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Principles of Photonics by Jia-Ming Liu 1
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts of Optical Fields

1.1 Nature of Light
1239.8 eV nm 1239.8
=
1.1.1 Eg = = eV 5.47 eV.
λ 227
1.2398 eV μm 1.2398
=
1.1.2 λg = = μm 1.88 μm.
Eg 0.66
Light of a wavelength longer than λg = 1.88 μm is transmitted.
1.1.3 The wavelength of the 5-THz wave is
c 3 × 108 m s −1
λ= = = 60 μm .
ν 5 × 1012 Hz
Its photon energy is
1.2398 eV μm 1.2398
=hν = = eV 20.66 meV .
λ 60
1.1.4 The optical frequency for the 1.55 μm wavelength is
c 3 × 108 m s −1
ν= = = 193.5 THz .
λ 1.55 × 10−6 m
Its photon energy is
1.2398 eV μm 1.2398
=hν = = eV 0.800 eV .
λ 1.55
1.1.5 At λ = 635 nm , the photon energy is
1239.8 1239.8
=hν = nm eV = eV 1.95 eV .
λ 635
2 Principles of Photonics by Jia-Ming Liu
The photon momentum is
hν 1.95 × 1.6 × 10−19

=
p = s 1.04 × 10−24 N s .
N=
c 3 × 108
The photon flux for a beam power of P = 1 mW is
P 1 × 10−3 −1
=
photon flux = s= 3.21 × 1015 s −1 .
hν 1.95 × 1.6 × 10 −19
According to Example 1.2, the total momentum carried by the beam in a duration of
∆t is total momentum= P∆t c . Because force is momentum change per unit time, if
the beam is totally absorbed, the momentum change during ∆t is simply the total
momentum carried by the beam during ∆t . Thus the force exerted by the beam on the
absorbing surface is
P 1 × 10−3
F= = N= 3.33 × 10−12 N .
c 3 × 108
a
When the beam illuminates on a totally reflecting surface, the momentum change of
the beam is twice the momentum carried by the beam. Thus the force exerted by the
beam on the reflecting surface is
P 1 × 10−3
Fr =
2 =2× 6.67 × 10−12 N .
N=
c 3 × 10 8
1.2 Optical Fields and Maxwell’s Equations

1.2.1 Maxwell’s equations and the continuity equation given in (1.4)–(1.8) are
∂B
∇×E =− ,
∂t
∂D
∇×H = +J,
∂t
∇⋅D = ρ,
∇⋅B = 0,
∂ρ
∇⋅J + = 0.
∂t
From Section 1.2, we know that E , D , and ∇ all change sign under space inversion
but not under time reversal, whereas B , H , and ∂ ∂t all change sign under time
reversal but not under space inversion. J changes sign under either space inversion
or time reversal, but ρ never changes sign under space inversion or time reversal.
Taking space inversion, the equations become
∂B
−∇ × ( − E ) =− ,
∂t
∂ (−D)
−∇=×H + ( −J ) ,
∂t
−∇ ⋅ ( − D ) =ρ ,
−∇ ⋅ B =0,
∂ρ
−∇ ⋅ ( − J ) + =0 .
∂t
Each equation returns to its original form after the signs are cleared up. Hence,
Maxwell’s equations and the continuity equation are invariant under spatial inversion.
Taking time reversal, the equations become
∂ ( −B )
∇×E =− ,
∂ ( −t )
∂D
∇ × ( −=
H) + ( −J ) ,
∂ ( −t )
ρ,
∇⋅D =
∇ ⋅ ( − B ) =0 ,
∂ρ
∇ ⋅ ( −J ) + =0 .
∂ ( −t )
Maxwell’s equations and the continuity equation are invariant under spatial inversion.
Taking both space inversion and time reversal simultaneously, the equations
become
∂ ( −B )
−∇ × ( − E ) =− ,
∂ ( −t )
∂ (−D)
−∇ × (=
−H ) +J ,
∂ ( −t )
−∇ ⋅ ( − D ) =ρ ,
−∇ ⋅ ( − B ) =0 ,
∂ρ
−∇ ⋅ J + =0.
∂ ( −t )
Note that the sign of J is not changed here because it changes twice in this situation.
Maxwell’s equations and the continuity equation are invariant under simultaneous
space inversion and time reversal.
1.3 Optical Power and Energy
1.4 Wave Equation

1.4.1 By applying ∇ × to (1.11), taking B = µ0 H from (1.19) for an optical field, and using
(1.12), we find that
∂ ∂ ∂2 D
∇×∇× E =− ∇×B =− µ0 ∇ × H =− µ0 2
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂2 D
⇒ ∇ × ∇ × E + µ0 2 = 0 ⇒ (1.37).
∂t
By using =
D 0 E + P from (1.2) for the above equation, we find that
∂2 D ∂2 E ∂2 P 1 ∂2 E ∂2 P
∇×∇× E =− µ0 =− µ  − µ =− − µ
∂t 2 ∂t 2 ∂t 2 c 2 ∂t 2 ∂t 2
0 0 0 0
1 ∂2 E ∂2 P
⇒ ∇×∇× E + 2 2 = − µ0 2 ⇒ (1.38),
c ∂t ∂t
where c = 1 µ00 as given in (1.39).
1.4.2 By applying ∇ × to (1.15), taking B = µ0 H from (1.19) for an optical field, and using
(1.16), we rewrite (1.37) as
∂ ∂ ∂ 2 Dbound ∂J
∇×∇× E =− ∇×B = − µ0 ∇ × H = − µ0 − µ0 cond
∂t ∂t ∂t 2
∂t
∂ Dbound
2
∂J
⇒ ∇ × ∇ × E + µ0 + µ0 cond =0.
∂t 2 ∂t
= 0 E + Pbound from (1.2) for the above equation, we rewrite (1.38) as

By using Dbound
∂ 2 Dbound ∂J cond ∂2 E ∂ 2 Pbound ∂J

∇×∇× E =− µ0 − µ =− µ  − µ − µ0 cond
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
2 0 0 0 2 0 2
1 ∂ E
2
∂ Pbound
2
∂J
⇒ ∇×∇× E + 2 2 = − µ0 − µ0 cond .
c ∂t ∂t 2
∂t
where c = 1 µ00 as given in (1.39).
1.5 Harmonic Fields

1.5.1 Before taking the Fourier transform on (1.46), it is necessary to change the form of
(1.46) by taking the change of the variables: r ′′= r − r ′ and t ′′= t − t ′ , and by using
the fact that χ ( t ′′ ) = 0 for t ′′ < 0 because the optical response of a medium appears
only after the excitation of an optical field but not before that. Thus, from (1.46),
t
P ( r, t ) 0
= ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r − r′, t − t ′) ⋅ E ( r′, t ′) dr′dt ′
−∞ all r ′
∞
= 0 ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r − r′′, t − t ′′) dr′′dt ′′
t ′′ = 0 all r ′′
∞
= 0 ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r − r′′, t − t ′′) dr′′dt ′′.
t ′′ = −∞ all r ′′
Now, we take the Fourier transform, defined as (1.57). Then, we find the relation given
in (1.59) for ω > 0,
∞
P (k,ω ) = ∫ ∫∫∫ P ( r, t ) e
− ik ⋅r + iω t
drdt
t = −∞ all r
∞ ∞
∫ ∫∫∫ ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r − r′′, t − t ′′) dr′′dt ′′ e

− ik ⋅r + iω t
= 0 drdt
t = −∞ all r t ′′ = −∞ all r ′′
∞ ∞
∫ ∫∫∫ ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r − r′′, t − t ′′) e

− ik ⋅( r − r ′′ ) + iω ( t − t ′′ )
= 0 e− ik ⋅r′′+ iωt ′′ dr ′′dt ′′drdt
t = −∞ all r t ′′ = −∞ all r ′′
∞ ∞
∫ ∫∫∫ ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r′, t ′) e

− ik ⋅r ′ + iω t ′
= 0 e− ik ⋅r′′+ iωt ′′ dr ′′dt ′′dr ′dt ′
t ′ = −∞ all r ′ t ′′ = −∞ all r ′′
 ∞   ∞ 
= 0  ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r ′′, t ′′ ) e− ik ⋅r′′+ iωt ′′ dr ′′dt ′′ ⋅  ∫ ∫∫∫ E ( r ′, t ′ ) e− ik ⋅r′+ iωt ′ dr ′dt ′
t ′′= −∞ all r′′  t ′= −∞ all r′ 
= 0 χ ( k , ω ) ⋅ E ( k , ω ) .
1.6 Polarization States

1.6.1 Because ê⊥ is a unit polarization vector that is orthogonal to ê and lies on the xy
plane, it has the general form of e= ˆ⊥ c1 xˆ + c2 yˆ subject to the conditions that
eˆ∗ ⋅ eˆ⊥ =eˆ ⋅ eˆ⊥∗ =0 and eˆ⊥ ⋅ eˆ⊥∗ =
1 . These two conditions require that
eˆ∗ ⋅ eˆ⊥ = 0 ⇒ c1 cos α + c2 e− iϕ sin α = 0,

eˆ⊥ ⋅ eˆ⊥∗ = 1 ⇒ c1 + c2 = 1.
2 2
The general solutions of these two equations for c1 and c2 yield
=eˆ⊥ ( xˆ sin α − yê iϕ

cos α ) eiζ ,
where ζ is a phase factor that can be arbitrarily chosen for convenience.
1.6.2 From (1.75) and (1.78),
xˆ + iyˆ xˆ − iyˆ
eˆ+ = and eˆ− = .
2 2
Therefore,
2 xˆ 2iyˆ
eˆ+ + eˆ− = = 2 xˆ and eˆ+ − eˆ− = = 2iyˆ .
2 2
Clearly, the linearly polarized unit vectors x̂ and ŷ can each be represented in terms
of a linear superposition of ê+ and ê− as
eˆ+ + eˆ− eˆ+ − eˆ−

xˆ = and yˆ = .
2 2i
1.6.3 By using the result from Problem 1.6.2, we find that
=eˆ xˆ cos θ + yˆ sin θ

eˆ + eˆ eˆ − eˆ
= + − cos θ + + − sin θ
2 2i
cos θ − i sin θ cos θ + i sin θ
= eˆ+ + eˆ−
2 2
e − iθ e iθ
= eˆ+ + eˆ− .
2 2
=
Thus, the general linearly polarized unit vector eˆ xˆ cos θ + yˆ sin θ can be expressed
as a linear superposition of two circularly polarized components on the basis of the
circularly polarized unit vectors ê+ and ê− as
e − iθ e iθ
=eˆ eˆ+ + eˆ− .
2 2
1.7 Optical Field Parameters

Chapter 2
Optical Properties of Materials

2.1 Optical Susceptibility and Permittivity
2.1.1 By the definition of Fourier transform,
∞
χ (k,ω )
= ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r, t ) exp ( −ik ⋅ r + iωt ) drdt .
−∞ all r
Because χ ( r,t ) is always real, χ ∗ ( r, t ) = χ ( r, t ) . Then,
∗
∞ 
χ ( k , ω )  ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r, t ) exp ( −ik ⋅ r + iωt ) drdt 
= ∗
 −∞ all r 
∞
∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r, t ) exp ( ik ⋅ r − iωt ) drdt

∗
=
−∞ all r
∞
= ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r, t ) exp ( ik ⋅ r − iωt ) drdt
−∞ all r
∞
= ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r, t ) exp −i ( −k ) ⋅ r + i ( −ω ) t  drdt
−∞ all r
= χ ( −k , −ω ) .
Therefore, χ ij∗ ( k , ω )= χ ij ( −k , −ω ) . Similarly, ij∗ ( k , ω ) = ij ( −k , −ω ) .

2.2 Optical Anisotropy

2.2.1 A: dielectric and lossy; B: magnetic and lossy; C: dielectric and lossless; D: dielectric
and lossy; E: magnetic and lossless.
2.2.2 The crystal is dielectric and lossless at this wavelength because the permittivity tensor
is symmetric and Hermitian.
By diagonalizing the permittivity tensor, the principal dielectric constants are found:
x 0 = 5.481 , y 0 = 5.481 , and z 0 = 5.053 . Note that by convention the unique
dielectric constant that is different from the other two is assigned to be associated with
the ẑ principal axis. The eigenvectors define the principal axes. Thus the principal
indices and the corresponding principal axes are
=nx= =
x 0 2.341, xˆ xˆ1 ;
1 1
=
ny =
y 0 =
2.341, yˆ xˆ2 + xˆ3 ;
2 2
1 1
nz =
z 0 =
2.248, zˆ =− xˆ2 + xˆ3 .
2 2
(b) Because n=
x n y > nz , the crystal is birefringent and is negative uniaxial with
no = 2.341 and ne = 2.248 .
2.2.3 Because the permittivity tensor is symmetric and Hermitian, the LiNbO3 crystal is
dielectric and lossless at this wavelength.
By diagonalizing the permittivity the principal dielectric constants are found:
x 0 = 4.938 , y 0 = 4.938 , and z 0 = 4.602 . Clearly, the crystal is uniaxial. By
convention the unique dielectric constant that is different from the other two is
assigned to be associated with the ẑ principal axis. The eigenvectors define the
principal axes. The principal indices and the corresponding principal axes are
=nx = =
x 0 2.222, xˆ xˆ1 ;
1
=ny = =
y 0 2.222, yˆ ( xˆ2 + xˆ3 ) ;
2
1
nz= z 0= 2.145, zˆ= ( − xˆ2 + xˆ3 ) .
2
Because n=
x n y > nz , the crystal is negative uniaxial with no = 2.222 and ne = 2.145 .
(b) Yes. As long as the optical wave propagates the crystal along the optical axis, i.e., with
its wavevector kˆ  zˆ , the birefringence of the crystal is not seen by the wave. Then,
any polarization of the wave sees only the ordinary index no .
2.2.4 Because the permittivity tensor is symmetric and Hermitian, the KTP crystal is
dielectric and lossless at this wavelength.
By diagonalizing the permittivity, the principal dielectric constants are found:
x 0 = 3.035 , y 0 = 3.063 , and z 0 = 3.356 . All three principal dielectric
constants are different; thus, we order them in the sequence of increasing values. The
eigenvectors define the principal axes. The principal indices and the corresponding
principal axes are
=nx = =
x 0 1.742, xˆ xˆ1 ;
1
=ny = =
y 0 1.750, yˆ ( xˆ2 − xˆ3 ) ;
2
1
=nz = =
z 0 1.832, zˆ ( xˆ2 + xˆ3 ) .
2
(b) Because nx ≠ n y ≠ nz , the crystal is birefringent and biaxial.
2.2.5 Linear birefringence is the phenomenon that two linearly polarized waves propagating
in a medium have different real parts of the refractive indices, whereas circular
birefringence is that two linearly polarized waves propagating in have different real
parts of the refractive indices.
2.2.6 For linear birefringence, two linearly polarized waves in a medium experience
different real parts of the refractive indices, thus different propagation constants;
whereas for linear dichroism, two linearly polarized waves in a medium experience
different imaginary parts of the refractive indices, thus different absorption constants.
For circular birefringence, two circularly polarized waves in a medium experience
different real parts of the refractive indices, thus different propagation constants;
whereas for circular dichroism, two circularly polarized waves in a medium experience
different imaginary parts of the refractive indices, thus different absorption constants
2.2.7 By diagonalizing the permittivity tensor, we find its eigenvalues and the corresponding
eigenvectors:
1
1 0  n 2 − γ + i (ς − ξ )  , =
= eˆ1 ( xˆ − yˆ ) ;
2
1
2 0  n 2 + γ + i (ς + ξ )  , =
= eˆ2 ( xˆ + yˆ ) ;
2
=3 = 2
0 nz , eˆ3 zˆ.
Note that eˆ1 × eˆ2 =

eˆ3 is chosen for right-handed coordinates. Therefore, the principal
refractive indices and corresponding principal normal modes of polarization are
γ ς −ξ 1
n1=  n 2 − γ + i (ς − ξ )  ( xˆ − yˆ ) ;
12
≈n− +i , eˆ1=
2n
2n 2
γ ς +ξ 1
n2=  n 2 + γ + i (ς − ξ )  ≈ n + ( xˆ + yˆ ) ;
12
+i , eˆ2=
2n 2n 2
n3 n= z, eˆ3 zˆ.
The principal normal modes are all linearly polarized because ê1 , ê2 , and ê3 are all
linear unit vectors. This medium is linearly birefringent because the real parts of the
principal indices for the three linearly polarized normal modes are different:
n1′ ≠ n2′ ≠ n3′ . It is linearly dichroic because the imaginary parts of the principal indices
for the three linearly polarized normal modes are different: n1′′ ≠ n2′′ ≠ n3′′ .
2.2.8 By diagonalizing the permittivity tensor, we find its eigenvalues and the corresponding
eigenvectors:
1
1 0  n 2 − ξ + i (ς + γ )  , =
= eˆ1 ( xˆ + iyˆ ) ;
2
1
2 0  n 2 + ξ + i (ς − γ )  , =
= eˆ2 ( xˆ − iyˆ ) ;
2
=3 = 2
0 nz , eˆ3 zˆ.
Therefore, the principal refractive indices and corresponding principal normal modes
of polarization are
ξ ς +γ 1
n1=  n 2 − ξ + i (ς + γ )  ( xˆ + iyˆ ) ;
12
≈n− +i , eˆ1=
2n
2n 2
ξ ς −γ 1
n2=  n 2 + ξ + i (ς − γ )  ≈ n + ( xˆ − iyˆ ) ;
12
+i , eˆ2=
2n 2n 2
n3 n= z, eˆ3 zˆ.
Two of the three principal normal modes are circularly polarized because eˆ1 = eˆ+ and
eˆ2 = eˆ− . This medium is circularly birefringent because the real parts of the principal
indices for these two circularly polarized normal modes are different: n1′ ≠ n2′ . It is
circularly dichroic because the imaginary parts of the principal indices for these two
circularly polarized normal modes are different: n1′′ ≠ n2′′ .
2.3 Resonant Optical Susceptibility

2.3.1 The Lorentz oscillator equation is a linear differential equation with a real variable and
real parameters. Therefore, when its variable is expressed = as x ( t ) x (ω ) xê− iωt + c.c.
and its driving force is expressed as F ( t ) =
−eExê− iωt + c.c. , it can be separated into
one for the e− iωt component and another for the eiωt complex-conjugated component.
To solve this problem, we only have to keep track of the e− iωt component.
=
By plugging x ( t ) x (ω ) xê− iωt + c.c. and F ( t ) =
−eExê− iωt + c.c. into the oscillator
equation, we find that
eE
 −ω 2 x (ω ) − i2γω x (ω ) + ω02 x (ω )  xê− iωt + c.c. =
− ∗ xê− iωt + c.c.
m
From the coefficients of the e− iωt terms, we find
eE 1
x (ω ) = .
m ω − ω02 + i2γω
∗ 2
Using P ( t ) = − Nex ( t ) =
and P ( t ) P (ω ) xê− iωt + c.c. , we find
Ne2 1
P (ω ) =
− Nex (ω ) =
− ∗ 2 E.
m ω − ω02 + i2γω
) Ee−iωt + c.c.= Exê−iωt + c.c. , we have E (ω ) = E in this problem. Thus,

With E ( t =
by applying the relation P (ω ) = 0 χ (ω ) E (ω ) and identifying χ (ω ) with
χ res (ω ; ω0 ) , we find
Ne2 1
χ res (ω ; ω0 ) = − .
0 m ω − ω02 + i2γω
∗ 2
By taking ∆N =− N , the susceptibility obtained in (b) can be expressed as
∆Ne2 1
χ res (ω ; ω0 ) = .
0 m ω − ω02 + i2γω
∗ 2
This expression is not exactly the same as that in (2.26). However, under the condition
that ω0  γ , which is usually true for resonant optical transitions, we also have
ω  γ for optical frequencies. Then, the above expression can be approximated as
∆Ne2 1
χ res (ω ; ω0 ) =
0 m∗ ω 2 − ω02 + i2γω
∆Ne2 1
≈ ,
0 m∗ ω 2 − ω02 + i2γω − γ 2
∆Ne2  1 1 
=  − 
20 m ω0  ω − ω0 + iγ ω + ω0 + iγ 
∗
which has the same form as (2.26) before the rotating-wave approximation if we
identify the electric-dipole moment as
e2
p= .
2m∗ω0
Alternatively, under the condition that ω0  γ and ω  γ so that ω + ω0  ω − ω0 ,

we can directly take the rotating-wave approximation to find that
∆Ne2 1 ∆Ne2 1
χ res (ω ; ω0 )
= =
0 m ω − ω0 + i2γω 0 m (ω + ω0 )(ω − ω0 ) + i2γω
∗ 2 2 ∗
∆Ne2 1
≈ ,
0 m 2ω0 (ω − ω0 ) + i2γω0
∗
∆Ne2 1
=
20 m ω0 ω − ω0 + iγ
∗
which has the same form as (2.26) after the rotating-wave approximation if we identify
the electric-dipole moment as above.
2.3.2 ) χ ( −ω ) so that χ ′ ( −ω ) =
The reality condition requires that χ ∗ (ω= χ ′ (ω ) and
χ ′′ ( −ω ) =
− χ ′′ (ω ) .
′ (ω ) and χ res
For χ res ′′ (ω ) given in (2.27), we find that both do not satisfy the reality
condition because
∆Np 2 −ω − ω0
= ′ ( −ω )
χ res ′ (ω ) ,
≠ χ res
0  ( −ω − ω0 )2 + γ 2
∆Np 2 γ
′′ ( −ω ) = −
χ res ′′ (ω ) .
≠ − χ res
0  ( −ω − ω0 )2 + γ 2
This issue is caused by fact that the susceptibility in (2.27) is not the exact
susceptibility but is the result of the rotating-wave approximation, which quantitatively
is a good approximation but does not qualitatively preserve the symmetry properties
of the susceptibility.
The exactly susceptibility given in (2.26) before the rotating-wave approximation
satisfies the reality condition:
∗
∆Ne2  1 1 
χ (ω ; ω0 )
= ∗
 − 
20 m ω0  ω − ω0 + iγ ω + ω0 + iγ 
∗
res
∆Ne2  1 1 
=  − 
20 m ω0  ω − ω0 − iγ ω + ω0 − iγ 
∗
∆Ne2  1 1 
=  − 
20 m ω0  −ω − ω0 + iγ −ω + ω0 + iγ 
∗
= χ res ( −ω ; ω0 ) .
2.3.3 The energy separation between the two levels is the photon energy of the absorption
wavelength λ = 974.5 nm :
1239.8 1239.8
E2 − E1 = hν = nm eV = eV = 1.27 eV .
λ 974.5
The resonance frequency is
c 3 × 108 m s −1
ν= = ω0 2πν
= 307.85 THz ; thus = = 1.93 × 1015 rad s −1 .
λ −9
974.5 × 10 m
0 0
Because λ  ∆λ , we can use the approximation ∆ν ν 0 ≈ ∆λ λ to find that
∆λ 7.4
ν
∆= ν0
= × 307.85 THz
= 2.34 THz .
λ 974.5
Thus, the relaxation rate is
γ =π∆ν =7.35 × 1012 s −1 .
When the Yb3+ ions are in their normal state at thermal equilibrium with the
surrounding so that the 2 F7 2 level is more populated than the 2 F5 2 level, anomalous
dispersion caused by this transition is found within the FWHM of the spectral line, in
the wavelength range of λ ± ∆= λ 2 974.5 ± 3.7 nm , corresponding to the frequency
range of ν 0 ± ∆
=ν 2 307.85 ± 1.17 THz .
2.4 Optical Conductivity and Conduction Susceptibility

2.4.1 Because the Drude model considers free-moving electrons or holes that do not have
resonant oscillation frequencies, we expect the Lorentz model and its results obtained
in Problem 2.3.1 to reduce to the Drude model and corresponding results.
By setting ω0 = 0 and 2γ = 1 τ for the Lorentz model in Problem 2.3.1, we have
d 2 x 1 dx F d  ∗ dx  1  ∗ dx 
+ = ⇒ m  + m = F.
dt 2 τ dt m ∗ dt  dt  τ  dt 
By identifying the momentum variable= p m= ∗

v m∗ ( dx dt ) and the force F = qE ,
the above equation is transformed into the Drude model given in (2.30):
dp p dp p
+ = qE ⇒ = qE − .
dt τ dt τ
By setting ω0 = 0 and 2γ = 1 τ for χ res (ω ; ω0 ) obtained in Problem 2.3.1(b),

followed by using the relation in (2.40) for the plasma frequency, we find the relation
for χ cond (ω ) given in (2.43):
Ne2 1
χ res (ω ; ω0 ) = −
0 m ω − ω02 + i2γω
∗ 2
Ne2 1 σ ( 0 )τ 1
⇒ χ cond (ω ) =
− =
− .
0 m ω + i ω τ
∗ 2
0 ωτ (ωτ +i )
2.4.2 The conduction susceptibility given in (2.43) satisfies the reality condition because
∗
σ ( 0 )τ 
1  σ ( 0 )τ  1 
χ ∗
(ω ) =
−   =
−  = χ cond ( −ω ) .
0  ωτ (ωτ +i )  0  ωτ (ωτ − i ) 
cond
Clearly, its real and imaginary parts given in (2.44) also satisfy the reality condition:
σ ( 0 )τ 1 σ ( 0 )τ 1
′ ( −ω ) =
χ cond − =
− = ′ (ω ) ,
χ cond
0 ( −ω ) τ +1 0 ω τ +1
2 2 2 2
σ ( 0 )τ 1 σ ( 0 )τ 1
′′ ( −ω ) =
χ cond =
− ′′ (ω ) .
− χ cond
=
0 ( −ω )τ ( ( −ω ) τ +1) 0 ωτ (ω 2τ 2 + 1)
2 2
2.4.3 For Al, it is a very good approximation to take bound = 0 and m∗ = m0 . By using
(2.46), we find that
Ne2 1.81 × 10 × (1.6 × 10 )

29 −19 2
ω
= 2
= s −2 5.75 × 1032 rad 2 s −2
rad 2 =
0 m∗ 8.854 × 10−12 × 9.1 × 10−31
p
⇒ ωp =2.40 × 1016 rad s −1 ,
σ ( 0) 4.08 × 107
τ= 2 = s −1 =
8.01 × 10−15 s =
8.01 fs .
0ωp 8.854 × 10−12 × 5.75 × 1032
The cutoff frequency and cutoff wavelength are those at the plasma frequency:
ωp c
ν= = 3.82 PHz, λ= = 78.6 nm .
2π νp
p p
Al is highly reflective for λ > λp , corresponding to ν < ν p ; it becomes transmissive

for λ < λp , corresponding to ν > ν p .
2.4.4 As we will see below, the plasma frequency is much lower that the bandgap frequency
of Si, which corresponds to a wavelength of λg = 1.11 μm . Therefore, the low-
frequency dielectric constant is used for bound = 11.80 . The plasma frequency is found
using (2.52).
(a) For the n-type Si with N e = 1 × 1024 m −3 , the hole density is negligibly small so that
N e e2
ωp2 ≈
bound me∗
1 × 1024 × (1.6 × 10−19 )
2
= s −1 2.49 × 1026 rad 2 s −2 .

rad 2 =
11.8 × 8.854 × 10−12 × 1.08 × 9.1 × 10−31
ωp 1.58 × 1013 rad s −1 , ν p = 2.51 THz , and λp = 119.5 μm .

Therefore, =
(b) For the p-type Si with N h = 1 × 1024 m −3 , the electron density is negligibly small so
that
N h e2
ωp2 ≈
bound mh∗
1 × 1024 × (1.6 × 10−19 )
2
= s −1 4.81 × 1026 rad 2 s −2 .

rad 2 =
11.8 × 8.854 × 10−12 × 0.56 × 9.1 × 10−31

Therefore, =
(c) For the Si injected with N e = N h = 1 × 1024 m −3 ,
N e e2 N h e2
ωp2 ≈ +
bound me∗ bound mh∗
= 2.49 × 1026 rad 2 s −2 + 4.81 × 1026 rad 2 s −2 = 7.30 × 1026 rad 2 s −2 .

Therefore, =
2.5 Kramers-Kronig Relations

2.5.1 The Kramers-Kronig relations given in (2.53) satisfy the reality conditions because the
relations have the form that χ ′ (ω ) is an even function of ω and χ ′′ (ω ) is an odd
function of ω :
2
∞
ω ′χ ′′ (ω ′ ) 2 ω ′χ ′′ (ω ′ )
∞
χ ′ ( −ω ) P∫ = dω ′ χ ′ (ω ) ,
π ∫0 ω ′2 − ω 2
= dω ′ P =
π 0 ω ′2 − ( −ω ) 2
2 ( −ω ) χ ′ (ω ′ ) ωχ ′ (ω ′ )
∞ ∞
2
χ ′′ ( −ω ) =
− P∫ 2 d ω ′ = P ∫ − χ ′′ (ω ) .
dω ′ =
π 0 ω ′ − ( −ω ) 2
π 0 ω ′2 − ω 2
2.5.2 The real part χ res ′ (ω ) and the imaginary part χ res
′′ (ω ) of the exact χ res (ω ) given in
(2.26) without making the rotating-wave approximation satisfy the Kramers-Kronig
relations because they are the exact results of the Fourier transform of a real and
physical χ res ( t ; ω0 ) , which must be finite and analytical. By contrast, the real and
imaginary parts, given in (2.27), of the χ res (ω ) under the rotating-wave
approximation do not satisfy the Kramers-Kronig relations because they do not satisfy
the reality condition while the Kramers-Kronig relations satisfy the reality condition.
The rotating-wave approximation does not preserve the symmetry properties of
′ (ω ) and χ res
χ res ′′ (ω ) , thus making them violate the Kramers-Kronig relation.
2.5.3 ′ (ω ) and the imaginary part χ cond

The real part χ cond ′′ (ω ) of the conduction
susceptibility given in (2.44) satisfy the Kramers-Kronig relations because they are the
real and imaginary parts of a physical χ cond (ω ) that satisfy the reality condition.
2.6 External Factors

2.6.1 When the DC electric field is applied only along the direction of the y principal axis
such that E0 = E0 yˆ for E0 y = E0 and E=
0x E=0z 0 , we find from Example 2.6 that
 no2 + no4 r22 E0 0 0 

 
 ( E0 ) =  + ∆ ( E0 ) = 0  0 n − no4 r22 E0
2
o −n n r E0  .
2 2
o e 42
 0 −no2 ne2 r42 E0 n 2 
 e 
For LiNbO3 , no2 − ne2  no2 ne2 r42 E0 > no4 r22 E0 for any E0 y = E0 below its breakdown
field of the order of 100 MV m −1 . Thus, appropriate approximation can be taken to
simply the expressions of the solutions. Expressing  ( E0 ) = 0 A and solving for the
eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the dielectric constant tensor A , we find that
n=
2
X no2 + no4 r22 E0 , Xˆ = xˆ;
(n n r E0 )
2 2 2
n ≈ n − n r E0 + yˆ cos θ + zˆ sin θ ;
, Yˆ =
2 2 4 o e 42
n − n − no4 r22 E0
Y o o 22 2 2
o e
(n n r E0 )
2 2 2
n ≈n − − yˆ sin θ + zˆ cos θ ;
Zˆ =
2 2 o e 42
,
no2 − ne2 − no4 r22 E0
Z e
where
no2 ne2 r42 E0 2 2

−1 no ne r42 E0
θ ≈ − tan −1 ≈ − tan .
no2 − ne2 − no4 r22 E no2 − ne2
Thus the new principal indices of refraction are
no3 r22
nX ≈ no + E0 ,
2
n3 r 1 no3 ne4
2 ( 42 0 )
nY ≈ no − o 22 E0 +
2
r E ,
2 2 no − ne
2
1 no4 ne3
nZ ≈ ne − ( r42 E0 ) .
2
2 no2 − ne2
Using the given values of the parameters, we find that the X principal axis remains
the same as the original x principal axis but the new Y and Z principal axes are
orientated with respect to the original y and z principal axes at a rotation angle of
2.2382 × 2.1592 × 28 × 10−12 × 5 × 106

θ ≈ − tan −1 = 0.54° ,
2.2382 − 2.1592
and the field-induced changes of the principal refractive indices are
no3 r22
∆nX ≈ E0
2
2.2383 × 3.4 × 10−12
= × 5 × 10= 6
9.53 × 10−5 ,
2
n3 r 1 no3 ne4
∆nY ≈ − o 22 E0 + ( r42 E0 )
2
2 2 no2 − ne2
1 2.2383 × 2.1594
× ( 28 × 10−12 × 5 × 106 ) =−8.84 × 10−5 ,
2
=−9.53 × 10−5 + ×
2 2.238 − 2.159
2 2
4 3
1 no ne
2 ( 42 0 )
∆nZ ≈ −
2
r E
2 no − ne
2
1 2.2384 × 2.1593
× ( 28 × 10−12 × 5 × 106 ) =−7.12 × 10−6.
2
=− ×
2 2.238 − 2.159
2 2
2.6.2 Because the only nonvanishing Pockels coefficients are r=

41 = r63 , with
r52
E=
0x E=
0y 0 and E0 z = E0 , the only permeability change caused by the Pockels
effect is ∆η=
6 r63 E0=
z r41 E0 . Therefore, from (2.62), the only permittivity change is
∆xy =∆yx =−0 no4 ∆η6 =−0 no4 r41 E0 . Thus,
 no2 −no4 r41 E0 0

 
 ( E0 ) =  + ∆ ( E0 ) = 0  −no4 r41 E0 no2 0  = 0 A .
 0 0 no2 

By diagonalizing the dielectric constant tensor A to find its eigenvalues and

eigenvectors, we find that
no3 r41 1
nX ≈ no − E0 =
, Xˆ ( xˆ + yˆ ) ;
2 2
no3 r41 1
nY ≈ no + =
E0 , Yˆ ( − xˆ + yˆ ) ;
2 2
nZ = no , Zˆ = zˆ.
The applied field causes the x and y principal axes to rotate 45° into the new X
and Y principal axes while the z principal axis remain unchanged. The changes in
the principal indices caused by the electric field of E0 = 10 MV m −1 are
no3 r41 3.1663 × 1.6 × 10−12

∆nX ≈ − E0 =− × 10 × 106 =−2.5 × 10−4 ,
2 2
n3 r
∆nY ≈ o 41 E0 = 2.5 × 10−4 ,
2
∆nZ = 0.
2.6.3 Using the given nonvanishing Pockels coefficients for KTP, we have
 ∆η1   0 0 r13   r13 E0 z 

     
 ∆η2   0 0 r13   E   r23 E0 z 
 ∆η3   0 0 r33   0 x   r33 E0 z 
=  =   E0 y   .
 ∆η4   0 r42 0   E   r42 E0 y 
0 0 
 ∆η  r 0z  r E 
 5   51   51 0 x 
 ∆η6  0 0 0  0 
By the index contraction rule, ∆η1 =∆η xx , ∆η2 =

∆η yy , ∆η3 =∆η zz ,
∆η4 =
∆η yz =
∆η zy , ∆η5 =∆η zx =∆η xz , ∆η6 =∆η xy =∆η yx . Using (2.62), we find
−0 nx4 ∆η xx =
∆xx = −0 nx4 r13 E0 z ,
−0 n y4 ∆η yy =
∆yy = −0 n y4 r23 E0 z ,
∆zz =−0 nz4 ∆η zz =−0 no4 r33 E0 z ,
∆yz =∆zy =−0 n y2 nz2 ∆η yz =−0 n y2 nz2 r42 E0 y ,

∆zx =∆xz =−0 nz2 nx2 ∆η yz =−0 nz2 nx2 r51 E0 x ,
∆xy = −0 nx2 n y2 ∆η xy =
∆yx = 0.
Expressed in the matrix form, the field-induced permittivity change is
 −nx4 r13 E0 z 0 −nz2 nx2 r51 E0 x 

 
∆ ( E0 ) 0 
= 0 −n y r23 E0 z
4
−n y2 nz2 r42 E0 y  .
 −n2 n2 r E −n y2 nz2 r42 E0 y −nz4 r33 E0 z 
 z x 51 0 x
2.6.4 For the Pockels effect to cause only changes in the principal indices of refraction
without rotating the principal axes, an applied electric field has to generate changes
only in the diagonal elements, but not in the off-diagonal elements, of ∆ ( E0 ) . By
examining ∆ ( E0 ) obtained in Problem 2.6.3 for KTP, we find that this is possible if
the DC electric field is applied only along the direction of the z principal axis such
that E0 = E0 zˆ for E0 z = E0 and E=
0x E=
0y 0 . Then,
 nx2 − nx4 r13 E0 0 0 

 
 ( E0 ) =  + ∆ ( E0 ) = 0  0 n − n y4 r23 E0
2
y 0 .
 0 0 nz − nz r33 E0 
2 4

Because  ( E0 ) is diagonal in coordinate system of the original principal axes, all

principal axes remain unchanged:
Xˆ = xˆ , Yˆ = yˆ , Zˆ = zˆ .
Using (2.65) and (2.66), we find the new principal indices of refraction:
nx3 r13
(n − nx4 r13 E0 )
12
nX = 2
x ≈ nx − E0 ,
2
n3y r23
nY = ( n y2 − n y4 r23 E0 )
12
≈ ny − E0 ,
2
n3 r
(n − nz4 r33 E0 )
12
nZ = 2
z ≈ nz − z 33 E0 .
2
Clearly, the crystal remains biaxial. The changes in the principal indices of refraction
caused by an applied electric field of E0 = 12 MV m −1 are
nx3 r13 1.7423 × 8.8 × 10−12

