General Relativity: Lecture 5 May

Kevin Falls
(Dated: May 14, 2023)

I. GLOBAL COORDINATES

The black hole is the region of the Schwarzschild spacetime that we can reach in the future by
starting in the region r > 2GM and crossing the horizon at r = 2GM . We can access paths that
cross the horizon by using in-falling coordinates (v, r). Once we cross the horizon we can never
leave since all light-like or time like trajectories reach r = 0 in a finite proper-time. The white
hole is that part of spacetime we can come from in the past to reach r > 2GM but we cannot
go from r > 2GM to the white hole. We can follow paths that come out of the white hole using
the outgoing coordinates (u, r). To summarise, any event which takes place at a radius r > 2GM
can be on a time-like path that was previously in the white hole or will end up in the black hole.
Nothing can come out of the black hole and nothing can fall into the white hole.
Let us now aim to find coordinates that able us to describe both black holes and white holes.
We can use both u and v at the same time in place r and t. Then the metric is given by
2GN M
ds2 = − (1 − ) dudv + r2 dΩ2 . (1.1)
r
To see this is the metric we note that

du = dt − dr∗ , (1.2)
dv = dt + dr∗ , (1.3)

so

dudv = dt2 − dr∗2 , (1.4)

then we use that

1
dr∗2 = dr2 , (1.5)
2GN M 2
(1 − r
)

and hence
2GN M 2GN M 1
− (1 − ) dudv = − (1 − ) dt2 + 2G
dr2 . (1.6)
r r NM
1− r

In terms of u and v the coordinate r is defined implicitly. In particular we have that

1 r
(v − u) = r∗ = r + 2GN M log ( − 1) (1.7)
2 2GN M
this means that as r → 2GM either v or u must diverge to −∞ or +∞ respectively. So this
coordinate system is not yet what we want. Let us now define

v ′ = ev/4GN M (1.8)
′ −u/4GN M
u = −e (1.9)
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then as v → −∞ we have v ′ → 0 and as u → ∞ we have u′ → 0. Since v ′ is a function of v alone

and u′ is a function of u alone in going and out going radial light rays are also lines of constant v ′
and u′ . So v ′ and u′ , like v and u, are null coordinates which means that lines of constant v ′ or
constant u′ are light-like. Using u′ and v ′ , instead of u and u, means that the horizon r = 2GN M
is not at an infinite value of any of the coordinates.
We have that
v′
dv ′ = dv (1.10)
4GN M
u′
du′ = − du (1.11)
4GN M
and hence

(4GN M )2 du′ dv ′
1
dudv = − (1.12)
u′ v ′
Next we can express the product u′ v ′ in terms of r by

u′ v ′ = −e 4GN M
v−u
(1.13)
r∗
= −e 2GN M
(1.14)

and then using the expression for r∗ we have

r/2GN M +log( 2G r −1)

u′ v ′ = −e NM (1.15)
r
= −( − 1) er/2GN M (1.16)
2GN M
r 2GM r/2GN M
=− (1 − )e . (1.17)
2GM r
2GN M
Returning to the expression for dudv given (1.12) we can multiply it by a factor − (1 − r
) and
insert the above expression for u′ v ′ to obtain
2GN M −r/2GN M
(4GN M )2 du′ dv ′
2GN M
− (1 − ) dudv = − e (1.18)
r r
32G3N M 3 −r/2GN M ′ ′
=− e du dv . (1.19)
r
Therefore the metric is given by

32G3N M 3 −r/2GN M ′ ′
ds2 = − e du dv + r2 dΩ2 . (1.20)
r
In this form there is no singular behaviour of the metric at all at r = 2GN M . To determine r given
the values of u′ and v ′ we must solve the implicit equation

u′ v ′ = −
r 2GN M r/2GN M
(1 − )e . (1.21)
2GN M r
No components of the metric (1.20) blow up and or go to zero. The coordinates u′ and v ′ are
both null. It is nice to work with three spatial coordinates and one temporal coordinate to have a
better intuition.
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We can define a spatial coordinate R (not to be confused with the scalar curvature) and temporal
coordinate T by

R = (v ′ − u′ ) ,
1
(1.22)
2
and

T = (v ′ + u′ ) ,
1
(1.23)
2
from which it follows that

− dv ′ du′ = −dT 2 + dR2 . (1.24)

In terms of r and t these coordinates are

√
r
R= − 1er/4GN M cosh(t/4GN M ) (1.25)
2GN M

and
√
r
T= − 1er/4GN M sinh(t/4GN M ) (1.26)
2GN M

(remember that sinh(x) = 12 (ex − e−x ) and cosh(x) = 21 (ex + e−x )). The metric is then given by

