Additional Notes

Reflection of Light
Reflection is one of the unique properties of light. It is the reflection of light, which
enables us to see any object.

Reflection: The bouncing back of rays of light from a polished and shiny surface is
called reflection or reflection of light. It is similar to bouncing back of a football after
colliding with a wall or any hard surface.

Fig: Reflection of Light

Laws of Reflection of light:

 The angle of incidence and angle of reflection is equal.
 The incident ray, reflected ray and normal to the point of reflection lie in the
same plane.

The angle of incidence is denoted by 'i' and angle of reflection is denoted by 'r'. The
law of reflection is applicable to all types of reflecting surface.

Mirror and Reflection of Light:

Mirror is a shiny polished object (glass) which reflects most of the rays of light falling
upon it. One side of mirror is polished with suitable material to make the other side
reflective.
Types of Image formed by mirrors:

Real Image: Image which is formed in front of the mirror and it can be obtained on a
screen is called real image.
 Virtual Image: Image which is formed behind the mirror and cannot be obtained on a
screen is called virtual image.

Types of Mirror:
Plain Mirror: A mirror having a flat surface is called plane mirror.
Formation of image in plane mirror:

Fig: Image formation in plain mirror

 A plane mirror always forms virtual and erect image.

 The distance of image and that of object is equal from the mirror.
 The image formed by a plane mirror is laterally inverted.

Types of Reflection:
Regular/ Specular Reflection:
Specular Reflection refers to a clear and sharp reflection, like the ones you get in a mirror. A
mirror is made of glass which is coated with a uniform layer of a highly reflective
material such as aluminumpowder. This reflective surface reflects almost all the light
incident on it uniformly. There is not much variation in the angles of reflections between
various points. This means that the haziness and the blurring are almost entirely
eliminated.
Diffused Reflection:
Reflective surface other than mirrors, in general, has a very rough finish. This may be due to wear
and tear such as scratches and dents or dirt on the surface. Sometimes even the material of which
the surface is made of matters. All this leads to a loss of both the brightness and the quality of the
reflection. In case of such rough surfaces, the angle of reflection when compared between points is
completely haphazard. For rough surfaces, the rays incident at slightly different points on the surface
is reflected in completely different directions. This type of reflection is called diffused reflection and is
what enables us to see non-shiny objects.

Multiple reflection of light

Multiple Images: When two or more mirrors are placed at some angles to each
other, we get to see multiple images. Let us take an example in which two mirrors are
placed opposite to each other. If an object is placed between them, its image is
formed in both the mirrors. The image in one mirror would act as an object for
another mirror and this sequence would continue. This will result in the formation of
multiple images.

The number of images formed depends on the angle between the two mirrors. This
can be calculated by using the following formula:

Number of Images = (360/Angle) – 1

So, if the given mirrors are at a right angle to each other, 3 images will be formed. If
the given mirrors are at 30° angle, we shall get 11 images. When the mirrors are kept
opposite and parallel to each other, there would be infinite number of images formed.

Instruments Based on Multiple reflection

Kaleidoscope
This instrument works on the principle of multiple reflections. It consists of three plane
mirrors inclined at an angle of 60o to each other.
The arrangement is kept in a cylindrical cardboard base with a few pieces of coloured
glass at one end. The mirrors form multiple images of these glass pieces, resulting in
beautiful pattern when seen from the other end. On rotating the cylindrical box, the
pattern change continuously as the position of glass piece shifts.
Periscope

It is another instrument which uses the principle of multiple reflections. This instrument
also needs two plane mirrors that are placed at an angle of 45? to the vertical. In a
periscope mirrors are placed at a distance from each other. The image formed by one
mirror acts as the object for the other mirror. The main use of Periscope is in
submarines that remain under water.

Refraction of Light
Points

 The change of direction of light rays when they pass from one optical medium
into another is called refraction of light.
 A transparent substance is called optical medium.
 There are certain rules that are followed by light during refraction.
 When light travels from a rarer (eg. Air) to a denser (eg. Glass) medium it bends
towards the normal.
 When light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, it bends away from the
normal.
 When light travel along the normal there is no deviation that is the ray suffers no
refraction.

Refraction of Light
The deviation in the path of light when it passes from one medium to another
medium of different density is called refraction.
The twinkling of stars is due to atmospheric refraction of starlight. Since the
atmosphere bends starlight towards the normal the apparent position of the star
is slightly different from its actual position. Hence the star appears slightly
 higher than its actual position.

