RT
inside
inside aa “tail
“tail bracket”.
bracket”.

When
When less
less that
that 100%
100% of the length
length is is toto be
be
MT 6 inspected,
inspected, it can be specified by
by aa section
sectionlength
length
or
or percentage located to the right
right of
of the
the symbol.
symbol.
The required sections
The required sections or areas
areas are are usually
usually
specified the written
specified in the written procedures.
procedures. WhenWhen no no
percentages
percentages are noted, 100% of the the weld
weld isis to
to
RT 25% be
be checked.
checked.

©©2009,
2010. Hobart InstituteofofWelding
Hobart Institute WeldingTechnology
Technology EW 512-6 Nondestructive
EW512-6 NondestructiveTesting
TestingMethods
Methods
4
4
 Theallallaround
The around test
test symbol
symbol is
is used
used when
when the
thein-
the
spection
inspection is to be performed completely around a
around
welded joint.
a welded joint.

The
The number
number of tests
of tests to performed
to be be performed is indicted
is indicted in
in
in parenthesis. The symbol shown here
parenthesis. The symbol shown here specifies specifies
four
four
MT four applications of magnetic
applications of magnetic particleparticle inspection.
inspection.
(4)

Multiple reference lines are nondestructive test

3 symbols combined with other nondestructive or
weldingreference
Multiple symbols. lines
The order in which operations
are nondestructive test
test
and tests are performed is indicted
symbols combined with other nondestructive by the order
or of
or
RT + PT
RT
2 the lines. The first operation is the closest
operationsthe
welding symbols. The order in which operations to
arrow.
and tests are performed is indicted by the order order
of the lines. The first operation is the closest to to
1 the arrow.

This multiple reference line shows a single

Vgroove
This weld
multiple with meltline
reference through
showsto abesingle
inspected
V-
V-
VT on the arrow side with a combination of visual
groove weld with melt through to be inspected on and
on
T28
VT + RT radiographic testing methods. Visual inspection
the arrow side with a combination of visual and and is
performed on the other side. Inspection details
radiographic testing methods. Visual inspection
inspection are
located in procedure T-28.
is performed on the other side. Inspection details
details
are located in procedure T-28.

Theengineering
The engineeringstaff
staff can
can provide
provide information
information forfor
for
weldingand
welding andinspection
inspection using
using symbols
symbols and
and notes
notes
notes
ononthe
theengineering
engineering drawings.
drawings.

Knowledgeofofthe
Knowledge thetesting
testing methods,
methods, procedures,
procedures,
procedures,
and
and thethe symbol
symbol elements,
elements, cancan enable
enable youyou to bet-
to better
better
ter understand
understand this this common
common language
language andand help
help to to
to
maintainhigher
maintain higher quality
quality atat lower
lower cost.
cost.

Length of section
Number of tests to be tested

Reference line (N) Test in field

(
(
Other

sides
side

Test-all-around
Tail L symbol
T

( (
Arrow
Other

Specification
Both

or other reference

Arrow
Basic testing symbol

©2009, Hobart
© 2010. Institute
Hobart of Welding
Institute Technology
of Welding Technology EW 512-6 Nondestructive
EW512-6 Testing
Nondestructive Methods
Testing
Testing Methods
Methods
55
 TOPIC 1

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define the purpose of nondestructive testing:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Where are nondestructive symbols placed?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. List the common methods of nondestructive testing:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. How long should the reference line of a nondestructive test symbol be?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. An arrow is used to direct the information to:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

6. The side of the joint the arrow points to is called the:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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TOPIC 2

PRINCIPLES OF VISUAL TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To be able to identify the basic principles and applications of visual testing.

INTRODUCTION

Visual testing is the most popular and widely

used nondestructive testing method. It consists
of examining weld and overall weldments and
comparing the evaluation to a set of standards.

When correctly applied, it is an effective method of

quality control insuring conformance to a procedure
and allowing errors to be corrected. This leads to
production of a higher quality weldment at reduced
costs.

Visual inspection practice requires the inspector to

be familiar with all duties which apply to inspection,
such as:
• Learning to read blueprints
• Having a knowledge of welding
• Processes specification
• Procedures and workmanship standards

The inspector must be capable of making:

• Responsible judgments
• Accurately recording data
• Writing concise reports
Even though visual testing is the simplest method
of performing inspections, detailed written procedures
are needed to ensure proper application of the
inspection.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 PREWELD INSPECTION

To perform preweld inspection, an inspector be-

comes familiar with all aspects of the job, such as:
• Material specification
• Bill of materials
• Welding procedures
When completely familiar with all the written de-
tails, the inspector compares the dimensions of
all the parts, checking dimensions to engineering
drawings, and verifying tolerances of parts to en-
sure proper final fit-up of the weldment.