∆nX =− E0 =− × 12 × 106 =−2.79 × 10−4 ,
2 2
n3y r23 1.7503 × 13.8 × 10−12
∆nY =− E0 =− × 12 × 106 =−4.44 × 10−4 ,
2 2
n3 r 1.8323 × 35 × 10−12
∆nZ = − z 23 E0 = − × 12 × 106 =−1.29 × 10−3 .
2 2
2.6.5 For the material under consideration with a magnetically induced optical loss the
magneto-optic permittivity is not Hermitian so that ij ( H 0 ) ≠ ∗ji ( H 0 ) and
ij ( M 0 ) ≠ ∗ji ( M 0 ) , but the relation ij ( H=
0)  ji ( − H 0 ) , as given in (2.72), and
ij ( M=
0)  ji ( − M 0 ) are still valid through time-reversal transformation.
The magneto-optic permittivity tensor due to an applied magnetic field H 0 can always
be expanded as a polynomial function of the magnetic field in the form of (2.76).
Therefore, the relation in (2.76) is still valid. Because ij ( H=
0)  ji ( − H 0 ) is still valid
in the presence of a magnetic field-induced optical loss, by applying this condition we
find that
ij + i0 ∑ fijk H 0 k + 0 ∑ cijkl H 0 k H 0l +  =  ji − i0 ∑ f jik H 0 k + 0 ∑ c jikl H 0 k H 0l +  .

k k ,l k k ,l
Therefore, the relation in (2.77) is still valid: fijk = − f jik and c=

ijkl c=
jikl c=
ijlk c jilk .
However, ij ( H 0 ) ≠ ∗ji ( H 0 ) due to the presence of a magnetic field-induced loss
requires that
ij + i0 ∑ fijk H 0 k + 0 ∑ cijkl H 0 k H 0l +  ≠ ∗ji + i0 ∑ f jik

∗
H 0 k + 0 ∑ c∗jikl H 0 k H 0l +  .
k k ,l k k ,l
Because ij = ∗ji , the above condition requires that fijk ≠ f jik∗ or cijkl ≠ c∗jikl . Therefore,
either f=
ijk fijk′ + ifijk′′ is complex with fijk′′ ≠ 0 , or c=
ijkl
′ + icijkl
cijkl ′′ is complex with
′′ ≠ 0 , or both are complex. By plugging these complex forms into (2.78), we find
cijkl
that the magneto-optic permittivity tensor can be generalized to the form:
 n⊥2 + iς iξ ′ − ξ ′′ 0 
 
 = 0  −iξ ′ + ξ ′′ n⊥2 + iς 0  ,
 0 0 n2 

′ H 0 z , ξ ′′ = f123
where ξ ′ = f123 ′′ H 0 z , n=
2
⊥ no2 + c1234 ′′ H 02z .
′ H 02z , and ς = c1234
By diagonalizing the magneto-optic permittivity tensor, we find its eigenvalues and

the corresponding eigenvectors:
1
=
+ 0  n⊥2 − ξ ′ + i (ς − ξ ′′ )  , eˆ=
+ ( xˆ + iyˆ ) ;
2
1
=
− 0  n⊥2 + ξ ′ + i (ς + ξ ′′ )  , eˆ=
− ( xˆ − iyˆ ) ;
2
z = 0 n2 , zˆ.
Therefore, the principal refractive indices and corresponding principal normal modes
of polarization are
ξ′ ς − ξ ′′ 1
n+ =  n⊥2 − ξ ′ + i (ς − ξ ′′ )  ( xˆ + iyˆ ) ;
12
≈ n⊥ − +i , eˆ+ =
2n⊥ 2n⊥ 2
ξ′ ς + ξ ′′ 1
n− =  n⊥2 + ξ ′ + i (ς + ξ ′′ )  ( xˆ − iyˆ ) ;
12
≈ n⊥ + +i , eˆ− =
2n⊥ 2n⊥ 2
n , zˆ.
The refractive-index difference between the two circularly polarized modes is
ξ ′ ξ ′′
∆n+− =
n+ − n− =
− −i .
n⊥ n⊥
Therefore, the first-order magneto-optic effect results in circular birefringence because

ξ ′ ≠ 0 for any magneto-optic material, whereas a first-order magnetically induced loss
characterized by ξ ′′ ≠ 0 results in circular dichroism.
As seen in (b), neither n⊥ nor ς , which are related to the second-order magneto-optic
effect, appear in ∆n+− . Therefore, it is clearly that the second-order magneto-optic
effect results in neither circular birefringence nor circular dichroism. However, it does
cause linear birefringence and, in the case when ς ≠ 0 , linear dichroism between a
wave that is linearly polarized along ẑ and a wave that is linearly polarized in any
direction in the xy plane. This can be easily seen by setting ξ=′ ξ= ′′ 0 to turn off the
first-order magneto-optic effect to reveal that the second-order effect only causes a
difference between such linearly polarized waves:
 n⊥2 + iς 0 0
 
= 0  0 n + iς
2
⊥ 0 .
 0 0 n2 

2.7 Nonlinear Optical Susceptibilities

2.7.1 Because λ1−1 + λ2−1 = λ3−1 + λ3−1 = λ4−1 , we find that ω4 = ω1 + ω2 = ω3 + ω3 . Therefore,
the second-order nonlinear polarization at the frequency ω4 is
P(
2)
( ω4 ) =
0  χ ( ) (ω4 =
2
ω1 + ω2 ) : E (ω1 ) E (ω2 ) + χ ( 2) (ω4 =
ω2 + ω1 ) : E (ω2 ) E (ω1 )
+χ (
2)
( ω4 =
ω3 + ω3 ) : E (ω3 ) E (ω3 ) .
Note that there are two terms from the mixing of ω1 and ω2 because of permutation,
but there is only one term from ω3 mixing with itself.
Using the given fields at the three frequencies, we can express the components of
P ( ) (ω4 ) as
2
 E1 E2 E1 E2
Px(
2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
0  χ xxy ( ω4 =
ω1 + ω2 ) ( )
+ χ xxz
2
( ω4 =
ω1 + ω2 )
 2 2
E2 E1 E2 E1
( )
+χ xyx ( ω4 =
2
ω2 + ω1 ) ( )
+ χ xzx ( ω4 =
2
ω2 + ω1 )
2 2
+ χ xzz (ω4 = ω3 + ω3 ) E  ,
( 2) 2
3
 ( 2) EE EE
Py( ) (ω4 ) =
0  χ yxy ( ω4 =ω1 + ω2 ) 1 2 + χ yxz
( 2)
( ω4 =ω1 + ω2 ) 1 2
2
 2 2
E E E E
( 2)
+χ yyx ( ω4 =
ω2 + ω1 ) 2 1 + χ yzx
( 2)
( ω4 =
ω2 + ω1 ) 2 1
2 2
( 2)
+ χ yzz ( ω4 =
ω3 + ω3 ) E32  ,
 E1 E2 E1 E2
Pz(
2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
0  χ zxy ( ω4 =
ω1 + ω2 ) ( )
+ χ zxz
2
( ω4 =
ω1 + ω2 )
 2 2
E2 E1 E2 E1
( )
+χ zyx ( ω4 =
2
ω2 + ω1 ) ( )
+ χ zzx ( ω4 =
2
ω2 + ω1 )
2 2
( 2)
+ χ zzz ( ω4 =
ω3 + ω3 ) E  .
2
3
By keeping the terms that contain only the nonvanishing χ ( ) elements of KTP in each
2
of the components of P ( 2) (ω4 ) obtained in (a), we find that
 E1 E2 E2 E1 
Px(
2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
0  χ xxz ( ω4 =
ω1 + ω2 ) ( )
+ χ xzx
2
( ω4 =
ω2 + ω1 ) ,
 2 2 
Py( 2)
(ω4 ) = 0,
Pz(
2)
(ω4=) ( )
0 χ zzz
2
(ω=4 ω3 + ω3 ) E32 .
2.7.2 Because λ3−1 − λ1−1 = λ2−1 − λ3−1 = λ4−1 , we find that ω4 = ω3 − ω1 = ω2 − ω3 . Therefore,
P( ( ω4 ) =0  χ ( ) (ω4 =
ω3 − ω1 ) : E (ω3 ) E∗ (ω1 ) + χ ( 2) (ω4 =−ω1 + ω3 ) : E∗ (ω1 ) E (ω3 )
2) 2
+χ(
2)
( ω4 =
ω2 − ω3 ) : E (ω2 ) E∗ (ω3 ) + χ ( 2) (ω4 =−ω3 + ω2 ) : E∗ (ω3 ) E (ω2 )  .
Note that because of permutation, there are two terms from the mixing of ω1 and ω3 ,
and two terms from the mixing of ω2 and ω3 .
P ( ) (ω4 ) as
2
Px(
2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
0  χ xzx ( ω4 =
ω3 − ω1 ) E3 E1∗ + χ xxz
( 2)
( ω4 =−ω1 + ω3 ) E1∗ E3
E2 E3∗ E2 E3∗
( )
+χ xyz ( ω4 =
2
ω2 − ω3 ) ( )
+ χ xzz
2
( ω4 =
ω2 − ω3 )
2 2
∗
E E2 E3∗ E2 
( )
+ χ xzy ( ω4 =
2
−ω3 + ω2 ) 3 ( )
+ χ xzz ( ω4 =
2
−ω3 + ω2 ) ,
2 2 
( 2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
ω3 − ω1 ) E3 E
0  χ yzx (ω4 = ∗ ( )
+ χ yxz ( ω4 =−ω1 + ω3 ) E1∗ E3
2
Py 1
E2 E3∗ E2 E3∗
( )
+χ yyz ( ω4 =
2
ω2 − ω3 ) ( )
+ χ yzz
2
ω2 − ω3 )
( ω4 =
2 2
∗
E E2 E3∗ E2 
( )
+ χ yzy ( ω4 =
2
−ω3 + ω2 ) 3 ( )
+ χ yzz ( ω4 =
2
−ω3 + ω2 ) ,
2 2 
( 2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
ω3 − ω1 ) E3 E
0  χ zzx (ω4 = ∗ ( )
+ χ zxz ( ω4 =−ω1 + ω3 ) E1∗ E3
2
Pz 1
E2 E3∗ E2 E3∗
( )
+χ zyz ( ω4 =
2
ω2 − ω3 ) ( )
+ χ zzz
2
( ω4 =
ω2 − ω3 )
2 2
∗
E E2 E3∗ E2 
( )
+ χ zzy ( ω4 =
2
−ω3 + ω2 ) 3 ( )
+ χ zzz ( ω4 =
2
−ω3 + ω2 ) ,
2 2 
2
Px(
2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
0  χ xzx ( ω4 =
ω3 − ω1 ) E3 E1∗ + χ xxz
( 2)
( ω4 =−ω1 + ω3 ) E1∗ E3  ,
 E2 E3∗ E3∗ E2 
Py(
2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
0  χ yyz ( ω4 =
ω2 − ω3 ) ( )
+ χ yzy ( ω4 =
2
−ω3 + ω2 ) ,
 2 2 
 E2 E3∗ E3∗ E2 
Pz(
2)
( ω4 ) = ( 2)
0  χ zzz ( ω4 =
ω2 − ω3 ) ( )
+ χ zzz
2
( ω4 =−ω3 + ω2 ) .
 2 2 
2.7.3 Because λ1−1 − λ2−1 = λ2−1 + λ2−1 = λ3−1 , we find that ω3 = ω1 − ω2 = ω2 + ω2 . Therefore,
P(
2)
(ω3 ) =
0  χ ( ) (ω3 =
2
ω1 − ω2 ) : E (ω1 ) E∗ (ω2 ) + χ ( 2) (ω3 =
−ω2 + ω1 ) : E∗ (ω2 ) E (ω1 )
+χ(
2)
(ω3 =
ω2 + ω2 ) : E (ω2 ) E (ω2 )  .
Note that there are two terms from the mixing of ω1 and ω2 because of permutation,
but there is only one term from ω2 mixing with itself.
P ( ) (ω3 ) as
2
Px(
2)
(ω3 ) = ( 2)
0  χ xxy (ω3 =
ω1 − ω2 ) E1 E2∗ + χ xyx
( 2)
(ω3 =
−ω2 + ω1 ) E2∗ E1
( 2)
+ χ xyy (ω=3 ω2 + ω2 ) E2 E2  ,
Py(
2)
(ω3 ) = ( 2)
0  χ yxy (ω3 =
ω1 − ω2 ) E1 E2∗ + χ yyx
( 2)
(ω3 =
−ω2 + ω1 ) E2∗ E1
( 2)
+ χ yyy (ω=3 ω2 + ω2 ) E2 E2  ,
Pz(
2)
(ω3 ) = ( 2)
0  χ zxy (ω3 =
ω1 − ω2 ) E1 E2∗ + χ zyx
( 2)
(ω3 =
−ω2 + ω1 ) E2∗ E1
( 2)
+ χ zyy (ω=3 ω2 + ω2 ) E2 E2  .
2
Px(
2)
(ω3 ) = ( 2)
0  χ xxy (ω3 =
ω1 − ω2 ) E1 E2∗ + χ xyx
( 2)
(ω3 =
−ω2 + ω1 ) E2∗ E1  ,
Py( (ω3=)
2) ( )
0 χ yyy
2
(ω=3 ω2 + ω2 ) E2 E2 ,
Pz( ) (ω3=) ( )
0 χ zyy (ω=3 ω2 + ω2 ) E2 E2 .
2 2
Chapter 3
Optical Wave Propagation
3.1 Normal Modes of Propagation

3.1.1 According to Example 3.1, it is always true that the propagation constant of a TEM
mode is always β = ω µ0 . Because the propagation constant β of a mode has to be
a constant that is not a function of space, this condition can be satisfied only when 
is a constant of space. Therefore, a TEM mode field can appear only in an optically
homogeneous space.
3.1.2 A dielectric waveguide cannot support a TEM mode. The reason is that the propagation
constant of a TEM mode is required to= be β ω= µ0 k . However, a dielectric
waveguide necessarily has a spatially dependent permittivity, such as  ( x, y ) ,  ( x ) ,
or  ( y ) , assuming the mode field propagates in the z direction. It is not possible to
find a spatially independent propagation constant β for a TEM mode in a dielectric
waveguide.
3.1.3 A planar structure cannot support a hybrid mode. The reason is that a hybrid mode is
characterized by nonvanishing longitudinal electric and magnetic field components
z and z that are coupled together but are not independent of each other. For a
planar structure, we find from (3.5)–(3.10), or from (3.11)–(3.14), that z and z are
independent of each other. Therefore, when z and z both exist, they belong to two
separate modes of the TM and TE types, respectively, but not to a hybrid mode. As an
example, assume that the planar structure is characterized by  ( x ) with its interfaces
parallel to the yz plane so that ∂ ∂y =0 . Then we find using (3.11)–(3.14) that the
field components are separated into two independent groups
∂z ∂
(k 2
− β=
2
)  x iβ ∂x
, (k 2
)
− β 2=y iω  z ;
∂x
and
 ∂ z  ∂ z
(k2 − β 2 ) x =
iβ
∂x
, ( k 2 − β 2 ) y =
−iωµ0
∂x
.
Clearly, the first group of three field components, x , y , and z , form a TM mode;
whereas the second group of three field components,  y , x , and z , form a TE
mode. No hybrid mode exists.
3.1.4 (a) TEM, TE, and TM; (b) TE and TM; (c) TE and TM; (d) TE, TM, and hybrid.
3.1.5 Applying the mode fields given in (3.1) and (3.2) to the two Maxwell’s equation for
wave propagation given in (3.3) and (3.4), we have
∂Hν
− µ0
∇ × Eν = ⇒ ∇ × ν + iβν zˆ × ν =
iωµ0 
ν,
∂t
∂Eν
∇ × Hν =
 ⇒
∇× ν + iβ
 ˆ×
νz ν −iων .
=
∂t
These are actually vector forms of (3.5)–(3.10).

For a TE mode, ν , z = 0 so that ∇ × ν  ẑ . Then, zˆ × ∇ × ν =
0 . Therefore,
∇ × ν + iβν zˆ × ν =
iωµ0  ν
⇒ zˆ × ∇ × ν + iβν zˆ × zˆ ×=
ν iωµ0 zˆ × 
ν
⇒ iβν zˆ × zˆ ×=
ν iωµ0 zˆ × 
ν
⇒ −iβν ν = −iωµ0 
ν × ˆ
z
β
⇒
 ν × ẑ = ν ν .
ωµ0
Then,
β µ + βν
(ν ×  µ∗ + µ∗ ×  ν ) ⋅ zˆ = ν ⋅  µ∗ × zˆ + µ∗ ⋅  ν × zˆ =
ωµ0
ν ⋅ µ∗ .
Applying this relation to (3.18) for the normalized mode fields, we find that
∞ ∞
∫ ∫ (ˆν × ˆ µ + ˆµ × ˆν ) ⋅ zˆdxdy =

δνµ
∗ ∗
−∞ −∞
β µ + βν ∞ ∞
∫ ∫ ˆν ⋅ ˆµ dxdy =

δνµ
∗
⇒
ωµ0 −∞ −∞
∞ ∞
2βν
∫ ∫ ˆν ⋅ ˆµ dxdy =
δνµ
∗
⇒ ⇒ (3.20).
ωµ0 −∞ −∞
For a TM mode, ν , z = 0 so that ∇ × ν  ẑ . Then, zˆ × ∇ × ν =

0 . Therefore,
∇×
 ν + iβ
 ˆ×
νz =−iων
ν
⇒ 
zˆ × ∇ × ν + iβ −iωzˆ × ν
ˆ × zˆ ×
ν =
νz
⇒ iβνzˆ × zˆ × ν =−iωzˆ × ν
⇒
 −iβν ν = −iωzˆ × ν
β
⇒ ẑ × ν =ν  .
ω ν
Then,
β µ + βν
(ν × µ∗ + µ∗ × ν ) ⋅ zˆ = zˆ × ν ⋅ µ∗ + zˆ × µ∗ ⋅ ν =
ω
ν ⋅ µ∗ .
Applying this relation to (3.18) for the normalized mode fields, we find that
∞ ∞
∫ ∫ (ˆν × ˆ µ + ˆµ × ˆν ) ⋅ zˆdxdy =

δνµ
∗ ∗
−∞ −∞
β µ + βν ∞ ∞
1
∫ ∫  ( x, y )  ˆν ⋅  ˆ µ dxdy =
δνµ
∗
⇒
ω −∞ −∞
∞ ∞
2βν 1
∫ ∫  ( x, y )  ˆν ⋅  ˆ µ dxdy =
δνµ
∗
⇒ ⇒ (3.22).
ω −∞ −∞
For a TEM mode, ν , z = 0 and ν , z = 0 so that ∇ × ν  ẑ and ∇ × ν  ẑ . Then,

0 and zˆ × ∇ × ν =
zˆ × ∇ × ν = 0 . Therefore, all the procedures taken for the TE and
TM modes in (a) and (b) are valid for TEM modes so that both (3.20) and (3.22) apply
to TEM modes. In addition, because TEM mode fields exist only in a spatially
homogeneous region so that  ( x, y ) =  is a constant of space. Consequently, for TEM
modes, the general orthonormality relation given in (3.18) can be reduced to two
equivalent dot-product forms given in (3.24):
2 βν ∞ ∞
2 βν ∞ ∞
∫=
∫ ˆν ⋅ ˆµ dxdy δνµ and ∫ ∫= δνµ .
∗ ˆ ⋅ ∗
ˆ dxdy
ν µ
ωµ0 −∞ −∞ ω −∞ −∞
3.2 Plane Wave Modes

3.2.1 Though InP has well-define principal axes, it is optically isotropic because
n=
x n=y n=
z n . Therefore, a plane wave of any polarization state propagating in any
direction is a normal mode that has a refractive index of n . For all conditions listed in
(a)–(e), the wave propagates through the InP crystal without change in its polarization
state. At λ = 1.3 μm , n = 3.205 ; thus, the propagation constant is
2π n 2π × 3.205
=k = = 1.549 × 107 m −1
λ 1.3 μm
and the wavelength in InP is
λ 1.3 μm
λInP= = = 405.6 nm .
n 3.205
3.2.2 Because LiNbO3 is a uniaxial crystal, a plane wave that propagates through it behaves
as a normal mode with a well-defined propagation constant and without change of its
polarization state under each of the two conditions: (1) when it is polarized along a
principal axis, it can propagate in any direction that is perpendicular to this principal
axis, or (2) when it propagates along the optical axis, which is the z principal axis for
the uniaxial LiNbO3 crystal, it can be of any polarization state.
Linearly polarized along x̂ propagating along ŷ . This wave sees only nx . It

propagates without change of polarization state with
2π no 2π × 2.222 λ 1.3 μm
k=
x
k= = = 1.074 × 107 m −1 and λ= = = 585.6 nm .
o
λ 1.3 μm
o
no 2.222
Linearly polarized along ŷ propagating along ẑ . This wave sees only n y . It

2π no 2π × 2.222 λ 1.3 μm
k=
y
k= = = 1.074 × 107 m −1 and λ= = = 585.6 nm .
λ 1.3 μm
o o
no 2.222
Linearly polarized along ẑ propagating along x̂ . This wave sees only nz . It

2π ne 2π × 2.145 λ 1.3 μm
k=
z
k= = = 1.037 × 107 m −1 and λ= = = 606.1 nm .
λ 1.3 μm
e e
ne 2.145
Circularly polarized in the xy plane propagating along ẑ . This wave sees only
n=
x n=
y no . It propagates without change of polarization state with
2π no 2π × 2.222 λ 1.3 μm
k=
± k= = = 1.074 × 107 m −1 and λ= = = 585.6 nm .
λ 1.3 μm
o o
no 2.222
Circularly polarized in the yz plane propagating along x̂ . This wave sees n y ≠ nz . Its
y component propagates with k y = ko , but its z component propagates with
k = ke Therefore, it does not propagates like a normal mode with a well-defined
z
unique propagation constant. Its polarization state changes as it propagates.
3.2.3 Because KTP is a biaxial crystal, a plane wave that propagates through it behaves as a
normal mode with a well-defined propagation constant and without change of its
polarization state under each of the two conditions: (1) when it is polarized along a
principal axis, it can propagate in any direction that is perpendicular to this principal
axis, or (2) when it propagates along one of the two optical axes, either of which lines
up with a principal axis for the biaxial KTP crystal, it can be of any polarization state.
Linearly polarized along x̂ propagating along ŷ . This wave sees only nx . It
2π nx 2π × 1.734 λ 1.3 μm
=
kx = = 8.381 × 106 m −1 and λ= = = 749.7 nm .
λ 1.3 μm
x
nx 1.734
Linearly polarized along ŷ propagating along ẑ . This wave sees only n y . It

2π n y 2π × 1.742 λ 1.3 μm
=
ky = = 8.419 × 106 m −1 and λ= = = 746.3 nm .
λ 1.3 μm
o
no 1.742
Linearly polarized along ẑ propagating along x̂ . This wave sees only nz . It

2π nz 2π × 1.822 λ 1.3 μm
=
kz = = 8.806 × 106 m −1 and λ= = = 713.5 nm .
λ 1.3 μm
e
ne 1.822
Circularly polarized in the xy plane propagating along ẑ . This wave sees nx ≠ n y . Its
x component propagates with k x , but its y component propagates with k y , which
are different. Therefore, the wave does not propagate like a normal mode with a well-
defined unique propagation constant. Its polarization state changes as it propagates.
Circularly polarized in the yz plane propagating along x̂ . This wave sees n y ≠ nz . Its
y component propagates with k y , but its z component propagates with k z , which
are different. Therefore, the wave does not propagate like a normal mode with a well-
defined unique propagation constant. Its polarization state changes as it propagates.
3.2.4 The required thickness of the waveplate is the half-wave length
λ 1.3
=lλ 2 = = μm 8.44 μm ,
2 ne − no 2 × 2.145 − 2.222
or any of its odd multiples: ( 2m + 1) lλ 2= ( 2m + 1) × 8.44 μm , like 3lλ 2 = 25.32 μm ,

5lλ 2 = 42.2 μm , …, etc. The half-wave plate has to be cut in a way such that its z
principal axis lies in the plane parallel to its surface. To rotate the polarization direction
of a linearly polarized wave by 30° , the plate has to be arranged such that its surface
is normal to the propagation direction of the wave and its z axis is at 15° or 75° ,
which is 90° − 15° , with respect to the polarization direction of the input field.
3.2.5 The required thickness of the waveplate is the quarter-wave length
λ 1.3
=lλ 4 = = μm 4.22 μm ,
4 ne − no 4 × 2.145 − 2.222
or any of its odd multiples: ( 2m + 1) lλ 4= ( 2m + 1) × 4.22 μm , like 3lλ 4 = 12.66 μm ,

5lλ 4 = 21.1 μm , …, etc. The quarter-wave plate has to be cut in a way such that its z
principal axis lies in the plane parallel to its surface. For converting a linear polarized
wave into a circularly polarized wave, the plate has to be arranged such that its surface
is normal to the propagation direction of the wave and its z axis is at 45° with respect
to the linear polarization direction of the input field.
3.2.6 By diagonalizing the permittivity tensor, the principal dielectric constants are found:
x 0 = 2.28 , y 0 = 2.28 and z 0 = 2.16 .
=
The principal indices of refraction are nx = =
x 0 1.51 , ny =
y 0 1.51 , and
=nz =
z 0 1.47 . Because n=
x n y > nz , the KDP crystal is negative uniaxial with
no = 1.51 and ne = 1.47 .
The required thickness of a half-wave plate at λ = 1 μm is
λ 1
=lλ 2 = = μm 12.5 μm ,
2 ne − no 2 × 1.51 − 1.47
or any of its odd multiples: ( 2m + 1) lλ 4= ( 2m + 1) × 12.5 μm .

The required thickness of a quarter-wave plate at λ = 1 μm is
λ 1
=lλ 4 = = μm 6.25 μm ,
4 ne − no 4 × 1.51 − 1.47

3.2.7 With n=
x n=
y 1.544 and nz = 1.553 , we find that no = 1.544 and ne = 1.553 .
It is a positive uniaxial crystal because ne > no .

To rotate a polarization direction of a linearly polarized wave while keeping the wave
linearly polarized, it is necessary to use a half-wave plate. Because quartz is a uniaxial
crystal, the half-wave plate has to be cut in a way such that its ẑ principal axis lies in
the plane parallel to its surface. To rotate the polarization direction of a linearly
polarized wave by 90° , the plate has to be arranged such that its surface is normal to
the propagation direction of the wave and its z principal axis is at 45° with respect
to the polarization direction of the input field. The required thickness of the waveplate
is the half-wave length
λ 600
=lλ 2 = = nm 33.33 μm ,
2 ne − no 2 × 1.553 − 1.544

To convert a circularly polarized wave into a linearly polarized wave, it is necessary

to use a quarter-wave plate. Because quartz is a uniaxial crystal, the quarter-wave plate
has to be cut in a way such that its ẑ principal axis lies in the plane parallel to its
surface. To convert a circularly polarized wave into a linearly polarized wave, the plate
has to be arranged such that its surface is normal to the propagation direction of the
wave. The required thickness of the waveplate is the quarter-wave length
λ 600
=lλ 4 = = nm 16.67 μm ,
4 ne − no 4 × 1.553 − 1.544
or any of its odd multiples: ( 2m + 1) lλ 2= ( 2m + 1) × 16.67 μm . The polarization

direction of the linearly polarized output field is at 45° with respect to the z principal
axis of the quarter-wave plate. Therefore, the direction of the output linear polarization
is determined by the direction of the z principal axis and can be varied by rotating the
plate to vary the direction of the z principal axis.
3.2.8 The k̂ vector is in a direction with φ= 45° and θ= 60° .

We find by using (3.52)–(3.54) that
6 6 1 2 2 2 2 3
kˆ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ , =
eô xˆ − yˆ , eê =
− xˆ − yˆ + zˆ .
4 4 2 2 2 4 4 2
At θ= 60° , we find by using (3.56) that
−1 2
 cos 2 60° sin 2 60° 
e ( 60° )
n=  2
+ =  1.585.
 1.677 1.557 2 
Therefore, the propagation constants of the two normal modes are
2π no 2π × 1.677
=
ko = = 2.11 × 107 m −1 ,
λ 500 nm
2π ne ( 60° ) 2π × 1.585
=
ke = = 1.99 × 107 m −1 .
λ 500 nm
The walk-off angle for θ= 60° is found by using (3.60) to be
 1.677 2 
α tan −1 
= 2
tan 60°  − 60
=° 3.54° .
 1.557 
Over a distance of l = 3 mm , the ordinary and extraordinary beams are separated by
= =
d l tan α 3 mm × tan 3.54
= ° 185.6 μm .
3.2.9 The k̂ vector is in a direction with φ= 60° and θ= 30° .

We find by using (3.52)–(3.54) that
1 3 3 3 1 3 3 1
kˆ = xˆ + yˆ + zˆ , =
eô xˆ − yˆ , eê =
− xˆ − yˆ + zˆ .
4 4 2 2 2 4 4 2
At θ= 30° , we find by using (3.56) that
−1 2
 cos 2 30° sin 2 30° 
e ( 30° )
n=  2
+ =  1.546.
 1.544 1.5532 
Therefore, the propagation constants of the two normal modes are
2π no 2π × 1.544
=
ko = = 1.617 × 107 m −1 ,
λ 600 nm
2π ne ( 30° ) 2π × 1.546
=
ke = = 1.619 × 107 m −1 .
λ 600 nm
The walk-off angle for θ= 30° is found by using (3.60) to be
 1.5442 
α = tan −1  2
tan 30°  − 30° = −0.288° .
 1.553 
Over a distance of l = 5 mm , the ordinary and extraordinary beams are separated by
= α 5 mm × tan 0.288
d l tan= = ° 25.1 μm .
3.2.10 When an extraordinary wave propagates in any direction that lies in the xy plane of a
uniaxial crystal for which the z principal axis is the unique optical axis, the k̂ vector
makes an angle θ= 90° with respect to the z principal axis. The walk-off angle found
from (3.60) is
 no2 
α = tan −1  2
tan 90°  − 90° = 0° .
 ne 
Therefore, the extraordinary wave has no walk-off in this situation.

3.3 Gaussian Modes

3.3.1 (a) Gaussian TEM modes in a homogeneous purely dielectric medium. (b) TEM modes
in a metallic transmission line made of two parallel plates or a coaxial cable.
3.3.2 Given λ = 1.53 μm and w0 = 8 μm , we find from (3.72) that the beam divergence
angle is
2λ 2 × 1.53
∆θ
= = = 122 mrad .
π w0 π ×8
From (3.69), the Rayleigh range and the confocal parameter are found:
π w02 π × ( 8 × 10 )
−6 2
=
zR = m 131 μm and =
= zR 262 μm .
b 2=
λ 1.53 × 10−6
By using (3.70) and (3.71), the spot sizes and the radii of curvature at different
locations are found:
=w =
61.6 μm  1=
mm at z 1 mm,
=w 611=μm  1=
cm at z 1 cm,
=w 6.1=
mm  =
10 cm at z 10 cm,
=w 6.1=
cm  1=
m at z 1 m.
It is seen that both the spot size and the radius of curvature increases approximately
linearly with distance as the Gaussian beam approaches a spherical wave for all of the
distances considered here because even the shortest distance of 1 mm is much larger
than the Rayleigh range.
3.3.3 Given w0 = 100 μm and w ( z ) = 300 μm , we find from (3.70) that
z 2 w ( z ) 3002
2
z 15
1+ = = = 9 ⇒ =
zR = =
cm 5.3 cm .
zR2 w02 1002 2 2 2 2
Therefore, the Rayleigh range is zR = 5.3 cm . Using (3.69), we find the wavelength:
π w02 π × (100 × 10 )
−6 2
=λ = =
m 593 nm .
zR 5.3 × 10−2
The divergence angle is found from (3.72):

2λ 2 × 593 × 10−9
∆θ
= = = 3.77 mrad .
rad
π w0 π × 100 × 10−6
3.3.4 We have P = 10 W , λ = 600 nm , and = −2

I 0 2.5 MW cm= 2.5 × 1010 W m −2 at the
beam waist. Therefore,
12
 2P  2 × 10
12
2P  
I 0= ⇒ w0=   =  10 
m ≈ 16 μm ,
π w02  π I0   π × 2.5 × 10 
2λ 2 × 600 × 10−9
∆θ
= = = 23.9 mrad .
rad
π w0 π × 16 × 10−6
At z = 5 m from the beam waist,
12 12
  2 z 2    λ z 2 
w ( z ) =+
w0 1  2   w0 1 
=+ 2 

  kw0     π w0  
12
  −9  
2
−6   600 × 10 × 5  
= 16 × 10 × 1 + m
 π × 16 × 10−6 2  
  ( )  
= 59.7 mm,
2P 2 × 10
I (z) =
= W m −2 1.79 kW
= = m −2 0.179 W cm −2 .
π w ( z ) π × ( 59.7 × 10−3 )2
2
If w0 is increased to w0 = 50 μm , the peak intensity I 0 at the beam waist is multiplied

by a factor of (16 50 ) to 256 kW cm −2 . However, because w ( z ) ≈ λ z π w0 at
2
z = 5 m , w ( z ) is reduced by a factor of 16 50 ; thus, I 0 ( z ) at z = 5 m is increased

by a factor of ( 50 16 ) to 1.75 W cm −2 .
2
3.4 Interface Modes

3.4.1 The reflection coefficient depends on the polarization of the wave. In any event, the
condition given by Snell’s law that n1 sin θi = n2 sin θ t is always valid. Furthermore,
sin θi , cos θi , sin θ t , and cos θ t all have non-negative values because 0 ≤ θi ≤ π 2
and 0 ≤ θ t ≤ π 2 .
TE wave. Using Snell’s law, we find that
n1 sin θi =
n2 sin θ t ⇒ n12 sin 2 θi =
n22 sin θ t ⇒ n12 cos 2 θi − n22 cos 2 θ t =
n12 − n22 .
For external reflection, n1 < n2 . Thus,
n12 cos 2 θi − n22 cos 2 θ t < 0 ⇒ n12 cos 2 θi < n22 cos 2 θ t
⇒ n1 cos θi < n2 cos θ t
⇒ rs < 0 ⇒ ϕs = π.
For internal reflection, n1 > n2 . Thus,
n12 cos 2 θi − n22 cos 2 θ t > 0 ⇒ n12 cos 2 θi > n22 cos 2 θ t
⇒ n1 cos θi > n2 cos θ t
⇒ rs > 0 ⇒ ϕs = 0.
TM wave. Using Snell’s law, we have the second expression of rp in (3.95):
n22 cos θi − n1 n22 − n12 sin 2 θi

rp = .
n22 cos θi + n1 n22 − n12 sin 2 θi
For external reflection, n1 < n2 and tan θ B = n2 n1 . Thus,
sinθi n2 cos θi sin θi

θi < θ B ⇒ tanθi < tan θ B ⇒ < ⇒ >
cos θi n1 n1 n2
⇒
cos 2 θi sin 2 θi
> ⇒
(n2
2 − n12 ) cos 2 θi
>
(n
2
2 − n12 ) sin 2 θi
n12 n22 n2
1 n22
n22 cos 2 θi n12 sin 2 θi n22 − n12 sin 2 θi
⇒ > cos 2
θ i + sin 2
θ i − =2
n12 n22 n2
⇒ n24 cos 2 θi > n12 ( n22 − n12 sin 2 θi ) ⇒ n22 cos θi > n1 n22 − n12 sin 2 θi
⇒ rp > 0 ϕp 0 for θi < θ B ,
⇒=
and

θi > θ B ⇒ tanθi > tan θ B ⇒ > ⇒ <
cos θi n1 n1 n2
⇒
cos 2 θi sin 2 θi
< ⇒
(n2
2 − n12 ) cos 2 θi
<
(n
2
2 − n12 ) sin 2 θi
n12 n22 n12 n22
⇒ < cos 2
θ i + sin 2
θ i − =2
n12 n22 n2
⇒ n24 cos 2 θi < n12 ( n22 − n12 sin 2 θi ) ⇒ n22 cos θi < n1 n22 − n12 sin 2 θi
⇒ rp < 0 ϕp π for θi > θ B .