32G3N M 3 −r/2GN M
ds2 = e (−dT 2 + dR2 ) + r2 dΩ2 . (1.27)
r
these coordinates are called the Kruskal coordinates. Again r is defined implicitly by the equation
r
T 2 − R2 = (1 − ) er/2GN M (1.28)
2GN M

A. Extension to r < 2GN M

Now we want to make sure that we can describe what is happening for r < 2GN M . This
describes the geometry inside the horizon of the black hole and the white hole.
Currently, by our definitions of r∗ , T and R, in terms of r and t, are all imaginary for r < 2GN M .
To fix this for r < 2GN M we can relate R and T to r and t by different relations
√
r
R= 1− er/4GN M sinh(t/4GN M ) (1.29)
2GN M

and
√
r
T= 1− er/4GN M cosh(t/4GN M ) (1.30)
2GN M

which are real for r < 2GN M . As an exercise you can show that (1.28) still holds and that (1.27)
is still the form of the metric in this case.
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Since we still want that r > 0 and we relate r to T and R by solving

r
T 2 − R2 = (1 − ) er/2GN M (1.31)
2GN M

we know that T 2 − R2 < 1. So the spacetime consists of all points for which T 2 − R2 < 1 where R
can take any real value −∞ < R < ∞. The singular point r = 0 is the point T 2 − R2 = 1 at this point
GR breaks down but we suspect that a theory of quantum gravity supersedes GR before we reach
this point i.e. at some small but finite and positive value of r. With the restriction that r > 0m
and hence T 2 − R2 < 1, r is determined as a unique function of T 2 − R2 .

II. KRUSKAL DIAGRAM

Now we have a coordinate system which covers the insides of the white hole and the black hole
as well as the region r > 2GM outside of the horizon. We can therefore plot the extended space
time where we allow T and R to take any values between −∞ and +∞ provided T 2 − R2 < 1. We
then have the Kruskal diagram II D. It has the following features.

A. Light cones

In Kruskal coordinates radial light rays trace curves for which

T = ±R + constant (2.1)

The event horizon is itself a special case of this for which

T = ±R (2.2)

As a result ingoing and outgoing light radial light rays are at 45 degrees and therefore the light
cones are always the same shape and oriented as in the diagram II D. All time-like world lines of
slower-than-light objects will at every point have a slope closer to the vertical time axis (the T
coordinate) than 45 degrees. The horizons are the straight lines at 45 degrees that pass through
the origin T = R = 0.

B. Lines of constant r

Now let us consider lines of constant r then the RHS of (1.28) is a constant so these are solutions
to

T 2 − R2 = constant (2.3)

the event horizon is a special case for which T 2 − R2 = 0. For T 2 − R2 < 0 we are outside the horizon
r > 2GM . For 1 > T 2 − R2 > 0 we are inside the black hole or the white hole.
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C. Lines of constant t

Lines of constant t can be determined by taking the ratio of T and R for r > 2GM we have

T /R = tanh(t/(4GN M )) , (2.4)

while for r < 2GM we have

R/T = tanh(t/(4GN M )) . (2.5)

The black hole horizon T = +R and white hole horizons T = −R are found as lines of constant t
with t = ∞ and t = −∞.

D. Worm hole/Rosen Einstein bridge

The hole diagram can be divided into for regions. Region I is the region outside of the black hole
and white hole horizons. Region II is the black hole which we can fall into but never return from.
Region IV is the white hole from which physical particles can originate in the past. Interestingly,
in the extended Schwarzschild spacetime there is another region , denoted as region III, that is
outside the horizon for which T 2 − R2 < 0 but R < 0 and that is separated from the interiors of
black and white holes by the horizons for which R < 0. This is a copy of the geometry outside of
the horizons. However there is no way to travel from region I to region III along time-like curves;
they are only connected by space-like curves. To understand this note that all proper times along
a particles trajectory can be expressed as monotonic functions of T
If we try to move from one region to the other we see that the space-like bridge that has formed
at some fixed time time T > −1 will close up and disappear once T > 1 so there is not enough time
to go cross bridge. These bridges are called Rosen Einstein bridges or worm holes. Since we cannot
cross the worm hole we say that the extended Schwarzschild spacetime describes a non-traversable
worm hole. It is an interesting question whether or not transversal worm holes can exist in Nature
due to the existence of exotic matter or perhaps in a theory of quantum gravity that give rise
to geometries which connect two regions of spacetimes by crossing a horizon of a blackhole and
emerging from a horizon of a white hole on the other side.
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FIG. 1: Kruskal diagam