The inspector examines the joint preparation and

surface conditions of the materials for proper
cleaning and lack of flaws. Poor fit-up, contaminat-
ed base metal surfaces, improper equipment, and
incorrect settings can lead to weld discontinuities
or defects.

If backing is specified, it should be in accordance

with the job specifications and be correctly and
securely fastened. The tack welds become part
of the finished weld and should meet the same
soundness requirements.

Preweld inspection should include examining

the equipment to insure it is in proper operating
condition.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 IN-PROCESS VISUAL INSPECTION

In-process welding begins with:

• Verifying specified procedure
• Observing welds during production
• Deleting problems before completion of
welds
• Observing welder skill
• Verifying proper interpass temperatures
• Assuring interpass cleaning requirements
are met
• Comparing each pass or layer to a sample
workmanship standard

VISUAL TESTING OF FINISHED

WELDS

The inspector should compare the finished welds

or weldments to the engineering drawings or
specifications. This assures:
• Proper part dimensions
• Weld size
• Weld location
• The correct amount of welds on the
weldment

Accuracy of the measurement is more important

than the method of measuring. A good-looking
weld could be rejected if it is not the correct size.

Tools, such as high-low gage, fllet weld gage, or a

scale can be used to measure correct dimensions.

Another part of post-weld inspection is the exami-

nation of the weld surface. Common discontinui-
ties visible to the surface area are:
• Cracks
• Porosity
• Overlap
• Arc strikes
• Undercut
• Spatter

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

9
 Each of these problems has allowable limits
described in the applicable code or inspection
procedure.

After welding, the weldment may also reveal base

metal defects such as delamination, cracking,
or excessive distortion, which should be clearly
marked for repair.

Documentation of visual testing begins once

all aspects of before, during, and after welding
inspection has taken place. This consists of the
inspector evaluating the results to decide whether
the welds or weldments meet the prescribed
specification.

The inspector must make reports of every detail

and keep complete records. Generally, any items
which do not meet the requirements are noted and
described. Any repairs made during production
should be reported.

Good record keeping is essential. Whenever such

detailed records are required, they are normally
signed or certified by the fabricator, and copies are
sent to all persons entitled to receive them.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 Visual inspection is an invaluable quality control
technique. Caution must be taken before drawing
conclusions.

Welds with good surfaces are often good quality,

but surface appearances will not prove careful
workmanship took place.

To be reasonably sure of weld quality, all phases of

visual inspection must be accomplished.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 TOPIC 2

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. The visual inspector must be capable of: (list three)

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. To perform “preweld inspection” the inspector must be familiar with: (list three)

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. List four things an inspector must check for when performing “in-process” visual inspection.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. List four things the inspector should check on the finished welds or weldments.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Any items not meeting the test requirements are:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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TOPIC 3

PRINCIPLES OF PENETRANT TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To identify the basic principles and applications of penetrant testing.

INTRODUCTION

Penetrant testing is a highly sensitive method used

for detecting discontinuities which are less likely to
be detected by visual inspection. A flaw such as a
fine crack open to the surface could go undetected
during visual examination, but would be exposed
with the proper application of the penetrant test.

A unique characteristic of penetrant testing is

its capillary action. It is the ability of a liquid to
redistribute itself into or between closely fitted
surfaces. This allows a flaw or discontinuity to be
detected.

Liquid penetrant has certain limitations. Generally,

it cannot be used on materials with very porous or
highly absorbent surfaces. These materials could
likely give false indications.

The two basic types of liquid penetrant testing are:

• Fluorescent
• Visible dye
Both types have several variations, but share the
same basic procedures. They are the application
of a liquid penetrant, the removal of the excessive
penetrant, and the application of a developer to
draw penetrant from any openings in the surface.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 The main concept of both types of penetrant is to
read the contrasting colors. For example, when
fluorescent penetrant is applied to a surface
containing a defect or discontinuity, the solid
surface will appear as a deep violet. The flaw will
show up as a yellow-green glow under an ultraviolet
light. This is the most sensitive method.