⇒=
For internal reflection, n1 > n2 and tan θ B = n2 n1 . Thus,

θi < θ B ⇒ tanθi < tan θ B ⇒ < ⇒ >
cos θi n1 n1 n2
⇒
cos 2 θi sin 2 θi
> ⇒
(n2
1 − n22 ) cos 2 θi
>
(n
2
1 − n22 ) sin 2 θi
n12 n22 n12 n22
n22 cos 2 θi n 2 sin 2 θ n22 − n12 sin 2 θi
⇒ 2
< cos 2 θi + sin 2 θi − 1 2 i =
n1 n2 n22
⇒ n24 cos 2 θi < n12 ( n22 − n12 sin 2 θi ) ⇒ n22 cos θi < n1 n22 − n12 sin 2 θi
⇒ rp < 0 ϕp π for θi < θ B ,
⇒=
and

θ c > θi > θ B ⇒ tanθi > tan θ B ⇒ > ⇒ <
cos θi n1 n1 n2
⇒
cos 2 θi sin 2 θi
< ⇒
(n2
1 − n22 ) cos 2 θi
<
(n
2
1 − n22 ) sin 2 θi
n12 n22 n2
1 n22
⇒ > cos 2
θ i + sin 2
θ i − =2
n12 n22 n2
⇒ n24 cos 2 θi > n12 ( n22 − n12 sin 2 θi ) ⇒ n22 cos θi > n1 n22 − n12 sin 2 θi
⇒ rp > 0 ⇒
= ϕp 0 for θ c > θi > θ B .
3.4.2 Because ordinary glass has normal dispersion in the visible spectral region such that
the refractive index increases from red to violet: nred < nviolet . As a consequence, at the
interface between air and glass, the refractive angles of the spectral components in the
transmitted wave have the relation that θ tred > θ tviolet . The transmitted beam has a spread
of its spectral components from red to violet with the red component having the largest
θ t , thus in a direction closest to the interface, and the violet component having the
smallest θ t , thus in a direction farthest away from the interface.
3.4.3 θ B tan −1 (1.5=

The incident angle is the Brewster angle: = 1) 56.3° . The reflected light
is TE-polarized.
3.4.4 The reflectivity of the diamond surface at normal incidence is
1 − 2.39
2
=R = 0.168.
1 + 2.39
For complete transmission, the incident wave is TM-polarized at an incident angle of

θ B tan −1 ( 2.39=
the Brewster angle: = 1) 67.3° .
3.4.5 In this problem, n1 = 1.33 and n2 = 1 so that the critical angle of the interface is
θ c sin −1 (1 1.33
= = ) 48.8° and the Brewster angle for internal reflection is
θ=
B tan −1 (1 1.33
= ) 36.9° < θc . At λ = 600 nm ,
2π n1 2π n2
=
k1 = 1.39 × 107 m −1 and =
k2 = 1.05 × 107 m −1 .
λ λ
For θi= 45° < θ c , the radiation mode is a two-sided radiation mode; the parameters of
this radiation mode are
β k1 sin=
= θi 9.83 × 106 m −1 ,
= θi 9.83 × 106 m −1 ,
h1 k1 cos= h2 = k22 − β 2 = 3.69 × 106 m −1 .
Because this mode is a two-sided radiation mode, it extends to infinity on both the air
and water sides. Because θi= 45° > θ B , the phase shifts of the internal reflection at the
interface for TE and TM waves are
ϕTE = 0 , ϕTM = 0 .
For θi= 75° > θ c , the radiation mode is a one-sided radiation mode; the parameters of
β k1 sin=
= θi 1.34 × 107 m −1 ,
= θi 3.60 × 106 m −1 ,
h1 k1 cos= γ2 = β 2 − k22 = 8.33 × 106 m −1 .
The penetration depth of the evanescent tail into the air is γ 2−1 = 120 nm . The phase
shifts on reflection at the interface for TE and TM waves are
γ2 n12γ 2
ϕTE =
−2 tan −1 = −0.74π , ϕTM =
−2.33 rad = −2 tan −1 = −0.85π .
−2.66 rad =
h1 n22 h1
3.4.6 In this problem, n1 = 3.38 and n2 = 1 so that the critical angle of the interface is
θ c sin −1 (1 3.38
= = ) 17.2° . Because θi > θc for both incident angles, the radiation
modes for both cases are one-sided radiation modes. At λ = 1.5 μm ,
2π n1 2π n2
=
k1 = 1.42 × 107 m −1 and =
k2 = 4.19 × 106 m −1 .
λ λ
β k1 sin=
= θi 7.10 × 106 m −1 ,
= θi 1.23 × 107 m −1 ,
h1 k1 cos= γ2 = β 2 − k22 = 5.73 × 106 m −1 .
γ2 n12γ 2
ϕTE =
−2 tan −1 = −0.28π , ϕTM =
−0.87 rad = −2 tan −1 = −0.88π .
−2.77 rad =
h1 n22 h1
β k1 sin=
= θi 1.23 × 107 m −1 ,
= θi 7.10 × 106 m −1 ,
h1 k1 cos= γ2 = β 2 − k22 = 1.16 × 107 m −1 .
γ2 n12γ 2
ϕTE =
−2 tan −1 = −0.65π , ϕTM =
−2.04 rad = −2 tan −1 = −0.96π .
−3.03 rad =
h1 n22 h1
3.4.7 At the interface between SiO2 and Ag,= 1 n=

1 0
2
2.130 with n1 = 1.46 for SiO2 and
2 is that of Ag. For Ag, b = 0 so that
 ωp2   ωp2   λ2 
= b 1 − 2  = 0 1 − 2  = 0 1 − 2  .
2 
 ω   ω   λ 
     p 
ωp 1.36 × 1016 rad s −1 for Ag, the surface plasma frequency is

Given =
b 0
ωsp
= =ωp =ωp 0.565=
ωp 7.69 × 1015 s −1 .
1 + b 2.130 + 0
Therefore, the cutoff frequency and cutoff wavelength are, respectively,

ωsp c
ν sp = = 1.22 PHz , λ=
1.22 × 1015 Hz = = 246 nm .
2π ν sp
sp
The surface plasmon mode exists at the λ = 500 nm wavelength because λ > λsp . For
ωp 1.36 × 1016 rad s −1 , λ p= 138 nm . Therefore, for λ = 500 nm , we find that
=
 λ2   5002 
= 0 1 − 2  = 0 1 −
2  2 
= −12.130 .
 λ   138 
 p 
Then, by using (3.122) and the formulas in example 3.12, we find
2π  ( 1 0 )( 2 0 )   2.13 × ( −12.13) 
12 12
2π
β
=  = −9   =
m −1
2.02 × 107 m −1 ,
λ  1 0 + 2 0  500 × 10  2.13 − 12.13 
12
2π  − ( 1 0 ) 
2 12
2π  −2.132 
γ1
=  =   m
−1
= 8.46 × 106 m −1 ,
λ  1 0 + 2 0  500 × 10−9  2.13 − 12.13 
12
2π  − ( 2 0 ) 
2 12
2π  −12.132 
γ2
=  =   m
−1
= 4.82 × 107 m −1 .
λ  1 0 + 2 0  500 × 10−9  2.13 − 12.13 
The penetration depths are γ 1−1 = 118 nm into the SiO2 and γ 2−1 = 21 nm into the
silver. Therefore, the confinement of the surface plasmon mode at the interface is
γ 1−1 + γ 2−1 =
139 nm .
3.4.8 At the interface between GaAs and Ag,= 1 n=

1 0
2
12.320 with n1 = 3.51 for GaAs
and 2 is that of Ag. For Ag, b = 0 so that
 ωp2   ωp2   λ2 
= b 1 − 2  = 0 1 − 2  = 0 1 − 2  .
2 
 ω   ω   λ 
     p 
ωp 1.36 × 1016 rad s −1 for Ag, the surface plasma frequency is

Given =
b 0
ω
= ωp
= =ωp 0.274=
ωp 3.73 × 1015 s −1 .
1 + b 12.320 + 0
sp
Therefore, the cutoff frequency and cutoff wavelength are, respectively,

ωsp c
ν sp = = 594 THz , λ=
594 × 1012 Hz = = 505 nm .
2π ν sp
sp
The surface plasmon mode does not exist at the λ = 500 nm wavelength because
λ < λsp , but it exists at λ = 1 μm because λ > λsp . For =
ωp 1.36 × 1016 rad s −1 ,
λp = 138 nm . Therefore, For λ = 1 μm , we find that
 λ2   10002 
= 0 1 − 2  = 0 1 −
2   = −51.50 .
 λ   1382 
 p 
Then, by using (3.122) and the formulas in Example 3.12, we find
2π  ( 1 0 )( 2 0 )  2π  12.32 × ( −51.5 ) 
12 12
β
=  =
   =
m −1
2.53 × 107 m −1 ,
λ  1 0 + 2 0  1 × 10−6  12.32 − 51.5 
12
2π  − ( 1 0 ) 
2 12
2π  −12.322 
γ1
=  =   m
−1
= 1.24 × 107 m −1 ,
λ  1 0 + 2 0  1 × 10−6  12.32 − 51.5 
12
2π  − ( 2 0 ) 
2 12
2π  −51.52 
γ2
=  =   m
−1
= 5.17 × 107 m −1 .
λ  1 0 + 2 0  1 × 10−6  12.32 − 51.5 
The penetration depths are γ 1−1 = 81 nm into the GaAs and γ 2−1 = 19 nm into the silver.
Therefore, the confinement of the surface plasmon mode at the interface is
γ 1−1 + γ 2−1 =
100 nm .
3.5 Waveguide Modes

3.5.1 With n1 = 3.593 , n2 = 3.409 , and n3 = 3.261 , we have k1 > k2 > k3 so that the
propagation constant β of any guided mode, if it exists, has to be in the range
k1 > β > k2 . At λ = 900 nm , we find that
2π n1 2π n2
>β > ⇒ 2.508 × 107 m −1 > β > 2.380 × 107 m −1 .
λ λ
β 2.5 × 107 m −1
The wavelength of a guided mode that has a propagation constant of =
falls in the range:
2π n1 2π n2
>λ > ⇒ 903.0 nm > λ > 856.8 nm .
β β
If the structure has n3 = 3.453 , we find that k1 > k3 > k2 because n1 > n3 > n2 . Then,
at λ = 900 nm
2π n1 2π n3
>β > ⇒ 2.508 × 107 m −1 > β > 2.411 × 107 m −1 .
λ λ
And the wavelength of a guided mode that has a propagation constant of

β 2.5 × 107 m −1 falls in the range:
=
2π n1 2π n3
>λ > ⇒ 903.0 nm > λ > 867.8 nm .
β β
3.5.2 With n1 = 1.54 , n2 = 1.47 , and n3 = 1.00 , we find for d = 1.5 μm that
2π 4.326
=V d n12 =, where λ is in μm ;
− n22
λ λ
n22 − n32 n14 n22 − n32
=aE = =
5.51, a = 31 .
n12 − n22 n34 n12 − n22
M
For the waveguide to support the TE 0 mode but not the TE1 mode,
V 1
M TE = 1 ⇒ 0< − tan −1 aE ≤ 1 ⇒ tan −1 aE < V ≤ π + tan −1 aE
π π
4.326 4.326
⇒ 1.168 < V ≤ 4.310 μm ≤ λ <
⇒ μm
4.310 1.168
⇒ 1.004 μm ≤ λ ≤ 3.704 μm.
For the waveguide to support the TM 0 mode but not the TM1 mode,
V 1
M TM = 1 ⇒ 0< − tan −1 aM ≤ 1 ⇒ tan −1 aM < V ≤ π + tan −1 aM
π π
4.326 4.326
⇒ 1.393 < V ≤ 4.535 ⇒ μm ≤ λ < μm
4.535 1.393
⇒ 976 nm ≤ λ < 3.106 μm.
For the waveguide to support the TE 0 mode but not the TM 0 mode,
M TE = 1 and M TM = 0 ⇒ tan −1 aE < V < tan −1 aM

4.326 4.326
⇒ 1.168 < V < 1.393 ⇒ μm < λ < μm .
1.393 1.168
⇒ 3.105 μm < λ < 3.704 μm.
3.5.3 With n1 = 1.54 and n=

2 n=
3 1.47 , we find for d = 1.5 μm that
2π 4.326
=V d n12 =
− n22 , where λ is in μm=
; aE 0,=aM 0 .
λ λ
For the waveguide to support the TE 0 mode but not the TE1 mode,
V
M TE =1 ⇒ 0< ≤1 ⇒ 0 <V ≤π
π
4.326
⇒ λ≥ μm ⇒ λ ≥ 1.377 μm.
π
For the waveguide to support the TM 0 mode but not the TM1 mode,
V
M TM =1 ⇒ 0< ≤1 ⇒ 0 <V ≤π
π
4.326
⇒ λ≥ μm ⇒ λ ≥ 1.377 μm.
π
It is not possible for a symmetric waveguide to support the TE 0 mode but not the
TM 0 mode because they both have no cutoff.
3.5.4 The fundamental mode of a symmetric waveguide has no cutoff, but that of an
asymmetric waveguide has a cutoff. Thus a symmetric waveguide, no matter how
small its V number is, always has at least one guided mode. This is not true for an
asymmetric waveguide
3.5.5 The three modes are TE0, TM0, and TE1. The TE0 mode has the largest propagation
constant, and the TE1 mode has the smallest propagation constant.
3.5.6 For this asymmetric waveguide,
n22 − n32 n14 n22 − n32

=aE = =
2.316 , a = 3.198 .
n12 − n22 n34 n12 − n32
M
Because aM > aE , for this waveguide to have only one guided mode among all
polarizations, this mode must be the TE 0 mode and the TM 0 mode must be cut off.
This means that M TE = 1 and M TM = 0 , which requires that
2π
tan −1 aE < V < tan −1 aM ⇒ tan −1 2.316 < d 3.4322 − 3.3542 < tan −1 3.198.
1.550
Therefore, 0.335 μm < d < 0.360 μm . A choice of d = 0.350 μm would work.
3.5.7 With the given parameters,
2π 2π
=V d n12 =
− n22 d 3.4322 − 3.166
= 2
1.71d π ,
λ 1.550
where d is in μm . For a symmetric planar waveguide to be single-mode, V < π . Thus,
1
d< μm =
0.58 μm .
1.71
The waveguide is not truly single-mode because it supports both TE 0 and TM 0 modes
3.5.8 With the given parameters,
2π 2π 1.493π
V= d n12 − n22 = × 0.60 × 3.4382 − 3.2052 = , where λ is in μm .
λ λ λ
With λ = 1.30 μm , we find that V = 1.148π . Therefore, M = TE M=TM 2 . The

waveguide supports 2 TE modes and 2 TM modes: TE 0 , TM 0 , TE1 , TM1 .
For a symmetric planar waveguide to support only one TE mode and one TM mode,
V < π . Thus,
1.493π
=
V < π ⇒ λ > 1.493 μm .
λ
At wavelengths longer than 1.493 μm , the waveguide supports only TE 0 and TM 0
modes.
3.5.9 The fixed parameters in this problem are n1 = 3.38 , n2 = 3.22 , and λ = 1.5 μm .
With the given parameters,
2π 2π
=V d n12 =
− n22 d 3.382 − 3.22
= 2
1.37 d π ,
λ 1.5
where d is in μm . For a symmetric planar waveguide to be single-mode, V < π . Thus,
1
d< 0.73 μm .
μm =
1.37
The waveguide is not truly single-mode because it supports both TE 0 and TM 0 modes.
=
With d 2 μm > 0.73 μm the waveguide is clearly multimode. We find that
= =
V 1.37 d π 2.74π . Thus, M
= TE =
M TM 3 . The waveguide supports 3 TE modes
and 3 TM modes: TE 0 , TM 0 , TE1 , TM1 , TE 2 , TM 2 .
By lowering the index of only one cladding layer, n3 , the V number remains the same
but the waveguide has nonzero asymmetric parameters aE and aM . The largest
possible values for them are when n3 is reduced to its minimum possible value: n3 = 1 .
Then, n1 = 3.38 , n2 = 3.22 , and n3 = 1 . Thus, V = 2.74π and
n22 − n32 3.222 − 1 n14 n22 − n32 3.384 3.222 − 1

aE ≤ = = 0.90 , aM ≤ =4 ⋅ =
117 .
n12 − n32 3.382 − 1 n34 n12 − n32 1 3.382 − 1
Because aM > aE , if any modes would disappear, TM 2 would be the first to go.
However, for this particular waveguide, we find that even for aM = 117 ,
V 1 
M TM =
 π − π tan
−1
aM  = [ 2.74 − 0.50]int =
3.
  int
Therefore, none of the existing modes would disappear, and no new modes would
appear.
3.6 Phase Velocity, Group Velocity, and Dispersion

3.6.1 With given nβ , we find
dnβ
−0.0114 − 0.012 ( λ − 1.3) ,
=
2
dλ
d 2 nβ
λ2
Dβ = −0.024λ 2 ( λ − 1.3) .
=
dλ 2
This fiber has normal phase-velocity dispersion at both λ = 1.2 μm and λ = 1.5 μm
because dnβ dλ < 0 for both wavelengths.
=
This fiber has positive group-velocity dispersion with Dβ 0.00346 > 0 at
λ = 1.2 μm . It has negative group-velocity dispersion with Dβ =
−0.0108 < 0 at
λ = 1.5 μm .
Using (3.168), we find that Dλ = −9.6 ps km −1 nm −1 at λ = 1.2 μm and

−1
Dλ = 24 ps km nm −1
at λ = 1.5 μm .
3.6.2 From Problem 3.6.1(c), we find that Dλ = −9.6 ps km −1 nm −1 at λ = 1.2 μm and

Dλ = 24 ps km −1 nm −1 at λ = 1.5 μm . With ∆λps =
1 nm and l = 5 km , the pulse
broadening caused by group-velocity is ∆tGVD = Dλ ∆λps l = 48 ps for the pulse at
λ = 1.2 μm and ∆tGVD = Dλ ∆λps l = 120 ps for the pulse at λ = 1.5 μm . The final
pulse duration is about the sum of the initial pulse duration and the temporal
broadening:
∆tfinal ≈ ∆tps + ∆tGVD =53 ps for the pulse at λ = 1.2 μm ;

∆tfinal ≈ ∆tps + ∆tGVD =125 ps for the pulse at λ = 1.5 μm .
3.6.3 The distance that a pulse can propagate before pulse broadening caused by group-
velocity dispersion equals the initial pulse duration can be found as
∆tps
∆tGVD =Dλ ∆λps l =
∆tps ⇒ l= .
Dλ ∆λps
The optical pulse has an initial pulse duration of ∆tps =

20 ps and a spectral width of
∆ν ps =
0.1 nm . With the values of Dλ from Example 3.17, we find that
∆tps 20
=l = = km 5.26 km for the pulse at λ = 1.0 μm ;
Dλ ∆λps 38 × 0.1
∆tps 20
=l = = km 143 km for the pulse at λ = 1.3 μm ;
Dλ ∆λps 1.4 × 0.1
∆tps 20
=l = = km 9.52 km for the pulse at λ = 1.6 μm .
Dλ ∆λps 21 × 0.1
3.6.4 With the given wavelength dependence of the ordinary and extraordinary refractive
indices, we find
dno dne
=−0.0572λ −3 − 0.0124λ , =−0.0494λ −3 − 0.0104λ ;
dλ dλ
No =2.2158 + 0.0858λ −2 + 0.0062λ 2 , Ne =2.1395 + 0.0741λ −2 + 0.0052λ 2 ;
=Do 0.1716λ −2 − 0.0124λ 2 , =De 0.1482λ −2 − 0.0104λ 2 .
Because dno dλ < 0 and dne dλ < 0 for all wavelengths from the above, we find that
LiNbO3 has normal dispersion throughout this wavelength range for both ordinary
and extraordinary waves.
Zero dispersion points can be found for both ordinary and extraordinary waves:
Do = 0 ⇒ λo = 1.929 μm ,
De = 0 ⇒ λe = 1.943 μm .
For the ordinary wave, LiNbO3 has positive group-velocity dispersion with Do > 0
for λ < 1.929 μm , and it has negative group-velocity dispersion with Do < 0 for
λ > 1.929 μm . For the extraordinary wave, LiNbO3 has positive group-velocity
dispersion with De > 0 for λ < 1.943 μm , and it has negative group-velocity
dispersion with De < 0 for λ > 1.943 μm .
Using the wavelength dependence of each parameter obtained above, we find
λ no ne No Ne Do De
1.0 μm 2.238 2.159 2.308 2.219 0.1592 0.1378
.
1.5 μm 2.215 2.139 2.268 2.184 0.0484 0.0243
2.0 μm 2.198 2.125 2.262 2.179 −0.0067 −0.0046
Using (3.168) and the values of Do and De obtained in (c), we find
λ Do De Dλo Dλe
1.0 μm 0.1592 0.1378 −5.3 fs cm −1 nm −1 −4.6 fs cm −1 nm −1
.
1.5 μm 0.0484 0.0243 −1.1 fs cm −1 nm −1 −0.54 fs cm −1 nm −1
2.0 μm −0.0067 −0.0046 0.11 fs cm −1 nm −1 0.077 fs cm −1 nm −1
3.6.5 The pulse broadening caused by group-velocity dispersion is
∆tGVD = Dλ ∆λps l .
Using the values of Dλo and Dλe from Problem 3.6.4(d), the broadening of the pulse
with ∆λps =
75 nm for a traveling distance of l = 1 cm is found for ordinary and
extraordinary polarizations at the three wavelengths:
λ Dλo Dλe ∆tGVD

o
∆tGVD
e
1.0 μm −5.3 fs cm −1 nm −1 −4.6 fs cm −1 nm −1 398 fs 345 fs

1.5 μm −1.1 fs cm −1 nm −1 −0.54 fs cm −1 nm −1 82.5 fs 40.5 fs
2.0 μm 0.11 fs cm −1 nm −1 0.077 fs cm −1 nm −1 8.25 fs 5.78 fs
The distance that a pulse can propagate before the pulse duration doubles due to
broadening caused by group-velocity dispersion can be found as
∆tps
∆tGVD =Dλ ∆λps l =
∆tps ⇒ l= .
Dλ ∆λps
Using the values of Dλo and Dλe from Problem 3.6.4(d) and the pulse parameters of
100 fs and ∆λps =
∆tps = 75 nm , this distance can be found for ordinary and
extraordinary polarizations at the three wavelengths:
λ Dλo Dλe lo le
1.0 μm −5.3 fs cm −1 nm −1 −4.6 fs cm nm
−1 −1
2.5 mm 2.9 mm
1.5 μm −1.1 fs cm −1 nm −1 −0.54 fs cm nm
−1 −1
1.21 cm 2.47 cm
2.0 μm 0.11 fs cm −1 nm −1 0.077 fs cm nm
−1 −1
12.1 cm 17.3 cm
3.7 Attenuation and Amplification

3.7.1 A plane wave propagating in an absorptive medium takes the form of (3.182):
E  exp ( ikz − iω
= = t )  e−α z 2 exp ( ik ′z − iωt ) .
We consider in general that E has a nonvanishing longitudinal component such as in

the case of an extraordinary wave in an anisotropic medium. Then,
= E⊥ + Ek kˆ and  = ⊥ +  
E = E⊥ + E  = ⊥ + k kˆ 
,
where E⊥ ⊥ k̂ so that E⊥ ⋅ kˆ = ωµ0 H gives

0 . Then the Maxwell’s equation k × E =
=
H
1
ωµ0
k ×=
E
k
ωµ0
(
kˆ × E⊥ + Ek k=
ˆ) k
ωµ0
kˆ × E⊥ .
Using the definition of the Poynting vector in (1.54), we find
k∗ k∗ k∗
S =E × H∗ =
ωµ0
( ) (
E⊥ + Ek kˆ × kˆ × E∗⊥ = ) E⊥ × kˆ × E∗⊥ =
ωµ0
( ) ωµ0
(E ⊥ ⋅ E∗⊥ ) kˆ .
For the plane normal to the propagation direction, n̂ = −kˆ . Therefore, the intensity
projected on this plane is that given in (3.183):
k∗ + k k∗ + k 2k ′ 2k ′
I= ( S + S ) ⋅ nˆ =
∗
ωµ0
(E ⊥ ⋅ E⊥ ) =
∗
ωµ0
E⊥ =
2
ωµ0
E⊥ =
2
ωµ0
⊥ e−α z .
2
3.7.2 By definition,
α
k =k ′ + i =ωµ01 2 ( ′ + i′′ ) .
12
′ 0 (1 + χ ′ ) and ′′ = 0 χ ′′ . Therefore, under the condition that

Also by definition,=
′′  ′ , we find k ′ ≈ ω µ0′  α so that
α  ′′ 
k =k ′ + i =ωµ01 2 ( ′ + i′′ ) ≈ ω µ0 ′  1 + i
12

2  2′ 
α ′′
⇒ ≈
2k ′ 2′
′′ χ ′′ χ ′′ 2π χ ′′
⇒ α ≈ k′= k′ ≈ k′ = .
′ 1+ χ′ n ′2 λ n′
3.7.3 For Si, the absorption coefficient is
4π n′′ 4π × 4.16 −1
= k ′′
α 2= = m= 1.74 × 108 m −1 .
λ 300 × 10−9
The absorption depth is α −1 = 5.7 nm . The complex susceptibility is
χ = n2 − 1 = ( 5.0 + i4.16 ) − 1 = 6.69 + i41.6 .

2
For GaAs, the absorption coefficient is
4π n′′ 4π × 2
= k ′′
α 2= = −1
m= 8.38 × 107 m −1 .
λ 300 × 10−9
The absorption depth is α −1 = 12 nm . The complex susceptibility is

χ = n2 − 1 = ( 3.73 + i2.0 ) − 1 = 8.91 + i14.92 .

2
3.7.4 At λ = 500 nm ,
n =( χ + 1) =(18.31 + i3.70 ) =4.30 + i0.43 .

12 12
The absorption coefficient and the absorption depth are, respectively,
4π n′′ 4π × 0.43 −1
k ′′
α 2=
= = m= 1.08 × 107 m −1 and α −1 = 92.5 nm .
λ 500 × 10 −9
At λ = 800 nm ,
n =( χ + 1) =(13.55 + i0.63) =3.68 + i0.086 .

12 12
The absorption coefficient and the absorption depth are, respectively,
4π n′′ 4π × 0.086 −1
k ′′
α 2=
= = m= 1.35 × 106 m −1 and α −1 = 740 nm .
λ 800 × 10 −9
3.7.5 α 1.02 × 105 m −1 . Therefore,

With α −1 = 9.8 μm , we have=
4π n′′ λα 800 × 10−9 × 1.02 × 105

α =2k ′′ = ⇒ n′′ = = =6.5 × 10−3 .
λ 4π 4π
Because n′ > 1 for a dielectric material such as Si, we find that n′ > n′′ in this case.
Therefore, from the reflectivity at normal incidence from the air, we find
n −1 n′ − 1 1 + R1 2 1 + 0.3291 2
2 2
R= ≈ ⇒ n=′ = = 3.69 .
n +1 n′ + 1 1 − R1 2 1 − 0.3291 2
Therefore, the complex refractive index is=n 3.69 + i0.0065 . The complex
susceptibility is
χ = n 2 − 1 = 12.62 + i0.048 .
3.7.6 The input power is=

Pin 2=
mW 3.0 dBm. The propagation distance is
l = 120 km . At λ = 1.3 μm , with α = 0.3 dB km −1 , the output power is
Pin − α l =
Pout = 3.0 dBm − 0.3 dB km −1 × 120 km = 0.5 μW.
10−3.3 mW =
−33 dBm =
At λ = 1.55 μm , with α = 0.15 dB km −1 , the output power is
Pin − α l =
Pout = 3.0 dBm − 0.15 dB km −1 × 120 km = 31.6 μW.
10−1.5 mW =
−15 dBm =
3.7.7 =
The input power is Pin 1=
mW 0 dBm . The minimum detectable output power is
Pout = 1 µ W = −30 dBm . The attenuation coefficients are α = 0.5 dB km −1 at
λ = 1.3 μm and α = 0.2 dB km −1 at λ = 1.55 μm .
Pin ( dBm ) − Pout ( dBm )

Pout ( dBm
= ) Pin ( dBm ) − α ( dB km −1 ) l ( km ) ⇒
= l km.
α ( dB km −1 )
For the signal at λ = 1.3 μm , the maximum length is
0 − ( −30 )
=l = km 60 km.
0.5
For the signal at λ = 1.55 μm , the maximum length is
0 − ( −30 )
=l = km 150 km.
0.2
54 Principles of Photonics by Jia‐Ming Liu
Chapter 4
Optical Coupling

4.1 Coupled‐Mode Theory

4.1.1 The permittivity change induced by an optical gain is not Hermitiam:   † . Thus
the mode coupling caused by this effect is not symmetric:
 
     ˆ    ˆ dxdy

 

   
     ˆ    ˆ dxdy 
   

   
     ˆ  †  ˆ dxdy      

.
   

   
     ˆ    ˆ dxdy 
   
  

The permittivity change due to structural change is Hermitiam:   † . Thus the
mode coupling caused by this effect is symmetric:
Principles of Photonics by Jia‐Ming Liu 55
 
     ˆ    ˆ dxdy

 

   
     ˆ    ˆ dxdy 
   

   
     ˆ  †  ˆ dxdy      

.
   

   
     ˆ    ˆ dxdy 
   
  

4.1.2 The coupled-mode equations given in (4.13) for mode coupling in a single waveguide
and those given in (4.17) for mode coupling in a multiple-waveguide structure have
the same form. Therefore, the general formulation for multiple-structure mode
coupling is applicable to the coupling of modes in a single waveguide if the coupling
coefficients   c c 1  κ  given in (4.18) for multiple-structure mode coupling

reduced to the coupling coefficients given in (4.14) for a single waveguide when the
multiple-waveguide structure consists of a single waveguide. From (4.19) and the
orthonormality relation for modes in the same waveguide given in (3.18), we find that
c   and the matrix c reduces to the identity matrix I if the modes belong to the
same waveguide. Then,  given in (4.18) for multiple-structure mode coupling
reduced to the coupling coefficients given in (4.14) for a single waveguide:
 
  c c1  κ   1 I 1  κ    I  κ        ˆ    ˆ dxdy .

 
Therefore, the general formulation for multiple-structure mode coupling also applies
to mode coupling in a single waveguide.
4.2 Two‐Mode Coupling

4.2.1 For symmetric coupling,    

. If the grating is lossless, the periodic perturbation
caused by the grating is described by a Hermitian   z   †  z  . Therefore,
  z    

 z  with the lossless grating. Using (4.37), we find that

1
  q     z  exp  iqKz  dz
 0

1 
   z  exp  iqKz  dz
 0

   q    

 q  .

1 
      z  exp  iqKz  dz 
 0 
  

 
 q
By applying this relation to the coupled equations given in (4.38) and (4.39), we find
that the coupling remains symmetric.
4.2.2 For the saw-tooth grating, we find by using (4.37) that

1
  q     z  exp  iqKz  dz
 0
1 1      2 z
 
1 2 z  
  a exp  iqKz  dz   a exp  iqKz  dz
 0
   1    
ia sin  q  i q
 e .
 1    q 2 2
We find that    q  for a given value of q can be made nonzero by properly

choosing the duty factor  . Therefore, any order can be used if the value of  is
properly chosen to maximize the value of   q  for a given q . However, it is
possible to have   q   0 for certain combinations of the values of q and  , such as
q  2 and   1 2 , or q  3 and   1 3 , etc. the largest value of   q  appears
when q  1 or q  1 while   1 2 so that   q   4a  2 .
4.2.3 In this problem,  a  2.5  107 m 1 and  b  2.5  107 m 1 because mode a is
forward propagating while mode b is backward propagating. There is no zeroth-order
effect:  aa  0    bb  0   0 . Using the result of Example 4.3, we find that the required
period for the qth-order grating is
2 2
q  q  q m  q  125.7 nm .
 a  b 2  2.5  107
For the first-order grating, we choose q  1 for a grating period of 1  125.7 nm . For
the second-order grating, we choose q  2 for a grating period of  2  251.4 nm .
4.2.4 Take mode a to be forward propagating. Then, mode b is forward propagating if the
two modes propagates in the same direction, but it is backward propagating if the two
modes propagate in opposite directions. With effective indices of n a  3.35 and
nb  3.40 at   1.55 μm , the propagation constants are
2 n a 2  3.35 1
a   m  1.358  107 m 1 ,
 1.55  106
2 n 2  3.40 1
b    b
m  1.378  107 m 1 ,
 1.55  106
where  b is chosen to be positive if mode b is forward propagating and is chosen to

be negative if it is backward propagating. Then, in the case when the two modes
propagate in the same direction,
2 2
q  q  q m  q  31.4 μm .
a  b 1.358  10  1.378  107
7
For the first-order grating, we choose q  1 for a grating period of  1  31.4 μm .

For the second-order grating, we choose q  2 for a grating period of  2  62.8 μm .
In the case when the two modes propagate in opposite directions,
2 2
q  q  q m  q  230 nm .
 a  b 1.358  107  1.378  107
For the first-order grating, we choose q  1 for a grating period of 1  230 nm . For
the second-order grating, we choose q  2 for a grating period of  2  460 nm .
4.3 Codirectional Coupling

4.3.1 From (4.55), the maximum efficiency for codirectional coupling is
2

max  ba2 .
c
The length of a codirectional coupler that has half of  max is found for
max 1 1
max 2  max sin 2 c lmax 2   sin 2 c lmax 2   sin  c lmax 2   .
2 2 2
Because sin  c l is periodic, we find many solutions. The length for half of  max is
anyone of
1  1   1   1
lmax 2  sin 1      m  2  2 =  m   lc for m  0,1, 2,
c  2    c  2
The result obtained above remain valid for  2   ab ba . There are no qualitative
changes, but only quantitative changes when the phase mismatch is large such that
 2   ab ba .
4.3.2 From (4.55), the maximum efficiency for codirectional coupling is
2
 ba
max  .
 c2
The length of a codirectional coupler that has 25% of  max is found for
max 1 1
max 4  max sin 2 clmax 4   sin 2 clmax 4   sin clmax 4   .
4 4 2
Because sin  c l is periodic, we find many solutions. The length for 25% of  max is
anyone of
1  1  1   1
lmax 4  sin 1      m   =  2m   lc for m  0,1, 2,
c  2  6  c  3
For m  0 , only the positive value for lmax 4 is taken. The result obtained above
remains valid for  2   ab ba .
4.4 Contradirectional Coupling

4.4.1 In the case when  2   ab ba , the parameter  c given in (4.61) has a real, positive
value. From (4.66), the maximum coupling efficiency is
 ba
max  ,
 ab
which can only be asymtotically reached when l   . The length of a codirectional

coupler that has 50% of  max is found for
sinh 2  c lmax 2 max sinh 2  c lmax 2 1

max 2  max    .
cosh  c lmax 2    ab ba
2 2
2 cosh  c lmax 2    ab ba
2 2
2
Because sinh 2  c l and cosh 2  c l are both monotonic functions, there is only one
solution. The length for 50% of  max is
1
cosh 1  2   2  ab ba 
12
lmax 2  .
c
This result is valid only for  2   ab ba .
4.4.2 In the case when  2   ab ba , we find that the parameter  c given in (4.61) becomes
purely imaginary:
 c   ab ba   2   i c with  c   2   ab ba  .

12 12
Then the coupling efficiency given in (4.66) becomes
 ba sin 2  c l
 .
 ab   ab ba  cos 2  c l
2
The maximum coupling efficiency is
2
 ba
max  ,
2
which appears periodically at many different lengths. The length of a codirectional

coupler that has 50% of  max is found for
2
 ba sin 2  c lmax 2  sin 2  c lmax 2  ab ba
max 2   ba 2   .
 ab   ab ba  cos  c lmax 2
2 2
2  2  ab ba  cos 2  c lmax 2 2 2
Because sin 2  c l and cos 2  c l are both monotonic functions, there are many solutions.
The length for 50% of  max is anyone of
1 
m  cos 1  2   ab ba  2   for m  0,1, 2, .
1 2
lmax 2 
 
 
c
For m  0 , only the positive value for lmax 2 is taken. This result is valid only for
 2   ab ba .
4.5 Conservation of Power

4.5.1 In the case of symmetric codirectional coupling with  ab   ba

, we have
2 2
 ab ba   ba and    ba   . Therefore, we find from (4.53) and (4.54) that
2
c
2
Pa  z  Pb  z 
2 2
 ab ba 2   2
  cos 2  c z  2  ba2 sin 2  c z  ba2  2  1
Pa  0  Pa  0  c2
c c c c
 P  z   Pa  z   Pb  z   Pa  0  .
4.5.2 In the case of symmetric contradirectional coupling with  ab   ba


, we have
2 2
 ab ba   ba and    ba   . Therefore, we find from (4.64) and (4.65) that
2
c
2
Pa  z  Pb  z  cosh 2  c  l  z    2  ba sinh 2  c  l  z 
2 2
1   2  ba
   
Pa  0  Pa  0  cosh 2  c l   2  ba
2
cosh 2  c l   2  ba
2
cosh 2  c l   2  ba
2
We also find that
Pb  0  sinh 2  c l

Pa  0  cosh 2  c l   2  ba
2
Pa  0   Pb  0 
2
sinh 2  c l 1   2  ba
 1  .
Pa  0  cosh 2  c l   2  ba
2
cosh 2  c l   2  ba
2
Therefore,
Pa  z  Pb  z  Pa  0   Pb  0 
 
Pa  0  Pa  0  Pa  0 
 P  z   Pa  z   Pb  z   Pa  0   Pb  0  .
By plugging z  l into the above relation and using the fact that Pb  l   0 , we find
P  l   Pa  l   Pb  l   Pa  0   Pb  0 
 Pa  l   Pb  0   Pa  0  .
4.6 Phase Matching

4.6.1 Any power ratio at the two output ports is possible. For a given 3-dB coupler with
equal input powers to the two input ports, the output power ratio is determined solely
by the initial relative phase between the two input fields, which has the same
magnitude but not necessarily the same phase. Take this initial relative phase to be  0
for the input field B  0  into channel b with respect to the input field A  0  into
channel a. Then, we can take A  0    Pin 2  and B  0    Pin 2  ei0 . For
12 12
simplicity, consider a 3-dB codirectional coupler of the shortest length such that
 l   4 according to Example 4.7. Then, using (4.73) for phase-matched coupling
with   z  z0    l   4 , we find that
 1 iei   1 iei   Pin 

 A  l    2     
2  A  0  2  2  2  P 1  iei 0  
      i     in   i 
 B  l    ie 1   B  0    ie i 1   Pin i0  2  ie  ei0 
   e 
 2 2  2 2  2 
2 2 2
Pa  l  A  l  1  ie  0 
i  
1 e 
i   0   2 
   i 
Pb  l  B  l  ie  ei0 1  e i    0   2 
   0      0  
 Pa  l  : Pb  l   cos 2    : sin 2   
 2 4  2 4
where  is the phase factor of the coupling coefficient  as defined in (4.71). We see
from this result that the power ratio is determined only by the phase    0 . Because
 is a fixed quantity for a given coupler, the power ratio is solely determined by the
initial phase difference 0 between the two input fields. Consider the case when
  0 . Then, the output power is equally split between the two channels if the two
input fields have the same phase so that  0  0 . The output power is totally in channel
a if the input field to channel a leads in phase by  2 so that  0    2 , and it is
totally in channel b if the input field to channel a lags in phase by  2 so that
 0   2 . By varying the phase between these values, any output power ratio is
possible.
4.6.2 The power ratio at the two output ports is always 1:1 for the 100% coupler if
Pa  0   Pb  0   P0 2 . Take this initial relative phase to be 0 for the input field
B  0  into channel b with respect to the input field A  0  into channel a. Then, we can
take A  0    P0 2  and B  0    P0 2  ei0 . For simplicity, consider a 100%
12 12
codirectional coupler of the shortest length such that  l   2 according to (4.76).

