General Relativity: Lecture 10 April

Kevin Falls
(Dated: April 12, 2023)

I. LECTURE 10 APRIL

A. Properties of the Riemann Tensor

The Riemann tensor is given by

Rρ σµν = ∂µ Γρνσ − ∂ν Γρµσ + Γρµλ Γλνσ − Γρνλ Γλµσ (1.1)

We note that it is antisymmetric in the last two indices as is evident from its defintion

Rρ σνµ = −Rρ σµν (1.2)

It has several over symmetries which we can find if we go to a local inertial frame and then use
that Rρ σµν is a tensor. To express these symmetries let us lower the first index using

Rρσµν = gρλ Rλ σµν (1.3)

In a local inertial frame the first derivative of the metric vanishes hence Γλ̂ν̂ σ̂ = 0 and the first
derivative is given by

µ̂ 1
∂λ̂ Γρ̂ν̂ = g µ̂σ̂ (∂λ̂ ∂ρ̂ gσν̂ + ∂λ̂ ∂ν̂ gσρ̂ − ∂λ̂ ∂σ̂ gρ̂ν̂ ) (1.4)
2
Therefore

Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν̂ = gρ̂λ̂ ∂µ̂ Γλ̂ν̂ σ̂ − µ̂ ↔ ν̂ (1.5)

1
= (∂µ̂ ∂ν̂ gρ̂σ̂ + ∂µ̂ ∂σ̂ gν̂ ρ̂ − ∂µ̂ ∂ρ̂ gν̂ σ̂ ) − µ̂ ↔ ν̂ (1.6)
2
1
= (∂µ̂ ∂σ̂ gν̂ ρ̂ − ∂µ̂ ∂ρ̂ gν̂ σ̂ ) − µ̂ ↔ ν̂ (1.7)
2
1
= (∂µ̂ ∂σ̂ gν̂ ρ̂ − ∂µ̂ ∂ρ̂ gν̂ σ̂ − ∂ν̂ ∂σ̂ gµ̂ρ̂ + ∂ν̂ ∂ρ̂ gµ̂σ̂ ) (1.8)
2
where we note that since ∂µ̂ ∂ν̂ gρ̂σ̂ is symmetric in µ̂ and ν̂ this term cancels. From this expression
we see that Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν̂ is anti-symmetric also in the first pair of indices ρ̂σ̂. Furthermore we have that
we can exchange the first pair with the second pair and it is invariant. Lastly we can cycle through
the last three indices and add the three terms and we get zero. These identities hold in the locally
inertial frame but since they are tensor equations that hold in all coordinate systems So we have
the following four identities

Rµνρλ = −Rµνλρ (1.9)

Rνµλρ = Rµνλρ (1.10)
Rλρµν = Rµνλρ (1.11)
Rµνλρ + Rµρνλ + Rµλρν = 0 (1.12)
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but note the first and third identities imply the second one so they are not all independent. We
want to count the number of independent components of Rµνλρ to do some we first introduce the
anti-symmetrisation operation which we can apply to any tensor with two or more indices. It
generalises the anti-symmetrisation of two indices which is defined by
1
T[µν] ∶= (Tµν − Tνµ ) (1.13)
2
to any number of indices. In general
1
T...[µ1 ...µn ]... =
(T...µ1 ...µn ... − all odd permutations ofµ1 . . . µn + all even permutations ofµ1 . . . µn )
n!
(1.14)
with odd and permutations of µ1 . . . µn are different orders of the indices reached by swapping
indices an odd and even number of indices respectively. Note that the tensor can have more
indices than those being symmetrised e.g.
1
T[µν]λ ∶= (Tµνλ − Tνµλ ) (1.15)
2
Since we have a rank (0, 4) tensor let’s show some nice properties related to symmetrising
different sets of indices of a general tensor Tµνρσ . In particular we have that

Tµ[νρσ] ≡ Tµν[ρσ] − Tµρ[νσ] + Tµσ[νρ] (1.16)

and

T[µνρσ] ≡ Tµ[νρσ] − Tν[µρσ] + Tρ[µνσ] + Tσ[µνρ] (1.17)

Let us apply these to the Riemann tensor. First we note that since Rµνρσ = −Rµνσρ we have
Rµν[ρσ] = Rµνρσ = −Rµνσρ hence

