La Martiniere College, Lucknow

Digital Academic Services

Class : 9 Subject: Physics

Name/Number of Chapter: Reflection of Light

Module Number: 18
Dates from:09/09/21 To: 15/09/21

Learning Objective:Students will understand the concepts of reflection of light from a plane mirror,image
formation from a plane mirror & how to calculate total images of an object placed between two inclined
plane mirrors.The module will help the students to develop interest for the subject also written work
assigned at the end of the module will help them to improve their understanding,learning and writing skills.
Introduction: We are customised to seeing the world around us with our eyes but we don’t usually ponder
upon how the light interacts with our vision. In simple terms, an object is only visible to our eyes when
light is reflected from its surface. For instance, you might not be able to see anything on entering a dark
room but once you switch on the lights, everything will be visible. This simple phenomena of the light
bouncing back after falling on an object is referred to as the reflection of light.
Light is a form of energy to be more precise it is electromagnetic energy which enables us to see
objects. The straight line along which it travels is called a ray of light. For us to see something we need
light. Light travels in straight line and we use the concept of a ray of light to show the direction and path
travelled by light. A light ray can be reflected off an object into our eyes or if it is luminous it emits rays of
light in all directions.A beam of light is made up of many rays of light and may be parallel, divergent or
converging.

Reflection of light
Reflection of light means the phenomena in which light after striking the surface of an opaque object
bounces to return back in to the same medium. The objects having shiny or polished surface reflect more
light compared to the objects having dull or unpolished surface. Silver metal is the best reflector of light.
This is why a plane mirror is made by depositing a thin layer of silver metal on one side of a plane glass
sheet. The silver coating is protected by a red paint.

Regular Reflection and Diffused Reflection

In regular reflection, a parallel beam of incident light is reflected as a parallel beam in one direction only. In
this case , parallel incident rays remain parallel even after reflection and go only in one direction and it
occurs from smooth surfaces like that of a plane mirror or highly polished metal surfaces. Thus, a plane
mirror produces regular reflection of light. This occurs because the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection are the same or are equal as shown in the figure below.
In diffused reflection, a parallel beam of incident light is reflected in different directions. In this case, the
parallel incident rays do not remain parallel after reflection, they are scattered in different directions. It is
also known as irregular reflection or scattering and so, takes place from rough surfaces like that of paper,
cardboard, chalk, table, chair, walls and unpolished metal objects. Since, the angle of incidence and angle
of reflection are different, the parallel rays of light falling on a rough surface go in different directions as
shown in the figure given below.
Reflection of light from a plane mirror

Before understanding the laws of reflection of light, let us understand the meaning of some important terms
such as, incident ray, reflected ray, point of incidence, normal (at the point of incidence), angle of incidence
and angle of reflection.
Incident ray: The ray of light falling on the surface of a mirror is called incident ray.
Point of incidence: The point at which the incident ray falls on the mirror surface is called point of
incidence.
Reflected ray: The ray of light which is sent back by the mirror from the point of incidence is called
reflected ray.
Normal: A line perpendicular or at the right angle to the mirror surface at the point of incidence is called
normal.
Angle of incidence: The angle made by the incident ray with the normal is called angle of incidence.
Angle of reflection: The angle made by the reflected ray with the normal at the point of incidence is called
the angle of reflection.
Plane of incidence: Plane containing the incident ray and the normal.
Plane of reflection: Plane containing the reflected ray and the normal.

Laws of reflection of light

The laws of reflection of light apply to both plane mirror as well as spherical mirror. In this article we will
discuss about the images formed by the plane mirror.

1. First law of reflection: According to the first law, the angle of incidence is always equal to the
angle of reflection (∟i = ∟r).
 2. Second law of reflection: According to the second law, the incident ray, the reflected ray and the
normal at the point of incidence , lie in the same plane.

Also, it is important to note that when a ray of light falls normally on the surface of a mirror then the
angle of incidence and the angle of reflection for such a ray of light will be zero. This ray of light will be
reflected back along the same path.