Then, using (4.73) for phase-matched coupling with   z  z0    l   2 , we find
that
 P0 
 A  l    0  
ie   A  0    0
i i
ie   2  P  iei 0  
      i     0   i 
 B  l    ie 0   B  0    ie i 0  P0 i  2  ie 
 e 0
 2 
2 2
Pa  l  A  l  ie  0 
i  
   1
Pb  l  B  l  iei
 Pa  l  : Pb  l   1:1 .
where  is the phase factor of the coupling coefficient  as defined in (4.71). We see
from this result that the power ratio is independent of the phases  or 0 . The output
powers of the two channels are always the same.
4.6.3 The grating coupling coefficient is found in Example 4.2 to be

sin  q  i q
 ab  q   2a e , which has an absolute value of
q
2a sin  q
  .
 q
(a) From this relation, it is found the    max

 2a  when q  1 and   1 2 .
Therefore, we can express the coupling coefficient as
sin  q
   max .
q
For contradirectional coupling,  b    a . Thus, for  a    1.0  107 m 1 , the

optimal choice is a first order grating with q  1 for a period of
2 2
1  q  m  314 nm .
 a   b 2  1.0  107
and a duty factor of
1
 .
2
With this choice, we have    max

 1.0  104 m1 . For a 50% reflectivity,
  tanh 2  l  50%   l  0.88 .
Therefore, the length of the DBR is
0.88 0.88
l  m  88 μm .
 1.0  104
For a second-order grating, q  2 . Thus the grating period is
2 2
2  q  2 m  628 nm .
 a  b 2  1.0  107
The best choice of the duty factor is so that  is maximized under the condition that
q  2 . This is accomplished by choosing
1 3
 or  
4 4
so that

  max
 5.0  103 m 1
2
Then, the length of the DBR with 50% reflectivity is
0.88 0.88
l  m  176 μm .
 5.0  103
4.6.4 For contradirectional coupling,  b    a and  a    2 n  , the grating period

for phase matching is
2 2 
q  q q q .
 a  b 2 2n
Take the effective refractive index of the mode to be the core refractive index,
n  3.25 . Then, the first-order grating has a period of
 1.55
1   μm  238.5 nm .
2n 2  3.25
The second-order grating has a period of
 1.55
2  2   μm  477 nm .
2n 3.25
(b) For a first-order grating, which has q  1 or 1 , the largest coupling coefficient for a
sinusoidal grating is   a 2 while the largest coupling coefficient for a square
grating is   2a  for a duty factor of   0.5 . Therefore, for a given modulation
depth a , the largest coupling coefficient is obtained by choosing a first-order square
grating that has a duty factor of   0.5 .
(c) The coupling efficiency of a perfectly phase-matched Bragg reflector is   tanh  l .
2
For   90% ,  l  tanh 1 0.9  1.82 . Therefore, with   1.0  104 m 1 , the
required length is
1.82 1.82
l  m  182 μm .
 1.0  104
4.6.5 Given  a  5.959  106 m 1 and  b  5.849  106 m 1 , the two single-mode fibers
have different characteristics. Thus, the structure is asymmetric. It is assumed that
   ab   ba  2  103 m 1 though the coupling in this two-waveguide structure does
not have to be symmetric.
For this purpose, it is necessary for the coupler to have phase-matched codirectional
coupling with a coupling efficiency of 100% at   1.55 μm but zero coupling
efficiency at other wavelengths. With  a  5.959  106 m 1 and  b  5.849  106 m 1 ,
the phase mismatch for codiectional coupling is
2   b   a  5.849  106 m 1  5.959  106 m 1  1.1  105 m 1 .

   5.5  104 m 1 .
For codirectional coupling with   0 ,


1 
1
2

2 
sin 2  l 1   2 
2
  1 1  2 2
.
With    ab   ba  2  103 m 1   , the maximum possible efficiency is
1 1
 max    1.32  103
1   5.5  10   2  10 
2 4 2 3 2
1  2

which is really small.

To obtain the best efficiency, the first-order grating period has to be chosen for perfect
phase matching:
2   b   a  K  0
 K   a   b  5.959  106 m 1  5.849  106 m 1  1.1  105 m 1
2 2
   m  57.1 μm.
K 1.1  105
For phase-matched codirectional coupling, the maximum efficiency is   100%

when the length of the grating is chosen to be
l   2m  1 lcPM for m  0,1, 2, 
where
 
lcPM   m  785.4 μm.
2  2  2  103
For this purpose, it is necessary for the coupler to have phase-matched

contradirectional coupling at   1.55 μm but zero coupling efficiency at other
wavelengths. With  a  5.959  106 m 1 and  b  5.849  106 m 1 , the phase
mismatch for codiectional coupling is
2    b   a  5.849  10 6 m 1  5.959  10 6 m 1  11.808  10 6 m 1

   5.904  106 m 1 .
For contradirectional coupling with   0 ,


sinh 2  l 1   2 
2
 .

cosh 2  l 1   2 
2
  2 
2
With    ab   ba  2  103 m 1 and   5.904  106 m 1 , we find that

2
 2
  8.7  10  1 so that the maximum possible efficiency is
6
sin 2   l  1 1
  max    1.1  107 ,
cos 2
  l   2

2
 2

2
8.7  106
which is negligibly small.

To obtain the best efficiency, the first-order grating period has to be chosen for perfect
phase matching:
2    b   a  K  0
 K   a   b  5.959  106 m 1  5.849  106 m 1  11.808  106 m 1
2 2
   m  532 nm.
K 11.808  106
With perfect phase matching and a coupling length of the minimum value of
l  785.4 μm from (a), the coupling efficiency of the contradirectional coupler is
  tanh 2  l  tanh 2  2  103  785.4  106   tanh 2 1.57  84%.
For any longer lengths of l   2m  1 lc

PM
with m  1, 2, , the coupling coefficient
is   100%.
4.6.6 The three most important parameters to be considered are (1) the coupling coefficient
 , which has to be nonzero and preferably large, (2) phase matching, which has to be
close enough so that    1 , ideally perfect with   0 , and (3) the length l of the
coupler, which has to be proper chosen to maximize the efficiency. The relative
importance of the three factors is in the order given.
Chapter 5
Optical Interference
5.1 Optical Interference

5.1.1 We consider two plane wave the form of (5.1):
=Ei i exp ( ik i ⋅ r=
− iωi t ) eî i eiϕi , for i = 1, 2.
where ϕi = k i ⋅ r − ωi t + ϕi . We consider in general that Ei has a nonvanishing

longitudinal component such as in the case of an extraordinary wave in an anisotropic
medium. Then,
= Ei ⊥ + Ei k kî  and i = i ⊥ + i  
Ei = Ei ⊥ + Ei   = i ⊥ + i k kî 
,
where Ei ⊥ ⊥ kî so that Ei ⊥ ⋅ kî = ωi µ0 H i

0 . Then the Maxwell’s equation k i × Ei =
gives
=
Hi
1
ωi µ0
k i ×=
Ei
ki
ωi µ0
( )
kî × Ei ⊥ + Ei k k=
ˆ
i
ki
ωi µ0
kî × Ei ⊥ .
The total complex electric and magnetic fields are, respectively,
E = E1 + E2 = E1⊥ + E1k kˆ1 + E2 ⊥ + E2 k kˆ1 ,

k k
H = H1 + H 2 = 1 kˆ1 × E1⊥ + 2 kˆ2 × E2 ⊥ .
ω1 µ0 ω2 µ 0
By the definition of E1⊥ , we have E1⊥ ⋅ kˆ1 = E2 ⊥ ⋅ kˆ2 = 0 . In the case when the angle
between k1 and k 2 is small, we also have E1⊥ ⋅ kˆ2 ≈ 0 and E2 ⊥ ⋅ kˆ1 ≈ 0 . Then, we find
that the complex pointing vector of the combined field is
S =E × H∗ ≈
ω1 µ0
k1∗
( ) k∗
E1⊥ + E2 ⊥ ⋅ E1∗⊥ kˆ1 + 2
2
ω2 µ 0
(E 2⊥
2
+ E1⊥ ⋅ E∗2 ⊥ kˆ2 . )
Using the relation that Ei = eî i eiϕi , we find
i (ϕ1 −ϕ 2 ) +iϕ
E1⊥ ⋅ E∗2 ⊥ = 1⊥ 2 ⊥ ( eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ2∗ ) e ( 1 2 ) = 1⊥ 2 ⊥ eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ2∗ e = ( E2 ⊥ ⋅ E1∗⊥ ) .
i ϕ −ϕ ∗
eˆ1⋅eˆ2∗
Assuming lossless medium so that k1 and k2 both have real values. Then, using (1.53),
we find that the time-averaged real Poynting vector is
=S 2 Re E × H∗ ( )
=
2k1 
ω1 µ0 
2 ∗
( 
 1⊥ + 1⊥ 2 ⊥ eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ2 cos ϕ1 − ϕ2 + ϕeˆ1 ⋅eˆ2∗  kˆ1

)
+
2k 2 
ω2 µ 0 
2 ∗
( 
 1⊥ + 1⊥ 2 ⊥ eˆ1 ⋅ eˆ2 cos ϕ1 − ϕ2 + ϕeˆ1 ⋅eˆ2∗  kˆ2 .

)
In the case when the angle between k1 and k 2 is small , a plane that is normal to the
direction of k + k is approximately normal to both directions so that n̂ ≈ −kˆ ≈ −kˆ .
1 2 1 2
Then, the total intensity projected on this plane is that given in (5.7):
(
I = S ⋅ nˆ = I1 + I 2 + I12 cos ϕ1 − ϕ2 + ϕeˆ ⋅eˆ∗ ,
1 2
)
ω1µ0 and I 2 = 2k2 2 ⊥ ω2 µ0 and I12 is that given in (5.8).
2 2
where I1 = 2k1 1⊥
5.1.2 Using the results obtained in Example 5.1, we find that the period of the interference
fringes is
λl 600 × 10−9 × 5 × 10−2

=
Λ = m 10 μm .
=
2nh 2 × 1.5 × 1 × 10−3
The number of fringe period is
l 5 × 10−2
M= = = 5000 .
Λ 10 × 10−6
Because there are exactly 5000 periods and a dark fringe appears at exactly the tip of
the wedge, a dark fringe also appears exactly at the end of the wedge. Therefore, there
are 5001 dark fringes but 5000 bright fringes.
5.1.3 According to Example 5.1, for all of the 5000 periods of interference fringes to appear,
the minimum coherence time is 5000 optical cycles; thus, it is required that
5000 5000λ 5000 × 600 × 10−9

τ coh ≥ = = s = 10 ps .
ν c 3 × 108
When only 1000 periods of interference fringes appear, the coherence time is 1000
optical cycles. Thus, the coherence time is
1000 1000λ 1000 × 600 × 10−9

τ coh ≈ = = s = 2 ps .
ν c 3 × 108
5.1.4 For this problem, the wedge is an air wedge formed by two air–glass interfaces. The
two reflected waves that interfere with each other to form the fringes are from internal
reflection at the top interface, which has no phase change, and from external reflection
from the bottom interface, which has a phase change of π . The results are exactly the
same as those obtained in Example 5.1 for the glass wedge, but with n = 1 for the air
wedge. Because there are exactly 400 periods of fringes, we find that
2nh M λ 400 × 500 × 10−9

M= ⇒=h = =m 100 μm .
λ 2n 2 ×1
Therefore, the thickness of the paper is 100 μm .
5.1.5 The angles of the q = ±10 fringes are
 10λ  −1  10 × 532 × 10 
−9
θ ±10 = sin −1  ±  = sin  ± −6  = ±1.524° .
 Λ   200 × 10 
Therefore, the angle between these two orders is
∆θ = θ10 − θ −10 = 3.05° .
Measured from the center where the zeroth-order bright fringe appears, these two
fringes appear on the screen at
x±10 =l sin θ ±10 =2 m × sin ( ±1.524° ) =±5.32 cm .
Therefore, the separation of these two fringes is ∆x= x10 − x−10 = 10.64 cm .
5.1.6 The separation between two dark fringes is the same as that between two bright fringes.
Using the results from Example 5.2, it is found to be
λl
∆x= xq +1 − x= .
nΛ
q
Given ∆x =12.2 mm , l = 2.5 m , n = 1 , and Λ =100 μm , the wavelength is
nΛ∆x 1 × 100 × 10−6 × 12.2 × 10−3

=λ = = m 488 nm .
l 2.5
5.1.7 The output intensities of the Michelson interferometer for the two output ports are
given in (5.15) with ∆=ϕ 2k ( la − lb ) being the phase difference of the two optical
paths through the two arms. Note that the wave in each arm travels through the arm
length twice.
If the length of one arm is increased by δ l = 0.5 mm while the other is fixed, the phase
difference is changed by an amount of δϕ = ±2kδ l , where the plus or minus sign
depends on which of the two arms is lengthened. Thus, the output intensities become
2 ∆ϕ + δϕ ∆ϕ + δϕ
=I out,1 I=
in cos , I out,2 I in sin 2 .
2 2
The output intensity pattern repeat itself once every time when δϕ is increased or
decreased by 2π . Thus, with the pattern repeating itself N = 1880 times for
δ l = 0.5 mm , we find that
2π 2δ l 2 × 0.5 × 10−3
δϕ =±2kδ l =± N ⋅ 2π ⇒ 2 δl =2π N ⇒ λ = = m=532 nm.
λ N 1880
The interferometer is initially adjusted such that I out,1 = I in and I out,2 = 0 , meaning that
∆ϕ0 = 2mπ . Because the glass plate has a refractive index of n = 1.46 that is different
from the refractive index of 1 for the free space, insertion of the glass plate into one of
the two arms causes a change in the phase difference of the amount
4π
± ( 2kglass d − 2kd ) =
δϕ = ± ( n − 1) d ,
λ
where the plus or minus sign depends on which of the two arms the glass plate is
inserted into. Note that the wave travels through the glass plate twice, which is
accounted for by the factor 2. Using the parameters ∆ϕ0 = 2mπ , λ = 532 nm ,
n = 1.46 , and d = 1 mm , we find that the output intensities of the two ports after the
insertion of the glass plate are
∆ϕ0 + δϕ δϕ  2π
= I in cos 2
I out,1 = I in cos 2 = I in cos 2  ± ( n − 1) d= 27.8% I in ,
2 2  λ 
∆ϕ0 + δϕ δϕ  2π
I out,2= I in sin 2 = I in sin 2 = I in sin 2  ± ( n − 1) d = 72.2% I in .
2 2  λ 
5.1.8 The output intensities of the Mach–Zehnder interferometer for the two output ports are
given in (5.16) with ∆ϕ= k ( la − lb ) being the phase difference of the two optical paths
through the two arms. Note that the wave in each arm travels through the arm length
only once.
If the length of one arm is increased by δ l = 0.5 mm while the other is fixed, the phase
difference is changed by an amount of δϕ = ± kδ l , where the plus or minus sign
depends on which of the two arms is lengthened. Thus, the output intensities become
2 ∆ϕ + δϕ ∆ϕ + δϕ
=I out,1 I=
in sin , I out,2 I in cos 2 .
2 2
The output intensity pattern repeat itself once every time when δϕ is increased or
decreased by 2π . Thus, with the pattern repeating itself N = 940 times for
δ l = 0.5 mm , we find that
2π δ l 0.5 × 10−3
δϕ =± kδ l =± N ⋅ 2π ⇒ δl =2π N ⇒ λ = = m=532 nm.
λ N 940
The interferometer is initially adjusted such that I out,1 = I in and I out,2 = 0 , meaning that
∆ϕ0 = ( 2m + 1) π . Because the glass plate has a refractive index of n = 1.46 that is
different from the refractive index of 1 for the free space, insertion of the glass plate
into one of the two arms causes a change in the phase difference of the amount
2π
± ( kglass d − kd ) =
δϕ = ± ( n − 1) d ,
λ
where the plus or minus sign depends on which of the two arms the glass plate is
inserted into. Note that the wave travels through the glass plate only one. Using the
parameters ∆ϕ0 = ( 2m + 1) π , λ = 532 nm , n = 1.46 , and d = 1 mm , we find that the
output intensities of the two ports after the insertion of the glass plate are
∆ϕ0 + δϕ δϕ  π 
= I in sin 2
I out,1 = I in cos 2 = I in cos 2  ± ( n − 1) d=
 23.6% I in ,
2 2  λ 
∆ϕ0 + δϕ δϕ  π 
= I in cos 2
I out,2 = I in sin 2 = I in sin 2  ± ( n − 1) d=
 76.4% I in .
2 2  λ 
5.1.9 According to (5.17), the transmittance for the Mach–Zehnder interferometer using two
3-dB Y-junction couplers is
∆ϕ
T = cos 2 ,
2
which has T = 1 when ∆ϕ = 0. The minimum require phase difference for T = 0 is

∆ϕ =±π . Thus, the minimum necessary index difference between the two arms is
found:
2π∆n λ
∆ϕ = l =±π ⇒ ∆n =± .
λ 2l
For λ = 1 μm and l = 1 mm , we find the minimum value of ∆n to be
λ 1 × 10−6
∆n =± =± =±5 × 10−4 .
2l 2 × 1 × 10−3
According to (5.18), the transmittance for the Mach–Zehnder interferometer using two
3-dB directional couplers is
∆ϕ
T = sin 2 ,
2
which has T = 0 when ∆ϕ = 0. The minimum require phase difference for T = 1 is

∆ϕ =±π . Thus, the minimum necessary index difference between the two arms is
found to be the same as that found above:
2π∆n λ
∆ϕ = l =±π ⇒ ∆n =± .
λ 2l
For λ = 1 μm and l = 1 mm , we find the minimum value of ∆n to be the same as

found above:
λ 1 × 10−6
∆n =± =± =±5 × 10−4 .
2l 2 × 1 × 10−3
5.2 Optical Gratings

5.2.1 For normal incidence, (5.27) requires that
qλ
k sin θ q =
qK ⇒ sin θ q = .
Λ
For −30° ≤ θ q ≤ 30° , we find, with Λ =20 μm and λ = 532 nm , that

1 qλ 1 Λ Λ
− ≤ sin θ q = ≤ ⇒ − ≤q≤ ⇒ − 18.8 ≤ q ≤ 18.8 .
2 Λ 2 2λ 2λ
Therefore, there are 37 diffraction peaks corresponding to the diffraction orders from
q = −18 to q = 18 , including q = 0 , in the range of angles between −30° and 30° .
For oblique incidence at θi =−15° , (5.32) requires that
qλ qλ
k sin θ q =
k sin θi + qK ⇒ sin θ q =
sin θi + =
−0.259 + .
Λ Λ
For −30° ≤ θ q ≤ 30° , we find, with Λ =20 μm and λ = 532 nm , that
1 qλ 1 Λ Λ
− ≤ sin θ q =−0.259 + ≤ ⇒ − 0.241 ≤ q ≤ 0.759 ⇒ − 9.06 ≤ q ≤ 28.5 .
2 Λ 2 λ λ
Therefore, there are 38 diffraction peaks corresponding to the diffraction orders from
q = −9 to q = 28 , including q = 0 , in the range of angles between −30° and 30° .
5.2.2 For normal incidence, the phase-matching condition in (5.27) requires that
k sin θ=
q qK ⇒ Λ sin θ=
q qλ .
For the peaks of the diffraction orders q1 and q2 of λ1 and λ2 to exactly overlap, it is
required that
q1 λ2 550 11
θ q =θ q ⇒ sin θ q1 =sin θ q2 ⇒ q1λ1 =q2 λ2 ⇒ = = = .
1 2
q2 λ1 450 9
Therefore, for two diffraction peaks of λ1 and λ2 to exactly overlap, the ratio of their
diffraction orders has to be q1 : q2 = 11: 9 . The lowest nonzero diffraction orders to
satisfy this condition are clearly q1 = 11 and q2 = 9 , or q1 = −11 and q2 = −9 .
Because sin θ q ≤ 1 , the minimum slit spacing that allows this to happen is found with
q1 = 11 , q2 = 9 , and sin θ q = 1 to be
= λ1 9λ=
Λ 11= 2 4.95 μm .
For the peaks of the diffraction orders q2 and q3 of λ2 and λ3 to exactly overlap, it
is required that
q2 λ3 650 13
θ q =θ q ⇒ sin θ q2 =sin θ q3 ⇒ q2 λ2 =q3 λ3 ⇒ = = = .
2 3
q3 λ2 550 11
diffraction orders has to be q2 : q3 = 13 :11 . The lowest nonzero diffraction orders to
q2 = 13 , q3 = 11 , and sin θ q = 1 to be
= λ2 11=
Λ 13= λ3 7.15 μm .
For the peaks of the diffraction orders q1 and q3 of λ1 and λ3 to exactly overlap, it is
required that
q1 λ3 650 13
θ q =θ q ⇒ sin θ q1 =sin θ q3 ⇒ q1λ1 =q3λ3 ⇒ = = = .
1 3
q3 λ1 450 9
diffraction orders has to be q1 : q3 = 13 : 9 . The lowest nonzero diffraction orders to
q1 = 13 , q2 = 9 , and sin θ q = 1 to be
Λ 13λ
= =1 9λ=
3 5.85 μm .
For the peaks of the diffraction orders q1 , q3 , and q3 of λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 to exactly

overlap, it is required that
θq =
1
θq =
θq2 3
⇒ sin θ q1 =sin θ q2 =sin θ q3 ⇒ q1λ1 =q2 λ2 =q3λ3
⇒ q1λ1 =q2 λ2 =q3 λ3 ⇒ q1 : q2 : q3 =λ2 λ3 : λ1λ3 : λ1λ2 =143 :117 : 99 .
Therefore, for three diffraction peaks of λ1 and λ3 to exactly overlap, the ratio of their
diffraction orders has to be q1 : q2 : q3 = 143 :117 : 99 . The lowest nonzero diffraction
orders to satisfy this condition are q1 = 143 , q2 = 117 and q3 = 99 ; or q1 = −143 ,
q2 = −117 and q3 = −99 . Because sin θ q ≤ 1 , the minimum slit spacing that allows
this to happen is found with q1 = 143 , q2 = 117 , q3 = 99 , and sin θ q = 1 to be
=
Λ 143
=λ1 117=
λ2 99=
λ3 64.35 μm .
5.2.3 For normal incidence, θi = 0° . Thus, the phase-matching conditions in (5.33) and
(5.34) reduce to k1 sin θ1q = qK and k2 sin θ 2 q = qK , which can be expressed as
qλ qλ
sin θ1q = and sin θ 2 q = .
n1Λ n2 Λ
Because no nonzero diffraction orders are allowed on the air side, it is required that
qλ
> 1 for any q ≠ 0 . Thus,
n1Λ
λ
> 1 ⇒ λ > n1Λ .
n1Λ
For only two nonzero diffraction orders to be allowed on the air side, it is required that
qλ qλ
< 1 for q = ±1 but > 1 for q ≥ 2 . Thus,
n1Λ n1Λ
1 λ n2 Λ
≤ <1 ⇒ ≤ λ < n2 Λ .
2 n2 Λ 2
Combining the above requirements, we find that
n1Λ < λ < n2 Λ ⇒ Λ < λ < 1.5Λ ⇒ 800 nm < λ < 1.2 μm .
The laser beam can have any wavelength in this range.
5.2.4 For oblique incidence from the air side, with n1 = 1 , the phase-matching condition for
the diffraction orders on the glass side, with n2 = 1.5 , is that given in (5.34):
qλ
k2 sin θ 2 q = k1 sin θi + qK ⇒ n2 sin θ 2 q = n1 sin θi + .
Λ
The peak of q = 1 diffraction order disappears when θ 2,1 just reaches 90° for q = 1 ,
θi 12.1° . Therefore,
which occurs at =
λ λ 800
n2=
sin 90° n1 sin12.1° + ⇒ Λ= = = nm 620 nm .
Λ n2 − n1 sin12.1° 1.5 − 1 × 0.21
A diffraction order can appear only when −90° ≤ θ q ≤ 90° . On the glass side, we use
the phase-matching condition expressed above from (5.34) to find that, for θ=
i 10° ,
qλ qλ Λ Λ
−n2 ≤ n1 sin θi + ≤ n2 ⇒ − 1.5 ≤ 0.174 + ≤ 1.5 ⇒ − 1.674 ≤ q ≤ 1.326
Λ Λ λ λ
⇒ − 1.30 ≤ q ≤ 1.03 ⇒ q =−1,0,1 for the glass side.
There are three diffraction peaks on the glass side. The diffraction angles are
n qλ 
=θ 2 q sin −1  1 sin θi + 
 n2 n2 Λ 
⇒ θ2q = −48.11°, 6.56°, 77.42° for q =
−1, 0, 1, respectively .
On the air side, we use the phase-matching condition from (5.33) to find that, for
θ=
i 10° ,
qλ qλ Λ Λ
−n1 ≤ n1 sin θi +≤ n1 ⇒ − 1 ≤ 0.174 + ≤ 1 ⇒ − 1.174 ≤ q ≤ 0.826
Λ Λ λ λ
⇒ − 0.91 ≤ q ≤ 0.64 ⇒ q = 0 for the air side.
There is only the zeroth-order diffraction peal on the air side. The diffraction angle is
 qλ 
θ1q =
sin −1  sin θi +  ⇒ θ1q =
θi =°
10 for q =
0.
 n1Λ 
5.2.5 With Λ =492 nm , nβ = 3.33 , and λ = 1.55 μm , the incident angle from the cover side
can be found using the condition from (5.36) with q = 1 :
nβ λ
k3 sin θ31 + K = β ⇒ sin θ31 = − .
n3 n3 Λ
 3.33 1.55 × 10−6 
⇒ θi =θ31 =sin −1  −  =10.35° .
 1 1 × 492 × 10−9 
5.2.6 Because the incident wave is from the cover side, the condition is that from (5.36). The
most likely for this coupling at θ=
i 30° is with q = 1 so that θ31= 30° :
k3 sin θ31 + K =
β
2π n3 2π  2π 1 2π  −1
⇒=β sin 30° +=  × + =m 2.443 × 107 m −1
λ Λ  900 × 10 −9
2 300 × 10−9 
With this result, we find that the effect index for the mode is
βλ 2.443 × 107 × 900 × 10−9

=
nβ = = 3.50 .
2π 2π
Because this effective index satisfies the condition n1 > nβ > n2 for the guided mode
and because a propagation constant found by assuming q = 2 or a larger integer does
not satisfy this condition, our assumption that q = 1 is correct. Therefore, the
propagation constant is uniquely determined to be= β 2.443 × 107 m −1 . If coupling
into this mode with normal incidence of the laser beam at λ = 900 nm is desired, we
have θ31 = 0° so that
2π 2π
k3 sin θ31 + K
= β ⇒ K
= β ⇒ Λ
= = = 257 nm .
m
β 2.443 × 107
The required grating period coupling through normal incidence is Λ =257 nm .
5.3 Fabry−Pérot Interferometer

5.3.1 Given R= 1 R=
2 0.5 , the transmittance TFP of the Fabry–Pérot interferometer given in
(5.42) is solely determined by the round-tip phase ϕRT given in (5.40). Because the
laser beam is normally incident on the interferometer, θ = 0 .
Because the transmittance peaks appears when ϕRT = 2qπ , the transmitted intensity
pattern repeats itself δ q times when the round-trip phase changes by an amount of
δϕRT = 2δ qπ . Given that δ q = 1880 when the physical length of the spacing between
the two reflective surfaces is increased by δ l = 0.5 mm , we find using (5.40), with
n = 1 for free space and θ = 0 , that
4πδ l 2δ l 2 × 0.5 × 10−3

δϕRT = = 2δ qπ ⇒ λ= = m = 532 nm .
λ δq 1880
The interferometer is initially adjusted such that TFP = 1 , meaning that ϕ0RT = 2qπ for
some integer q . Because the glass plate has a refractive index of n = 1.46 that is
different from the refractive index of 1 for the free space, insertion of the glass plate
into the spacing causes a change in the phase difference of the amount
4π 4π
δϕRT = ( n − 1) d ⇒ ϕRT =ϕ0RT + δϕRT =2qπ + ( n − 1) d .
λ λ
Using the parameters R= 1 R=

2 0.5 , ϕ0RT = 2qπ , λ = 532 nm , n = 1.46 , and
d = 1 mm , we find that the transmittance of the interferometer after the glass plate is
inserted:
(1 − R1 )(1 − R2 ) (1 − R1 )(1 − R2 )
TFP =
(1 − R1 R2 ) + 4R11 2 R21 2 sin 2 (ϕRT 2 )
12 12 2
(1 − R
12
1
12 2
R
2 ) + 4 R11 2 R21 2 sin 2 ( 2π ( n − 1) d λ )
(1 − 0.5) × (1 − 0.5)
⇒ TFP = 14.8% .
2  2π × 0.46 × 1 × 10 
−3
(1 − 0.5 × 0.5 ) + 4 × 0.5 × 0.5 × sin  532 × 10−9 

12 12 2 12 12
 
5.3.2 With R1 = 95% and R2 = 90% , we find from (5.44) that the peak transmittance is
(1 − R1 )(1 − R2 ) (1 − 0.9 )(1 − 0.95)

=TFPmax = = 0.88 ,
(1 − R11 2 R21 2 ) 0.951 2 )
(1 − 0.9
2 12 2
and from (5.46) that the finesse is
π R11 4 R21 4 π × 0.91 4 × 0.951 4

=F = = 40.1 .
1 − R11 2 R21 2 1 − 0.91 2 0.951 2
∆λline 0.1 nm
With= =  λ 500 nm , we find
c 3 × 108
∆ν line ≈ = ∆λline × 0.1 × 10
= −9
Hz 120 GHz .
λ ( 500 × 10 ) 9 2
2
Using (5.49), we find that the free spectral range is
∆ν FSR =F ∆ν line =40.1 × 120 GHz =4.812 THz .
Using (5.48), we find the required spacing:
c 3 × 108
=l = = m 31.17 μm .
2n∆ν FSR 2 × 1 × 4.812 × 1012
Because the optical frequency for λ = 500

= nm is ν 600 THz  ∆ν FSR , we find
∆λFSR ≈ =
λ2
∆ν FSR
( 500 × 10 ) −9 2
× 4.812 ×
= 1012 m 4.01 nm .
c 3 × 108
For ∆λline to be halved, ∆ν line and therefore ∆ν FSR have to be halved because the
finesse stays constant. Therefore, the spacing has to be doubled to 62.34 μm .
5.3.3 With n = 1.50 and l = 100 μm , we find that, for normal incidence,
c 3 × 108
∆ν FSR = = Hz = 1 THz .
2nl 2 × 1.5 × 100 × 10−6
Therefore, for a spectral linewidth of ∆ν line ≤ 5 GHz , the etalon needs a finesse of
∆ν FSR 1 × 1012
F= ≥ =200 .
∆ν line 5 × 109
For the peak transmittance to be 100%, it is necessary that R=

1 R=
2 R so that
TFPmax = 1 according to (5.44). In this case, the finesse can be expressed as
π R1 2
F= ≥ 200 ⇒ R ≥ 0.9844 .
1− R
Therefore, the two surfaces have to have the same reflectivity of R=

1 R2 ≥ 98.44% .
5.3.4 For the oil film on water, we have noil > nw > nair . Therefore, for the wave inside the
oil film as an interferometer, the reflection at the air–film interface and that at the film–
water interface are both internal reflections with no phase changes so that ϕ= 1 ϕ=
2 0.
Then, according to (5.47), for normal incidence the peak transmittance for dark
reflection occurs at
 ϕ1 + ϕ2  c c c 2n l
ν q =−
q  =
q ⇒ λdark ==oil ,
 2π  2nl 2noil l νq q
and the minimum transmittance for bright reflection occurs at
 1 ϕ1 + ϕ2  c  1 c c 4noil l
ν q −1 2 =  q − −  = q −  ⇒ λbright = = .
 2 2π  2nl  2  2noil l ν q −1 2 2q − 1
For λbright = 672 nm and λdark = 504 nm , it is required that
4noil l 2noil l
λbright
= λdark =
= 672 nm and = 504 nm
2q − 1 q
for some integer q . The value that satisfies both conditions is q = 2 . Given noil = 1.40 ,
the thickness of the oil film is found to be
qλdark 2 × 504
=l = =nm 360 nm .
2noil 2 × 1.4
5.3.5 Because the refractive index increases from one medium to the next with nair = 1 ,
nf = 1.25 , and ng = 1.50 , for the wave inside the thin film as an interferometer, the
reflection at air–film interface is internal reflection with no phase change and that at
the film–glass interface has a phase change of π ; thus ϕ1 = 0 and ϕ2 = π . For the
film to serve as an antireflective coating, it is desired that TFP = TFPmax , which takes place
at the optical frequencies ν q given in (5.47):
 ϕ1 + ϕ2  c  1 c
νq =
 q − 2π  2nl cos θ =
q − 
   2  2nf l
λ c=
for normal incidence. With a given= ν 552 nm , the acceptable thicknesses are
 1 c  1 λ  1  552  1
lq =
q −  =q −  =q −  nm =
220.8  q −  nm .
 2  2nfν  2  2nf  2  2 × 1.25  2
Therefore, the minimum thickness is lmin = 110.4 nm for q = 1 , and a thickness of

any integral multiple of 220.8 nm more than the minimum thickness lmin , such that
=l 110.4 ( 2m + 1) nm , will also work. Without the coating, the reflectivity at the air–
glass interface is
2
nair − ng 1 − 1.5
2
=R = = 0.04 .
nair + ng 1 + 1.5
With the thin-film coating, the reflectivities of the two interfaces are
2 2
nair − nf 1 − 1.25
2
nf − ng 1.25 − 1.5
2
=R1 = = 0.01235, =R2 = = 0.00826 .

nair + nf 1 + 1.25 nf + ng 1.25 + 1.5
Therefore, the reflectivity of the coated surface is
(1 − R1 )(1 − R2 )
RFP =
1 − TFPmax =
1− = 4.2 × 10−4 .
1 − 0.99958 =
(1 − R12
1
12 2
R
2 )
Therefore, the thin-film coating cuts almost 99% of the reflectivity from 0.04 to
4.2 × 10−4 .
5.3.6 For totally antireflective coating, the thin film has to accomplished TFPmax = 1 when its
thickness is properly chosen. This is possible only when the reflectivities of the two
interfaces of the thin film are the same: R1 = R2 , which is accomplished when the
refractive index of the thin film is the geometric mean of the refractive indices of the
two media on its two sides, as discussed in Example 5.8. For the Si surface to be totally
antireflective in free space, the refractive index of the thin film has to be chosen as
nf = nair nSi = 1 × 3.61 =1.90 .
For the Si surface to be totally antireflective in water, the refractive index of the thin
film has to be chosen as
nf = nw nSi = 1.33 × 3.61 = 2.19 .