Refraction and Reflection of Light

IO incident ray OR' reflected ray OR refracted ray
The diagram shows how the light gets refracted when it is traveling from one
optical medium to another. Like reflection, refraction of light takes place
according to certain laws.
Terms which are commonly used to explain the phenomenon of refraction.
Incident Ray The ray of light striking the surface of separation of the mediums
through which it is traveling is known as the incident ray.
Point of Incidence The point at which the incident ray strikes the surface of
separation of the two mediums is called the point of incidence.
Normal The perpendicular drawn to the surface of separation at the point of
incidence is called the normal.
Refracted Ray The ray of light which travels into the second medium, when the
incident ray strikes the surface of separation between the mediums 1 and 2, is
called the refracted ray.
Angle of Incidence (i) The angle which the incident ray makes with the normal
at the point of incidence, is called angle of incidence.
Angle of Refraction (r) The angle which the refracted ray makes with the
normal at the point of incidence, is called angle of refraction.
Cause of Refraction A ray of light refracts or deviates from its original path as
it passes from one optical medium to another because the speed of light
changes.
EFFECTS OF REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Following are the effects of refraction of light in our daily life.

1. A swimming pool always looks shallower than it really is, because the light coming from
the bottom of the pool bends when it comes out at the surface due to refraction of light.
2. A straight stick which is immersed partly in water always looks to be bent at the surface
of water, because the light coming from the stick bends when it comes out at the surface
due to refraction of light.

3. A coin or stone lying at the bottom of a container filled with water appears to be raised
because of refraction of light.

4. A line or a spot of ink on a paper always appears to be raised when viewed through the
glass slab due to the refraction of light.
5. Twinkling of stars is due to the refraction of light.

6. Optical illusions such as mirage and looming are also produced

due to refraction of
light.

Mirage
Looming
Human Eye

The eye is natural optical instrument that forms an image of objects on a screen called
the retina. This enables us to see to objects.
 The front part of the eye is called the cornea and is made up of a transparent material.
Behind the cornea is the iris the coloured parts of the eye.
In the middle of the iris is a hole called the pupil? It appears black because no light is
reflected from it.
The iris adjusts the amount of light entering the eye through pupil.
Behind the iris is a convex lens. The eye lens is held in position by a pair of muscles
called ciliary muscles.
The lens forms an Image of an object on the retina which is at the back of the eye.
The retina is covered by a large number of nerve cells sensitive to light which carry the
impression to the brain by means of optic nerve.
There are two kinds of nerve cells on retina-
Cones – that sense colour & are sensitive to bright light.
Rods – which are sensitive to dim light

Power of accommodation of Eye

 The ciliary muscles alter the thickness of the lens enabling the eye to see far and
near objects equally clearly.
 The ability of eye to adjust itself to see objects at different distances clearly is
called the power of accommodation of the eye.
 The least distance at which eye can clearly see an object is called the near point
or the least distance of distinct vision.
 The far point of the eye is the maximum distance to which the eye can see. For
a normal eye it is at infinity.
The blind spot

There is one point on the retina where the nerve fibers enter the optic nerve. The image
falling on this part of the retina cannot be seen and hence it is known as the blind spot.

Persistence of Vision

To see and object, its image must be formed on the retina by the eye lens. As soon as
the object is removed, the image disappears but the brain remembers the image for
some time even after the removal of object. This effect is called Persistence of vision.

Defects of vision and their correction

The two common \defects of the eye are short- sightedness or myopia, and long –
sightedness or hyper- metropia or hyperopic.

Myopia (Short – sightedness)

 Myopia is a defect of the eye in which distant objects cannot be seen clearly but
nearby objects can be seen clearly.
 To correct this defect, a diverging or concave lens is used to create an extra
divergence so that the images get formed on the retina.

Hypermetropia (Long- sightedness)

 Hypermetropia is a defect of the eye in which distant objects can be seen clearly
by the eye but nearby objects cannot be seen distinctly.
 This defect is because the focal length of the eye lens too long or the eyeball is
too short. As a result, nearby objects are brought to focus at a point behind the
retina.
 The defect of Hypermatropia may be corrected by using a converse or
converging lens since the rays require an extra convergence to meet at a lesser
distance.
Cataract

 This is another defect of the eye generally occurring at old eye. In a person
suffering from cataract, the eye lens becomes cloudy leading to loss of vision.
 Cataract can be treated by surgically removing the eye lens and inserting in its
place a new artificial lens.

Braille

 The Braille system is a method of writing for the blind.

 It uses six raised dots. The positions of different dots represent the different
letters of the alphabet.
 Visually challenged people can read them by feeling them with their fingers. The
method was developed by Louis Braille of Paris.

Eye care

 A diet rich in Vitamin A, selenium and vitamin C and E help to maintain good
eyesight and to prevent to delay development of cataract.
 Do not read in very dim or very bright light; avoid reading in a moving vehicle.
 Avoid watching TV or working on a computer for long sessions.