Frank R. Spellman (Author) - Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations-CRC Press (2020)

Handbook of Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant Operations
Handbook of Water and Wastewater
Treatment Plant Operations
Fourth Edition
Frank R. Spellman
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Spellman, Frank R., author.

Title: Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations / Frank
R. Spellman.
Description: 4th edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2020. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020001072 (print) | LCCN 2020001073 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367481681 (hardback : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9780367485559
(paperback) | ISBN 9781003038351 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Water treatment plants--Handbooks, manuals, etc. | Sewage
disposal plants--Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
Water--Purification--Handbooks, manuals, etc. |
Sewage--Purification--Handbooks, manuals, etc.
Classification: LCC TD434. S64 2020 (print) | LCC TD434 (ebook) | DDC
628.1/62--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020001072
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020001073
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

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and the CRC Press Website at

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Contents
Foreword...................................................................................................................................................................................xxxi
Preface to 4th Edition............................................................................................................................................................ xxxiii
To the Reader........................................................................................................................................................................... xxxv
Author....................................................................................................................................................................................xxxvii
PART I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview
Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations.............................................................................. 3

Introduction.............................................................................................................................................................. 3
Sick Water................................................................................................................................................................ 3
Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs?............................................................................... 6
The Paradigm Shift.................................................................................................................................................. 6
A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done................................................................................... 7
Multiple-Barrier Concept......................................................................................................................................... 7
Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations........................................................................................... 8
Challenges: Water and Wastewater Operations....................................................................................................... 9
Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations............................................................................. 9
Maintaining Infrastructure.................................................................................................................................. 9
Privatization and/or Re-Engineering................................................................................................................. 10
Benchmark It!.................................................................................................................................................... 11
What Benchmarking Is................................................................................................................................. 12
Potential Results of Benchmarking.............................................................................................................. 12
Targets........................................................................................................................................................... 12
Benchmarking: The Process......................................................................................................................... 12
Benchmarking Steps..................................................................................................................................... 13
Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use................................................................................ 13
The Baseline Audit....................................................................................................................................... 14
The Field Investigation................................................................................................................................. 15
Create Equipment Inventory and Distribution of Demand and Energy....................................................... 15
Technical versus Professional Management...................................................................................................... 17
Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability........................................................................................... 17
Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure................................................................................................... 18
Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure............................................................................................................ 18
The Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap....................................................................................................... 18
Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations........................................................................... 19
Chapter Review Questions..................................................................................................................................... 19
Reference and Recommended Reading................................................................................................................. 19
Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators.................................................................................................................................. 21

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................ 21
Setting the Record Straight.................................................................................................................................... 21
The Digital World................................................................................................................................................... 22
Plant Operators as Emergency Responders............................................................................................................ 23
Operator Duties and Working Conditions.............................................................................................................. 23
Operator Certification and Licensure..................................................................................................................... 24
References and Recommended Reading................................................................................................................ 25
v
vi Contents
Chapter 3 Plant Security......................................................................................................................................................... 27