Chapter 6
Optical Resonance
6.1 Optical Resonator

6.1.1 The physical length of the folded cavity is simply
l = l1m + l2m = 1.1 m ,
defined by the separations of the mirrors. The round-trip optical path length has to be
account for the index of refraction of the glass rod and the fact that the intracavity
optical wave propagates through the folded linear cavity twice in a round trip:
lRT= 2 ( l1m − lg + ng lg + l2m=

) 2.4 m .
Thus the round-trip time is
lRT
=
T = 8 ns .
c
In a round trip through the linear cavity, the intracavity intensity changes by a factor
of R1 Rm2 R2 because the intracavity light is reflected once by each of the two end
mirrors but twice by the middle mirror. Therefore, the round-trip gain factor for the
field amplitude is
=Gc =
R1 Rm2 R2 0.72 .
6.1.2 The physical length of the ring cavity is simply
l = l12 + l23 + l31 = 1.1 m
defined by the separations of the mirrors. The round-trip optical path length has to be
account for the index of refraction of the glass rod and the fact that the intracavity
optical wave propagates through the ring cavity only once in a round trip:
lRT = l12 − lg + ng lg + l23 + l31 = 1.2 m .
lRT
=
T = 4 ns .
c
In a round trip through the linear cavity, the intracavity intensity changes by a factor
of R1 R2 R3 because the intracavity light is reflected once by each of the three mirrors.
Therefore, the round-trip gain factor for the field amplitude is
=Gc =
R1 R2 R3 0.76 .
6.1.3 The physical length of the optical-fiber ring cavity is simply the fiber loop length:
l = 2 m.
The round-trip optical path length has to be account for the effective index n = 1.47 of
the fiber mode and the fact that the intracavity optical wave propagates through the
ring cavity only once in a round trip:
lRT =nl =1.47 × 2 m =2.94 m .
lRT 2.94
=
T = = 9.8 ns .
c 3 × 108
In a round trip through the fiber ring cavity, the intracavity light encounters the coupler
only once and loses 20% of its intensity. Therefore, the round-trip gain factor for the
field amplitude is
Gc = 1 −η = 0.8 = 0.894 .
6.2 Longitudinal Modes

6.2.1 The folded cavity has Gc = 0.72 found in Problem 6.1.1. Thus, its finesse is
π Gc1 2 π × 0.721 2
=F = = 9.52 .
1 − Gc 1 − 0.72
With T = 8 ns from Problem 6.1.1, the longitudinal mode frequency spacing is
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz =125 MHz .
T 8 × 10−9
The longitudinal mode width is
∆ν L 125
∆ν c= = MHz= 13.1 MHz .
F 9.52
6.2.2 The ring cavity has Gc = 0.76 found in Problem 6.1.2. Thus, its finesse is
π Gc1 2 π × 0.761 2
=F = = 11.4 .
1 − Gc 1 − 0.76
With T = 4 ns from Problem 6.1.2, the longitudinal mode frequency spacing is
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz = 250 MHz .
T 4 × 10−9
∆ν L 250
∆ν c= = MHz= 21.9 MHz .
F 11.4
6.2.3 The fiber ring cavity has Gc = 0.8 found in Problem 6.1.3. Thus, its finesse is
π Gc1 2 π × 0.81 2
=F = = 14 .
1 − Gc 1 − 0.8
With T = 9.8 ns from Problem 6.1.3, the longitudinal mode frequency spacing is
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz =102 MHz .
T 9.8 × 10−9
∆ν L 102
∆ν c= = MHz= 7.3 MHz .
F 14
6.3 Transverse Modes

6.3.1 For the linear cavity, the effective round-trip optical path length of each transverse
waveguide mode is found using (6.20):
c λβ m l
=
lmRT 2= βml
ω π
⇒=
l 2764 μm,
RT
TE 0= RT
lTM 0
2731 μm,
= RT
lTE1
2599 μm,
= RT
lTM 1
2582 μm .
The round-trip time of the cavity for each transverse waveguide mode is
lmRT
Tm = ⇒ TTE0 = 9.21 ps, TTM0 = 9.10 ps, TTE1 = 8.66 ps, TTM1 = 8.61 ps .
c
The longitudinal mode frequency spacing for each transverse waveguide mode is
1
∆ν mL =
Tm
∆ν TE
⇒= L
0
∆ν TM
108.6 GHz,= L
0
=
109.9 GHz, ∆ν TE
L
1
=
115.5 GHz, ∆ν TM
L
1
116.1 GHz .
To ∆ν mc , it is necessary to find the finesse. The effective refractive index for each
mode is found, which is used to find the reflectivities of the cavity and the finesse:
λβ m
nβm = ⇒ nTE0 = 3.455, nTM0 = 3.414, nTE1 = 3.248, nTM1 = 3.227 ;
2π
2
1 − nβm
R1,= R2,= R=
1 + nβm
m m m
⇒ =
RTE0 30.4%, =
RTM0 29.9%, =
RTE1 28.0%, =
RTM1 27.8% ;
π R1,1 m4 R2,1 4m π Rm1 2
=Fm =
1 − R1, m R2, m 1 − Rm
12 12
⇒ F=
TE 0 =
2.49, FTM 0
2.45, F=
TE1 2.31, F=
TM1 2.29 .
The longitudinal mode frequency width ∆ν mc for each transverse waveguide mode is
∆ν L
∆ν mc = m
Fm
∆ν TE
⇒= c
0
∆ν TM
43.6 GHz,= c
0
=
44.9 GHz, ∆ν TE
c
1
∆ν TM
50.0 GHz,= c
1
50.7 GHz .
6.4 Cavity Lifetime and Quality Factor

6.4.1 The folded cavity has T = 8 ns and Gc = 0.72 found in Problem 6.1.1. Thus, the
photon lifetime is
T 8
τc =
− =
− ns =
12.2 ns .
2 ln Gc 2 × ln 0.72
The cavity decay rate is
1 1
γ= = s −=
1
8.2 × 107 s −1 .
c
τc 12.2 × 10−9
The quality factor Q at λ = 850 nm is
2π c 2π × 3 × 108
Q =ωτ c = τc = × 12.2 × 10−9 =2.7 × 107 .
λ 850 × 10−9
6.4.2 The ring cavity has T = 4 ns and Gc = 0.76 found in Problem 6.1.1. Thus, the photon
lifetime is
T 4
τc =
− =
− ns =
7.3 ns .
2 ln Gc 2 × ln 0.76
1 1
γ= = s −=
1
1.37 × 108 s −1 .
c
τc 7.3 × 10−9
2π c 2π × 3 × 108
Q = ωτ c = τc = × 7.3 × 10−9 = 1.6 × 107 .
λ 850 × 10−9
6.4.3 The folded cavity has T = 9.8 ns and Gc = 0.8 found in Problem 6.1.1. Thus, the
photon lifetime is
T 9.8
τc =
− =
− ns =
22 ns .
2 ln Gc 2 × ln 0.8

1 1
γ= = s −=
1
4.5 × 107 s −1 .
c
τc 22 × 10−9
2π c 2π × 3 × 108
Q = ωτ c = τc = × 22 × 10−9 = 4.9 × 107 .
λ 850 × 10 −9
6.4.4 From (6.23), we find
−1 ( 2× 20 )
Gc2 = e−T τ c ⇒ Gc = e−T 2τ c = e = 0.9753 .
Using (6.12), we find the finesse
π Gc1 2 π × 0.97531 2
=F = = 125.6 .
1 − Gc 1 − 0.9753
The other parameters are found as
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz =1 GHz ;
T 1 × 10−9
∆ν L 1
∆ν c= = GHz= 7.96 MHz ;
F 125.6
1 1
γ c= = s −1 = 5 × 107 s −1 ;
τ c 20 × 10−9
2π c 2π × 3 × 108
Q = ωτ c = τc = × 20 × 10−9 = 2.9 × 107 .
λ 1.3 × 10−6
6.4.5 By definition from (6.16), the finesse of the cavity is
∆ν L 150
=
F = = 30 .
∆ν c 5
Using (6.12), we find the gain factor:
2
π Gc1 2  4F 2 + π 2 − π 
=
F ⇒ G=  = 0.9 .
1 − Gc
c
 2F 
 

1 1
=
T = = s 6.7 s ;
∆ν L 150 × 106
T 6.7
τc =
− =
− ns =31.8 ns ;
2 ln Gc 2 × ln 0.9
1 1
γ= = s −=
1
3.14 × 107 s −1 ;
c
τc 31.8 × 10−9
2π c 2π × 3 × 108
Q =ωτ c = τc = × 31.8 × 10−9 =5.6 × 107 .
λ 1.064 × 10−6
6.4.6 Given F = 100 , we find the gain factor Gc using (6.12):
2
π Gc1 2  4F 2 + π 2 − π 
=
F ⇒ G=  = 0.969 .
1 − Gc
c
 2F 
 
Given Q= 2 × 108 at λ = 532 nm , we find the photon lifetime using (6.24):
Q λ Q 532 × 10−9 × 2 × 108

τ= = = =
s 56.4 ns .
c
ω 2π c 2π × 3 × 108
1 1
γ= = s −=
1
1.77 × 107 s −1 ;
c
τc 56.4 × 10−9
T= −2τ c ln Gc =3.55 ns ;
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz = 281.7 MHz ;
T 3.55 × 10−9
∆ν L 281.7
∆ν c= = MHz= 2.817 MHz ;
F 100
6.5 Fabry–Pérot Cavity

6.5.1 The coordinates, z1 and z2 , of the two cavity mirrors are related to each other by the
l , thus z2= z1 + l . From (6.31),
cavity length: z2 − z1 =
zR2 z2
z1 + =
−1 and 
z2 + R =2 .
z1 z2
These two equations can be rearranged to

zR2 =− z12 − 1 z1 =− z22 + 2 z2
Substituting the relation z2= z1 + l into the above equation yields
z12 + 1 z1 = ( z1 + l ) − 2 ( z1 + l )
2
⇒ 1 z1 − 2lz1 + 2 z1 =l 2 − 2 l
⇒ ( 1 + 2 − 2l ) z1 =−l ( 2 − l )
l ( 2 − l ) l ( 1 − l )
⇒ z1 =
− , z2 = .
1 + 2 − 2l 1 + 2 − 2l
Then, using the relation obtained above, we find
l (  − l )( 2 − l )( 1 + 2 − l )
zR2 =− z12 − 1 z1 = 1 .
( 1 + 2 − 2l )
2
6.5.2 With 1 = 2 m , 2 = −1 m , and l = 1.5 m , we find that
 l  l   1.5  1.5 
0 < 1 − 1 −  = 1 − 1 −  = 0.625 < 1 .
 1  2   2  −1 
Therefore, the cavity is stable. Using the results obtained in waist from Problem 6.5.1
for the location of the mirrors measured from the beam waist, we find
l ( 2 − l ) 1.5 × ( −1 − 1.5 )
z1 =
− =
− m=
−1.875 m ,
1 + 2 − 2l 2 − 1 − 2 × 1.5
l ( 1 − l ) 1.5 × ( 2 − 1.5 )
z2 = = m = −0.375 m .
1 + 2 − 2l 2 − 1 − 2 × 1.5
The Gaussian beam waist is located at 1.875 m to the right of the left mirror and
0.375 m to the right of the right mirror. We find using (6.32) that
l ( 1 − l )( 2 − l )( 1 + 2 − l )
=zR = 0.484 m .
( 1 + 2 − 2l )
2
The beam waist spot size for a Gaussian beam at the optical wavelength λ is
12
 λ zR   λ × 10−6 × 0.484 
12
=w0 =   =  392.5 λ μm ,
 π   π 
where λ is measured in the unit of μm .
6.5.3 =
For a symmetric linear Fabry–Pérot cavity of a cavity length of l and 1 =
2 ,
the stability condition given in (6.33) requires that
 l  
2
l  l  l
0 ≤ 1 − 1 −  ≤ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ 1 −  ≤ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ −1 ≤ 1
 1   2     
l
⇒ −1 ≤ −1 ≤ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ l ≤ 2 .

From the above, we find with =
1 =
2 = 1 m that the cavity is stable if its length

is in the range 0 ≤ l ≤ 2 m .
Because the cavity is a symmetric one with  =1 =
 2  , the beam waist has to be
located at the center of the cavity for any choice of the cavity length that make the
cavity stable so that a Gaussian beam can be defined in the cavity.
=
For a symmetric cavity with 1 =
2  , the Rayleigh range given in (6.32) reduces
to the simple expression:
l ( 2 − l )
zR2 = .
4
The maximum beam waist spot size is reached when zR2 has its maximum value, which
is found for the cavity length:
dzR2 2 − 2l
= =0 ⇒ l = =1 m .
dl 4
Thus, the maximum beam waist spot size is reached when the cavity length is chosen
to be the same as the radius of curvature of each mirror. Then, for λ = 1.064 μm ,
l ( 2 − l ) 1 2
z=
2
R = m ⇒ z=
R 0.5 m
4 4
The maximum spot size at the beam waist is
12
 λ zR   1.064 × 10−6 × 0.5 
12
=w0 =   =  411.5 μm .
 π   π 
For w0 = 350 μm , we find that
π w02 π × ( 350 × 10 )
−6 2
=
zR = =
m 0.362 m .
λ 1.064 × 10−6
Using the relation for zR2 obtained in (c), we find
l ( 2 − l )
zR2 = ⇒ l = ±  2 − 4 zR2 =1.69 m or 0.31 m .
4
There are two choices for the cavity length: l = 1.69 m or l = 0.31 m .
Because l = 1.5 m satisfies the condition that 0 ≤ l ≤ 2 m found in (a), the cavity is
stable with l = 1.5 m . Then,
l ( 2 − l ) l ( 2 − l )
=zR2 ⇒=zR = 0.433 m .
4 2
The beam waist spot size is
12
 λ zR   1.064 × 10−6 × 0.433 
12
=w0 =   =  383 μm .
 π   π 
6.5.4 By doubling the cavity length to l = 600 μm , the cavity round-trip time is doubled:
2nl 2 × 3.5 × 600 × 10−6

=
T = = s 14 ps .
c 3 × 108
The longitudinal mode frequency spacing is halved:
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz = 71.4 GHz .
T 14 × 10−12
The finesse of the cavity is unchanged:
π R11 4 R21 4 π × 0.31 4 × 0.31 4

=F = = 2.46 .
1 − R11 2 R21 2 1 − 0.31 2 × 0.31 2
The longitudinal mode width is halved:
∆ν L 71.4
∆ν c= = = 29 GHz .
F 2.46
The photon lifetime is doubled:
nl 3.5 × 600 × 10−6

=τc = = s 5.8 ps .
(
c − ln R1 R2 ) (
3 × 108 × − ln 0.3 × 0.3 )
The cavity decay rate is halved:
1 1
γ= = s −=
1
1.7 × 1011 s −1 .
c
τc 5.8 × 10−12
The quality factor is doubled
2π c 2π × 3 × 108
Q = ωτ c = τc = × 5.8 × 10−12 = 8.4 × 103 .
λ 1.3 × 10 −6
6.5.5 The distributed loss does not affect the cavity round-trip time:
2nl 2 × 3.5 × 300 × 10−6

=
T = = s 7 ps .
c 3 × 108
The longitudinal mode frequency spacing is unchanged:
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz =142.9 GHz .
T 7 × 10−12
=
The distributed loss does affect the finesse. With α 10
= cm −1 103 m −1 , the finesse
of the cavity is reduced to
π R11 4 R21 4 e−α l 2 π × 0.31 4 × 0.31 4 e−0.15

=F = = 1.9 .
1 − R11 2 R21 2 e −α l 1 − 0.31 2 × 0.31 2 e−0.3
The longitudinal mode width is increased:
∆ν L 142.9
∆ν c= = = 75.2 GHz .
F 1.9
The photon lifetime is reduced:
nl 3.5 × 300 × 10−6

=τc = = s 2.3 ps .
(
c α l − ln R1 R2 ) (
3 × 108 × 0.3 − ln 0.3 × 0.3 )
The cavity decay rate is increased
1 1
γ= = s −=
1
4.3 × 1011 s −1 .
c
τc 2.3 × 10−12
The quality factor of the cavity is reduced:

2π c 2π × 3 × 108
Q = ωτ c = τc = × 2.3 × 10−12 = 3.3 × 103 .
λ 1.3 × 10−6
6.5.6 Because the fiber-based cavity has a long physical length, the small distributed loss
has a nonnegligible effect.
The round-trip optical path length is
lRT =
2nl =×
2 1.45 × 20 m =
58 m .
The round-trip time is
lRT 58
=
T = =
s 193 ns .
c 3 × 108
The longitudinal mode spacing is
1 1
∆ν L = = Hz = 5.18 MHz .
T 193 × 10−9
The free-spectral range is the longitudinal mode spacing; thus FSR = 5.17 MHz .
For the cold cavity,
Gc = R11 2 R21 2 e−α l = 0.8 × 0.8 × e−0.005×20 = 0.724 .
The finesse is
π Gc1 2 π × 0.724
=F = = 9.7 .
1 − Gc 1 − 0.724
∆ν L 5.18
∆ν c= = MHz= 534 kHz.
F 9.7
The photon lifetime is
T 193
τc =
− =
− ns =
299 ns .
2 ln Gc 2 × ln ( 0.724 )
1
γ= = 3.34 × 106 s −1 .
c
τc
The Q factor for λ = 1.3 μm is
ω 2π c 2π × 3 × 108
=
Q = = = 4.34 × 108 .
γ c λγ c 1.3 × 10−6 × 3.34 × 106
Chapter 7
Optical Absorption and Emission
7.1 Optical Transitions

7.1.1 All of the processes considered here cause homogeneous broadening because they are
common to all Cr 3+ ions. Inhomogeneous broadening mechanisms are not considered
in this problem.
The upper level 2 relaxes purely radiatively only to the lower level 1 . Therefore,
γ 2 = γ 2rad and γ 2nonrad = 0 . Given τ 2 = 3 ms , we find
γ=
1
=
1 −1
s= 333 s −1 , γ 2 = γ=
rad
2 333 s −1 , γ 2nonrad = 0 .
τ2 3 × 10 −3
2
Because the level 1 is the ground level, it does not relax to any other level. Thus,
γ 1 γ=
= rad
1 γ 1nonrad
= 0.
Using the results from (a), we find that
γ 21natural =
2
(
1 rad
γ 1 + γ 2rad ) = ( 0 + 333) s −1 =167 s −1 ,
1
2
1 1
γ 21life = ( γ 1 + γ 2 ) = ( 0 + 333) s −1 = 167 s −1 .
2 2
The natural linewidth and the lifetime-broadened linewidth are, respectively,
γ 21natural γ life
∆ν natural = = 53 Hz, ∆ν life = 21 = 53 Hz .
π π
If no other mechanisms further broaden this line, this emission line has a Lorentzian
lineshape with a homogeneously broadened linewidth of ∆ν h = ∆ν life =
53 Hz .
Given a predominantly homogeneous linewidth of ∆ν =330 GHz , we have
γ 21 = π∆ν h ≈ π∆ν = 1.04 × 1012 s −1 .
Thus, the dephasing rate is
γ 21dephase =γ 21 − γ 21life ≈ 1.04 × 1012 s −1 .
Part of the linewidth is caused by inhomogeneous broadening due to random

distribution of the Cr 3+ ions. Therefore, the actual dephasing rate is smaller than that
found above.
7.1.2 Because the lower level is the ground level for each medium, the lifetime phase
relaxation rates are estimated to be
1 1 1  1
γ 21life =  + ≈ = 1.56 × 105 s −1 for Ti:sapphire,
2  τ 2 τ 1  2τ 2
1 1 1  1
γ 21life =  + ≈ = 7.46 × 103 s −1 for Cr:LiSAF.
2  τ 2 τ 1  2τ 2
The expected lifetime-broadened homogeneous linewidths are
γ 21life
∆ν life = = 49.7 kHz for Ti:sapphire,
π
γ life
∆ν life = 21 = 2.37 kHz for Cr:LiSAF.
π
These linewidths are 9 to 10 orders of magnitude smaller than the observed

homogeneous linewidths of ∆ν ≈ 100 THz for Ti:sapphire and ∆ν ≈ 83 THz for
Cr:LiSAF. These broad homogeneous linewidths are caused by dephasing due to
interactions of the active ions with the host crystal lattice through collisions with the
phonons of lattice vibrations, which have a very large dephasing rates leading to very
large homogeneous broadening. For both media, the inhomogeneous broadening due
to random distribution of the active ions in the host crystal is much smaller than the
homogeneous dephasing broadening.
7.1.3 Natural broadening and lifetime broadening are homogeneous broadening mechanisms.
Pressure broadening is a homogeneous mechanism, whereas Doppler broadening is an
inhomogeneous broadening mechanism.
With τ 2rad = 4 s and τ 1rad = 200 ms , the radiative relaxation rates are
1 1 −1 1 1
γ=
rad
= =
s 0.25 s −1 , γ=
rad
= s −1 5 s −1 .
=
τ2 τ1 200 × 10 −3
2 rad 1 rad
4
Therefore,
γ 21natural =
2
( γ 1 + γ 2rad ) = ( 5 + 0.25 ) s −1 =2.625 s −1 .
1 rad 1
2
The natural linewidth is
γ 21natural
∆ν natural = = 0.84 Hz .
π
For T = 400 K ,
23 2 ( ln 2 )  kBT  23 2 ( ln 2 )  1.38 × 10−23 × 400 

12 12 12 12
=∆ν D =  M   =  61.1 MHz .

λ   10.6 × 10−6  44 × 1.66 × 10−27 
For T = 700 K
23 2 ( ln 2 )  kBT  23 2 ( ln 2 )  1.38 × 10−23 × 700 

12 12 12 12
=∆ν D =  M   =  80.8 MHz .

λ   10.6 × 10−6  44 × 1.66 × 10−27 
The Doppler-broadened linewidth ranges between 61.1 MHz and 80.8 MHz for a
CO 2 gain medium of a temperature between 400 K and 700 K .
With τ 2 = 10 μs and τ 1 = 1 μs , the total relaxation rates are
1 1 1 1
γ2 = = s −1 = 1 × 105 s −1 , γ1 = = s −1 = 1 × 106 s −1 .
τ2 10 × 10−6 τ1 1 × 10−6
From (a), γ 2rad = 0.25 s −1 and γ 1rad = 5 s −1 . The nonradiative relaxation rates are
γ 2nonrad =
γ 2 − γ 2rad =
1 × 105 s −1 , γ 1nonrad =−
γ 1 γ 1rad =
1 × 106 s −1 .
Therefore,
(γ 1 + γ 2 )= (1 × 106 + 1 × 105 ) s−1= 5.5 × 105 s−1 .

1 1
γ 21lifetime=
2 2
The homogeneously broadened linewidth is
γ life
∆ν h =
∆ν life =21 =175 kHz .
π
At T = 400 K, the inhomogeneously broadened linewidth is ∆ν inh = ∆ν D = 61.1 MHz

from (b). Because ∆ν D  ∆ν life , the linewidth is almost all contributed by Doppler
broadening. Therefore, the medium is inhomogeneously broadened with a Gaussian
lineshape that has a linewidth of ∆ν inh =∆ν D =61.1 MHz .
With τ 2 = 100 ns and τ 1 = 1 ns , the total relaxation rates are
1 1 1 1
γ2 = = s −1 = 1 × 107 s −1 , γ1 = = s −1 = 1 × 109 s −1 .
τ2 100 × 10−9 τ1 1 × 10−9
From (a), γ 2rad = 0.25 s −1 and γ 1rad = 5 s −1 . The nonradiative relaxation rates are
γ 2nonrad =
γ 2 − γ 2rad =
1 × 107 s −1 , γ 1nonrad =−
γ 1 γ 1rad =
1 × 109 s −1 .
Therefore,
(γ 1 + γ 2 =) (1 × 109 + 1 × 107 ) s−=1 5.05 × 108 s−1 .

1 1
γ 21lifetime=
2 2
The homogeneously broadened linewidth is
γ life
∆ν h =
∆ν life =21 =160.7 MHz .
π
At T = 700 K, the inhomogeneously broadened linewidth is ∆ν inh = ∆ν D = 80.8 MHz

from (b). Because ∆ν life ≈ 2∆ν D , pressure broadening dominates Doppler broadening.
The emission line is dominantly, but not completely, homogeneously broadened. The
lineshape is Voigt, and the linewidth is
∆ν ≈ 0.5346∆ν life + 0.2166∆ν life

2
+ ∆ν D2 =
196 MHz .
7.1.4 At =
T 1200 °=
C 1473 K , the Doppler broadened linewidths at the two lines are
23 2 ( ln 2 )  kBT  23 2 ( ln 2 )  1.38 × 10−23 × 1473 

12 12 12 12
=∆ν D
=  M   =  2.67 GHz ,
λ
488
  488 × 10−9  40 × 1.66 × 10−27 
23 2 ( ln 2 )  kBT  23 2 ( ln 2 )  1.38 × 10−23 × 1473 
12 12 12 12
=∆ν D
=  M   =  2.53 GHz .
λ
514.5
  514.5 × 10−9  40 × 1.66 × 10−27 
Both lines are inhomogeneously broadened with a Gaussian lineshape.
7.2 Transition Rates

7.2.1 The ruby rod has a volume of
l π ( 5 × 10−3 2 ) × 6 × 10−2 m=
= π ( d 2 ) =
2
1.18 × 10−6 m3 .
2 3
It is pumped to have a concentration in the upper level 2 of
N2 = 7.9 × 1018 cm −3 =
50% N t = 7.9 × 1024 m −3 .
τ 2 τ=
The upper level relaxes radiatively with = rad
2 3 ms , and it relaxes only through
the λ = 694.3 nm emission. Therefore, the spontaneous radiative lifetime of this
emission line is
τ=
sp τ=
rad
2 3 ms .
Because the spontaneous emission decays at the fluorescence time of the upper level,
which is the total lifetime τ 2 = 3 ms .
Because the upper level 2 only relaxes through emission at the λ = 694.3 nm
wavelength, the total number density S694.3 of spontaneous photons emitted at
λ = 694.3 nm is simply N 2 :
= N=
S694.3 2 7.9 × 1024 m −3 .
The photon energies at λ = 694.3 nm is
1.2398
hν = eV .
0.6943
The spontaneous optical energy emitted at this wavelengths is

1.2398
= hν S694.3=
U 694.3  × 1.6 × 10−19 × 7.9 × 1024 × 1.18 × 10−6=
J 2.66 J ,
0.6943
Because this optical energy decays at the fluorescence time of τ 2 = 3 ms , the optical
power is
U 694.3 2.66
=
P694.3 = = W 887 W .
τ2 3 × 10−3
7.2.2 The Lorentzian lineshape is homogeneously broadened, and the Gaussian lineshape is
inhomogeneously broadened. The peak emission cross sections for the two lineshapes
are those given in (7.41) and (7.42), respectively:
( ln 2 ) λ 2
12
λ2
σ =
h
, σ inh
= .
4π 2 n 2 ∆ν hτ sp 4π 3 2 n 2 ∆ν inhτ sp
e e
If all the parameters are the same, we find that
σ inh
= (=
π ln 2 )
e 12
1.476 .
h
σe
Therefore, the emission line that has a Gaussian lineshape has a larger peak emission
cross section. It is larger than the peak emission cross section of the emission line that
has a Lorentzian lineshape by 47.6%.
7.2.3 The Lorentzian lineshape is homogeneously broadened, and the Gaussian lineshape is
inhomogeneously broadened. The peak emission cross sections for the two lineshapes
are those given in (7.41) and (7.42), respectively:
( ln 2 ) λ 2
12
λ2
σ =
h
, σ inh
= .
4π 2 n 2 ∆ν hτ sp 4π 3 2 n 2 ∆ν inhτ sp
e e
In this problem, all parameters except τ sp have the same values for the two emission
lines that have different shapes. Therefore, the spontaneous lifetime must have
different values, which requires the spontaneous emission rates to be different:
τ spinh Ah
= (π ln 2 ) = 1.476 ⇒ = (π ln 2 ) = 1.476 .
12 12
τ sph Ainh
Therefore, the emission line that has a Gaussian lineshape has a larger spontaneous
lifetime and a correspondingly smaller spontaneous emission rate.
7.2.4 No, they are not necessarily the same. According to (7.39),
g2
σ a (ν ) = σ e (ν ) .
g1
From this relation, we find that σ a > σ e if g 2 > g1 , whereas σ a < σ e if g 2 < g1 .
Therefore, either cross section can be larger or smaller than the other, depending on
the ratio of the degeneracies of the upper and lower levels for the spectral line.
7.2.5 Because the upper level 2 relaxes only through the λ = 694.3 nm spectral line with
τ 2 τ=
= rad
2 3 ms , the spontaneous radiative lifetime is τ=
sp τ=
rad
2 3 ms . Then, using
(7.41) and given parameters for ruby, the emission cross section is found to be
σ
= h λ2
=
( 694.3 × 10 ) −9 2
m 2 3.98 × 10−24 m 2 ,
=
4π n ∆ν hτ sp 4π × 1.76 × 330 × 10 × 3 × 10 −3
e 2 2 2 2 9
which is about 60% larger than the value listed in Table 7.1. The reason is that there is
a level 2A that lies very closely above the upper level E . Because it takes the
population away from the level E through thermal excitation, the measured emission
cross section is reduced from calculated emission cross section to account for this fact.
The absorption cross section is
g 2
σ a =2 σ e =× 3.98 × 10−24 m 2 =
1.99 × 10−24 m 2 .
g1 4
7.2.6 Because the λ = 510.5 nm line of copper vapor is almost entirely Doppler broadened,
it is inhomogeneously broadened with ∆ν inh =
2.3 GHz . With a spontaneous radiative
lifetime of τ sp = 500 ns , the emission cross section is found using (7.42) to be
( ln 2 ) × ( 510.5 × 10−9 )
2
( ln 2 ) λ 2
12 12
σ=inh
= m=
2
8.5 × 10−18 m 2 ,
4π 3 2 n 2 ∆ν inhτ sp 4π 3 2 × 12 × 2.3 × 109 × 500 × 10−9
e
which is almost the same as the value listed in Table 7.1

7.3 Attenuation and Amplification of Optical Fields

7.3.1 At λa = 490 nm , Ti:sapphire has a very small emission cross section
σ e ( λa ) ≈ 3 × 10−28 m 2 , which is only 4.7 × 10−5 σ a ( λa ) . At λe = 795 nm it has a very
small absorption cross section of σ a ( λe ) ≈ 8 × 10−26 m 2 , which is only
2.4 × 10−3 σ e ( λe ) . Therefore,
α ( λa ) = N1σ a ( λa ) − N 2σ e ( λa ) ≈ N1σ a ( λa )
and
g ( λe ) = N 2σ e ( λe ) − N1σ a ( λe ) ≈ N 2σ e ( λe ) .
When the Ti:sapphire rod is not pumped, all Ti3+ ions are in the lower level such that
N1 = N t because the upper level lies very high above it. Therefore,
α ( λa ) 200
α ( λa ) = N tσ a ( λa ) ⇒ N t = = m −3 =3.13 × 1025 m −3 .
σ a ( λa ) 6.4 × 10−24
A gain coefficient of g ( λe ) = 20 m −1 needs an upper-level population density of
g ( λe ) 20
g ( λe ) =N 2σ e ( λe ) ⇒ N 2 = = m −3 =5.88 × 1023 m −3 .
σ e ( λe ) 3.4 × 10 −23
Thus,
N 2 5.88 × 1023
= = 1.88% .
N t 3.12 × 1025
Only 1.88% of the total ions have to be excited to the upper level.
7.3.2 For the attenuation or amplification of the optical power, (7.51) and (7.52) are
expressed in terms of the optical power rather than in terms of the optical intensity.
=
The Ti:sapphire rod has n = 1.76 and l 10 = cm 0.1 m −1 .
Using (7.49) with α ( λa ) = 200 m −1 , we find the imaginary part of the resonant
susceptibility at λa = 490 nm :
nc nλa 1.76 × 490 × 10−9

′′ ( λa ) =
χ res α ( λa ) = α ( λa ) = × 200 = 2.75 × 10−5 .
ωa 2π 2π
Expressing (7.51) in terms of power, we find with Pin ( λa ) = 1 W the output power:
dP
−α P
= ⇒ Pin ( λa ) e −α l =
Pout ( λa ) = 1 × e −200×0.1 W =
2.1 nW .
dz
Basically all input power is absorbed.

Using (7.50) with g ( λe ) = 20 m −1 , we find the imaginary part of the resonant
susceptibility at λe = 795 nm :
nc nλ 1.76 × 795 × 10−9

′′ ( λe ) =
χ res − g ( λe ) =
− e g ( λe ) =
− −4.45 × 10−6 .
× 20 =
ωe 2π 2π
Expressing (7.52) in terms of power, we find with Pin ( λe ) = 1 mW the output power:
dP
gP
= ⇒ Pout ( λe ) =
Pin ( λe ) eg l =
1 × e20×0.1 mW =
7.4 mW .
dz
The power emitted through stimulated emission is Pstimulated = Pout − Pin = 6.4 mW .
7.3.3 With Pout= = 1.2 and l = 1 m , we find using (7.52) expressed in terms of
Pin 120%
power that the gain coefficient is
dP 1 P 1
gP
= ⇒ Pout =
Pin eg l ⇒ g =ln out =× ln1.2 m −1 =
0.182 m −1 .
dz l Pin 1
Because Ne does not absorbed at this wavelength, N1 = 0 . Therefore, the excited Ne

population density is found as
g 0.182
g =N 2σ e ⇒ N2 = = m −3 =6.07 × 1015 m −3 .
σ e 3 × 10−17
7.3.4 Because σ a ≠ 0 and σ e ≠ 0 , we have, from (7.45) and (7.46),
N 2σ e − N1σ a =
g= −α .
Because all Er 3+ ions are distributed only between the two levels of the λ = 1.53 μm
transition, we have
N1 + N 2 = N t ⇒ N1 = N t − N 2 ⇒ g = N 2σ e − N1σ a = N 2 (σ e + σ a ) − N tσ a .
Therefore, with α 0 = N tσ a ,
g + N tσ a g + α0
=N2 = .
σe + σa σe + σa
When the fiber is not pumped, all Er 3+ ions are in the ground level so that N1 = N t
and N 2 = 0 . Therefore,
α = N1σ a − N 2σ e = N tσ a = 2.2 × 1024 × 5.7 × 10−25 m −1 = 1.254 m −1 .