Visible dye penetrant appears as a bright indication

on a white background. It is easy to apply and is
performed under normal lighting conditions.

The surface should be cleaned before application

of the penetrant. There are several methods of
cleaning. Precaution should be practiced when
performing these cleaning operations because
they involve chemicals. They may be highly
flammable or toxic if inhaled.

Some cleaning methods such as grinding, chipping,

machining, or shot blasting can prevent parts from
being accurately inspected because discontinuities
can be hidden by these procedures.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 The penetrant is applied after the proper
cleaning procedures have been completed. It
can be applied by dipping, brushing, or spraying
the area to be tested. The most portable method
is by pressurized spray cans.

WATER WASHABLE PENETRANT is a dye

placed in a water-based solution. For nonporous
materials, it provides the lowest sensitivity
because of the ease of penetrant washout of
shallow openings.

POST EMULSIFIABLE PENETRANT is a

dye placed in an oil-based solution. The post
emulsifiable variation needs an application of
an emulsifier to chemically break down the oil
base of the excessive penetrant to render it
water washable. For shallow surface openings,
it allows for greater sensitivity because the
penetrant remains in the openings as the
emulsifier is washed away.

SOLVENT REMOVABLE PENETRANT remains

the most popular. It is usually applied by a
spray can to the inspection surface. Then, after
a specified time, known as the dwell time, it is
removed from the surface with a solvent on a
cleaning cloth, leaving the penetrant trapped
below the surface intact. When performed
correctly, it can reveal ultra-fine openings only a
few micro-inches in size.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 APPLY VISIBLE DYE PENETRANT
Step 1

Penetrant is applied to a properly cleaned surface

by brushing, dipping, or spraying. The method of
application is based on the amount and size of the
part being inspected

Step 2

Allow sufficient dwell time so the penetrant can

enter any openings. Dwell time is based on the type
of material and the degree of accuracy required.
Longer time allows penetrant into smaller openings.
Refer to the testing procedure or manufacturer’s
recommendation for dwell time (usually 5 minutes
to several hours).

Step 3

Remove the excess penetrant by the appropriate

means. When using water washable penetrant,
rinse excess with a spray of water. Water
temperature and angle of spray should be specified
in a written test procedure. This avoids washing out
of penetrant.

When using the post emulsifiable penetrant,

emulsifier dwell time should be monitored so only
excess penetrant is removed.

Step 4

After the surface is properly cleaned and dried,

the developer is applied. The blotter action of
the developer draws out the penetrant left in any
openings in the test area.

Wet developers are powders suspended in liquid.

They can be applied by dipping, brushing or
spraying.

Dry developer is in powder form and is dusted on

the test surface.

The pressurized spray can is the most portable

method of applying penetrant, cleaner, and
developer.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 It is important to apply a smooth and even coating
over the surface. Avoid heavy layers of developer.
Thick coverings might obscure small indications.

Allow for correct dwell time. The developer generally

takes about one-half the penetrant dwell time or
whatever is recommended by the procedure.

Step 5

Examine and record test data drawn from the

results of the penetrant test.

FLUORESCENT DYE PENETRANT

INSPECTION
This type of penetrant testing is done in the same
way as visible dye penetrant, except a fluorescent
light source is needed to read the results after the
dwell time on the developer has elapsed.

GENERAL INFORMATION ON
PENETRANT INSPECTION

When penetrant inspection is performed on

multipass welds, the penetrant must be thoroughly
cleaned between every pass. Welding over test
solutions could create discontinuities.

Penetrant testing is an invaluable quality control

technique. Like visual testing, care must be taken
in drawing conclusions. The depth of a flaw cannot
reasonably be measured. The inspector can only
see penetrant indications that appear on the
surface.

The larger the flaw and the longer the time allowed
for penetrant bleed out, the larger the indication will
appear.

In conclusion, remember that the proper application

of this test is based on the steps discussed and by
following the details of the written test procedures.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 TOPIC 3

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. List two surfaces liquid penetrant cannot be used on:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Dye placed in a water-based solution is called:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. List three methods of cleaning to avoid when using penetrant testing:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. What precautions must be followed when performing penetrant testing on multi-pass welds?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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TOPIC 4

PRINCIPLES OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To identify the basic principles and applications of magnetic particle testing.