Rµ[ρνλ] = Rµν[ρσ] − Rµρ[νσ] + Rµσ[νρ] (1.18)

= Rµνρσ + Rµρσν + Rµσνρ (1.19)

but this is zero as we already showed. So

Rµ[ρνλ] = 0 (1.20)

But from (1.17) we see that

R[µρνλ] = 0 (1.21)

is also zero. In order to count correctly the number of independent components it is important to
demonstrate that in fact all the symmetries can be derived from just the following three

Rµνρλ = −Rµνλρ (1.22)

Rλρµν = Rµνλρ (1.23)
R[µρνλ] = 0 (1.24)

in particular these imply (1.20). I leave this as an exercise.

Let’s now count the number of independent components of Rµνρλ .
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B. Counting the independent components of the Riemann tensor

The independent (anti-)symmetries are

Rµνρλ = −Rµνλρ (1.25)
Rλρµν = Rµνλρ (1.26)
R[µρνλ] = 0 (1.27)
First we note that since is invariant under exchanging the first and last pair of indices we can
think of it as a symmetric matrix R[µν][ρλ] where the pairs [µν] and [ρλ] are thought as a single
indices. Since each pair is anti-symmetric and anti-symmetric matrices have n(n−1)/2 independent
components we think of it as a symmetric n(n − 1)/2 by n(n − 1)/2 matrix where n is the spacetime
dimension (i.e. n = 4, but here we are being more general). In other words we can arrange the
independent non-zero components of Rµνρλ into a square n(n−1)/2 by n(n−1)/2 symmetric matrix.
A symmetric m by m matrix has m(m + 1)/2 independent components so setting m = n(n − 1)/2
we get
n(n − 1) n(n − 1) 1 n4 n3 3n2 n
( + 1) = − + − (1.28)
2 2 2 8 4 8 4
We still need to add one further constraint though namely that Rµρνλ is totally antisymmetric
(1.21) since this plus the other constraints that lead to (1.28) imply the rest. We need to count
how many independent constraints (1.21) implies on top of the counting that lead to (1.28). To
this end we imagine decomposing
Rµνρλ = Xµνρλ + R[µνρλ] (1.29)
Then we note that R[µνρλ] automatically implies that it is symmetric in the exchange of the pairs
of indices and that each pair is anti-symmetric. So applying these to Rµνρλ are independent
restrictions on Xµνρλ . Thus we need only to take way the number of independent components of
a totally anti-symmetric rank four tensor from (1.28). The number of independent components of
a totally anti-symmetric rank four tensor is n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)/4! (this is equal to 1 when n = 4,
can you see why?). So finally we have
n(n − 1) n(n − 1) 1 n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3)
#independent components of Rµνρλ = ( + 1) − (1.30)
2 2 2 4!
n4 − n2
= (1.31)
12
for n = 4 we get twenty independent components.

C. The Bianchi Identity

Now we can consider a covariant derivative of Rρσµν given by ∇λ Rρσµν =. In a locally inertial
frame will reduce to an ordinary derivative hence ∇λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν = ∂λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν . Since the Riemann curvature
is second order in derivatives ∂λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂ην is third order in derivatives. We also know that since the
first derivative vanishes the only terms in must be those where all derivatives act on a single metric.
Hence from (1.8) we have that ∂λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν is
1
∂λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν = (∂λ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂σ̂ gν̂ ρ̂ − ∂λ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂ρ̂ gν̂ σ̂ − ∂λ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂σ̂ gµ̂ρ̂ + ∂λ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂ρ̂ gµ̂σ̂ ) (1.32)
2
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We know want to show that if we cycle through the indices λ̂ ρ̂ and σ̂ and add the three expressions
we get zero. So let’s just write the above expression in two more equivalent ways by renaming the
indices
1
∂σ̂ Rλ̂ρ̂µ̂ν = (∂σ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂ρ̂ gν̂ λ̂ − ∂σ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂λ̂ gν̂ ρ̂ − ∂σ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂ρ̂ gµ̂λ̂ + ∂σ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂λ̂ gµ̂ρ̂ ) , (1.33)
2
and
1
∂ρ̂ Rσ̂λ̂µ̂ν = (∂ρ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂λ̂ gν̂ σ̂ − ∂ρ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂σ̂ gν̂ λ̂ − ∂ρ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂λ̂ gµ̂σ̂ + ∂ρ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂σ̂ gµ̂λ̂ ) , . (1.34)
2
Now we add these three expressions to get zero
1
∂λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν + ∂σ̂ Rλ̂ρ̂µ̂ν + ∂ρ̂ Rσ̂λ̂µ̂ν = (∂λ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂σ̂ gν̂ ρ̂ −∂λ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂ρ̂ gν̂ σ̂ −∂λ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂σ̂ gµ̂ρ̂ +∂λ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂ρ̂ gµ̂σ̂
2
+∂σ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂ρ̂ gν̂ λ̂ −∂σ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂λ̂ gν̂ ρ̂ −∂σ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂ρ̂ gµ̂λ̂ +∂σ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂λ̂ gµ̂ρ̂
+∂ρ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂λ̂ gν̂ σ̂ −∂ρ̂ ∂µ̂ ∂σ̂ gν̂ λ̂ −∂ρ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂λ̂ gµ̂σ̂ +∂ρ̂ ∂ν̂ ∂σ̂ gµ̂λ̂ )
=0 (1.35)