For the fiber to be transparent with α= g= 0 , we need
N tσ a N2 σa 5.7
N 2= ⇒ = = = 41.9% .
σe + σa N t σ e + σ a 7.9 + 5.7
For a gain coefficient of g = 0.2 m −1 we need
g + α0 0.2 + 1.254 −3
=
N2 = m= 1.07 × 1024 m −3 .
σ e + σ a 7.9 × 10 + 5.7 × 10
−25 −25
N 2 1.07 × 1024
⇒ = = 48.6% .
Nt 2.2 × 1024
For a gain coefficient of g = α 0 , we need
g + α0 2α 0 2 × 1.254
=N2 = = = m −3 1.84 × 1024 m −3 .
σ e + σ a σ e + σ a 7.9 × 10 + 5.7 × 10
−25 −25
N 2 1.84 × 1024
⇒ = = 83.6% .
Nt 2.2 × 1024
When all Er 3+ ions are pumped to the upper level, N 2 = N t and N1 = 0 . Thus the
maximum gain coefficient is reached:
g max = N 2σ e − N1σ a = N tσ e = 2.2 × 1024 × 7.9 × 10−25 m −1 = 1.738 m −1 .
The maximum gain coefficient g max is larger than the maximum absorption coefficient
α 0 because the emission cross section σ e is larger than the absorption cross section
σ a . Indeed, g max α 0 = σ e σ a .
Chapter 8
Optical Amplification
8.1 Population Rate Equations

For a four-level system, N1 ≈ 0 . Only (8.1) for N 2 has to be considered, and the
effective population inversion defined in (8.4) is simply N = N 2 . Therefore, (8.1)
simply reduces to the form of (8.6) with R = R2 and β = 1 :
dN 2 N I dN N I
=R2 − 2 − ( N 2σ e − N1σ a ) ⇒ =R − − β σ e N .
dt τ 2 hν dt τ2 hν
For a two-level or three-level system, N1 + N 2 ≈ N t and σ a ≠ 0 . Then, using

g = σ e N from (8.5) and the definition in (8.7) of the bottleneck factor β = 1 + σ a σ e ,
we can expressed the upper laser population N 2 in terms of the effective population
inversion N by using (8.20):
 1 N
N2 =
1 −  N t + .
 β β
Then, by plugging this relation in (8.1), we find the rate equation in terms of the
effective population inversion N :
dN 2 N I
=R2 − 2 − ( N 2σ e − N1σ a )
dt τ 2 hν
dN 2 N I  σ  N I
⇒ =R2 − 2 − σ e  N 2 − a N1  =R2 − 2 − σ e N
dt τ 2 hν  σe  τ 2 hν
1 dN  1N 1 N I
⇒ = R2 − 1 −  t − − σeN
β dt  β  τ 2 β τ 2 hν
dN N N I
⇒ = β R2 − ( β − 1) t − − β σ e N
dt τ2 τ2 hν
dN N I
⇒ =R − − β σ e N ,
dt τ2 hν
where the effective pumping rate is
Nt
R = β R2 − ( β − 1) .
τ2
In deriving the rate equation for N through the above procedure, it is not necessary to
explicitly use the rate equation for N1 given in (8.2) because N1 is accounted for by
using (8.20), which is obtained by taking N1 + N 2 ≈ N t .
By combing the result obtained above for the four-level system and that obtained
for the two-level and three-level systems, we find that the rate equation for the effective
population inversion given in (8.6) is valid for all systems if we account for the
differences among different systems by using the bottleneck factor defined in (8.7).
The bottleneck factor of this Ti:sapphire crystal at λ = 800 nm is
σa 8 × 10−26
β =+
1 =+
1 =
1.002 .
σe 3.4 × 10−23
The bottleneck factor of this Er:fiber at λ = 1.53 μm is
σa 5.7 × 10−25
β =+
1 =+
1 =
1.72 .
σe 7.9 × 10−25
The effective population inversion is
g 0.3 −3
=
N = m= 3.8 × 1023 m −3 .
σe 7.9 × 10−25
8.2 Population Inversion

With N1 + N 2 ≈ N t , we have N 2 ≈ N t − N1 . Then the gain coefficient can be
expressed in terms of N 2 and N t as
g = N 2σ e − N1σ a = N 2σ e − ( N t − N 2 ) σ a = (σ e + σ a ) N 2 − σ a N t .
Therefore,
σ a Nt + g
σ a N t + g= (σ e + σ a ) N 2 ⇒ N 2= .
σe + σa
From (8.5), g = σ e N . Then, by using β = 1 + σ a σ e and σ a σ e= β − 1 , we obtain

(8.20):
σ a N t + g (σ a σ e ) N t + N ( β − 1) N t + N  1  N
N2 = = = =1 −  N t + .
σe + σa 1+ σa σe β  β β
For the λ = 1.064 μm Nd:YAG laser line, σ=

e 4.5 × 10−23 m 2 and the absorption cross
section is σ a = 0 . For a gain coefficient of g = 6 m −1 , we find using (8.5) that the
required effective population inversion is
g 6 −3
=
N = m= 1.33 × 1023 m −3 .
σe 4.5 × 10−23
Using (8.20), we find that the required population density in the upper laser level is
σ a Nt + g g 6 −3
N= = = m= 1.33 × 1023 m −3 .
2
σ e + σ a σ e 4.5 × 10−23
We find that N = N 2 for the λ = 1.064 μm line because σ a = 0 . The percentage of

ions that are excited is
N 2 1.33 × 1023
= =9.6 × 10−4 =0.096% .
N t 1.38 × 1026
For the λ = 694.3 nm ruby laser line, σ e 1.34 × 10−24 m 2

= and
σ a 1.25 × 10 m . For a gain coefficient of g = 6 m , we find using (8.5) that the
= −24 −1 −1
required effective population inversion is
g 6 −3
=
N = m= 4.48 × 1024 m −3 .
σe −24
1.34 × 10 m 2
Using (8.20), we find that the required population density in the upper laser level is
σ a N t + g 1.25 × 10−24 × 1.58 × 1025 + 6 −3

=
N2 = m= 9.94 × 1024 m −3 .
σe + σa −24
1.34 × 10 + 1.25 × 10 −24
We find that N ≈ 0.45 N 2 < N 2 for the λ = 694.3 nm line because σ a is comparable
to σ e . The percentage of ions that are excited is
N 2 9.94 × 1024
= = 62.9% .
N t 1.58 × 1025
We find that for the two media to have the same gain coefficient of g = 6 m −1 , only
less than 0.1% of all active ions in Nd:YAG have to be excited but as high as 62.9%,
more than half, of all active ions in ruby have to be excited. Clearly, Nd:YAG is much
more efficient than ruby. The primary reason is that σ a = 0 for Nd:YAG while σ a is
comparable to σ e for ruby.
For this Ti:sapphire crystal σ=

e 3.4 × 10−23 m 2 and σ a = 8 × 10−26 m 2 at λ = 800 nm ,
and N=
t 1.0 × 1025 m −3 .
At transparency, g = 0 . Thus, the required population density of the upper laser level
is found using (8.21) as
σa 8 × 10−26
N 2tr = Nt = × 1.0 × 1025 m −3 = 2.35 × 1022 m −3 .
σe + σa 3.4 × 10−23 + 8 × 10−26
The percentage of ions that are excited is
N 2tr 2.35 × 1022

= = 2.35 × 10−3 = 0.235% .
Nt 1.0 × 1025
(b) The required effective population inversion for g = 15 m −1 at λ = 800 nm is
g 15 −3
N == =
m 4.41 × 1023 m −3 .
σe 3.4 × 10 −23
For g = 15 m −1 , the required population density of the upper laser level is found using
(8.20) as
σ a N t + g 8 × 10−26 × 1 × 1025 + 15 −3
=
N2 = = 4.64 × 1023 m −3 .
m
σe + σa −23
3.4 × 10 + 8 × 10 −26
N 2 4.64 × 1023
= = 4.64% .
Nt 1.0 × 1025
The percentage of the excited ions that effectively contribute to the population
inversion is
N 4.41 × 1023
= = 95% .
N 2 4.64 × 1023
For this Er:fiber, σ=

e 7.9 × 10−25 m 2 and σ=
a 5.7 × 10−25 m 2 at λ = 1.53 μm , and
N=
t 2.2 × 1024 m −3 .
At transparency, g = 0 . Thus, the required population density of the upper laser level
is found using (8.21) as
σa 5.7 × 10−25
N 2tr = Nt = × 2.2 × 1024 m −3 = 9.22 × 1023 m −3 .
σe + σa 7.9 × 10−25 + 5.7 × 10−25
N 2tr 9.22 × 1023

= = 41.9% .
Nt 2.2 × 1024
(b) The required effective population inversion for g = 0.3 m −1 at λ = 1.53 μm is
g 0.3 −3
N= = m= 3.8 × 1023 m −3 .
σe 7.9 × 10−25
For g = 0.3 m −1 , the required population density of the upper laser level is found using
(8.20) as
σ a N t + g 5.7 × 10−25 × 2.2 × 1024 + 0.3 −3

=
N2 = m= 1.14 × 1024 m −3 .
σe + σa 7.9 × 10−25 + 5.7 × 10−25
N 2 1.14 × 1024
= = 51.8% .
Nt 2.2 × 1024
The percentage of the excited ions that effectively contribute to the population
inversion is
N 3.8 × 1023
= = 33% .
N 2 1.14 × 1024
8.3 Optical Gain

With N1 + N 2 ≈ N t and (8.20), R2 can be expressed in terms of N t and the population
inversion N as
Wp
R= Wp ( N1 − pN 2=
) Wp  N t − (1 + p ) N 2= (1 + p ) ( N t − N ) − pWp N t .
β
2
Then, the effective pumping rate found in Problem 8.1.1 can be expressed as
Nt  β − 1
R = β R2 − ( β − 1) =  1 − ( β − 1) p  Wp −  N − (1 + p )Wp N .
τ2  τ2  t
By solving (8.6) in the steady state for dN dt = 0 with this pumping rate, we find
1 − ( β − 1) p  Wpτ 2 − ( β − 1)
N= Nt
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2 + β I σ eτ 2 hν
1 − ( β − 1) p  Wpτ 2 − ( β − 1)
⇒ g = σeN =  σ e Nt .
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2 + β I σ eτ 2 hν
This gain coefficient can be expressed in the form of (8.22),
g0
g= ,
1 + I I sat
by identifying g 0 and I sat as
1 − ( β − 1) p  Wpτ 2 − ( β − 1)
g0 =  σ e Nt
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2
and
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2 hν hν
=I sat =
βτ 2 σe τ sσ e
as in (8.23), where the saturation lifetime has the form of (8.34):

β
τs = τ2 .
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2
The unsaturated gain coefficient g 0 can be expressed in terms of τ s in the form of

(8.33) as
1 − ( β − 1) p  Wpτ 2 − ( β − 1)
g0 =  σ e Nt
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2
β Wpτ 2 − ( β − 1) + ( β − 1) p  Wpτ 2 − ( β − 1)
= σ e Nt
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2
 β Wpτ 2 
=  − ( β − 1)  σ e N t
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2 
= (W τ p s + 1 − β )σ e N t .
Because the saturation lifetime τ s is a function of the pumping probability rate Wp ,

we have to expressed the unsaturated gain coefficient g 0 in terms of τ 2 instead of τ s
in finding Wp for a given g 0 . Using (8.33) and (8.34), the unsaturated gain coefficient
can be expressed in terms of Wp and τ 2 as
 β Wpτ 2 
=
g0 (W τ+ 1 − β ) σ e=
Nt  + 1 − β  σ e Nt .
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2
p s

For simplicity of expression, let x = Wpτ 2 and y = g 0 σ e N t . Then,
βx βx
=y +1− β β −1+ y
⇒ =
1 + (1 + p ) x 1 + (1 + p ) x
⇒ β x = β − 1 + y + (1 + p )( β − 1 + y ) x
β −1+ y β −1+ y
=⇒ x =
β − (1 + p )( β − 1 + y ) 1 − p ( β − 1) − (1 + p ) y
β − 1 + g0 σ e Nt ( β − 1) σ e N t + g 0
=⇒ Wpτ 2 = .
1 − p ( β − 1) − (1 + p ) g 0 σ e N t 1 − p ( β − 1)  σ e N t − (1 + p ) g 0
Therefore, the required pumping probability rate is that given in (8.35):
1 ( β − 1) σ e N t + g 0
W= ⋅ .
p
τ 2 1 − p ( β − 1)  σ e N t − (1 + p ) g 0
At the transparency point, g 0 = 0 . Using (8.35), we find that
β −1
Wpτ 2 =
1 − p ( β − 1)
at transparency. By plugging this relation into (8.34), we find that
β τ2β τ 2 β 1 − p ( β − 1) 
=τ str τ= = .
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2 1 + 1 + p β −1 1 − p ( β − 1) + (1 + p )( β − 1)
2
( )
1 − p ( β − 1)
After simplifying this relation, we find that
τ str =τ 2 1 − p ( β − 1)  .
For three-level and four-level systems, p = 0 . For an efficient quasi-two-level system,

p ≈ 0 . Therefore, τ str = τ 2 at the transparency point for most laser systems.
The Ti:sapphire crystal is a quasi-two-level system at the emission wavelength of

λ = 800 nm with σ=e 3.4 × 10−23 m 2 and σ a ≈ 8 × 10−26 m 2 . The density of the active
ions is N=
t 1.0 × 1025 m −3 . With σ=
p
a 7.4 × 10−24 m 2 and σ ep ≈ 3 × 10−26 m 2 at the
pump wavelength of λp = 532 nm , we find that
σ ep 3 × 10−26
=
p = = 4.1 × 10−3 .
σ ap 7.4 × 10−24
The photon energies at the emission and pump wavelengths are, respectively,
1239.8 1239.8
=hν = and hν p =
eV 1.55 eV = eV 2.33 eV
800 532
Using (8.30), (8.25), and (8.23) for a quasi-two-level-level system, we find the
pumping rate, the saturation lifetime, and the saturation intensity for g 0 = 0 at
transparency to be
1 σa 1 8 × 10−26
Wptr = ⋅ = −6 × 735 s −1 ,
=
τ 2 σ e − pσ a 3.2 × 10 −23 −3
3.4 × 10 − 4.1 × 10 × 8 × 10 −26
1+ σa σe 1 + 8 × 10−26 3.4 × 10−23

τ str =
τ2 =
3.2 × μs =
3.2 μs ,
1 + (1 + p )Wp τ 2 1 + (1 + 4.1 × 10−3 ) × 735 × 3.2 × 10−6
tr
hν 1.55 × 1.6 × 10−19

= tr
I sat = m −2 2.28 GW m −2 .
W=
τs σe
tr
3.2 × 10−6 × 3.4 × 10−23
The parameters for an unsaturated gain coefficient of g 0 = 15 m −1 are

1 σ a Nt + g0
W= ⋅
p
τ2 ( e
σ − pσ a ) N t − (1 + p ) g 0
1 8 × 10−26 × 1 × 1025 + 15
= ×
3.2 × 10 −6
( 3.4 × 10−23 − 4.1× 10−3 × 8 × 10−26 ) × 1× 1025 − (1 + 4.1× 10−3 ) × 15
= 1.52 × 104 s −1 ,
1+ σa σe 1 + 8 × 10−26 3.4 × 10−23
τs =
τ2 =
3.2 × μs =
3.06 μs ,
1 + (1 + p )Wpτ 2 1 + (1 + 4.1 × 10−3 ) × 1.52 × 104 × 3.2 × 10−6
hν 1.55 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
I sat = m −2 2.38 GW m −2 .
W=
τ sσ e −6
3.06 × 10 × 3.4 × 10 −23
The required pump intensity for a pumping transition probability rate of Wp is
1 hν p
Ip = Wp .
ηp σ ap
With ηp = 0.9 , the required pump intensity for transparency is
1 hν pWp 1 2.33 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 735

tr
I ptr = = × W m −2 =
41 MW m −2 ,
ηp σ ap 0.9 7.4 × 10−24
and that for g 0 = 15 m −1 is
1 hν pWp 1 2.33 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1.52 × 104

Ip = = × W m −2 =
851 MW m −2 .
ηp σ ap 0.9 7.4 × 10−24
The Gaussian beam has a cross-sectional area of
π × ( 200 × 10−6 )
2
π w02
=
 = m 2 6.28 × 10−8 m 2 .
=
2 2
The peak intensity of the beam is
P 1
=
I = W m −=
2
15.9 MW m −2 .
 6.28 × 10−8
With I sat = 2.38 GW m −2 for g 0 = 15 m −1 , the saturated gain coefficient is
g0 15
=g = = m −1 14.9 m −1 .
1 + I I sat 15.9 × 106
1+
2.38 × 109
The gain is only slightly saturated because of the high saturation intensity.
The Er:fiber is optically pumped at λp = 980 nm with =

σ ap 2.58 × 10−25 m 2 as a three-
level system at the emission wavelength of λ = 1.53 μm with σ=
e 7.9 × 10−25 m 2 and
σ=a 5.7 × 10−25 m 2 . The density of the active ions is N=
t 2.2 × 1024 m −3 . The photon
energies at the emission and pump wavelengths are, respectively,
1.2398 1239.8
=hν = and hν p =
eV 0.81 eV = eV 1.265 eV
1.53 980
Using (8.31), (8.27) and (8.23) for a three-level system, we find the pumping rate, the
saturation lifetime, and the saturation intensity for g 0 = 0 at transparency to be
1 σa 1 5.7 × 10−25 −1
Wptr = ⋅ = × s =72.2 s −1 ,
τ2 σe 10 × 10−3 7.9 × 10−25
1+ σa σe
τ s=
tr
τ2 = τ= 10 ms ,
1 + Wptrτ 2
2
hν 0.81 × 1.6 × 10−19

= tr
I sat = m −2 16.4 MW m −2 .
W=
τs σe
tr
10 × 10−3 × 7.9 × 10−25
The parameters for an unsaturated gain coefficient of g 0 = 0.3 m −1 are
1 σ a Nt + g0 1 5.7 × 10−25 × 2.2 × 1024 + 0.3

Wp = ⋅ =−3 × 108 s −1 ,
=
τ 2 σ e N t − g 0 10 × 10 7.9 × 10−25 × 2.2 × 1024 − 0.3
1+ σa σe 1 + 5.7 7.9
τs =τ2 =10 × 10−3 × s =8.28 ms ,
1 + Wpτ 2 1 + 108 × 10 × 10−3
hν 0.81 × 1.6 × 10−19
=
I sat = m −2 19.8 MW m −2 .
W=
τ sσ e 8.28 × 10−3 × 7.9 × 10−25
The required pump intensity for a pumping transition probability rate of Wp is
1 hν p
Ip = Wp .
ηp σ ap
With ηp = 0.8 , the required pump intensity for transparency is
1 hν pWp 1 1.265 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 72.2

tr
I ptr = = × W m −2 =
70.8 MW m −2 ,
ηp σ ap 0.8 2.58 × 10−25
and that for g 0 = 0.3 m −1 is
1 hν pWp 1 1.265 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 108

Ip = = × W m −2 =
106 MW m −2 .
ηp σ ap 0.8 2.58 × 10−25
The guided pump beam has a cross-sectional area of
π × ( 3.3 × 10−6 ) m 2 =
2
=
πρ 2 = 3.42 × 10−11 m 2 .
Because only the guided pump beam has a confinement factor of Γ p =0.72 , only 72%
of its power overlaps with the active core and contributes to pump for the gain.
Therefore, the required power for g 0 = 0.3 m −1 is
I p  106 × 106 × 3.42 × 10−11

=
Pp = = 5.04 mW .
Γ 0.72
The guided signal beam has a cross-sectional area of
π × ( 4.1 × 10−6 ) m 2 =
2
=
πρ 2 = 5.28 × 10−11 m 2 .
Because the guided signal beam has a confinement factor of Γ =0.70 , only 70% of
its power overlaps with the active core and contributes to saturate the gain. Therefore,
the effective saturation power when g 0 = 0.3 m −1 is
I sat  19.8 × 106 × 5.28 × 10−11

=
Psat = = 1.49 mW .
Γ 0.70
With P = 1 mW , the saturated gain coefficient is
g0 0.3
=g = = m −1 0.18 m −1 .
1 + P Psat 1 + 1
1.49
The gain is easily saturated because of the low saturation power.

8.4 Optical Amplification

With w0 = 800 μm , the Rayleigh ranges of the two beams are
π nw02 π × 1.82 × ( 800 × 10 )

−6 2
=
zR = =m 3.44 m for λ = 1.064 μm ,
λ 1.064 × 10−6
π w02 π × 1.76 × ( 800 × 10 )
−6 2
=
zR = m 5.1 m for λ = 694.3 nm .
=
λ 694.3 × 10−9
Both Rayleigh ranges are much greater than the rod lengths of l = 10 cm and the spot
size of each beam is much smaller than the cross-sectional diameter of each rod.
Therefore, each Gaussian beam can be considered to be collimated throughout each
rod with an approximately beam cross-sectional area of
π × ( 800 × 10−6 )
2
π w02
=
 = m=
2
1.0 × 10−6 m 2 .
2 2
Then, the saturation powers are
PsatYAG = I sat
YAG
 = 17.3 × 106 × 1.0 × 10−6 W = 17.3 W for the Nd:YAG amplifier,
Psatruby= I sat
ruby
= 139.4 × 106 × 1.0 × 10−6 W= 139.4 W for the ruby amplifier.
With l = 10 cm and a uniform unsaturated gain coefficient of g 0 = 10 m −1 for both

rods, both amplifiers have the same unsaturated power gain of
= =
G0 exp (g 0l ) e1.0 .
Using (8.40), the power gain for an input signal power of Psin = 5 W can be found for
each amplifier:
 Psin  1.0  5 
GYAG = G0 exp (1 − G ) YAG = e exp (1 − GYAG )  ⇒ GYAG = 2.023 ,
 Psat   17.3 
 Ps  1.0
in
 5 
Gruby= G0 exp (1 − G ) ruby = e exp (1 − Gruby ) ⇒ Gruby= 2.57 .
 Psat   139.3 
Thus, the output signal powers are
out
Ps,YAG = GYAG Psin = 2.023 × 5 W = 10.12 W for the Nd:YAG amplifier,
out
Ps,ruby = Gruby Psin = 2.57 × 5 W = 12.85 W for the ruby amplifier.
= =
With w0 300 μm  d 3 mm , the Rayleigh range of the beam is
π nw02 π × 1.76 × ( 300 × 10 )

−6 2
=
zR = =  l 4 cm for λ = 1.064 μm .
m 62.2 cm=
λ 800 × 10−9
Therefore, each Gaussian beam can be considered to be collimated throughout the rod
with an approximately beam cross-sectional area of
π × ( 300 × 10−6 )
2
π w02
=
 = =
m 2
1.41 × 10−7 m 2 .
2 2
With I sat > 2 GW m −2 , the saturation power is
P=
sat I sat  > 2 × 109 × 1.41 × 10−7 W
= 282 W .
With l = 4 cm and a uniform unsaturated gain coefficient of g 0 = 15 m −1 , the amplifier

has an unsaturated power gain of
=
G0 exp ( g 0=
l ) e=
0.6
1.822 .
With Psat > 282 W , the power gain for an input signal power of Psin = 1 W can be
found using (8.40) as
 P in   1 
=G G0 exp (1 − G ) s  ⇒ 1.822 > G > 1.822exp (1 − G )  ≈ 1.817
 Psat   282 
⇒ G ≈ 1.82 .
Thus, the output signal power is
Ps,out = GPsin ≈ 1.82 × 1 W = 1.82 W .
With l = 10 m and a uniform unsaturated gain coefficient of g 0 = 0.3 m −1 , the fiber

amplifier has an unsaturated power gain of
G=
0 exp ( g 0 l=
) e=3 20 .
With Psat = 1.49 mW , the power gain for an input signal power of Psin = 10 μW can
be found using (8.40) as
 P in   10 × 10−6 
G = G0 exp (1 − G ) s  = 20 exp (1 − G )  =19.8 .
 Psat   1.49 × 10−3 
Thus, the output signal power is
Ps,out = GPsin ≈ 19.8 × 10 μW = 198 μW .
If the input signal power is increased to Psin = 1 mW , the saturated power gain is
reduced to
 P in   1 
G = G0 exp (1 − G ) s  = 20 exp (1 − G ) =3.57 .
 Psat   1.49 
Then the output signal power is
Ps,out = GPsin ≈ 3.57 × 1 mW = 3.57 mW .
8.5 Spontaneous Emission

When pumped to have a unsaturated gain coefficient of g 0 = 10 m −1 , the population
density in the upper laser level for each rod can be found from (8.42):
σ a N t + g 0 × 1.38 × 1026 + 10 −3
=
N 2YAG = m= 2.22 × 1023 m −3 for the Nd:YAG rod,
σe + σa 4.5 × 10−23 + 0
σ a N t + g 1.25 × 10−24 × 1.58 × 1025 + 10 −3
N 2=
ruby
= m= 1.15 × 1025 m −3 for the ruby rod.
σe + σa 1.34 × 10−24 + 1.25 × 10−24
The volume of each rod is
2
 6 × 10−3 
2
d 
 =π   l =π ×  −2 −6
 × 10 × 10 m = 2.83 × 10 m .
3 3
2  2 
For the Nd:YAG rod, τ sp = 515 μs , and the photon energy is
1.2398
=hν = eV 1.165 eV .
1.064
Therefore, the spontaneous emission power density and the spontaneous emission
power at transparency are, respectively,
hν YAG 1.165 × 1.6 × 10−19 −3

=
PˆspYAG N 2= × 2.22 × 1023 W m= 80.4 MW m −3
τ sp 515 × 10−6
and
PspYAG = PˆspYAG  = 80.4 × 106 × 2.83 × 10−6 W = 228 W .
For the ruby rod, τ sp = 3 ms , and the photon energy is
1239.8
=hν = eV 1.786 eV .
694.3
Therefore, the spontaneous emission power density and the spontaneous emission
power at transparency are, respectively,
hν ruby 1.786 × 1.6 × 10−19 −3

=
Pˆspruby N= × 1.15 × 1025 W m= 1.1 GW m −3
τ sp 2 3 × 10−3
and
Pspruby = Pˆspruby  =1.1 × 109 × 2.83 × 10−6 W =311 kW .
The volume of each rod is
2
 3 × 10−3 
2
d 
 = π   l = π × −2 −7
 × 4 × 10 m = 2.83 × 10 m .
3 3
2  2 
For λ = 800 nm , the photon energy is
1239.8
=hν = eV 1.55 eV .
800
When pumped to transparency, g 0 = 0 , the population density in the upper laser level
can be found from (8.21):
σa 8 × 10−26
N 2tr = Nt = × 1.0 × 1025 m −3 = 2.35 × 1022 m −3 .
σe + σa −23
3.4 × 10 + 8 × 10 −26
With τ sp = 3.9 μs , the critical fluorescence power density and the critical fluorescence
power are, respectively,
hν tr 1.55 × 1.6 × 10−19

Pˆsptr= N= × 2.35 × 1022 W m −3= 1.49 GW m −3
τ sp 2 3.9 × 10−6
and
Psptr = Pˆsptr  = 1.49 × 109 × 2.83 × 10−7 W = 273 W .
When the rod is uniformly pumped to have a unsaturated gain coefficient of

g 0 = 15 m −1 , the population density in the upper laser level for each rod can be found
from (8.42):
σ a N t + g 8 × 10−26 × 1 × 1025 + 15 −3
=
N2 = m= 4.64 × 1023 m −3 .
σe + σa 3.4 × 10−23 + 8 × 10−26
Then, the spontaneous emission power density and the spontaneous emission power
are, respectively,
hν 1.55 × 1.6 × 10−19

Pˆsp= N 2= × 4.64 × 1023 W m −3= 29.5 GW m −3
τ sp 3.9 × 10−6
and
Psp = Pˆsp  = 29.5 × 109 × 2.83 × 10−7 W = 8.35 kW .
The active volume of the fiber is the total volume of its core region:
π ( 4.5 × 10−6 ) × 10 m3 =
2
π a 2 l =×
= 6.36 × 10−10 m3 .
For λ = 1.53 μm , the photon energy is
1.2398
=hν = eV 0.81 eV .
1.53
When pumped to transparency, g 0 = 0 , the population density in the upper laser level
can be found from (8.21):
σa 5.7 × 10−25
N 2tr = Nt = × 2.2 × 1024 m −3 = 9.22 × 1023 m −3 .
σe + σa 7.9 × 10−25 + 5.7 × 10−25
With τ sp = 10 ms , the critical fluorescence power density and the critical fluorescence
power are, respectively,
hν tr 0.81 × 1.6 × 10−19

Pˆsptr= N 2= × 9.22 × 1023 W m −3= 11.9 MW m −3
τ sp 10 × 10−3
and
Psptr = Pˆsptr  = 11.9 × 106 × 6.36 × 10−10 W = 7.6 mW .
When the fiber is uniformly pumped to have a unsaturated gain coefficient of

g 0 = 0.3 m −1 , the population density in the upper laser level for each rod can be found
from (8.42):
σ a N t + g 5.7 × 10−25 × 2.2 × 1024 + 0.3 −3

=
N2 = m= 1.14 × 1024 m −3 .
σe + σa 7.9 × 10−25 + 5.7 × 10−25
Then, the spontaneous emission power density and the spontaneous emission power
are, respectively,
hν 0.81 × 1.6 × 10−19

Pˆsp= N 2= × 1.14 × 1024 W m −3= 14.8 MW m −3
τ sp 10 × 10−3
and
Psp = Pˆsp  = 14.8 × 106 × 6.36 × 10−10 W = 9.41 mW .

Chapter 9
Laser Oscillation
9.1 Conditions for Laser Oscillation

9.1.1 For this He–Ne laser, the gain medium fills up the cavity with lg = l = 32 cm . Using
(9.10), we find with the given parameters that the threshold gain coefficient of the
TEM 00 Gaussian laser mode is
g th =
1
l
(α l − ln R1 R2 =
1
)
0.32
( )
0.05 × 0.32 − ln 0.95 × 1 m −1 = 0.13 m −1 .
9.1.2 The intensity gain factor in a round trip through this fiber laser cavity is
(1 − η ) exp (g lg − α l ) .
G2 =
The condition for the laser to reach threshold is G = 1 , thus G 2 = 1 so that
1
g th = α l − ln (1 − η )  .
lg 
With lg = 1 m , l = 10 m , η = 10% , and =

α 10 dB km=
−1 −1
2.3 km= 2.3 × 10−3 m −1 ,
the threshold gain is
1 1
g th = α l − ln (1 − η )  =  2.3 × 10−3 × 10 − ln (1 − 0.1)  m −1 = 0.128 m −1 .

lg 1
9.1.3 For this GaAs/AlGaAs laser, the gain medium fills up the cavity length with
lg = l = 350 μm , but it only overlaps with the intensity distribution of the laser mode
in the transverse directions with a confinement factor of Γ =0.3 . Using (9.9), we find
with the given parameters that the threshold gain coefficient of the TE 0 laser mode is
1 1 
=
g th  α − ln R1 R2 
Γ l 
1  1 
= ×  25 × 102 − −6
ln 0.32 × 0.32  m −1
0.3  350 × 10 
= 1.92 × 104 m −1 .
If one of the surfaces is coated for 100% reflectivity, then R1 = 1 and R2 = 0.32 , or
R1 = 0.32 and R2 = 1 . The threshold gain coefficient is now
1 1 
=
g th  α − ln R1 R2 
Γ l 
1  1 
= ×  25 × 102 − ln 1 × 0.32  m −1
0.3  350 × 10−6 
= 1.38 × 104 m −1 .
9.2 Mode Pulling Effect

9.2.1 ′ (ω21 ) = 0 at the transition resonant frequency, there is no mode pulling
Because χ res
effect at this frequency. Consequently, if a longitudinal mode has its cold cavity
frequency tuned to match the transition resonant frequency such that ωqc = ω21 , its
frequency is not shifted by mode pulling when the laser is pumped above threshold.
Because the gain peak appears at ω21 , this frequency sees the largest gain and reaches
the threshold first when the laser is pumped. Therefore, the laser oscillates at ωqc when
it is pumped above the threshold for this mode.
9.2.2 From transparency to a gain coefficient of g = 5 × 104 m −1 , the gain coefficient has a
change of ∆g = 5 × 104 m −1 . Using
4π ∂n′ ∂N 4π ∆n′
b=
− ⇒ b=
− ,
λ ∂g ∂N λ ∆g
the corresponding change in the real part of the refractive index is
λ 850 × 10−9
∆n′ =− b∆g =− × 3 × 5 × 104 =−1.01 × 10−2 .
4π 4π
Using (9.2) and (9.3), we find the relation between ∆n′ and χ res
′ ; then,
′ =2n∆n′ =−2 × 3.65 × 1.01 × 10−2 =−7.37 × 10−2 .

χ res
The laser frequency for λ = 850 nm is= ν c λ ≈ 353 THz . Using (9.12), we find that
the frequency shift for each longitudinal mode near this laser frequency is
′
χ res −7.37 × 10−2
δν ≈ − ν =− × 353 × 1012 Hz = 976 GHz .
2nn 2 × 3.65 × 3.65
Each longitudinal mode of the laser frequency is shifted up by this amount. The
longitudinal mode frequency spacing of the cold cavity is
c 3 × 108
∆ν Lc = = Hz = 137 GHz .
2nl 2 × 3.65 × 300 × 10−6
With the index change caused by the gain change, the longitudinal mode frequency
spacing of the pumped laser is
c
∆ν Llaser = .
2 ( n + ∆n′ ) l
Therefore, the change in the longitudinal mode spacing is
∆n′ c −1.01 × 10−2

∆ν Llaser − ∆ν Lc ≈ − ∆ν L =
− × 137 GHz =
379 MHz .
n 3.65
The longitudinal spacing increases by 379 MHz .
9.3 Oscillating Laser Modes

9.3.1 With ∆λg =
48 nm and λ = 850 nm , the gain bandwidth in terms of frequency is
∆ν g ∆λg
=
ν λ
ν c 3 × 108
⇒ ∆ν g = ∆λg = 2 ∆λg = × 48 × 10−9 Hz = 19.93 THz .
λ λ (850 × 10 )
−9 2
With leff = 1.2 μm and neff = 3.52 , the longitudinal mode frequency spacing is
c 3 × 108
νL
∆= = =
Hz 35.5 THz .
2neff leff 2 × 3.52 × 1.2 × 10−6
Because ∆ν g < ∆ν L , only one mode can fall within the gain bandwidth at a time.
Therefore only one mode will oscillate no matter whether the laser is homogeneously
or inhomogeneously broadened.
9.3.2 With l = 32 cm and n ≈ 1 for the gaseous He–Ne laser gain medium, the longitudinal
mode frequency spacing is
c 3 × 108
∆ν L = = Hz = 468.75 MHz .
2nl 2 × 1 × 32 × 10−2
According to (7.12), the Doppler-broadened He–Ne laser with a FWHM gain

bandwidth of ∆ν g =
1.5 GHz and a peak gain coefficient of g 0max has a Gaussian gain
spectrum of
 (ν − ν 0 ) 
2
g 0 (ν ) g
= max
exp  −4 ln 2 .
∆ν g2 
0
 
When the laser is pumped such that g 0max = 4g th , the frequencies at which g 0 (ν ) = g th
can be found as
 (ν − ν 0 )   (ν − ν 0 ) 
2 2
g 0 (ν=
) g max
exp  −4 ln 2  ⇒ g= 4g th exp  −4 ln 2 
∆ν g2  ∆ν g2 
0 th
   
(ν − ν 0 ) ∆ν g
2
⇒ 4 ln 2 =ln 4 =2 ln 2 ⇒ ν± =
ν0 ± .
∆ν 2
g 2
Therefore, at this pumping level, the laser bandwidth above threshold is
∆ν = ν + − ν − = 2∆ν g = 2 × 1.5 GHz = 2.12 GHz .
Then,
∆ν 2.12 × 109
= = 4.52 .
∆ν L 468.75 × 106
Therefore, four or five longitudinal modes have unsaturated gain coefficients that are
above the threshold value, depending on where the longitudinal mode frequencies are
located with respect to the gain peak. Because the laser is inhomogeneously broadened,
all longitudinal modes above threshold oscillate.
When a longitudinal mode frequency is tuned to the gain peak, ν 0 is the mode
frequency. The frequencies of the two neighboring longitudinal modes are
ν ±= ν 0 ± ∆ν L so that ν ± − ν 0 = ±∆ν L . For the laser to remain oscillating in only one
longitudinal mode, only the mode at the frequency ν 0 can be above threshold; thus
g 0 (ν 0 ) > g th and g 0 (ν ± ) < g th . These conditions require that
g 0max > g th
and
 (ν − ν )  max  ( ±∆ν L ) 
2 2
g 0 (ν ± ) =
g 0max exp  −4 ln 2 ± 20  = g 0 exp  −4 ln 2  g th
 ∆ν g  
 ∆ν 2

 g
 ( 468.75 × 106 ) 
2
 ( ±∆ν L ) 
2
⇒ g max
< g th exp  4 ln 2 = 
 g th exp 4 ln 2 × =  1.31g th .
∆ν g2   (1.5 × 10 ) 
0
9 2


Therefore the laser has to be pumped with a peak unsaturated gain coefficient g 0max
such that g th < g 0max < 1.31g th .
9.3.3 Using (8.37) and the given parameters of the Er:fiber, we find
σ a N t + g 5.7 × 10−25 × 2.2 × 1024 + 0.25 −1

N= = m = 1.1 × 1024 m −1 .
2
σe + σa 7.9 × 10−25 + 5.7 × 10−25
For g = 0.25 m −1 , the required effective population inversion is
g 0.25 −3
N == =
m 3.16 × 1023 m −3 .
σe 7.9 × 10−25
Therefore, the spontaneous emission factor is
N 1.1 × 1024
N sp = 2
= = 3.48 .
N 3.16 × 1023
The photon energy for λ = 1.53 μm is
1.2398
=hν = eV 0.81 eV .
1.53
With ∆ν c = 520 kHz , the the Schawlow–Townes limit for an oscillating laser mode
that has an output power of Pout = 1 mW is
2π hν ( ∆ν c ) 2π × 0.81 × 1.6 × 10−19 × ( 520 × 103 )

2 2
=∆ν ST = N sp = × 3.48 766 μHz .