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic particle testing is a highly sensitive

method used for locating:
• Cracks
• Porosity
• Slag inclusions
• Other discontinuities in materials and
welds which can be magnetized

A simple bar magnet can simulate this testing

method. When a small amount of magnetic
particles are placed on a bar magnet, the particles
are attracted only to the ends, which are referred to
as the north and south poles.

If the magnet is notched, the magnetic lines of force

pass through the air, creating new north and south
poles on each side of the notch. Magnetic particles
will be attracted to the new poles.

When a part being tested is magnetized, the part

will act like a magnet. The magnetizing is done
either by passing a current through it or by placing
it in a strong magnetic field.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 A surface flaw or one slightly under the surface will
attract and hold the magnetic particles in a pattern
similar to the outline of the flaw. Magnetic particles
can be applied by a dusting bag, atomizer, spray
gun, or brush depending on whether a wet solution
or dry powder is used. The particles in dry powder
form must be applied evenly and excessive particles
should be removed.

WET SOLUTION FOR The wet solution provides a greater sensitivity for
fine surface cracks because it consists of a much
SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES
smaller particle size.

DRY POWDER FOR The dry powder remains more sensitive for flaws
SUBSURFACE DISCONTINUITIES located below the surface.

This testing method is highly sensitive to

discontinuities open to the surface and becomes
less sensitive as the flaw depth increases. This
method is sensitive to discontinuities down to one
quarter inch below the surface.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 The two types of magnetic fields used are circular
magnetization and longitudinal magnetization.
The size and shape of the weldment to be tested
determines the type to be used.

Circular magnetization either passes a current

through the piece to create a field, or creates a
field in which a cylindrical part may be placed.

Longitudinal magnetization passes a current

around the piece to create a field through the
piece.

Circular magnetization is provided by using a set of

prods. Walking the prods along the weld provides
full coverage. Extreme caution should be practiced
to insure that no arcing takes place between the
test surface and the prods.

Longitudinal magnetization can be applied by a

coil, a wrapped coil, or a yoke.

The yoke method is the most practical and widely

used method. It is also the safest because no
current comes in contact with the test surface
eliminating arcing on the surface.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

21
 Magnetic particle testing uses the different
characteristics of alternating current (AC) and
direct current (DC). Equipment availability and
degree of sensitivity required determine the type of
current to be selected.

Alternating current provides the least sensitivity

and magnetizes only the surface of the specimen,
instead of the entire thickness of the part.
Therefore, it should be limited to locating surface
discontinuities.

Direct current penetrates throughout the thickness

of the test specimen. It is the more sensitive of
the two currents, and is recommended for use on
welds when looking for subsurface discontinuities.

Visual evaluation is performed on all indications

represented by accumulated particles on the
surface.

The inspector evaluates the shape, sharpness,

width and height of the particle pattern to determine
the type of discontinuity or defect.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

22
 EVALUATION OF TEST RESULTS

Many factors should be taken into consideration in

order to make precise judgments. Careful evaluation
by a trained inspector is important. Decisions
should be based on requirements specified through
applicable specifications, procedures, or codes.

Further nondestructive testing, such as ultrasonic

or radiographic may be required on a questionable
indication.

REPORTS AND RECORDS

A concise record of the test results should be

developed once all inspection has been completed.
The clear transparent tape method uses clear tape
placed over the indication. This allows the particle
indication to be transferred to a test report form.
The tape with the particles stuck to the back is
placed over a simple sketch of the weldment.

A photograph of the tested surface may also be

taken and attached to the final report.

CLEAN-UP OF TEST SURFACE

Demagnetizing a part may be necessary after all

reports are finished and visual inspection has been
performed. Some components may retain enough
magnetization to attract metal shavings, causing
excessive wear during service operations. It may
also make it difficult to have quality welds.

CONCLUSION

Remember that proper application of this test is

based on having qualified personnel to perform the
testing procedures and carefully following the steps
previously discussed.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

23
 TOPIC 4

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name three discontinuities located by magnetic particle testing:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. The ends of a bar magnet are called:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Which of the two types of electrical current (AC and DC) is the most sensitive?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. Once the inspection has been completed, what should be done?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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TOPIC 5

PRINCIPLES OF ULTRASONIC TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To identify the basic principles and applications of ultrasonic testing.

INTRODUCTION

Ultrasonic testing is a highly sensitive method

used for critical applications where quality is very
important. This method is used for detecting:
• Cracks
• Inclusions
• Laminations
• Other discontinuities in welds and various
other materials.

