Chapter 7

Geometrical optics
7.1 Laws of reflection
7.2 Characteristics of image by spherical mirrors
7.3 Sign convention for focal length for concave mirror and convex mirror
7.4 Ray diagrams with minimum two rays to describe refraction
 MATHEMATICS 2
TEST 1: 15%................................DONE
TEST 2: 15%................................15.03.23
ASSIGNMENT: 10%.....................26.02.23
FINAL EXAM: 60%

*CARRY MARKS WILL BE GIVEN DURING

REVISION WEEK.
 PHYSICS 2
TEST 1: 10%..............................DONE
TEST 2: 10%..............................13.03.23
ASSIGNMENT: 10%...................06.03.23
LAB: 10% (1 LAB REPORT).......05.03.23
FINAL EXAM: 60%

*CARRY MARKS WILL BE GIVEN DURING

REVISION WEEK.
 Learning outcomes
At the end of this chapter student should be able to:
• Explain law of reflection.
• Use ray diagrams to determine the characteristics of
image.
• Determine sign convention for focal length for concave
mirror and convex mirror
• Use ray diagrams with minimum two rays to describe
refraction
7.1 Laws of Reflection
Reflection
 The Laws of Reflection
When a light ray hits a mirror, it changes direction: the ray is said to
be reflected.
normal

incident ray reflected ray

i r

point of incidence
plane mirror

angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r)

This is called the law of reflection

Light travels in a
straight line
 The law of Reflection in Action

The figure demonstrates a

practical use of the law of
reflection, and introduces the
idea that mirrors form an
image of an object. This
image does not always have
the same properties as the
object, such as similar sizes.
However, it fits the whole
object in the form of
reflection. Ex: Submarines
Describing Images – SIZE
Images are either an enlarged or reduced version of the original
object. The extent to which an image’s
size differs from an object’s is
known as magnification.

Magnification is utilized
by many devices in
order to alter the size of
images including
projectors,
microscopes, binoculars
and etc.,
Describing Images- ORIENTATION
When light rays from the top and
bottom of an object cross over
before an image is formed, the image
will appear upside-down. This
phenomenon is known as inversion
and the image formed will be
inverted.

Inversion can also occur if rays from the right and left of
an object cross over. This is known as lateral inversion
and is seen most commonly in plane mirrors.
Describing images – REAL OR VIRTUAL?
When we look into a mirror and see ourselves,
we start to wonder. “Does the image appears to
be behind the mirror?”

However, if you look behind the mirror, the

image is obviously not there. Therefore known
as a virtual image. A virtual image is an image
which cannot be formed on a screen.
A real image on the other hand can
be formed on a screen, such as the
real images from the projector. Ex:
movie projected on screen in cinema.
7.2 Use Ray Diagrams To Determine
The Characteristics Of Image By
Spherical Mirrors
 Images in Plane Mirrors
If we look into a mirror, we see an image.

What kind of image is formed in the plane mirror?

● laterally inverted
● same size as the object
● virtual
 Convex mirrors
Convex mirrors are curved
so that they bulge outwards.

Convex mirrors are

diverging mirrors. They F
reflect rays of light away
from a focal point (F)
which lies behind the
mirror.

• Rays parallel to the mirror’s

central axis are reflected so that ƒ = focal length
they appear to have come from this
focal point.
 Concave mirrors
Concave mirrors are converging
mirrors. They curve inwards and they
reflect light rays towards a focal
point (F). F
• When light source is placed at the
focal point, the mirror will
produce a beam of parallel light
rays.
• The distance between the mirror ƒ
and the focal point is called the
focal length (ƒ). ƒ becomes
smaller as the mirror’s curve
increases.
 7.3 Sign Convention For Focal Length
For Concave Mirror And Convex Mirror
 Finding (f ) of a Concave Mirror

1. Choose a distant
object to get parallel ƒ
rays of light.

2. Move the concave 3. Use a ruler to measure the

mirror back and forth to distance between the mirror
produce a clear and screen. This is the focal
image on a screen. length (ƒ).
 Concave Mirror Summary
When the object is beyond the
focal point of the mirror the
image is real and inverted. Its’
size varies depending on the
object’s distance from F.

When the object is between the

focal point and the mirror the
image is large, virtual and not
inverted.

Note: when the object is on the focal point the is no image.