Image of an object
When the light rays coming from an object are reflected from a mirror and reach our eyes mirror then the
optical appearance of the object which is produced is called an image. For example, when we look into the
mirror, we see the image of our face. Images are of two types,
1. Real image : When rays actually meet at some point after reflection
2. Virtual image:When rays appear to meet at some point after reflection

Lateral inversion
When we stand in front of a mirror and lift our right hand than the image formed will lift its left hand.
Therefore the right side of our body becomes the left side in its image and the left side of our body becomes
the right side in its image in the mirror. The interchange of the left and right sides of an object in its mirror
image is called lateral inversion. It happens due to reflection of light.
Formation of image of a point object in a plane mirror:

Formation of image of an extended object by a plane mirror

The characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror:
1. Virtual and erect.
2. Size of image formed is equal to the size of object.
3. Image is formed behind the mirror.
4. Image is at same distance behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
5. Image formed in plane mirror is laterally inverted.

Object placed between two inclined plane mirrors

For both regular and diffused reflection of light, a single mirror is used while when we take two mirrors, a
single source of light can be reflected multiple times. This type of reflection is only possible when the
intensity of the light becomes so low that we cannot see it. Infinite images will be formed in multiple
reflections, as each image is the result of another image. The number of images varies as per the angle
between two mirrors. If we decrease the angle, the number of images get increased. The number of images
becomes infinite when the angle between the two mirrors is zero i.e, they are parallel.
If an object is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at some angle θ then the no of images formed
can be calculated by the following method:

• We define a quantity n given as:

• n = 360/θ
• Depending on the value of n we can have the following cases
Number of images formed in a pair of mirrors placed parallel to each other:
Since the angle θ between the mirrors is 0, infinite number of images will be formed, as calculated by the
given formula. Such mirrors are observed in hair cutting salons.

Number of images formed in a pair of mirrors placed perpendicular to each other:

For two mirrors kept perpendicular to each other three images are formed for an object kept in between
them.
Uses of plane mirror:
1. Mirrors are used to see our own image while dressing.
2. Plane mirrors are used in interior designing to create an illusion of depth or to increase the length of
a room as is done by an optician. Specially coated mirrors are used in constructing modern optical
instruments.
3. They are also fixed on the inside walls of jewelry shops to make them look big.
4. They are fitted at blind turns on the roads so that the driver can see the vehicles coming from the
other side.
5. In solar heating devices, a plane mirror is used to reflect the incident light rays from the sun on the
substance to be heated.
6. Periscope: It is an instrument in which two parallel plane mirrors each inclined at 45 0 are placed so
that the image of the object can be brought down to a lower level. Sailors in submarines use a
periscope to look above the water level.
7. Kaleidoscope – It is an interesting toy consisting of a tube containing three plane mirrors inclined at
600. Pieces of colored paper kept within the tube produce multiple reflections and changing patterns
when the tube is rotated. It is also used to find new patterns for rugs and fabrics.

Written work to be done:

Q.1) What do you mean by reflection of light?
Q.2) With the help of diagrams explain the difference between regular and irregular reflection?
Q.3) State the two laws of reflection of light.
Q.4) Give a convenient condition to locate the image formation in case of a plane mirror?
Q.5) What is the nature of the image formed by a plane mirror?
Q.6) How many images will be formed when two plane mirrors are kept parallel to each other? Explain
with the help of a diagram.
Q.7) Distinguish between real and virtual image.
Q.8) How is a plane mirror used in,
(i) Solar cooker
(ii) Periscope
(iii) Kaleidoscope
Q.9) With the help of a diagram explain that the image formation of a point object in front of a plane
mirror ?
Q.10) With the help of a diagram explain that the image formation of an extended object in front of a
plane mirror ?
Q.11) With the help of a diagram explain the lateral inversion of letter P by a plane mirror ?
Q.12) How many images of an object will be formed if it is placed between two plane mirrors inclined at
an angle

Angle at Value of n No of images for No of images for

which Symmetric position of asymmetric position of
mirrors are object object
inclined
450
900
1800
720
360
600
1200

Physics project work to be done

Experiment 3

Aim: To determine the least count of the Vernier calliper and measure the diameter of a small cylinder may
be a metal rod.
Requirement :Vernier caliper and the given cylinder
Vernier calliper:

The main parts of vernier calliper are:

Main scale: The main scale is graduated in mm and cm on one side

Vernier scale: It is a sliding scale with slides over the main scale.The side of vernier scale lying towards
the mm side of the main scale have 10 equal divisions and 10 divisions of vernier scale coincide with 9
divisions of the main scale

Jaws: It has two jaws upper and lower.One of the jaws is attached to the scale and the other one slides over
the main scale along with the housing.The lower jaws are used to measure the thickness and external
diameter of the cylindrical object while the upper jaws are exclusively used for measuring the internal
diameter of the hollow cylinder