The inspection method is similar in principle to the

sonar that military ships use to detect submarines.
The ship’s sonar device transmits inaudible sound
waves which reflect off the submarine and are
received as signals on a screen.

Ultrasonic testing is performed in a similar manner.

A device called a transducer is coupled with the
part. It provides mechanical sound waves that are
transmitted into the weld or base metal to detect
flaws.

Transducers are made in a limitless variety of sizes

and shapes. There are two common wave types,
the straight beam and the angle beam. The test
surface determines which transducer to use. The
angle beam is used where the reinforcement would
interfere. The angle beam can be placed to one
side of the weld. It produces no back reflection. It
is important in detecting discontinuities and flaws in
pipe and tubing welds.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 Couplants eliminate the air gap between the
transducer and the specimen. A variety of liquids
or pastes are used to insure proper transmission of
the sound waves.

Sound waves travel into the specimen and, if

interrupted or reflected, the transducer will receive
an echo. The signal is sent to the ultrasonic unit
where it is amplified and displayed on a screen.

While the display screens of early ultrasonic units

used a cathode ray tube or CRT, more modern
display screens are liquid crystal display or LCD.
The display consists of a straight base line. When
sound waves are interrupted, a break will appear
on this base line. These breaks are referred to as
vertical pips. An inspector interprets these pips to
determine flaw depth and location.

The large pip appearing on the left is called the

initial pulse. It represents the top surface of the
specimen. Sound waves travel through and are
reflected back to the transducer. The pip to the
right is called the back reflection. It represents the
bottom surface of the specimen.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 The flaw depth and location can be displayed by
any pip signals that appear between the initial
pulse and back reflection. When a transducer is
moved across a block with a pre-drilled hole at
three inches in depth, all pips will appear at the
three-inch mark on the scale.

The amplitude or height of the pip will give some

indication of the size of the flaw. The higher the pip,
the larger the reflected area of the flaw.

ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF

ULTRASONIC TESTING

When compared with other nondestructive testing

methods, some of its most outstanding features are
accurately determining flaws, depths and location;
it can be used on practically all nonporous metals
or materials; and battery operated equipment
makes it ideal for field applications.

The ultrasonic method of inspection requires a

highly trained and skilled operator and it is difficult
to contact test complex configurations and rough
surfaces.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 Equipment must be carefully calibrated prior to use.
Calibration is normally done by using a standard
reference block.

VARIATIONS

Immersion testing is another variation similar to

the contact method. It is used quite often in testing
of larger components. This test is conducted with
both the transducer and component submerged in
water. The water acts as a couplant allowing the
signals to be transmitted into the part.

The aircraft industry uses this method for testing

irregular or complex-shaped components.

CONCLUSION
Ultrasonic testing can be a very valuable tool for
inspection of weldments provided the proper
equipment is used, personnel are well-trained, and
properly written tests are used.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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1. List three discontinuities that can be detected by ultrasonic testing:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. What are the two types of transducers?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. When compared to other nondestructive testing methods, ultrasonic testing’s most outstanding feature is:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. What are two disadvantages of ultrasonic testing?

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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TOPIC 6

PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

OBJECTIVE

To identify the basic principles and applications of radiographic testing.

INTRODUCTION

Radiography is a sensitive method used for

detecting flaws found in castings, welds, and
various metal structures.

It is the most reliable form of nondestructive

inspection, used extensively in the welding
industry for critical situations, such as pipe
welding and pressure vessels. This inspection
method is similar to s-rays used by hospitals to
detect a broken bone.

The x-ray machine sends invisible radiation

through the body to a sheet of photographic film
similar to photographic film used in cameras.
Since bones absorb more x-rays than the
surrounding flesh, they appear lighter on the
developed film. Breaks show up darker because
x-rays pass through them more easily.

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 RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING

Radiographic inspection of welds is done with

a similar x-ray generating machine or with a
radioactive material called isotopes. These
generate higher energy gamma rays.

It provides data for a more exacting evaluation and

a permanent record in the form of a photographic
image called a radiograph.

When radiation is passed through the item being

tested, flaws appear lighter or darker than the
surrounding metal.

A radiograph of a piece of metal with varying

thicknesses will show up on the processed film
as different shades of darkness. The thinner
materials show up darker because it allows more
energy to reach the film.