where we see the terms with matching colours all cancel.

We can again, use that this is a tensor equation since ∂λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν = ∇λ̂ Rρ̂σ̂µ̂ν . Thus we have the
identity

∇λ Rρσµν + ∇σ Rλρµν + ∇ρ Rσλµν = 0 (1.36)

which is called the Bianchi identity. Using that Rρσµν = −Rσρµν we can also express the Bianchi
identity as

∇[λ Rρσ]µν = 0 (1.37)

D. The Ricci tensor, Ricci scalar and Einstein tensor

We define the Ricci curvature as the rank (0, 2) tensor we obtain by contracting the first and
third indices

Rµν ∶= Rρ µρν ≡ g ρλ Rρµλν . (1.38)

It is straightforward to show, using Rρµλν = Rλνρµ that Rµν is symmetric

Rµν = Rνµ . (1.39)

Note that by contracting any other two indices we get either zero or ±Rµν . For example

Rρ µνρ = −Rρ µρν = −Rµν (1.40)

ρ λρ
Rρµν = g Rλρµν = 0 (1.41)
ρ λρ λρ
Rµ νρ = g Rµλνρ = g Rλµρν = Rµν (1.42)

The Ricci scalar is the scalar we get by taking the trace of the Ricci tensor, i.e.

R ∶= Rµ µ ≡ g µν Rµν ≡ g µν Rρ µρν (1.43)

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From the Bianchi identity (1.36) we can obtain an important identity that relates the covariant
derivative of the divergence of Ricci tensor ∇µ Rµν to the gradient of the Ricci scalar ∇ν R. We
get this by contracting two pairs of indices in (1.36) such that the first term is the gradient of the
Ricci scalar:

g ρµ g σν (∇λ Rρσµν + ∇σ Rλρµν + ∇ρ Rσλµν ) = 0 (1.44)

we can use that the covariant derivative of the inverse metric g σν is zero1 to arrive to

∇λ (g ρµ g σν Rρσµν ) + g σν ∇σ (g ρµ Rλρµν ) + g ρµ ∇ρ (g σν Rσλµν ) = 0 (1.45)

the first term is then the gradient of the Ricci scalar in the second and third terms we can use the
symmetries of the Riemann tensor to arrive at

∇λ R − g σν ∇σ (g ρµ Rρλµν ) − g ρµ ∇ρ (g σν Rσλµν ) = 0 , (1.46)

then we see that the second and third terms are both ∇ν Rνλ so we arrive at

∇λ R = 2∇ν Rνλ , (1.47)

we call this the double contracted Bianchi identity. This identity motivates to define the Einstein
tensor
1
Gµν ∶= Rµν − gµν R , (1.48)
2
since by (1.47) we see that Gµν has the important property that it is divergence free

∇ν Gνλ = 0 . (1.49)

As you might guess from the name Gµν plays an important role in GR.

1
This follows from the fact that the covariant derivative of gµν is zero, you can prove this as an exercise.