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................ 27
Security Hardware/Devices................................................................................................................................... 27
Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices............................................................................................... 27
Aboveground, Outdoor Equipment Enclosures............................................................................................ 27
Alarms.......................................................................................................................................................... 28
Backflow Prevention Devices....................................................................................................................... 29
Barriers......................................................................................................................................................... 30
Card Identification/Access/Tracking Systems.............................................................................................. 33
Fences........................................................................................................................................................... 34
Films for Glass Shatter Protection................................................................................................................ 35
Fire Hydrant Locks....................................................................................................................................... 35
Hatch Security.............................................................................................................................................. 36
Intrusion Sensors.......................................................................................................................................... 36
Ladder Access Control................................................................................................................................. 36
Locks............................................................................................................................................................ 37
Manhole Intrusion Sensors........................................................................................................................... 37
Manhole Locks............................................................................................................................................. 37
Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages................................................... 37
Reservoir Covers........................................................................................................................................... 38
Side-Hinged Door Security.......................................................................................................................... 39
Valve Lockout Devices................................................................................................................................. 39
Vent Security................................................................................................................................................ 40
Visual Surveillance Monitoring................................................................................................................... 40
Water Monitoring Devices................................................................................................................................ 41
Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination........................................ 41
Chemical Sensors—Arsenic Measurement System..................................................................................... 42
Chemical Sensors—Adapted BOD Analyzer............................................................................................... 42
Chemical Sensors—Total Organic Carbon Analyzer................................................................................... 42
Chemical Sensors—Chlorine Measurement System................................................................................... 43
Chemical Sensors—Portable Cyanide Analyzer.......................................................................................... 43
Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs.................................................................................................. 44
Radiation Detection Equipment................................................................................................................... 45
Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets..................................................................... 45
Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters........................................................................................................... 46
Communication and Integration........................................................................................................................ 46
Electronic Controllers................................................................................................................................... 46
Two-Way Radios........................................................................................................................................... 47
Wireless Data Communications................................................................................................................... 47
Cyber Protection Devices.................................................................................................................................. 47
Anti-Virus and Pest Eradication Software.................................................................................................... 47
Firewalls....................................................................................................................................................... 48
Network Intrusion Hardware and Software.................................................................................................. 48
SCADA................................................................................................................................................................... 49
What Is SCADA?............................................................................................................................................... 50
SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater System......................................................................................... 50
SCADA Vulnerabilities..................................................................................................................................... 50
The Increasing Risk........................................................................................................................................... 52
Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities.................................................................................... 52
Cyber Threats to Control Systems.................................................................................................................... 53
Securing Control Systems................................................................................................................................. 53
Steps to Improve SCADA Security................................................................................................................... 54
Twenty-One Steps to Increase SCADA Security......................................................................................... 54
The Bottom Line on Security................................................................................................................................. 57
Contents vii
Chapter 4 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology.................................................................................... 59

Setting the Stage..................................................................................................................................................... 59
Treatment Process Models..................................................................................................................................... 59
Additional Wastewater Treatment Models........................................................................................................ 59
Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District.................................................................................................. 59
Bibliography........................................................................................................................................................... 62
Sheboygan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant....................................................................................... 62
Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant........................................................................................................ 63
Bibliography........................................................................................................................................................... 64
City of Bartlett Wastewater Treatment Plant................................................................................................ 64
Bibliography........................................................................................................................................................... 65
Key Terms, Acronyms, Abbreviations in Water/Wastewater Operations.............................................................. 65
Definitions.............................................................................................................................................................. 65
Acronyms and Abbreviations................................................................................................................................. 71
PART II Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects
Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater Math Operations...................................................................................................................... 77

Introduction............................................................................................................................................................ 77
Calculation Steps.................................................................................................................................................... 77
Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols..................................................................................................................... 77
Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations............................................................................................................. 77
Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median.................................................................................... 77
Units and Conversions....................................................................................................................................... 80
Temperature Conversions............................................................................................................................. 80
Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million)...................................................................................................... 81
Area and Volume............................................................................................................................................... 81
Force, Pressure, and Head................................................................................................................................. 81
Flow................................................................................................................................................................... 83
Flow Calculations.............................................................................................................................................. 84
Instantaneous Flow Rates............................................................................................................................. 84
Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank.............................................................................. 85
Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank............................................................................................................... 85
Flow through a Full Pipeline........................................................................................................................ 85
Velocity Calculations.................................................................................................................................... 86
Average Flow Rate Calculations................................................................................................................... 86
Flow Conversion Calculations...................................................................................................................... 86
Detention Time.................................................................................................................................................. 86
Hydraulic Detention Time................................................................................................................................. 87
Hydraulic Detention Time in Days............................................................................................................... 88
Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours............................................................................................................. 88
Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes.......................................................................................................... 88
Chemical Dosage Calculations.......................................................................................................................... 88
Dosage Formula Pie Chart........................................................................................................................... 88
Chlorine Dosage........................................................................................................................................... 89
Hypochlorite Dosage.................................................................................................................................... 89
Percent Removal................................................................................................................................................ 90
Population Equivalent (PE) or Unit Loading Factor......................................................................................... 91
Specific Gravity................................................................................................................................................. 91
Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge.................................................................................................... 91
Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation........................................................................................................ 91
viii Contents
Calculating Feed Rate.................................................................................................................................. 91