Strip: It is attached to the sliding vernier scale and is used to measure the depth of hollow objects

Least count of Vernier Callipers (Vernier Constant):

1 main scale division (MSD) = 1 mm = 0.1 cm

Number of vernier scale divisions, N = 10

10 vernier scale divisions = 9 main scale divisions

1 vernier scale division = 0.9 main scale division

Vernier constant = 1 main scale division – 1 vernier scale division = (1– 0.9) main scale divisions = 0.1
main scale division

Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm

Alternatively
Vernier constant = 1MSD / N = 1mm / 10 Vernier constant (VC) = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm

Zero error and its correction:

When the jaws A and B touch each other, the zero of the Vernier should coincide with the zero of the main
scale in this case there is no zero error.

If it is not so, the instrument is said to possess zero error (e). Zero error may be positive or negative,
depending upon whetherthe zero of vernier scale lies to the right or to the left of the zero of the main scale.

Positive zero error

Fig shows an example of positive zero error. From the figure, one can see that when both jaws are touching
each other, zero of the vernier scale is shifted to the right of zero of the main scale (This might have
happened due to manufacturing defect or due to rough handling). This situation makes it obvious that while
taking measurements, the reading taken will be more than the actual reading. Hence, a correction needs to
be applied which is proportional to the right shift of zero of vernier scale.

In the figure we can see that the 3rd vernier division is coinciding with a main scale reading.

∴ Zero Error = + 3 × Least Count = + 0.03 cm Hence, the zero error is positive in this case.

For any measurements done, the zero error (+ 0.05 cm in this example) should be ‘subtracted’ from the
observed reading.

∴ Corrected or true reading = Observed reading – (+ Zero error)

Negative zero error

Fig. shows an example of negative zero error.

From this figure, one can see that when both the jaws are touching each other, zero of the vernier scale is
shifted to the left of zero of the main scale.

This situation makes it obvious that while taking measurements, the reading taken will be less than the
actual reading. Hence, a correction needs to be applied.

In the figure we can see that the 8th vernier division is coinciding with a main scale reading.

∴ Zero Error = (8 – 10) × Least Count = – 0.02cm

For any measurements done, the zero error (– 0.02cm in this example) should be ‘added’ to the observed
reading.

∴ Corrected or true reading = Observed reading – (– Zero error)

Procedure:

1. Determine the Vernier (Least Count) of Vernier calipers as explained above.

2. Look out for the zero error if any, if it is discovered then add or deduct accordingly as explained
above.

3. With the help of lower jaws, firmly grip the body gently without pressure

4. Note the main scale reading just before the zero of the Vernier scale and Vernier scale division(n)
coinciding with the main scale division.

5. Vernier scale reading(VSR) will be n × VC

5. Determine the length by adding the product of the number of division coinciding and the VC to the
main scale. Length = (MSR+ n × VC)

Observations:

Pitch =

Least count =

Zero Error =
S.No Main scale reading Vernier scale Observed reading Corrected reading
(MSR) reading (MSR+ n × VC)
(VSR)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Result: The mean diameter of the rod is_________cm

Precautions:

1. Different parts of verniercaliper should be frictionless.

2. The vernier constant on scale and zero error should be calculated carefully.
3. Undue pressure on the body of the Vernier caliper should be avoided .

Sources of error:

1. Body may not the even

2. Main scale and job may not be at right angles to each other.
3. Graduations on Vernier caliper for as well as main scale may not be evenly marked.
4. The error of parallax may also lead to undesirable observations.

Experiment 4

Aim: To determine the least count of the screw gauge and measure the diameter of the given wire.
Materials Required:Screw gauge,Wire