The amount of radiographic energy absorbed is

based upon the material’s mass or density. For
example, when steel and aluminum blocks of the
same size are exposed to the same intensity of
radiographic radiation, the aluminum will cause
a darker image because it isn’t as dense as the
steel and absorbs less energy.

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 An internal flaw, such as scale, trapped slag, or
porosity will show up as a darker area on the film.
When evaluating these indications, care must be
exercised. False images can be caused by dirt,
static electricity, or poor film processing, leading
to the wrong conclusion.

Because of many variables such as exposure,

intensity of radiation and film-processing
techniques, a device called an image quality
indicator (IQI), or penetrameter, is often used. It is
placed on the object being radiographed, usually
off to one side of the desired weld section.

There are two basic types if IQIs: hole type and

wire type. Hole type penetrameters are usually
rectangular pieces of material with the same
radiograpic absorption as the material being
tested. They vary in thickness and have a series
of holes with different diameters. Wire type
penetrameters use wires of varying diameters.
With both types of IQIs, the sensitivity of a
radiographic image is determined by which of the
holes or wire diameters is visible.

A densitometer measures the film density. This

indicates if the correct lightness or darkness of the
film has been achieved in order to better detect
flaws during interpretation.

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 The success of radiographic inspection depends
greatly upon the training and experience of the
operator.

SAFETY

Radiographic inspection must be performed by a

qualified operator because of the potential dangers
from radiation which can cause death or serious
injury if safe practices are not followed.

Do not enter areas where x-ray or gamma ray

sources are used without permission or supervision
of an experienced radiographer.

For gamma ray methods, the radioactive isotopes

are always on or emitting radiation. The must
be stored and transported in special containers
referred to as pigs. Isotopes should be used only
by a qualified radiographer. Radiation detecting
devices must be worn in order to detect radiation.
Examples of such devices are survey meters and
special film badges.

CONCLUSION

All aspects of radiography must be handled

only by an experienced operator who knows the
importance of safety and has the skill to interpret
results and maintain proper records.

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 TOPIC 6

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name two critical situations where radiographic testing is used:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. The amount of radiographic energy absorbed is based on:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Name three things that can cause “false” images on a radiograph:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. The device used to obtain the proper exposure on a radiograph is called a:

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods

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 GLOSSARY OF WELDING TERMS
Acceptable weld - A weld that meets the
applicable requirements.
Arc strike - A discontinuity resulting from
an arc, consisting of any localized remelted
metal, heat affected metal, or change in the
surface profile of any metal object.
Backing - A material or device placed
against the back side of the joint adjacent
to the joint root, or at both sides of a joint
in electroslag and electrogas welding, to
support and shield molten weld metal. The
material may be partially fused or remain
unfused during welding and may be either
metal or nonmetal.
Backing strip - Backing in the form of a
strip.
Codes - A system of principles or rules.
Complete fusion - Fusion over the entire
fusion faces and between all adjoining weld
beads.99
Contaminants - Implies intrusion of or con-
tact with dirt or foulness from an outside
source, making the piece unfit or unclean.
Crack - A fracture type discontinuity char-
acterized by a sharp tip and high ratio of
length and width to opening displacement.
Crater - A depression in the weld face at
the termination of a weld bead.
Defect - A discontinuity or discontinuities
that, by nature or accumulated effect, ren-
der a part or product unable to meet mini-
mum applicable acceptance standards or
specifications. The term designates reject-
ability.
© 2010. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology EW512-6 Nondestructive Testing Methods
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Discontinuity - An interruption of the typical
structure of a material, such as a lack of ho-
mogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical,
or physical characteristics. A discontinuity is
not necessarily a defect.
Fillet weld - A weld of approximately trian-
gular cross section joining two surfaces ap-
proximately at right angles to each other in a
lap joint, T-joint, or corner joint.
Interpass temperature - In a multipass
weld, the temperature of the weld area be-
tween weld passes.
Joint design - The shape, dimensions, and
configuration of the joint.
Overlap - The protrusion of weld metal be-
yond the weld toe or weld root.
Porosity - Cavity-type discontinuities formed
by gas entrapment during solidification.
Procedure - The detailed elements of a pro-
cess or method used to produce a specific
result.
Slag inclusion - A discontinuity consisting
of slag entrapped in weld metal or at the
weld interface.
Welding procedure qualification record
- A record of welding variables used to pro-
duce an acceptable test weldment and the
results of tests conducted on the weldment
to qualify a welding procedure specification.