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Optics

Light rays:
Light moves in straight lines called “rays”
Rays behave like a stream of particles

Multiple reflections dim light

Small tubes reflect less rays
Light does not bend around corners

Rays through matter:

Light moves through matter
Some matter absorbs more rays than other
Varying dimming of light according to material

Where do rays go to die?

Light encounters a medium (not vacuum) and loses energy and intensity

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 Absorbed light is not destroyed
Energy is always conserved
Optical rays are transformed to heat
Sea is heating in summer

Geometrical optics on media interfaces:

Rays encounter different materials.

What is an interface?

surface between media

When light encoynters an interface 2 things happen:

reflection

refraction

Reflection:
Angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

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 Part of the energy of the light ray is reflected away from the new medium.

Refraction:
When encountering a medium of different density, light bends.

When passing into higher density media, light bends towards the bottom of the medium.
When light moves from a dense material to a less dense one, light bends towards the
interface.

Light travels with different speeds in different media.

What is the refractive index?

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 What is Snell’s law?

What does Snell’s law calculate?

where the light bends to

What is the anfle of refraction affected by?

angle of incidence
material of optical media

colour of light

Lenses:

The material changes direction (not the rays).

Characteristic measures of lenses:

Principle axis → th eline perpendicular to the lens surface where rays maintain their
direction (no refraction)

Focal point → the point where parallel rays converge after exiting the lens

Focal length → the distance between the center of the lens and the focal point

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 Main types of lenses:

(Bi-) convex lenses

→ focal point in front of parallel beam

→ focuses parallel beam

(Bi-) conclave lenses

→ focal point behind parallel beam

→ disperses parallel beam

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 A lens that is thicker is also one that is more curved. More curvature = more “bent” rays
of light.

So: thicker lens → more curved lens → shorter focal distance

On thick lenses, small changes of focal length can occur based on colour → chromatic
aberration

Prisms have to be thick to separate light

Myopia:

Lens focuses parallel rays in front of retina.

Semi-parallel rays come from far away objects.

Angles of incidence of close objects cancel out the wrong focusing, thus they focus
better.

Correcting error with concave lenses; “focusing” far objects as if they were to a near
point.

Hypermetropia - Presbyopia:
Lens focuses near object rays behind the retina

Semi-Parallel rays come from far away objects

Far objects are focusing better

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 Angles of incidence of far objects cancel out the wrong focusing
Correcting error with convex lenses; “focusing” close objects as if they were to a far
point.

Astigmatism:
Lens focuses x-axis on one plane

Lens focuses y-axis on another plane

2 foci for the sme point in 3 dimensions
Retina registers correct focus on only one axis

Blurred vision
A lens would present an astigmatic error if it is shaped like an ellipsoid.

Astigmatic error only present due to differences on the two principal axes of lenses.
Causing the opposite astigmatic error on the cornea through LASIK surgery cancels out
the lens’ original fault.

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 Critical angle of incidence:
Full reflection of incident light

Even if transparent material

Minimal absorption of incidental ray
Maximum conservation of optical intensity

Total reflection
Necessary condition: transition from a higher n material to a lower n material

Multiple total reflections

Light travels relatively undiminished
Need to maintain critical angles

Small bending of material

Bends light in the material
Thinning the tube (elongating and making it flexible) using appropriate materials

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 Seeing eye to eye:
The ciliary muscle can bend or release the flexible lens of the eye in order to change it’s
curvature.

A lens that is thicker is also one that is more curved. More curvature = more “bent” rays
of light. More “bent” rays of light = Shorter focal distance.
Where do we need closer focus? Seeing near points.

When lens doesn’t bend as needed, near points are out of focus ⇒ special case of
hypermetropia

Lens focuses parallel rays in front of retina

Lens is not the “faulty” part of the eye

Length of the eye’s one dimension is the cause of myopia

The eye is elongated across the lens-retina axis

Fiber optics:
Composition of optic fibers:

inner core of optically dense material

lower index material (cladding)

elastic outer cover (optical coating)

Optical fibers are really thin and configurable in bandles

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 Fiber optics can be used to treat neonatal jaundice, as a substitute for intense light
treatment
They can be used in endoscopy.

Endoscopy:
Total reflection of light

Small tube on small light.

Transfer light fully.
Optic fibers can surely transfer significant illumination inside a cavity.

How do we do that?
Single very thin tube in touch with a pixel of image.

This pixel is trasnfered, intensity and color on the other end of the optic fiber.
A bundle of optic fibers that maintain their configuration at both ends.
Recreation of a complex image.

2 categories of optic fiber bundles:

incoherent → Transfer light but do not maintain spatial information. Good for
illumination

coherent → Transfer light AND maintain spatial information. Good for image
reproduction.

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 For direct endoscopy we use incoherent.
Camera directly at the end of the endoscope.

Fiber optic bundles only for illumination

Image signal electrically transfered and viewed through digital electronics.
Easier to implement on straight access ways

Significantly larger minimum size than indirect endoscopes.

For indirect endoscopy we use coherent.

The image is transferred through the optic fiber, and there is a CCD camera at the
external end of the optic fiber. The image is projected on a monitor.
Fiber optic bundle based endoscopes can achieve very thin configurations (fiber
bundles 0.3 mm thick).
→ Can we make it smaller?
Wave length of optical light is around 0.7 - 0.4 thousandths of a mm

When we approach these thicknesses (or 100 times these) light stops playing nice.
The wave properties of light forbid very small fibers.

Pill sized cameras are also used.

Endoscopy also includes:

Putting little biopsy forceps in the endoscope.

Putting little snares for cauterizing and polyp removal with the endoscope.

Ability for Simultaneous colonoscopy and polyp removal.

Laparoscopy:

Very prolific surgeries can be laparoscopic such as appendicitis removal, gallbladder

removal, and a significant % of general surgery.

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 Advantages:

Minimal hospitalization.

Local or topical anesthesia.

Visual inspection without many incisions.

Better quality of life for the patient after the operation.

Disadvantages:

Preparation painful (Inflate the abdomen)

Constricted access and unfamiliar motions require reduced speed

No tactility. Equipment cannot provide the tactile feedback of direct access.

VR training builds muscle memory and speed.

VR training educates on the tactility of the new method.

Virtual reality:
virtual reality → digital substitution of sensory input

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 augmented reality → digital augmentation of sensory input, no or limited interactivity
between the digital and the real
mixed reality → digital augmentation of sensory input, full interactivity between the
digital and the real.

The axis of reality:

Pre-surgical training:

Medical imaging reviews and consultations → VR simulation of operation

3d prints for pre-surgical training

Practice and live surgery in VR (robotic surgery)

Telemedicine:
= medicine from afar.
Consulting with patients on remote locations
Providing advice when physical presence is dangerous
Improving quality of life through access to specialists that cannot be prolific.

Exotic Laparoscopy:
Natural Orifice Translumenal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES)
Human body is calibrated to provide most resistance outwards.

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 More layers to cut through
Immune response and shock triggers maximal outwards
Operating from within orifices is actually less prone to intense body responses.
Less layers of cover → less bodily reaction → less nerve endings that cause pain →
better surgery.

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