About the Screw gauge: An ordinary scale can be used to measure lengths up to 1 mm accurately. The
Vernier callipers can be used to measure up to 0.1 mm accurately, but not any dimension less than that.A
screw gauge is used to measure up to 0.01 mm with greater accuracy. It can be used to measure the
thickness of thin objects like wires, glass sheets, and so on. The screw gauge works on the principle of a
screw in a nut.The screw gauge consists of a U-shaped metallic frame, a stud or anvil, a sleeve cylinder, a
spindle, a barrel, the main scale, the head scale and a ratchet.
Screw gauge consists of a U shaped metallic frame(F). To one end of the frame, a stud S1 is fixed.
On the opposite end of F, a hollow cylinder ‘C’ is fixed. This cylinder has fine threads inside it and acts as a
nut.On the outer surface of the cylinder, a line-parallel to its axis, called index line ‘I’ is drawn and is
divided into some equal divisions, called Pitch Scale ‘P’.A screw ’S’ with a flat tip S2 having threads
exactly identical to the threads cut inside the cylinder, moves through the cylinder ‘C’.To the other end of
the screw, a milled head ‘M’ is connected. To this milled head, one end a barrel ‘B’ is connected and this
barrel forms a jacket to the hollow cylinder ‘C’.The other end of the barrel is tapered and has 100 or 50
equal divisions on it. This is called Head Scale ‘H’.A ratchet system is also fixed at the right end of the
screw cap,so as to prevent over tightening of the screw,resulting in the tickling sound of the freely running
ratchet.

Procedure:

i) Find the least count of the Screw gauge by this formula:

Least count of Screw Gauge-The linear distance moved by the screw is directly proportional to the
rotation given to it. The linear distance moved by the screw when it is rotated by one division
of the circular scale

Least Count = Pitch / No. of divisions on circular scale

Pitch of Screw Gauge- The linear distance moved by the screw forward or backward when
one complete rotation is given to the circular scale.

For example for a screw gauge with a pitch of 1mm and 100 divisions on the circular scale.
The least count is

1 mm/100 = 0.01 mm

ii) The Zero error of the Screw gauge is noted, if any.

Zero error and its correction-When the end of the screw and the surface of the stud are in contact
with each other,and the zero of the circular scale is in contact with the zero of the main scale or the
base line there is no zero error.
With the tip of the screw in contact with the stud, if the zero of the head scale does not coincide with
the index line, then the screw gauge is said to have zero error. Zero error can be positive or negative.

Positive Zero Error

When the two studs S1 and S2 are in contact with each other, if the Zeroth division of Head Scale is
below the index line, then the error is said to be Positive Zero error and the correction is negative.
Positive zero error is subtracted from the observed reading

3rd division is coinciding

∴ Zero Error = 3× Least Count = + 0.003cm

For any measurements done, the zero error (+ 0.003cm in this example) should be ‘added’ to the
observed reading.

∴ Corrected or true reading = Observed reading – (+ 0.003cm)

Negative Zero Error

When the two studs S1 and S2 are in contact with each other, if the Zeroth division of Head Scale is
above the index line, then the error is said to be Negative Zero error and the correction is Positive.
Negative zero error is added to the observed reading.
 97th division is coinciding

∴ Zero Error = (97 – 100) × Least Count = – 0.003cm

For any measurements done, the zero error (– 0.003cm in this example) should be ‘added’ to the
observed reading.

∴ Corrected or true reading = Observed reading – (– 0.003cm)

iii.) To measure the diameter divide roughly the entire length of wire in to three parts to take atleast
three observations.

iv.) The wire is placed between the studs of the screwgauge and the head Scale is rotated anti-clock
wise with the help of the ratchet, so that the studs holds the wire tightly.

v.) The value of the main scale division which just precedes edge of the head scale is noted as pitch
scale reading (M.S.R)

vi.) The value of the head scale division which just coincides with the index line is the observed as n &
Head Scale Reading. (H.S.R) is given as(n x L.C)

vii.) Observed reading = Pitch scale reading +(H.S.R).

i.e., The Diameter of the wire = M.S.R. + (n x L.C)

viii.) The wire is placed at different positions in between the studs and the observations are recorded.

Observations:

Pitch =

Least count =

Zero Error =

S.No Main scale reading Circular scale Observed reading Corrected reading
(MSR) reading (MSR+ n × LC)
(CSR)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Result: The mean diameter of the rod is_________cm

Precautions:

1. To avoid undue pressure; the screw should always be rotated by ratchet R and not by cap K.
2. The screw should move freely without friction.
3. The zero correction, with proper sign should be noted very carefully and added algebraically.
4. For same set of observations, the screw should be moved in the same direction to avoid back-lash
error of the screw.
5. At each place, the diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions and then
the mean of the two be taken.
6. Readings should be taken at least for five different places equally spaced along the whole length of
the wire.
7. Error due to parallax should be avoided.

Sources of error:

1. The screw may have friction.

2. The screw gauge may have back-lash error.
3. Circular scale divisions may not be of equal size.
4. The wire may not be uniform.