• Convex mirrors produce • Concave mirrors form both real and
virtual, upright, and virtual images. When the concave
diminished images are mirror is placed very close to the
always formed with object, a virtual and magnified image is
convex mirrors, obtained and if the distance between
irrespective of the the object and the mirror increases,
distance between the the size of the image reduces and real
object and the mirror. images are formed.
• Radius of curvature, r
The radius of curvature, R, is the reciprocal of the
curvature.

• The distance from the surface to the

center of curvature is known as the
radius of curvature (represented by
R). The radius of curvature is the
radius of the sphere from which the + Sign concave
- Sign convex
mirror was cut.
• Spherical Mirror Equation
• Linear magnification

•
• Sample problem
A concave mirror of focal length 10 cm produces an image twice
the size of the object.
Determine the possible positions of the object.
Draw ray diagrams to illustrate your answers.
7.4 Use Ray Diagrams With Minimum
Two Rays To Describe Refraction
Refractio
n
 What is refraction?
The straw appears to be bent in the liquid.
What is causing this effect?
As the light crosses the boundary between fluid
and glass, it is bent, producing
a distorted image. This phenomena is
called refraction.
Spear fishing has been used for centuries
and is still practiced by subsistence
communities.
To accurately spear the fish,
fishermen learn to aim a short distance behind the fishes’
image, in order to compensate for the effect of refraction.
 Refraction – labelling diagrams
If an incident ray enters glass at an
angle it will then be refracted and will
bend towards the normal. incident
ray
The angle of incidence (i) is larger
than the angle of refraction (r). nor
mal
When the light leaves the glass, the
opposite happens: it bends away from
the normal.

A material which light passes through, nor

such as glass or air, is known as a medium. mal refracted
ray
 Speed of light
Light travels at very high speeds. It reaches
300,000,000 m/s in a vacuum, and is marginally
slower in air.
This means that it takes light a mere eight
minutes to reach the Earth from the Sun!
• In other materials the speed of light varies significantly:
material speed of light (m/s)
water 225,000,000
perspex 200,000,000
glass 200,000,000
diamond 120,000,000
As the speed of light varies depending on the medium, different
materials refract light by different amounts.
 Speed of light

• 1638 Galileo: at least 10 times faster than

sound
• 1675 Ole Roemer: 200,000 Km/sec
• 1728 James Bradley: 301,000 Km/s
• 1849 Hippolyte Louis Fizeau: 313,300 Km/s
• 1862 Leon Foucault: 299,796 Km/s
• Today: 299792.458 km/s
 Refractive Index
Refractive index is a measure of how much a substance slows down light.
The higher its value, the more a medium slows light. The more the light is
slowed, the more it bends towards the normal.
Refractive index is calculated by comparing speed of light in a vacuum to
that in a given medium:

refractive index = speed of light in vacuum

speed of light in medium

The speed of light in a vacuum is 300,000,000 m/s, and the speed of light in
water is 225,000,000 m/s. What is the refractive index of water?
refractive index = 300,000,000
= 1.33
225,000,000
 Snell’s Law
The refractive index can also be calculated using Snell’s Law,
which uses the angle of incidence (i) and angle of refraction (r)
to establish how much a medium slows light.
refractive index (n) = sin i
sin r
normal
Use the information in the diagram to
find the refractive index of glass.
refractive index = sin 45°
sin 28°

refractive index = 1.5

• Sample problem
Diamond has a refractive index of 2.4. If light passes into a
diamond crystal at an angle of 15°, find the angle of refraction.

sin r = sin i
refractive index
sin r = sin 15° = 0.1
2.4
r = sin-1 0.1

r = 6.2°
• Sample problem
Use Snell’s Law to answer the following:
Perspex has a refractive index of 1.5. If a ray of light passing into a
perspex block has an angle of refraction of 24°, find the angle of
incidence.
sin i = sin r × refractive index

sin i = (sin 24°) × 1.5 = 0.61

i = sin-1 0.61

i = 37.6°
• Sample problem
Use Snell’s Law to answer the following:
If a ray of light enters water at an angle of 15° and has an angle
of refraction of 11.2°, find its refractive index.

refractive index = sin 15

sin 11.2

refractive index = 1.33

 REFERENCES
• Yong. P. L. 2017, Physics for Matriculation Semester 2,
5th Edition, Oxford Fajar
• Douglas C. Giancoli , 2015, Physics for Scientists &
Engineers, Third Edition