Pout 1 × 10−3
9.4 Laser Power

9.4.1 The parameters of this laser are lg = 2 cm , l = 16 cm , R1 = 100% , R2 = 95% ,
α = 0.1 m −1 , and w0 = 150 μm at λ = 800 nm . The Ti:sapphire crystal has n = 1.76 ,
σ=
e 3.4 × 10−23 m 2 , σ a ≈ 8 × 10−26 m 2 and τ s ≈ τ 2 =
3.2 μs . It is pumped at
λp = 532 nm . With these parameters, we have the overlap factor and the weighted
refractive index as
lg 2 1.76 × 2 + 1 × (16 − 2 )
Γ= = = = 0.125 , n = 1.095 .
l 16 16
The Rayleigh range of the Gaussian beam is
π nw02 π × 1.76 × (150 × 10 )

−6 2
=
zR = =m 15.6 cm .
λ 800 × 10−9
We find that zR ≈ l so that the confocal length= b 2 zR ≈ 2l . We can consider the

beam to be well collimated inside the cavity so that the mode volume is
π × (150 × 10−6 )
2
π w02
mode ≈ l= × 16 × 10−2 m3= 5.65 × 10−9 m3 .
2 2
The photon energy for λ = 800 nm is
1239.8
=hν = eV 1.55 eV .
800
Using (9.10), we find with the given parameters that the threshold gain coefficient of
the TEM 00 Gaussian laser mode is
g=
th
1
lg
(
α l − ln R1 R2=
1
)
2 × 10−2
(
0.1 × 16 × 10−2 − ln 0.95 × 1 m=
−1
)
2.08 m −1 .
Using (9.24), we find the saturation photon density:

n 1.095 −3
=
S = =
m 3.35 × 1019 m −3
cτ sσ e 3 × 10 × 3.2 × 10−6 × 3.4 × 10−23
sat 8
The output coupling rate is, from (9.31),
c 3 × 108
γ out =
− ln R1 R2 =
− × ln 0.95 × 1 s −1 =
4.39 × 107 s −1 .
nl 1.095 × 16 × 10−2
Therefore, using (9.34), we find the saturation output power:
sat
Pout = γ out hν mode Ssat
= 4.39 × 107 × 1.55 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 5.65 × 10−9 × 3.35 × 1019 W
= 2.06 W.
Using (9.35), we find that the pumping ratio required for Pout = 1 W is
Pout 1
r=
1+ sat
=
1+ =
1.485 .
Pout 2.06
The corresponding unsaturated gain coefficient is
rg th 1.485 × 2.08 m −1 =
g 0 == 3.09 m −1 .
With Pptr = 1.4 W and Ppth = 5.0 W , we find using (9.27) the required pump power:
Pp − Pptr
r= .
Ppth − Pptr
⇒ Pp =Pptr + r ( Ppth − Pptr ) =1.4 + 1.485 × ( 5.0 − 1.4 )  W =6.75 W .
The power conversion efficiency is
Pout 1
ηc
= = = 14.8% .
Pp 6.75
The slope efficiency is
sat
dPout dr sat Pout 2.06
ηs
= = =
Pout = = 57.2% .
dPp dPp Ppth − Pptr 5.0 − 1.4
9.4.2 For this problem, we use the parameters given in Problem 9.4.1. We also have the
threshold gain coefficient g th = 2.08 m −1 and Pout
sat
= 2.06 W found in Problem 9.4.1(a)
and (b), respectively.
For g 0 = 5 m −1 , the pumping ratio is
g0 5
=
r = = 2.404 .
g th 2.08
With Pptr = 1.4 W and Ppth = 5.0 W , we find using (9.27) the pump power:
Pp − Pptr
r= .
Ppth − Pptr
⇒ Pp =Pptr + r ( Ppth − Pptr ) =1.4 + 2.404 × ( 5.0 − 1.4 )  W =10.05 W .
Using (9.35), we find the output laser power:
Pout = ( r − 1) Pout
sat
= ( 2.404 − 1) × 2.06 W = 2.89 W .
Pout 2.89
ηc
= = = 28.8% .
Pp 10.05
The slope efficiency is
sat
dPout dr sat Pout 2.06
ηs
= = =
Pout = = 57.2% .
dPp dPp Pp − Pp
th tr
5.0 − 1.4
9.4.3 The cavity decay rate of the laser is
c 1 
γc
=  α − ln R1 R2 
n l 
3 × 10 
8
1 
= ×  25 × 102 − −6
× ln 0.32 × 1  s −1
3.63  350 × 10 
= 3.41 × 1011 s −1 .
The output coupling rate of the laser is

c 1 
γ=
c  − ln R1 R2 
n l 
3 × 108  1 
= ×− −6
× ln 0.32 × 1  s −1
3.63  350 × 10 
= 1.35 × 1011 s −1 .
The photon energy at the λ = 860 nm emission wavelength is
1239.8
=hν = eV 1.44 eV .
860
The laser output power for I = 40 mA is
γ out hν
× 1.44 × ( 40 × 10−3 − 20 × 10−3 ) W = 7.98 mW .
1.35
Pout = ηinj ( I − I th ) = 0.7 ×
γc e 3.41
γ out hν  I th  1.35 1.44  20 

ηc = ηinj 1−  = 0.7 × 3.41 × 2 × 1 − 40  = 9.98% ,
γ c eV  I   
and the slope efficiency is
γ out hν 1.35 1.44

ηs =ηinj =0.7 × × =19.95% .
γ c eV 3.41 2
Chapter 10
Optical Modulation

10.1 Types of Optical Modulation

In analog modulation, the optical carrier is modulated with a continuously varying
analog signal waveform. In digital modulation, the optical carrier is modulated with a
discontinuously varying discrete waveform that represent digital signal bits.
Nonlinearity limits analog modulation by distorting the modulated waveform on the
carrier; as a result, the recovered signal does not faithfully reproduce the encoding
signal. By contrast, nonlinearity does not pose such limitation on digital modulation as
long as the modulated discrete levels can be clearly separated to recover the digital bits.
Direct modulation is directly performed on the optical source without a separate

modulator, whereas external modulation is performed using a separate modulator on
an optical wave outside of the optical source. The advantages of direct modulation
versus external modulation are (a) simplicity, because it is directly performed on the
source, (b) efficiency, because it eliminates the optical loss caused by coupling in and
out of an extra modulator, and (c) economy, because it saves the cost of an external
modulator. The advantages of external modulation versus direct modulation are (a)
versatility, because it can use various modulation schemes while direct modulation is
usually limited to amplitude modulation, (b) flexibility, because it can be arranged in
different structures for different intended purposes, and (c) specificity, because a
certain external modulator can be designed and chosen to accomplish a specific
modulation and only such modulation. Furthermore, one drawback of direct
modulation is that while it performs amplitude modulation, it often causes significant
frequency chirping in the modulated optical carrier; this effect can be eliminated by
external modulation.
Refractive modulation is performed by varying the real part of the optical susceptibility,
thus the refractive index, of the modulator material. By contrast, absorptive modulation
is performed by varying the imaginary part of the optical susceptibility, thus the
absorption coefficient, of the modulator material. In general, refractive modulation has
a faster response because it is generally performed without involving population
changes of the energy levels, or energy bands, of the modulator material; thus it is not
limited by the population relaxation lifetimes of the energy levels. By comparison,
absorptive modulation necessarily involves population changes; thus it is limited by

the population relaxation lifetimes of the energy levels.
10.2 Modulation Schemes

Phase modulation is the most fundamental among all of the optical modulation
schemes because modulation on any parameter of the optical carrier field can be
accomplished indirectly through modulating the optical phase.
Frequency modulation can be accomplished by large-signal phase modulation over a

large range of phase change. Polarization modulation can be accomplished through
differential phase modulation between two mutually orthogonal polarization
components. Amplitude modulation can be accomplished through phase modulation
in a few different ways: (a) by differential phase modulation to accomplish polarization
modulation while selecting a fixed polarization component, (b) by varying the phase
mismatch through differential phase modulation between two coupled modes to vary
the efficiency of an optical coupler, and (c) by varying the phase difference through
differential phase modulation between two interfering optical waves. Spatial
modulation can be accomplished through spatially varying phase modulation followed
by interference with an unmodulated wave. Diffraction modulation can be
accomplished through phase modulation on the incident wave to vary the phase-
matching relation between the incident wave and the diffracted wave.
(a) In BPSK, two discrete phases separated by  , such as 0,   or  2, 3 2 ,

are used to respectively represent the binary bits 0 and 1. In QPSK, four discrete phases
that are equally spaced at an interval of  2 , such as 0,  2,  , 3 2 or
 4, 3 4, 5 4, 7 4 , are used to represent the four possible two-bit
combinations 00, 01, 10, 11 by encoding two bits with each phase. (b) In BFSK,
two different frequencies are used to represent the binary bits 0 and 1 for a digital
signal. In QFSK, four frequencies are used to represent the four possible two-bit
combinations 00, 01, 10, 11 by encoding two bits with each frequency. (c) In
BpolSK, two orthogonal polarization states are used to represent the binary bits 0 and
1 for a digital signal. (d) In OOK, the optical field is turned on at a fixed magnitude
level for bit 1 and turned off for bit 0.
For eˆ   xˆ  yˆ  2 expressed using the  xˆ , yˆ basis, the expansion coefficients are
c1  c2  1 2 . Therefore, using (10.10), eˆ   xˆ  yˆ  2 . From (10.14), if the two
orthogonal x̂ and ŷ components of ê are differentially phase modulated such that
 y  t    x  t     t  , the polarization of the field becomes
 1  ei t  1  e    ix t 
i t
eˆm  t    eˆ  eˆ  e
 2 2 
 
 xˆ  ei t  yˆ  ix t 

  e .
 2 
The common phase factor  x  t  only changes the phase of the unit polarization vector
êm  t  but does not have an effect on the polarization state of the field. Therefore, we
can ignore this phase factor and consider only the polarization state vector of the
differentially phase-modulated field:
xˆ  e   yˆ
i t
eˆm  t   .
2
We find different polarization states for different phase differences:
 1 1 i
For   , eˆm  xˆ  yˆ , elliptically polarized;
4 2 2
 xˆ  iyˆ
For   , eˆm  , circularly polarized;
2 2
xˆ  yˆ
For    , eˆm   eˆ , linearly polarized parallel to ê ;
2
xˆ  yˆ
For   2 , eˆm   eˆ , linearly polarized parallel to ê .
2
For eˆ   xˆ  yˆ  2 expressed using the the eˆ , eˆ  basis, the expansion
coefficients are
xˆ  yˆ xˆ  iyˆ xˆ  iyˆ c1  c2 c1  c2
eˆ   c1eˆ  c2 eˆ  c1  c2  xˆ  i yˆ
2 2 2 2 2
1 i 1 i
 c1  , c2  .
2 2
Therefore, using (10.10),
1  i xˆ  iyˆ 1  i xˆ  iyˆ xˆ  yˆ
eˆ  c2eˆ  c1 eˆ      .
2 2 2 2 i 2
From (10.14), if the two orthogonal ê and ê components of ê are differentially
phase modulated such that    t     t     t  , the polarization of the field
becomes
 1  ei t  1  e    i t 
i t
eˆm  t    eˆ  eˆ  e
 2 2 
 
 1  ei t  xˆ  yˆ 1  ei t  xˆ  yˆ  i t 


   e
 2 2 2 i 2 
  xˆ  yˆ  xˆ  yˆ  i t  i  t  2
  cos   sin  e
 2 2 2 2 
The common phase factor   t     t  2 only changes the phase of the unit
polarization vector êm  t  but does not have an effect on the polarization state of the
field. Therefore, we can ignore this phase factor and consider only the polarization
state vector of the differentially phase-modulated field:
  t  xˆ  yˆ   t  xˆ  yˆ
eˆm  t   cos   sin  .
2 2 2 2
We find that êm  t  is always linearly polarized for any value of the phase difference
  t  , and it is polarized in a direction that makes an angle
  t 
  t    tan 1
2
with respect to eˆ   xˆ  yˆ  2 . The different polarization states for different phase

differences are

For   , eˆm  0.383 xˆ  0.924 yˆ , linearly polarized;
4

For   , eˆm  yˆ , linearly polarized;
2
xˆ  yˆ
For    , eˆm    ieˆ , linearly polarized parallel to ê ;
2
xˆ  yˆ
For   2 , eˆm    eˆ , linearly polarized parallel to ê .
2
The output intensity of a waveguide structure can be modulated by modulating the

phase of a waveguide mode in two approaches: (a) by varying the phase mismatch
through differential phase modulation between two coupled modes to vary the
efficiency of an optical coupler, and (b) by varying the phase difference through
differential phase modulation between two interfering optical waves. One example for
the first approach is to phase modulate only one channel, or differentially phase
modulate both channels, of a dual-channel directional coupler, such as that shown in
Fig. 4.2, to vary the phase mismatch between the two channels, thus varying the
coupling efficiency of the directional coupler. One example for the second approach
is to phase modulate only one arm, or differentially phase modulate both arms, of a
Mach–Zehnder waveguide interferometer, such as that shown in Fig. 5.8(a) or (b), to
vary the phase difference between the two arms, thus varying output of the
interferometer.
With  i  0 , the phase-matching condition given in (10.21) for the qth-order

diffraction by a diffraction grating reduces to
qK q
k sin  q  qK  sin  q   ,
k n
where  is the wavelength of the optical wave, n is the refractive index of the optical
medium, and  is the grating period. For  q  30 , we find that the required grating
period for a given optical wavelength and a given refractive index is
q q
q  2 .
n sin 30 n
When the grating period is varied within a range of 10% so that     q 1  10%  ,
the diffraction angle varies as
q q 1
 q   sin 1  sin 1  sin 1 .
n  n q 1  10%  2 1  10% 
Therefore, the diffraction angle varies between
1
 q   sin 1  27.04 for   1  10%   q
2 1  10% 
and
1
 q   sin 1  33.75 for   1  10%   q .
2 1  10% 
10.3 Direction Modulation

This problem can be solved either by Fourier analysis or by small-signal phasor
analysis. Here we use the small signal phasor analysis by expressing the modulation
current in its phase form such that
I  t   I 0  mI 0 cos t  I 0 
2
 e  e i t  ,
mI 0  it
  
I  t   I 0  I m  t   I 0  Iˆm e  it  Iˆm eit  I 0  Iˆm e  it  c.c. ,
where Iˆm  mI 0 2 is the phasor amplitude of the modulation current and c.c. means
complex conjugate. Then the time-varying carrier density and laser output power can
also be expressed as

N  t   N 0  N m  t   N 0  Nˆ m e  it  c.c. , 

P  t   P0  Pm  t   P0  Pˆm e  it  c.c. . 
By plugging I  t  and N  t  of the above forms in (10.25) and then separately
collecting the coefficients for the time-independent terms and for the e  it terms, we
find that
inj s
N0  I0 ,
ed
1 inj s ˆ m inj s I 0 inj s I 0
Nˆ m  Im   r  ,
1  i s ed 1  i s ed 2 ed 2
where, as given in (10.29),
m
r   r  e
i   
 .
1  i s
Using the above relations for (10.24), we find that
e h d h
P0  N 0  e I 0 as in (10.26),
inj  s e
 h d ˆ h I 0 P P
Pˆm  e N m  r   e  r    0  r    ei    0 .
inj  s e 2 2 2
Therefore, the modulated laser output power is

 
P  t   P0  Pˆm e  it  c.c.  P0  P0 r cos  t     P0 1  r cos  t    
as given in (10.28) with a complex response r    as given in (10.29).
With m  10% and f  f 3dB  15.9 MHz , we find that
m 0.1
r    7.07  102 .
1   f f3dB 
2
2
For Pm  500 μW , the required power at the bias point is
Pm 500  106
P0   W  7.07 mW .
r 7.07  102
The parameters of the LED given in Example 10.3 are  e  0.21 and h e  1.46 V .
Therefore, the bias current and the modulation current amplitude are, respectively,
P0 7.07
I0   mA  23 mA ,
e h e 0.21  1.46
I m  mI 0  0.1  23 mA  2.3 mA .
For an LED to have a 3-dB bandwidth of 50 MHz , the spontaneous carrier lifetime
has to be, from (10.31),
1 1
s   s  3.18 ns .
2 f3dB 2  50  106
Using (10.30), the normalized modulation response in dB at a modulation frequency

of f  20 MHz is
R f  1 1
10 log  10 log  10  log  0.64 dB .
R  0 1   f f3dB 
2
1   20 50 
2
An LED has no threshold. Therefore, the DC output power is directly proportional to

its DC bias current I 0 , and the modulation index is defined as the ratio of the amplitude
I m of the modulation current to I 0 . For this problem, we have   1.3 μm ,  e  0.26 ,
 s  3 ns , I 0  10 mA , f  40 MHz , and m  10% .
The photon energy at   1.3 μm is
1.2398
h  eV  0.954 eV .
1.3
The DC output power of the LED is found using (10.26):
h
P0  e I 0  0.26  0.954  10 mW  2.48 mW .
e
The amplitude of the modulation current m  10% is
I m  mI 0  10%  10 mA  1 mA .
From (10.29), we find
m 0.1
r    7.98  102 ,
1   2 f  s  1   2  40  10  3  10 
2 6 9 2
  tan 1  2 f  s   tan 1  2  40  106  3  109   0.646 rad .
The amplitude of the modulated output power is
Pm  r P0  7.98  102  2.48 mW  198 μW ,
and the phase delay of the modulation response is   0.646 rad .

The 3-dB modulation bandwidth of this LED is, from (10.31),
1 1
f 3dB   Hz  53 MHz .
2 s 2  3  109
At the modulation frequency of f  40 MHz , modulation response in the electrical

power spectrum of the photodetector output is, from (10.30),
m2 0.12
R f     6.37  103 .
1  f 2 f3dB 1   40 53
2 2
Because R  0   m 2  1  102 , the normalized response is
R f  6.37  103
10 log  10  log  1.96 dB .
R  0 1  102
This problem can be solved either by Fourier analysis or by small-signal phasor

analysis. Here we use the small signal phasor analysis by expressing the modulation
current in its phase form such that
m  I 0  I th 
I  t   I 0  m  I 0  I th  cos t  I 0 
2
e  it
 eit  ,
 
I  t   I 0  I m  t   I 0  Iˆm e  it  Iˆm eit  I 0  Iˆm e  it  c.c. , 
where Iˆm  m  I 0  I th  2 is the phasor amplitude of the modulation current and c.c.
means complex conjugate. Then the time-varying carrier density, photon density, and
laser output power can also be expressed as

N  t   N 0  N m  t   N th  Nˆ m e  it  c.c. , 

S  t   S0  Sm  t   S0  Sˆm eit  c.c. , 
P  t   P  P  t   P   Pˆ e
0 m 0 m
 it
 c.c. ,
where N 0  N th for a laser because the laser gain is clamped at its threshold value
when the laser is oscillating above threshold. Note that
P  t   S  t  , P0  S0 , Pm  t   Sm  t  , and Pˆm  Sˆm .
Using (10.34), (10.36), and (10.37), we can express the gain parameter as
c n p
g  g th  g n  N  N th   g p  S  S0    Nm  Sm .
 S0 S 0
Solving (10.32) for the steady-state solution for S0 at the bias point by setting
dN dt  0 , we find that
c J 0 N th inj
S0     I 0  I th  .
 ed  s ed
By plugging I  t  , N  t  , and S  t  into (10.32) and (10.33) while using the above
relations for g and S0 , we obtain the coupled equations:
dN m
  m c S0 cos t     s   n  N m    c   p  S m ,
dt
dS m
  n N m   p S m .
dt
By plugging the phasor forms of N m  t   Nˆ m eit  c.c. and Sm  t   Sˆm e it  c.c.
into the above equations and then collecting the coefficients for the e  it term, we find
that
m c n S0
Sˆm   .
 2   2r  i r 2
Because P̂m  Sˆm and P0  S0 , we find
m c n P0 P
Pˆm    r  0
 2   2r  i r 2 2
where, as given in (10.40),
m c n
r   r  e
i   
 .
   2r  i r
2
Therefore, the modulated laser output power is
 
P  t   P0  Pˆm e  it  c.c.  P0  P0 r cos  t     P0 1  r cos  t    
as given in (10.39) with a complex response r    as given in (10.40).
A laser has a threshold. Therefore, the DC output power is not proportional to its DC
bias current but is proportional to I 0  I th , and the modulation index is defined as the
ratio of the amplitude I m of the modulation current to I 0  I th . From Example 3.4, the
laser has the following parameters:   850 nm so that h  1.46 eV , inj  60% ,
I th  12 mA ,  out  5.7  1010 s 1 ,  c  2  1011 s 1 ,  s   s1  1.5  108 s 1 ,
 n  4.9 P0  109 s 1 and  p  6.1P0  109 s 1 , where P0 is the laser output power
measured in mW . For P0  5 mW in this problem, we have  n  2.45  1010 s 1 and
 p  3.05  1010 s1 .The laser is modulated at f  10 GHz with m  10% .
Using (10.35), the bias current required for P0  5 mW is found:
P0  5 
I 0  I th   12   mA  32 mA.
inj  out  c   h e  
 0.6   5.7  1010
2  1011
  1.46 
The amplitude of the modulation current for m  10% is

I m  m  I 0  I th   10%   32  12  mA  2 mA .
Using (10.41) and (10.42) with  c  2  1011 s 1 ,  s  1.5  108 s 1 ,

 n  2.45  10 s , and  p  3.05  10 s for P0  4.0 mW , we find
10 1 10 1
1
fr   c n   s p  11.2 GHz ,
2
 r   s   n   p  5.65  1010 s 1 .
The K factor is found using (10.43):
r  s 5.65  1010  1.5  109

K  s  438 ps .
11.2  10 
2 9 2
fr
For a modulation frequency of f  10 GHz , we find from (10.40) with f r  11.2 GHz
that
m c n
r 
f  f r2    f  r 2 
2 2
4 2 2
0.1  2  1011  2.45  1010


10  11.22   10  56.5 2   109 
2 2 2
4 2  2
 1.33  10 1 ,
  r   f  2   10  56.5 2 
  tan 1  2 2
 tan 1  2 r 2   tan 1  2 2 
 1.3 rad .
   r  fr  f   11.2  10 
Note that the above formula is used to find the phase because f  f r so that
 2   2r  0 . The amplitude of the modulated output power is
Pm  r P0  1.33  101  5 mW  665 μW ,

The 3-dB modulation bandwidth of this laser is, from (10.46),
12
 2  r2 
 
12
f3dB  1  2  r
f  
 8 2 2 
12
 56.52 
 
12
2
 1 2  11.2   GHz ,
 8 2 2 
 15.3 GHz.
At the modulation frequency of f  10 GHz , modulation response in the electrical

R  f   r  f   1.33  101   1.77  102 .

2 2
From (10.50) with f r  11.2 GHz , we have
m 2 c2 n2 0.1   2  10    2.45  10 

2 11 102 2
R  0    9.79  103 ,
16 4 f r4 16  11.2  10 
4 9 4
Therefore, for f  10 GHz , the normalized response is
R f  1.77  102
10 log  10  log  2.57 dB .
R  0 9.79  103
For this laser, we have  c  2.4  1011 s 1 ,  s  1.458  109 s 1 ,  n  1.55 P0  108 s 1 ,
and  p  2.8P0  108 s 1 , where P0 is the laser output power measured in mW .
From (10.41) and (10.42), we find that,
1
fr   c n   s p  0.976 P0 GHz ,
2
 r   s   n   p  1.458  0.435P0   109 s 1 ,
where P0 is the laser output power measured in mW .

Using (10.43), the K factor is
r  s 0.453P0  109
K  s  476 ps .
 0.976 
2
f r2 P0  109
At an output power of P0  10 mW , we have

f r  0.976 P0 GHz  0.976  10 GHz  3.09 GHz ,

 r  1.458  0.435 P0   109 s 1  1.458  0.435  10   109 s 1  5.808  109 s 1 .
The 3-dB modulation bandwidth is found (10.46):
12
 2  r2 
 
12
f 3dB  1  2  r
f  
 8 2 2 
12
 5.8082 
 
12
2
 1 2  3.09   GHz
 8 2 2 
 4.72 GHz.
Using the results from (a), we find that at an output power of P0 ,
12
 2  r2 
 
12
f 3dB  1  2  r
f  
 8 2 2 
12
 1.458  0.435 P0  
2
 
12
 1 2  0.976 P0 
2
 GHz.
 8 2 2 
 
For f 3dB  5 GHz , we solve
12
 1.458  0.435P0  
2
1  2 
12
 0.976 P0 
2
 5
 8 2 2 
 
to find that P0  11.25 mW .
A laser has a threshold. Therefore, the DC output power is not proportional to its DC
bias current but is proportional to I 0  I th , and the modulation index is defined as the
ratio of the amplitude I m of the modulation current to I 0  I th . The laser has the
following parameters:   1.3 μm ,  e  21.5% , I th  18 mA ,  c  5.36  1011 s 1 ,
 s  5.96  109 s 1 ,  n  1.67 P0  109 s 1 and  p  4.24 P0  109 s 1 , where P0 is the
laser output power measured in mW .
The photon energy at   1.3 μm is
1.2398
h  eV  0.954 eV .
1.3
The DC output power of the laser for I 0  50 mA is found using (10.35):

h
P0  e  I  I th   0.215  0.954   50  18  mW  6.56 mW .
e
The amplitude of the modulation current for m  10% is
I m  m  I 0  I th   10%   50  18  mA  3.2 mA .
With P0  6.56 mW found in (a) and given  c  5.36  1011 s 1 ,  s  5.96  109 s 1 ,
 n  1.67 P0  109 s 1 and  p  4.24 P0  109 s 1 , we have
 c  5.36  1011 s 1 ,  s  5.96  109 s 1 ,  n  1.1  1010 s 1 ,  p  2.78  1010 s 1 .
Therefore, using (10.41) and (10.42), we find
1
fr   c n   s p  12.39 GHz ,
2
 r   s   n   p  4.476  1010 s 1 .
The K factor is found using (10.43):
r  s 4.476  1010  5.96  109

K  s  253 ps .
f r2 12.39  10 9 2
For a modulation frequency of f  10 GHz , we find from (10.40) with

f r  12.39 GHz that
m c n
r 
f  f r2    f  r 2 
2 2
4 2 2
0.1  5.36  1011  1.1  1010


10  12.392   10  44.76 2   109 
2 2 2
4 2  2
 1.68  101 ,
  r   f  2   10  44.76 2 
  tan 1  2 
2
 tan 1  2 r 2   tan 1  2 2   0.93 rad .
   r  fr  f   12.39  10 
Note that the above formula is used to find the phase because f  f r so that
 2   2r  0 . The amplitude of the modulated output power is
Pm  r P0  1.68  101  6.56 mW  1.1 mW ,

The 3-dB modulation bandwidth of this laser is, from (10.46),
12
 2  r2 
 
12
f3dB  1  2  r
f  
 8 2 2 
12
 44.762 
 
12
2
 1 2  12.39   GHz ,
 8 2 2 
 18.09 GHz.
At the modulation frequency of f  10 GHz , the modulation response in the electrical
R  f   r  f   1.68  101   2.82  102 .

2 2
From (10.50) with f r  12.39 GHz , we have
m 2 c2 n2 0.1   5.36  10   1.1  10 

2 11 2 10 2
R  0    9.46  103 ,
16 4 f r4 16  12.39  10 
4 9 4
Therefore, for f  10 GHz , the normalized response is
R f  2.82  102
10 log  10  log  4.74 dB .
R  0 9.46  103
10.4 Refractive External Modulation

Because the largest Pockels coefficient of LiNbO 3 is r33 , this coefficient has to be
used to obtained the lowest value of V . Furthermore, transverse modulation has to be
used to obtained a reduction by the factor of d l . To accomplish this, it is necessary
to transversely apply the voltage along the z principal axis while simultaneously let the
optical wave be linearly polarized in the z direction. The optical wave can propagate
in any direction in the xy plane because n X  nY while Xˆ  xˆ and Yˆ  yˆ when the
voltage is applied in the z direction so that E0 z  0 but E0 x  E0 y  0 , as shown in Fig.

10.9(a). For a z-polarized wave, we use r33 . For transverse modulation on a z-polarized
optical wave in this arrangement, the half-wave voltage is that given in (10.54) and is
the lowest possible. With l  3 mm and d  2 μm , we find
 d 1.3  106 2  106

V    V  2.85 V .
ne3 r33 l 2.1453  30.8  1012 3  103
KTP is a biaxial crystal of mm2 symmetry, for which the only nonvanishing Pockels
coefficients are r13 , r23 , r33 , r42 , and r51 . When the modulation voltage is applied only
along the z axis, the principal axes remain unchanged, but the principal indices of
refraction are changed:
3
n
Xˆ  xˆ, nX  nx  x r13 E0 z ;
2
n3y
Yˆ  yˆ, nY  n y  r23 E0 z ;
2
n3
Zˆ  zˆ, nZ  nz  z r33 E0 z .
2
With an arrangement as shown in Fig. 10.9(a) for transverse modulation, E0 z  V d .
The peak phase modulation depth is
 nz3  n3 l
 pk  r33 E0 z l  z r33Vpk .
  d
For pk   , we find that
 d
Vpk  .
nz3 r33 l
Thus,
 d
V  3
.
nr l
z 33
With given parameters for KTP at   1.0 μm , the half-wave voltage for the bulk
modulator that has the dimensions of d  3 mm and l  6 mm is
 d 1  106  3  103
V  3
 V  2.32 kV .
nr l
z 33 1.8323  35  1012  6  103
With given parameters for KTP at   1.0 μm , the half-wave voltage for the bulk
modulator that has the dimensions of d  3 μm and l  6 mm is
 d 1  106  3  106
V  3
 V  2.32 V .
nr l
z 33 1.8323  35  1012  6  103
GaAs is a nonbirefringent cubic crystal of 43m symmetry, which has

nx  n y  nz  no and the only nonvanishing Pockels coefficients r41  r52  r61 . When
the modulation voltage is applied along the z axis with an arrangement as shown in the
figure for transverse modulation, we have the only applied field of E0 z  V l with
E0 x  E0 y  0 . Then, the applied field only induces a change of  6  r63 E0 z , which
gives xy  yx  0 n04 r63 E0 z . Therefore, the dielectric permittivity becomes
 n02  n04 r63 E0 z 0

 4 
  E0   0   n0 r63 E0 z n02 0 .
 0 0 n02 

The new principal axes and the corresponding principal indices of refraction are
1 n3
Xˆ   xˆ  yˆ  , nX  no  o r41 E0 z ;
2 2
1 no3
Yˆ   ˆ
x  ˆ
y  Y o
, n  n  r41 E0 z ;
2 2
Zˆ  zˆ, nZ  no .
For input optical fields polarized along X̂ and along Yˆ the electro-optic phase
modulations on them at the output are, respectively,
  no3  no3 r63

 X  nX l   r63 E0 z l   V,
c c 2 
  no3  n3 r
Y  nY l  r63 E0 z l  o 63 V .
c c 2 
Note that both are independent of the modulator dimensions d and l.
(b) For this purpose, the input optical field polarization direction has to be at 45 with
respect to the X̂ or Yˆ axis. This means that the optical field has to be linearly
polarized in the direction of x̂ or ŷ .
(c) The required half-wave voltage is for the phase difference between the X̂ and Yˆ
components of the optical field to be  , i.e.,   Y   X  Y   X   .
Therefore, we have
 no3 r41  1  106

  2 V    V  3  V  9.7 kV .
 2no r41 2  3.53  1.2  1012
The half-wave voltage of this Mach–Zehnder waveguide interferometer for the TM-
like mode is that given in (10.70) because the optical field is primarily polarized in the
x direction. Using the parameters of LiNbO 3 given in Example 10.5, we find that
 se 850  109 10  106

V  3
   8.67 V .
2n r  TM
o 13 l 2  2.251  8.6  10  0.5 1  102
3 12
For an applied voltage of V  1 V , the phase difference between the two arms is
V 
    .
V 8.7
Therefore, the transmittance is found from (10.71) to be
1 1  
T 1  cos     1  cos   96.8% .
2 2 8.7 
For T  50% , we find that cos   0 . The lowest voltage that can accomplish this is
for    2 . Therefore,
V  V
     V  4.34 V .
V 2 2
KTP is a biaxial crystal of mm2 symmetry, for which the only nonvanishing Pockels
coefficients are r13 , r23 , r33 , r42 , and r51 . When the modulation voltage is applied only
along the z axis, the principal axes remain unchanged, but the principal indices of
refraction are changed:
3
n
Xˆ  xˆ, nX  nx  x r13 E0 z ;
2
n3y
ˆ ˆ,
Y  y nY  n y  r23 E0 z ;
2
3
n
Zˆ  zˆ, nZ  nz  z r33 E0 z .
2
Therefore, we can modify (10.69) and (10.70) for the TE-like and TM-like modes,
respectively, as
 se
V  3
for the TE-like mode,
2n r  TE
z 33 l
 se
V  3
for the TM-like mode.
2n r  TM
x 13 l
Using the parameters of KTP and the interferometer, we find, for the TE-like mode,
 se 1.0  106 8  106

V     8.85 V .
2nz3 r33  TE l 2  1.8323  35  10 12  0.7 3  10 3
The transmittance is given in (10.71) as
1
T 1  cos   .
2
For T  30% , we find that the smallest absolute value of  is
1
T 1  cos    0.3  cos   0.4    1.98 rad .
2
Therefore, we find the lowest required voltage for T  30% :
V 1.98 1.98
    1.98  V V   8.85 V  5.58 V .
V  
For the TM-like mode,
 se 1.0  106 8  10 6
V     40.9 V .
2nx3 r13  TM l 2  1.7423  8.8  10 12  0.7 3  103
From (a), we find that the smallest absolute value of  for T  30% is
  1.98 rad . Therefore, we find the lowest required voltage for T  30% :
V 1.98 1.98
    1.98  V V   40.9 V  25.8 V .
V  
With B0 z  0.35 T and V  80 rad T 1 m 1 at the 750 nm wavelength, we have

 F  0 because V  0 . The required length for a desired Faraday rotation angle of
 F  45   4 is
F  4
l  m  28 mm .
VB0 z 80  0.35
With B0 z  0.35 T  0 , the magnetic induction points in the positive z direction.

Therefore, with  F  0 , the polarization of the optical wave rotates in the clockwise
sense when viewed in the direction against the z direction.
For a linearly polarized wave at the 800 nm wavelength, we find with
V  65 rad T 1 m 1 , B0 z  0.35 T , and l  28 mm that the Faraday rotation angle is
 F  VB0 z l  65  0.35  28  103 rad  0.637 rad  36.5 .
For the system consisting of the Faraday rotator between two cross polarizers, the
transmittance is
 
T  cos 2    F   sin 2  F .
2 
For the beam to be completely transmitted, it is necessary that  F   2 or   2 .
That is, its polarization has to be rotated by  2 by propagation through the Faraday
rotator so that it is aligned along the transmission polarization direction of the output
polarizer when the beam reaches the output polarizer. Therefore, the required magnetic
induction applied along the propagation axis is
F  2
B0   T  0.33 T .
Vl 94.7  5  102
For B0  B0 2 while l is unchanged, we have  F     2  2    4 . Therefore, the
transmittance is
 
T  sin 2  F  sin 2     50% .
 4
For B0  2 B0 while l is unchanged, we have  F  2    2    . Therefore, the
transmittance is
T  sin 2  F  sin 2     0% .
In this case, only the longitudinal component of the magnetic flux has an effect on
Faraday rotation. Thus the effective magnetic flux density for Faraday rotation is
0.33
B0 z  B0 cos 45  T.
2
Then,
0.33
 F  VB0 z l  94.7   5  102 rad  1.1 rad
2
Therefore,
T  sin 2  F  sin 2  1.1  79% .
The two phase-matching conditions given in (10.84) and (10.85) can be written
together as
kd  ki  K ,
where the plus sign is for up-shifted diffraction and the minus sign is for down-shifted
diffraction. Because the angles  i and  d are measured with respect to the direction
normal to K , the components in the directions that are respectively normal to and
parallel to K are
k d cos  d  ki cos  i , kd sin  d  ki sin  i  K .
By squaring each equation, we have
kd2 cos 2  d  ki2 cos 2 i ,

kd2 sin 2  d  ki2 sin 2  i  2ki K sin  i  K 2 .
Adding the two relations, we have
K 2  ki2  kd2
kd2  ki2  2ki K sin  i  K 2  sin i   ,
2ki K
K 2  ki2  kd2 f  v a2 2 
 i   sin 1   sin 1 1  2 2  ni  nd   ,
2
2 ki K 2niv a   f 
where the upper sign in each relation is for up-shifted diffraction and the lower sign is
for down shifted diffraction. By substituting the relation for sin  i found above into
the relation kd sin  d  ki sin  i  K , we find
K 2  ki2  kd2 K 2  kd2  ki2 K 2  kd2  ki2

kd sin d   K   sin  d   ,
2K 2K 2 kd K
K 2  kd2  ki2 f  v a2 2 
 d   sin 1   sin 1 1  2 2  nd  ni   ,
2
2 kd K 2ndv a   f 
where the upper sign in each relation is for up-shifted diffraction and the lower sign is
for down shifted diffraction.
The requirement for acousto-optic diffraction to be in the Bragg regime is Q  4 .

