Optical Instruments

The Camera a box like device for

taking pictures

 A single lens camera consists of:

 A light tight box
 A converging lens
 Produces a real, inverted image
 Focusing is done by adjusting the distance between
the lens and the film.
 A shutter
 Camera Variables

 Shutter speeds
 Control exposure times
 Faster shutter speeds for faster objects or

for bright light

 Aperture size
 Larger aperture needed for low light
conditions
 f-number
 The ratio of the focal length to the diameter of
the lens
f
f - number 
D
 Determines the speed of the lens
 A measure of the light concentrating power of
the lens


A small f-number means that the aperture is wide
open
 Parts of the camera
Parts functions
Aperture Allows light to pass
through
Convex lens Refract light rays
Shutter Opens or closes like the
eyelid of the eye
diaphragm Change the size of the
aperture
The London Eye
 The Human Eye

 Parts of the eye:

 Cornea
 Aqueous humor
 Iris and pupil
 Crystalline lens
 Vitreous humor
 Retina
 Rods and cones
B13
 Accommodation
 Ciliary muscles
 Relaxed when viewing distant objects
 The focal length of the eye is about 1.7
cm.
 The cornea does over 70 % of the
refracting.
 The lens makes the final adjustment.
 The Near Point

 The near point is the closest distance for

which the lens will produce a sharp
image of a nearby object on the retina.
 About 18 cm at age 10
 About 25 cm at age 20

 About 50 cm at age 40

 500 cm or greater at age 60

 The Far Point

 The far point is the farthest distance for

which the lens will produce a sharp
image of a far away object on the retina.
 Objects located beyond the far point will
be out of focus.
 Defects of the Eye

 Hyperopia (farsightedness)
 Corrected with a converging lens
 Myopia (nearsightedness)
 Corrected with a diverging lens
 Astigmatism
 Corrected by using cylindrical lenses

25.3, 25.4, 30-1

Astigmatism Test
 Diseases of the Eye

 Cataracts
 The lens is surgically
replaced
 Glaucoma
 Corrected by medication or YAG solid
state laser surgery
 The Power (P) of a Lens

 Measured in diopters (no abbreviation)

 Used in lens prescriptions
 Formula:

1
P
f
f must be in meters
The Simple Magnifier/magnifying
glass
 It uses a single convex lens that will add
convergence to the visual system.
 Increases the apparent size of an object
 Angular Magnification (m)

 Angular Magnification is the ratio

of the angle subtended by the object
when the lens is in use to the angle
subtended by the object when it is
placed at the near point with no lens

m
o
 Angular Magnification (m)

 Maximum angular magnification

occurs when the image formed
by the lens is at the near point of
the eye (more eye stress).
25cm
m  1
f
 Angular magnification (m) when
the image formed by the lens is
at infinity (relaxed eye):

25cm
m
f
 The Compound Microscope

 Uses two lenses to achieve greater magnification than the

simple magnifier
 The first lens is called an objective with a short
focal length ( f o )
 The second lens is the eyepiece (ocular) with a

focal length ( f e ) of a few centimeters

 Lenses are separated by a distance (L) which is

greater than either or f f e

o
 Microscope Images

 The image formed by the objective

becomes the object for the eyepiece.
 The image is inverted with respect to
the object.
 Microscope Equations

 Magnification equations:
L 25cm
M1   me 
fo fe

L 25 cm
M  M1m e   ( )
 fo fe
 The Electron Microscope

 Atoms could never be seen with a compound

microscope by using visible light
 The wavelength of light is too large
 The Telescope

 It is a device used to see the distant objects clearly.

 It makes use of two lenses. The objective lens with
its big diameter allows it to collect more light. The
eyepiece magnifies the image formed by the
objective lens.

 There are two fundamentally different types of

telescopes.
 Types of telescope

 The Refracting The Reflecting Telescope

Telescope
 The Refracting Telescope

 It uses a combination of lenses.

 The image (q1) formed by the first lens becomes the
object (p2) for the second lens.
 The image is inverted.
 fo
L  fo  fe m
fe
 Refracting Telescope
Difficulties
 Large refracting telescopes are difficult
to manufacture and are expensive.
 In addition, their large masses would
lead to sagging which would cause
distortion.
 The Reflecting Telescope

 Reflecting telescopes are preferred in

astronomy.
 A parabolic mirror replaces the objective.
 Spherical aberration is reduced.
 Chromatic aberration is

virtually eliminated.
 The Newtonian Focus

 Reflecting Telescopes use the Newtonian

focus.
 Large Telescopes

 The largest telescopes in the world are

reflecting telescopes.
 10 meter lens in Hawaii
 5 meter lens on Mt. Palomar in California
Canada-France-Hawaii
Mt. Palomar
 The largest refracting telescope in the world
is at Yerkes Observatory in Wisconsin
 Only 1 meter in diameter
Yerkes Observatory
 Images

 Microscopes and telescopes can only form

virtual images.
 Resolution Of Single-Slit And
Circular Apertures
 It is important to be able to distinguish
between two closely spaced objects.
 This ability is limited by the diffraction of
light
 Maximum Resolution

 If the two sources are separated so that

their central maxima do not overlap,
their images can be distinguished and
they are said to be resolved.
 Maximum resolution occurs at the shortest
possible wavelength.

265
 Rayleigh’s Criterion
 When the central maximum of one image
falls on the first minimum of another
image, the images are said to be resolved.
 Equations for the resolution of a circular aperture
( is in radians)


s 
266    min  1.22
r D
 The Diffraction Grating

 Diffraction gratings are preferred over single

or double slits when accurate wavelength
measurements are needed.
 They have a much higher resolution and provide a
brighter pattern.

y 
sin  sin  m
L d
 The Michelson Interferometer

 It splits a light beam

into two parts and then
recombines them to
form an interference
pattern.

262
 The Michelson Equation

 
L  N 
4 
L is the length of travel of the adjustable
mirror.
N is the number of fringe shifts.