This condition leads to the requirement for the minimum acoustic frequency:
12
K 2 l 2 f 2 l  2n 
Q   4  f    va .
k nv a2  l 
With E  Ezˆ for the optical wave, we use nz  ne . With K  K L xˆ for the acoustic
wave, v aL  6.57 km s 1 . Therefore, for   1.3 μm , the acoustic frequency is required
to be
12 12
 2n   2  2.145 
f   e  vaL   3 
 6.57  103 Hz  169 MHz .
  l   1.3  10 6
 5  10 
For   632.8 nm , the acoustic frequency is required to be
12 12
 2n   2  2.201 
f   e  vaL   3 
 6.57  103 Hz  245 MHz .
  l   632.8  10 9
 5  10 
With E  Exˆ for the optical wave, we use nx  no . With K  K T zˆ for the acoustic
wave, v aT  3.59 km s 1 . Therefore, for   1.3 μm , the acoustic frequency is required
to be
12 12
 2n   2  2.222 
f   o  v aL   3 
 3.59  103 Hz  94 MHz .
  l   1.3  10 6
 5  10 
For   632.8 nm , the acoustic frequency is required to be
12 12
 2n   2  2.291 
f   o  v aL   3 
 3.59  103 Hz  137 MHz .
  l   632.8  10 9
 5  10 
The condition for acousto-optic diffraction to be in the Bragg regime requires that
Q  4 .
With l  L  1 cm , the acoustic frequency required for Bragg diffraction is
K 2l 2 f 2l
Q   4
k nv a2
12 12
 2n   2  1.452 
 f    va   2 
 5.97  103 Hz  110.3 Hz .
 l 
9
 850  10  1  10 
For f  300 MHz , the diffraction is clearly Bragg diffraction, according to the
condition found in (a). The silica glass is isotropic. The Bragg angle is
K f 850  109  300  106
 B  sin 1  sin 1  sin 1  0.84
2k 2nva 2  1.452  5.97  103
In the Bragg regime, the phase-matching condition requires that the angles of incidence
and refraction have the magnitude but opposite signs:
i   d   B  0.84 .
Because  i and  d have opposite signs in either up-shifted or down-shifted diffraction,

the deflection angle between the diffracted and incident beams for either case is
 def  d  i  2 B  1.68 .
The diffraction efficiency is small and can be found using (10.90):
 2  1.50  1015  1  102 

2
 2 M 2l 2
PM  Pa   300  103  1.0% .
2 HL 2   850  10   3  10  1  10
2  9 2 3  2
The condition for acousto-optic diffraction to be in the Bragg regime requires that
Q  4 .
For a standing-wave acousto-optic modulator, the modulation frequency is twice that
of the acoustic frequency: f m  2 f . With f m  300 MHz , the required acoustic
frequency is
fm
f   150 MHz .
2
For f  150 MHz , the interaction length required for Bragg diffraction is
K 2l 2 f 2l
Q   4
k nv a2
2nva2 2  1.452   5.97  10 

3 2
 l  m  5.4 mm .
 f 2 850  109  150  106 2
Because L  1 cm and l  L  5.4 mm , this modulator clearly satisfy the condition to

work in the Bragg regime.
For f  150 MHz , the Bragg angle is
K f 850  109  150  106

 B  sin 1  sin 1  sin 1  0.42
2k 2nva 2  1.452  5.97  103
In the Bragg regime, the phase-matching condition requires that the angles of incidence
and refraction have the magnitude but opposite signs:
i   d   B  0.42 .
Because  i and  d have opposite signs in either up-shifted or down-shifted diffraction,

the deflection angle between the diffracted and incident beams for either case is
 def   d  i  2 B  0.84 .
The diffraction efficiency is found using (10.93). The peak efficiency is
  M v  
12
PM
pk
 sin 2   2 a
Pa  l 
   HLW  a  
   1.50  1015  5.97  103  300  103 
12

 sin 2  9
  3 2 2 4 
 1  102 
 850  10  3  10  1  10  1  10  9.1  10  
 12.9%.
The intensity-dependent Kerr phase change caused by self-phase modulation of a

circular laser beam can be expressed as a function of the radial variable r as
2
K  r   n2 I  r  l .

The Kerr focal length can be expressed as
1 c d 2K  d 2 K d2 I  r 
 a  a  an2 l .
fK  dr 2 r 0
2 dr 2 r 0
dr 2 r 0

With I  r   I 0 exp  2r 2 w2 , we have 
1 d2 I  r  4an2 lI 0
  an2 l 2
 .
fK dr r  0 w2
Therefore, with P   w2 2 , we have
w2  w4
fK   .
4an2lI 0 8an2 lP
With a  1.723 , Ppk  10 kW , w  12 μm , l  1 mm , and n2  2.4  1020 m2 W1 ,

we find that
  12  106 
4
 w4
f K
pk
  m  1.97 cm .
8an2 lPpk 8  1.723  2.4  1020  1  103  10  103
Because this is a two-beam interaction, the field-dependent permittivity is that given

in (10.99). By ignoring self-phase modulation while keeping only cross-phase
modulation, (10.99) reduces to
ij  , E   60  ijkl

 
          Ek   El   .
3
j , k ,l
Because the only nonvanishing third-order nonlinear susceptibilities are the elements
 3
of the types 1111  3
, 1122  3
, 1212  3
and 1221 and because E    E    xˆ , the only
nonvanishing elements of ij  , E  are
2 2
xx  , E   60  xxxx
 
          Ex     60 1111
 
E x    ,
3 3
2 2
yy  , E   60  yyxx
 
          Ex     60 1122
 
Ex    ,
3 3
2 2
zz  , E   60  zzxx
 
          Ex     60 1122
 
E x    .
3 3
Therefore, the intensity-dependent refractive indices nx and ny seen by the x and y

components of the modulated field at  as functions of the intensity I   of the
modulating field at   are
 3
31111
nx  n0  I     n0  n2 x I    ,
2c0 n02
 3
31122
ny  n0  I     n0  n2 y I    ,
2c0 n02
where nx  ny  n0 for a cubic crystal when there is no field-induced changes and
 3  3
31111 31122
n2 x  , n2y  .
2c0 n02 2c0 n02
For the polarization of the modulated field to change from a direction parallel to
 xˆ  yˆ  2 to one that is parallel to  xˆ  yˆ  2 , the x and y components of the field
has to experience a differential phase change of at least  or  such that
  I    x  I    y  I    , where I  I   . Because
nx   n y 
x  l   n0  n2 x I     l and  y  l   n0  n2 y I     l ,
c c c c
we find

  I   n2 x  n2 y I    l .
c
Therefore, the minimum required intensity is
c  c0 n02 
I       .
 n2 x  n2 y l 2 n2 x  n2 y l  3   3 
3 1111  1122 l
10.5 Absorptive External Modulation

For the absorption edge of the quantum well be at the optical wavelength   840 nm ,
it is necessary that EgQW  h . Therefore, the required effective bandgap increase of
the quantum well is
h2 h2 1239.8
EgQW  Eg   2
  2  h  Eg   1.424 eV  51.95 meV .
8me d QW 8mh d QW 840
Therefore, the required well width is

12
h  1 1 
d QW  12 
 
81 2  EgQW  Eg   me mh 

81 2   51.95  103  1.6  1019 

12
1 2
 1 1 
   9.11  10 
31 1 2
   m
6.626  1034  0.067 0.52 
12
6.626  1034  1 1 
=    m
81 2   51.95  103  1.6  1019    9.11  1031 
12 12
 0.067 0.52 
=11 nm.
The transmittance is given in (10.108):
T V   exp  V  l  .
The highest transmittance occurs when the absorption coefficient has the smallest
value. Therefore, it takes place when no voltage is applied. With V  0 , we find that
  0  l  400  250  106  0.1
and
Thigh  T  0  exp   0 l   exp  0.1  90.5% .
Because the highest transmittance is found when V  0 , each voltage can be used for
the low transmittance level. With l  250 μm and given values of  V  at the
different voltages. If the low transmittance level is chosen for V  2 V , we find
 l  1.25 , Tlow  exp  1.25  29.7% , ER  4.34  1.25  0.1 dB  5 dB .
If the low transmittance level is chosen for V  4 V , we find
 l  2.4 , Tlow  exp  2.4  9.1% , ER  4.34   2.4  0.1 dB  10 dB .
 l  3.35 , Tlow  exp  3.35  3.5% , ER  4.34   3.35  0.1 dB  14 dB .
 l  4 , Tlow  exp  4  1.8% , ER  4.34   4  0.1 dB  17 dB .

If the device is switched between 2 V and 4 V , the high transmittance level is found
for V  2 V and the low transmittance level is found for V  4 V because
  4 V     2 V  . Therefore, from (b), we find Thigh  29.7% and Tlow  9.1% . The
extinction ratio is
ER  4.34   3.35  2.4  dB  4 dB .
The input intensity required for a given value of  0 l and a given transmittance is
found in Example 10.14 as
 0 l  ln T
I in  I sat .
1T
And the minimum value required for  0 l is also found is Example 10.14 as
 0 l   ln Tmin .
For Tlow  10% , the value required for  0 l is
 0 l   ln Tmin   ln 0.1  2.3 .
Therefore, the minimum value is  0 l min  2.3 .
By choosing  0 l  1.1 0 l min  2.53 , the high and low input intensities for
Thigh  90% and Tlow  10% are required to be
 0 l  ln Thigh 2.53  ln 0.9

I inhigh  I sat  I sat  24.2 I sat ,
1  Thigh 1  0.9
 0 l  ln Tlow 2.53  ln 0.1
I inlow  I sat  I sat  0.25 I sat .
1  Tlow 1  0.1
The nonlinear relation between the input and output intensities of a saturable is given
by (10.113). For convenience, we define the normalized intensity with respect to the
saturation intensity of the absorber as
I
Iˆ  .
I sat
Then, for a saturable absorber of a thickness of l , the relation between input and
output intensities can be expressed as
Iôut e Iout  Iîn e Iin e  0l .

ˆ ˆ
 9 I sat , meaning that Iˆpk  9 for Iˆpk  10 .

out in
When I pk
in
 10 I sat , we have I pk
out in
 0.9 I pk
Therefore,
10e
Iˆpk e  Iˆpk
out Iˆpk in Iˆpk  0 l
out in
e e  9e9  10e10 e  0l  e 0l  .
9
The output pulsewidth is determined by the fact that the output pulse intensity at
t   tpsout 2 is half of the output peak intensity:
 tpsout  Iˆpkout 9
Iôut       4.5 .
 2 2 2
 
To find the relation between tpsout and tpsin , we find the required input intensity for
this output intensity and the temporal locations where such input intensity takes place
in the input pulse. Using the results obtained above, we have
10e
Iôut e Iout  Iîn e Iin e  0l Iîn e Iin  Iôut e Iout e 0l  4.5e4.5 
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
  0.5e5.5 .
9
This relation is solved iteratively to find that Iîn  5.42 . This intensity occurs in the
input pulse at t   tpsout 2 . Using this fact and the temporal intensity profile of the
Gaussian pulse for Iˆpk
in
 10 , we find that
  tpsout 2  
2
ln 10 5.42 
5.42  10exp  4ln 2   tpsout  tpsin  94%tpsin .

  ps  
 t in 2 ln 2
Therefore, saturable absorption results in a 6% reduction of the pulsewidth.

Chapter 11
Photodetection
11.1 Basic Principles of Photodetection

11.1.1 For Cs, which a work function of eφ = 2.14 eV , the threshold wavelength is
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 579.3 nm .
Eth 2.14
When a Cs surface is illuminated with photons at λ = 500 nm , the highest kinetic

energy of the photoemitted electrons is
1239.8
Tmax =hν − Eth = eV − 2.14 eV =339.6 meV .
500
For K, which a work function of eφ = 2.29 eV ,the threshold wavelength is
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 541.4 nm .
Eth 2.29
When a K surface is illuminated with photons at λ = 500 nm, the highest kinetic
1239.8
500
For Na, which a work function of eφ = 2.36 eV, the threshold wavelength is
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 525.3 nm .
Eth 2.36
When a Na surface is illuminated with photons at λ = 500 nm , the highest kinetic

1239.8
500
For Li, which a work function of eφ = 2.90 eV ,the threshold wavelength is
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 427.5 nm .
Eth 2.90
When a Li surface is illuminated with photons at λ = 500 nm , no photoelectrons are

=
emitted because λ 500 nm > λth .
T m0 v 2 2 ≤ hν − Eth , the
11.1.2 Because the kinetic energy of a photoemtiited electron is=
highest kinetic energy of the photoemitted electrons is Tmax =hν − Eth =hν − eφ for a
=
metal. With =
Tmax 168 meV 0.168 eV for λ = 260 nm , the work function is
1239.8
eφ =hν − Tmax = eV − 0.168 eV =4.60 eV .
260
φ E=
11.1.3 For a metal like Au, the work function is e= th hc λth . Therefore, with λth
varying between 226.7 nm and 243.1 nm , we find the work function in the range
1239.8 hc 1239.8
eV ≤ eφ = ≤ eV ⇒ 5.10 eV ≤ eφ ≤ 5.47 eV .
243.1 λth 226.7
eφ Evac − EF , and the electron affinity is

11.1.4 The work function of a semiconductor is =
eχ Evac − Ec . The bandgap is E=
= g Ec − Ev . Therefore, eχ = Evac − Ev − Eg so that
Evac − Ev = eχ + Eg . We have eχ = 4.05 eV and Eg = 1.12 eV .
(a) The work function of the lightly-doped p-type Si with E=
F Ev + 200 meV is
eφ =−
Evac EF =− e χ + Eg − 200 meV =
Evac Ev − 200 meV = 4.97 eV .
This lightly p-doped Si is nondegenerate because its Fermi level lies in the bandgap.
Therefore, the threshold photon energy is not the work function but is
Eth = eχ + Eg = 4.05 eV + 1.12 eV = 5.17 eV > eφ .
The threshold wavelength is

1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 239.8 nm .
Eth 5.17
(b) The work function of the heavily-doped p-type Si with E=
F Ev − 200 meV is
eφ =
Evac − EF = e χ + Eg + 200 meV =
Evac − Ev + 200 meV = 5.37 eV .
This heavily p-doped Si is degenerate because its Fermi level lies below the valence-
band edge. Therefore, the threshold photon energy is the work function:
Eth = eφ = 5.37 eV > e χ + Eg .
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 230.9 nm .
Eth 5.37

eχ Evac − Ec . With eχ = 4.07 eV , the work function of intrinsic GaAs is
=
eφ =
Evac − EF = e χ + 672.2 meV =
Evac − Ec + 672.2 meV = 4.7422 eV .
Because the Fermi level lies in the bandgap, the threshold photon energy is not the
work function but is
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 225.7 nm .
Eth 5.494

eχ Evac − Ec .
= For an p-type semiconductor, we use E=
g Ec − Ev to find
eχ = Evac − Ev − Eg so that Evac − Ev = eχ + Eg . We have eχ = 4.07 eV and
Eg = 1.424 eV .
The work function of the lightly n-doped GaAs with E=

F Ec − 300 meV is
eφ =−
Evac EF =− eχ + 300 meV =
Evac Ec + 300 meV = 4.37 eV .
This lightly n-doped GaAs is nondegenerate because its Fermi level lies in the bandgap.
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 225.7 nm .
Eth 5.494
The work function of the lightly-doped p-type GaAs with E=

F Ev + 300 meV is
eφ =−
Evac EF =− eχ + Eg − 300 meV =
Evac Ev − 300 meV = 5.194 eV .
This lightly p-doped GaAs is nondegenerate because its Fermi level lies in the bandgap.
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 225.7 nm .
Eth 5.494

eχ Evac − Ec .
= For an p-type semiconductor, we use E=
g Ec − Ev to find
eχ = Evac − Ev − Eg so that Evac − Ev = eχ + Eg . We have eχ = 4.07 eV and
Eg = 1.424 eV .
The work function of the heavily n-doped GaAs with E=

F Ec + 300 meV is
eφ =−
Evac EF =− eχ − 300 meV =
Evac Ec − 300 meV = 3.77 eV .
This heavily n-doped GaAs is degenerate because its Fermi level lies above the
conduction-band edge. Therefore, the threshold photon energy is the work function
E=
th φ 3.77 eV < eχ .
e=
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 328.9 nm .
Eth 3.77
The work function of the heavily-doped p-type GaAs with E=

F Ev − 300 meV is
eφ =−
Evac EF =− eχ + Eg + 300 meV =
Evac Ev + 300 meV = 5.794 eV .
This heavily p-doped GaAs is degenerate because its Fermi level lies below the
valence-band edge. Therefore, the threshold photon energy is the work function:
Eth = eφ = 5.794 eV > eχ + Eg .
1239.8 1239.8
=λth = nm eV = nm 214 nm .
Eth 5.794
11.1.8 The dark conductivity is
σ 0 e ( µe n0 + µp p0 )
=
= e ( µe + µp ) ni
1.6 × 10−19 × ( 0.85 + 0.04 ) × 2.33 × 1012 S m −1
=
= 3.32 × 10−7 S m −1 .
Because n= p= 1.0 × 1020 m −3 due to photogeneration is more than seven orders of

magnitude larger than n=
0 p=
0 n=
i 2.33 × 1012 m −3 , we find that
−3
∆n = n − n0 = p − p0 ≈ n = 1.0 × 10 m . Therefore, the photoconductivity is
20
∆σ = σ − σ 0 = e ( µe ∆n + µp ∆p )
≈ e ( µe + µ p ) n
1.6 × 10−19 × ( 0.85 + 0.04 ) × 1.0 × 1020 S m −1
=
= 14.24 S m −1 .
11.1.9 The dark conductivity is
σ 0 e ( µe n0 + µp p0 )
=
= e ( µe + µp ) ni
=1.6 × 10−19 × ( 0.39 + 0.19 ) × 1.95 × 1019 S m −1
= 1.81 S m −1 .
For the photoconductivity to be 20 times the dark conductivity,

∆σ
= 20σ=0 36.2 S m −1 . The photoexcitation generates equal numbers of electrons
and holes. Therefore, ∆n =n − n0 =p − p0 =∆p , and
∆σ = σ − σ 0 = e ( µe ∆n + µp ∆p ) = e ( µe + µp ) ∆n .
For ∆σ
= 20σ=
0 36.2 S m −1 , we find
∆σ 36.2
∆n= = m −3= 3.9 × 1020 m −3 .
e ( µe + µp ) 1.6 × 10 × ( 0.39 + 0.19 )
−19
11.1.10 The photon energy for λ = 532 nm is
1239.8
=hν = eV 2.33 eV .
532
The signal current for Ps = 200 μW is
ePs 0.7
is = ηe = × 200 × 10−6 A = 60 μA .
hν 2.33
The output voltage in the photoconductive mode is found using (11.16). For
vout ≥ 100 mV with I 0 = 10 nA and is = 1.63 mA , the load resistance has to be
vout 100 × 10−3

=
RL ≥ = Ω 1.67 kΩ .
I 0 + is 10 × 10−9 + 60 × 10−6
At T = 300 K , we have kBT e = 25.9 mV . The output voltage in the photovoltaic

mode with a very large load resistance is found using (11.17) to be
akBT  i   326.2 × 10−6 

vout ≈ ln 1 + s  =1.2 × 25.9 × ln 1 +  mV =323 mV .
e  I0   10 × 10−9 
For Ps = 500 μW , the signal current is
ePs 0.7
is = ηe = × 500 × 10−6 A = 150 μA .
hν 2.33
The minimum load resistance for the photoconductive mode for in (a) is =
RL 307 Ω .
Therefore, the output voltage in the photoconductive mode is
vout = ( I 0 + is ) RL = (10 × 10−9 + 150 × 10−6 ) × 1.67 × 103 V = 250 mV .

The output voltage in the photovoltaic mode with a very large load resistance is found
using (11.17) to be
akBT  i   815.5 × 10−6 

vout ≈ ln 1 + s  =1.2 × 25.9 × ln 1 +  mV =351 mV .
e  I0   10 × 10−9 
11.1.11 The photon energy for λ = 1.55 μm is
1.2398
=hν = eV 0.8 eV .
1.55
The signal currents for 0.5 mW ≤ Ps ≤ 5 mW is
ePs
is = ηe
hν
0.56 0.56
⇒ × 0.5 × 10−3 A ≤ is ≤ × 5 × 10−3 A
0.8 0.8
⇒ 0.35 mA ≤ is ≤ 3.5 mA.
(a) The range of the output voltages in the photoconductive mode with R=
L 50 Ω is
found using (11.16) to be
=
vout ( I 0 + is ) RL
⇒ ( 2 × 10 −6
+ 0.35 × 10−3 ) × 50 V ≤ vout ≤ ( 2 × 10−6 + 3.5 × 10−3 ) × 50 V
⇒ 17.6 mV ≤ vout ≤ 175.1 mV.
The range of the signal voltages in the photoconductive mode is
vs = is RL
⇒ 0.35 × 10−3 × 50 V ≤ vs ≤ 3.5 × 10−3 × 50 V
⇒ 17.5 mV ≤ vs ≤ 175 mV.
Because 571 > Vr vout > 57  1 , the bias voltage of Vr = 10 V is sufficient for the
photodiode to operate in the linear regime in the whole range of the signal powers.
(b) At T = 300 K , we have kBT e = 25.9 mV. The output signal voltage in the
photovoltaic mode with a very large load resistance is found using (11.17) to be
ak T  i 
vs =
vout ≈ B ln 1 + s 
e  I0 
 0.35 × 10−3   3.5 × 10−3 
⇒ 1.1 × 25.9 × ln 1 +  mV ≤ v ≤ 1.1 × 25.9 × ln 1 +  mV
2 × 10−6  2 × 10−6 
s
 
⇒ 147.3 mV ≤ vs ≤ 212.8 mV.
11.2 Photodetection Noise

11.2.1 The thermal noise can be reduced by reducing the temperature T, by reducing the
bandwidth B, or by increasing the resistance R because
4kBTB
2
in,th = .
R
Because the signal current is many orders of magnitude larger than the dark current,
the shot noise is almost completely determined by the signal current, which does not
vary with T, B, or R. Therefore, when we vary these parameters to reduce the thermal
noise, the shot noise remains little changed. With =2
in,th 4.97 × 10−14 A 2 at T = 300 K ,
B = 150 MHz , and R ≈ RL = 50 Ω , to reduce it to the level of i=
2
n,sh 1.97 × 10−17 A 2 ,
we find that it is necessary to reduce T to
1.97 × 10−17
=
T × 300=
K 0.12 K
4.97 × 10−14
by varying only T, or to reduce B to
1.97 × 10−17
B= × 150 MHz= 59.5 kHz
4.97 × 10−14
by varying B alone, or to increase R to
4.97 × 10−14
=
R × 50=
Ω 126 kΩ .
1.97 × 10−17
Among the three approaches, reducing the temperature to T = 0.12 K is most difficult.
Reducing the bandwidth or increasing the resistance is relatively easy. Usually the
bandwidth and resistance of a photodetector are not independent of each other.
Increasing resistance often results in decreasing the bandwidth, thus the response time
of the photodetector. This is the price we must paid to reduce the thermal noise through
these approaches. If the signal varies slowly so that this reduction in response speed is
acceptable, then the thermal noise can be reduced without through reducing B or R, or
both simultaneously, without degrading the detected signal.
= 1 kΩ , and kBT = 25.9 meV for

11.2.2 We have id = 10 μA , is = 400 μA , B = 10 kHz , R
T = 300 K . The shot noise is
=2
in,sh 2=
eB  is + id
i 2eB  ( )
=2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10 × 103 × ( 400 × 10−6 + 10 × 10−6 ) A 2
= 1.31 × 10−18 A 2 .
The thermal noise is
4kBTB 4 × 25.9 × 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10 × 103 2

i=
2
= A 1.66 × 10−19 A 2 .
=
1 × 103
n,th
R
The SNR is
( 400 × 10−6 )
2
i2 i2
SNR =s = s = −18 −19
=1.08 × 1011 =110.3 dB .
in in,sh + in,th
2 2 2 1.31 × 10 + 1.66 × 10
2
Because in,sh ≈ 8in,th
2
, the shot noise dominates the thermal noise. Therefore, the shot
noise sets the limit on the SNR in this operating condition.
11.2.3 For this problem, we have id = 10 μA , B = 10 kHz , R = 1 kΩ , and kBT = 25.9 meV
for T = 300 K as in Problem 11.2.1. However, here we consider two different signal
currents, is = 4 μA and is = 40 μA . Because the thermal noise is independent of the
signal current, for both signal currents, the thermal noise is still
4kBTB 4 × 25.9 × 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10 × 103 2

i=
2
= A 1.66 × 10−19 A 2 .
=
1 × 103
n,th
R
For is = 4 μA , the shot noise is
=2
in,sh 2=
eB  is + id
i 2eB  ( )
=2 × 1.6 × 10 −19
× 10 × 103 × ( 4 × 10−6 + 10 × 10−6 ) A 2
= 4.48 × 10−20 A 2 .
In this case, is < id and in,sh

2
< in,th
2
. Therefore, the shot noise is primary contributed by
the dark current, but the total noise is dominantly thermal noise. The SNR is
( 4 × 10−6 )
2
i2 is2
SNR = s = = −20 −19
=7.59 × 107 =78.8 dB .
in in,sh + in,th
2 2 2 4.48 × 10 + 1.66 × 10
The thermal noise sets the limit on the SNR in this operating condition.
For is = 40 μA , the shot noise is
=2
in,sh 2=
eB  (
is + id
i 2eB  )
=2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10 × 103 × ( 40 × 10−6 + 10 × 10−6 ) A 2
= 1.6 × 10−19 A 2 .
In this case, is > id and in,sh

2
≈ in,th
2
. Therefore, the shot noise is primary contributed by
the signal current, while the total noise has equal contributions from the shot noise and
the thermal noise. The SNR is
( 40 × 10−6 )
2
i2 is2
SNR = s = = −19 −19
=4.9 × 109 =96.9 dB .
in in,sh + in,th
2 2 2 1.6 × 10 + 1.66 × 10
The shot noise and the thermal noise sets equal limit on the SNR in this operating
condition.
11.3 Photodetection Measures

11.3.1 Light at a wavelength of photon energy smaller than 0.95 eV can pass through the top
layer to reach the active layer, whereas that at a wavelength of photon energy larger
than 0.75 eV can be absorbed by the active layer, thus detected. Therefore, the spectral
range can be found as
1.2398 eV µ m
0.75 eV < < 0.95 eV
λ
1.2398 1.2398
⇒ μm < λ < μm
0.95 0.75
⇒ 1.305 μm < λ < 1.653 μm.
11.3.2 The maximum internal quantum efficiency of this photodiode is ηi = 90% because 90%
of light that reaches the active region is absorbed by the region. The collection
efficiency is ηcoll ≈ 100% because almost all photogenerated carriers contribute to the
photocurrent.
For the uncoated Si photodetector, the maximum transmission efficiency is
η t =1 − R =1 − 0.326 =0.774
because 32.6% of incident light is reflected outright. Therefore, from (11.48), the
maximum possible external quantum efficiency is
ηe =
ηcollη tηi =
1 × 0.774 × 0.9 =69.7% .
With this external quantum efficiency, the largest possible photocurrent for an optical
signal of Ps = 1 mW at λ = 850 nm is
e 850
iph ηe
= =
Ps 0.697 × A 478 μA .
× 1 × 10−3=
hν 1239.8
If a photocurrent of iph ≥ 600 μA for an optical signal of Ps = 1 mW at λ = 850 nm,
the required external quantum efficiency is
hν iph 1239.8 600 × 10−6

ηe = ≥ × =87.5% .
e Ps 850 1 × 10−3
With ηi = 90% and ηcoll ≈ 100% , the transmission efficiency required for ηe ≥ 87.5%
is
ηe 0.875
ηt ≥ = = 97.2% .
ηcollηi 1 × 0.9
For this purpose, the surface of the Si photodiode has to be antireflection-coated to

have a low reflectivity such that
R = 1 − η t ≤ 1 − 97.2% = 2.8% .
11.3.3 The maximum intrinsic responsivity 0max is found from (11.54) for ηe = 1 :
e λ
=
0max = nm −1 A W −1 .
hv 1239.8
For optical signals in the visible spectral region, 400 nm ≤ λ ≤ 700 nm , the values of
0max fall in the range of
400 700
A W −1 ≤ 0max ≤ A W −1
1239.8 1239.8
⇒ 0.323 A W −1 ≤ 0max ≤ 0.565 A W −1 .
The values of 0max at the three near-infrared wavelengths for optical communications
are
850
=0max = A W −1 0.686 A W −1 for λ = 850 nm ,
1239.8
1300
=0
max
= A W −1 1.05 A W −1 for λ = 1.3 μm ,
1239.8
1550
=0
max
= A W −1 1.25 A W −1 for λ = 1.55 μm .
1239.8
11.3.4 The intrinsic responsivity 0 of the APD is found when there is no gain, whereas the
responsivity of the APD includes its gain:  = G 0 .
With ηe = 64% , the intrinsic responsivity of the APD at λ = 1.55 μm is
e 1550
ηe
0 = =
0.64 × 0.8 A W −1 .
=
hν 1239.8
For a signal voltage of vs = 15 mV on the load resistance of R=
L 50 Ω , the signal
current is
vs 15 × 10−3
=
is = A 300 μA .
=
RL 50
Therefore, the responsivity of the APD is
is 300
=
 = = 12 A W −1 ,
Ps 25
and the gain of the APD is
 12
=
G = = 15 .
0 0.8
11.3.5 At the noise-equivalent power level, the shot noise for this photodetector is contributed
only by the dark current because the background current is negligible. At the two
temperatures considered in this problem, the noise levels for both shot noise and
thermal noise change.
At T = 300 K , id = 10 μA so that the shot noise is
2
in,sh =2eBid =2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 10 × 10−6 B A 2 Hz −1 =3.2 × 10−24 B A 2 Hz −1 .
With=
R 20 kΩ , the thermal noise at T = 300 K , for which kBT = 25.9 meV , is
4kBTB 4 × 25.9 × 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−19 −1

2
=
in,th = B A 2 Hz= 8.3 × 10−25 B A 2 Hz −1 .
R 20 × 10 3
The total noise is
in2 = in,sh
2
+ in,th
2
= 3.2 × 10−24 B A 2 Hz −1 + 8.3 × 10−25 B A 2 Hz −1 = 4.03 × 10−24 B A 2 Hz −1 .
Therefore,
NEP
=
in2
=
12
( 4.03 × 10 )−24 1 2
=
W Hz −1 2
2.23 pW Hz −1 2 .
B12
B1 2 0.9
With B = 1 kHz , we have the total NEP over the entire bandwidth:
× B1 2= 2.23 × 10−12 × (1 × 103 ) W= 70.5 pW .

NEP 12
NEP= 12
B
2
Because in,sh ≈ 8.4in,th
2
as seen above, the NEP at T = 300 K is primarily limited by the
shot noise.
At T = 250 K , id = 20 nA so that the shot noise is
2
in,sh =2eBid =2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 20 × 10−9 B A 2 Hz −1 =6.4 × 10−27 B A 2 Hz −1 .
With=
R 20 kΩ , the thermal noise at T = 250 K , for which kBT = 21.5 meV , is
4kBTB 4 × 21.5 × 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−19 −1

=2
in,th = =
B A 2 Hz 6.88 × 10−25 B A 2 Hz −1 .
R 20 × 10 3
The total noise is

in2 = in,sh
2
+ in,th
2
= 6.4 × 10−27 B A 2 Hz −1 + 6.88 × 10−25 B A 2 Hz −1 = 6.94 × 10−25 B A 2 Hz −1 .
Therefore,
NEP
=
in2
=
12
( 6.94 × 10 )
−25 1 2
=
W Hz −1 2
926 fW Hz −1 2 .
B1 2 B1 2 0.9
With B = 1 kHz , we have the total NEP over the entire bandwidth:
× B1 2 = 926 × 10−15 × (1 × 103 ) W= 29.3 pW .

NEP 12
NEP= 12
B
2
Because in,th ≈ 107.5in,sh
2
as seen above, the NEP at T = 250 K is almost entirely
limited by the thermal noise. The reason is that the dark current is significantly reduced
by lowering the temperature.
11.3.6 At the noise-equivalent power level, the shot noise for this photodetector is contributed
only by the dark current because the background current is negligible. With
B = 100 MHz , =R 50 Ω and id = 10 nA at T = 300 K , the shot noise is
2
in,sh =2eBid =2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 100 × 106 × 10 × 10−9 A 2 =3.2 × 10−19 A 2 ,
and the thermal noise is
4kBTB 4 × 25.9 × 10−3 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 100 × 106 2

=2
in,th = A 3.32 × 10−14 A 2 .
=
R 50
The total noise is
in2 = in,sh
2
+ in,th
2
= 3.2 × 10−19 A 2 Hz −1 + 3.22 × 10−14 A 2 = 3.22 × 10−14 A 2 .
Therefore,
i2
= n=
NEP
12
( 3.22 × 10 )
−14 1 2
=
W 344 nW .
 0.52
The detectivity is
1 1 −1
=
D = =
W 2.91 × 106 W −1 .
NEP 344 × 10−9
The detection surface area is
2
 1 × 10−3 
πr =
= π × 2
 m =
2
1.26 × 10−7 m 2 .
 2 
The specific detectivity is
(1.26 × 10 × 100 × 106 )

12
( B ) −7
12
∗ −1
=
D = =
m Hz1 2 W 3.26 × 106 m Hz1 2 W −1 .
NEP 344 × 10−9
11.3.7 With issat = 16 mA and  = 0.45 A W −1 , the saturation optical power is
issat 16
Ps=
sat
= = 35.6 mW .
mW
 0.45
With NEP = 150 nW , the linear dynamic range is
P sat 35.6 × 10−3

DR ==
10 log s 10 × log =
53.8 dB .
NEP 150 × 10−9
11.3.8 From (11.62), we have
Pssat
=
DR 10 log ⇒=
Pssat 10DR 10 NEP .
NEP
With NEP = 1.6 nW and DR = 67 dB , we find that
Pssat= 10DR 10 NEP= 1067 10 × 1.6 × 10−9 W= 8 mW .
For the photodetector to respond linearly, the maximum optical signal power allowed
is 8 mW .
11.3.9 Because 1 ps duration of the optical pulse is much shorter than the risetime
tr = 180 ps of the photodetector response. This optical pulse can be considered as an
impulse, and response of the photodetector to this pulse is the impulse response of the
photodetector. Therefore, with tr = 180 ps for the impulse response, the 3dB-cutoff
frequency of the photodetector is found from (11.63) as
0.35
=f3dB = Hz 1.94 GHz .
180 × 10−12
The electrical response bandwidth of this photodetector is found from (11.65):

f3dB 1.94
=B = =
GHz 2.19 GHz .
0.886 0.886
11.3.10 With B = 8 GHz , the shortest optical pulse duration that can be detected by this
photodetector is
1 1
∆=
t = =
s 62.5 ps .
2 B 2 × 8 × 109
The fastest pulse risetime that can be resolved is found using (11.63) and (11.65):
0.35 0.35 0.35

=tr = = = s 49.4 ps .
f3dB 0.886 B 0.886 × 8 × 109

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Principles of Photonics by Jia-Ming Liu 1

Basic Concepts of Optical Fields

Light of a wavelength longer than λg = 1.88 μm is transmitted.

1.1.3 The wavelength of the 5-THz wave is

Its photon energy is

1.1.4 The optical frequency for the 1.55 μm wavelength is

Its photon energy is

1.1.5 At λ = 635 nm , the photon energy is

The photon momentum is

hν 1.95 × 1.6 × 10−19

The photon flux for a beam power of P = 1 mW is

1.2 Optical Fields and Maxwell’s Equations

1.3 Optical Power and Energy

1.4 Wave Equation

where c = 1 µ00 as given in (1.39).

= 0 E + Pbound from (1.2) for the above equation, we rewrite (1.38) as

∂ 2 Dbound ∂J cond ∂2 E ∂ 2 Pbound ∂J

where c = 1 µ00 as given in (1.39).

1.5 Harmonic Fields

∫ ∫∫∫ ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r − r′′, t − t ′′) dr′′dt ′′ e

∫ ∫∫∫ ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r − r′′, t − t ′′) e

∫ ∫∫∫ ∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r′′, t ′′) ⋅ E ( r′, t ′) e

1.6 Polarization States

eˆ∗ ⋅ eˆ⊥ = 0 ⇒ c1 cos α + c2 e− iϕ sin α = 0,

The general solutions of these two equations for c1 and c2 yield

=eˆ⊥ ( xˆ sin α − yˆe iϕ

where ζ is a phase factor that can be arbitrarily chosen for convenience.

1.6.2 From (1.75) and (1.78),

eˆ+ + eˆ− eˆ+ − eˆ−

1.6.3 By using the result from Problem 1.6.2, we find that

=eˆ xˆ cos θ + yˆ sin θ

1.7 Optical Field Parameters

Optical Properties of Materials

Because χ ( r,t ) is always real, χ ∗ ( r, t ) = χ ( r, t ) . Then,

∫ ∫∫∫ χ ( r, t ) exp ( ik ⋅ r − iωt ) drdt

Therefore, χ ij∗ ( k , ω )= χ ij ( −k , −ω ) . Similarly, ij∗ ( k , ω ) = ij ( −k , −ω ) .

2.2 Optical Anisotropy

(b) Because nx ≠ n y ≠ nz , the crystal is birefringent and biaxial.

Note that eˆ1 × eˆ2 =

2.3 Resonant Optical Susceptibility

From the coefficients of the e− iωt terms, we find

) Ee−iωt + c.c.= Exˆe−iωt + c.c. , we have E (ω ) = E in this problem. Thus,

By taking ∆N =− N , the susceptibility obtained in (b) can be expressed as

Alternatively, under the condition that ω0  γ and ω  γ so that ω + ω0  ω − ω0 ,

The resonance frequency is

Because λ  ∆λ , we can use the approximation ∆ν ν 0 ≈ ∆λ λ to find that

Thus, the relaxation rate is

γ =π∆ν =7.35 × 1012 s −1 .

2.4 Optical Conductivity and Conduction Susceptibility

By identifying the momentum variable= p m= ∗

By setting ω0 = 0 and 2γ = 1 τ for χ res (ω ; ω0 ) obtained in Problem 2.3.1(b),

Ne2 1.81 × 10 × (1.6 × 10 )

⇒ ωp =2.40 × 1016 rad s −1 ,

Al is highly reflective for λ > λp , corresponding to ν < ν p ; it becomes transmissive

= s −1 2.49 × 1026 rad 2 s −2 .

ωp 1.58 × 1013 rad s −1 , ν p = 2.51 THz , and λp = 119.5 μm .

= s −1 4.81 × 1026 rad 2 s −2 .

ωp 2.19 × 1013 rad s −1 , ν p = 3.49 THz , and λp = 85.9 μm .

ωp 2.70 × 1013 rad s −1 , ν p = 4.3 THz , and λp = 69.7 μm .

2.5 Kramers-Kronig Relations

2.5.3 ′ (ω ) and the imaginary part χ cond

2.6 External Factors

 no2 + no4 r22 E0 0 0 