Calculating Solution Strength....................................................................................................................... 92
Filtration............................................................................................................................................................ 92
Calculating the Rate of Filtration................................................................................................................. 92
Filter Backwash............................................................................................................................................ 92
Water Distribution System Calculations....................................................................................................... 93
Water Flow Velocity..................................................................................................................................... 93
Storage Tank Calculations............................................................................................................................ 94
Distribution System Disinfection Calculations............................................................................................ 95
Complex Conversions........................................................................................................................................ 96
Concentration to Quantity............................................................................................................................ 96
Quantity to Concentration............................................................................................................................ 96
Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate................................................................................................................. 97
Applied Math Operations....................................................................................................................................... 97
Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance............................................................................................. 97
Mass Balance for Settling Tanks....................................................................................................................... 97
Mass Balance Using BOD Removal.................................................................................................................. 98
Measuring Plant Performance...................................................................................................................... 98
Plant Performance/Efficiency....................................................................................................................... 99
Unit Process Performance/Efficiency........................................................................................................... 99
Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge................................................................................................ 99
Water Math Concepts............................................................................................................................................. 99
Water Sources and Storage Calculations........................................................................................................... 99
Water Source Calculations................................................................................................................................ 99
Well Drawdown............................................................................................................................................ 99
Well Yield................................................................................................................................................... 100
Specific Yield.............................................................................................................................................. 100
Well Casing Disinfection.............................................................................................................................101
Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations.......................................................................................................101
Vertical Turbine Pump Calculations............................................................................................................101
Water Storage Calculations..............................................................................................................................101
Copper Sulfate Dosing.................................................................................................................................... 102
Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations................................................................................................ 103
Flocculation................................................................................................................................................ 103
Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations................................................................................................ 103
Chamber and Basin Volume Calculations.................................................................................................. 103
Detention Time........................................................................................................................................... 104
Determining Chemical Usage......................................................................................................................... 108
Sedimentation Calculations............................................................................................................................. 108
Calculating Tank Volume........................................................................................................................... 108
Detention Time........................................................................................................................................... 109
Surface Overflow Rate.................................................................................................................................... 109
Mean Flow Velocity.....................................................................................................................................110
Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate)...................................................................................................110
Percent Settled Biosolids.............................................................................................................................110
Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L)..............................................................................................................111
Determining Lime Dosage (lbs/day)...........................................................................................................112
Determining Lime Dosage (g/min).............................................................................................................113
Filtration Calculations......................................................................................................................................113
Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm)................................................................................................................113
Filtration Rate..............................................................................................................................................114
Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV).................................................................................................................115
Backwash Rate.............................................................................................................................................116
Backwash Rise Rate....................................................................................................................................116
Volume of Backwash Water Required, gal..................................................................................................117
Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft)............................................................................................117
Backwash Pumping Rate, gpm....................................................................................................................118
Contents ix
Percent Product Water Used for Backwatering...........................................................................................118

Percent Mud Ball Volume............................................................................................................................118
Filter Bed Expansion...................................................................................................................................119
Water Chlorination Calculations......................................................................................................................119
Chlorine Disinfection..................................................................................................................................119
Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate)................................................................................................ 120
Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual................................................................................... 120
Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate............................................................................................................ 122
Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate............................................................................................ 123
Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions.................................................................................................. 123
Calculating Percent Strength using Dry Hypochlorite............................................................................... 124
Chemical Use Calculations............................................................................................................................. 124
Fluoridation..................................................................................................................................................... 124
Water Fluoridation...................................................................................................................................... 125
Fluoride Compounds.................................................................................................................................. 125
Fluorosilicic Acid....................................................................................................................................... 125
Optimal Fluoride Levels............................................................................................................................. 126
Fluoridation Process Calculations.............................................................................................................. 126
Calculated Dosage Problems...................................................................................................................... 129
Water Softening............................................................................................................................................... 130
Calculating Calcium Hardness, as CaCO3...................................................................................................131
Calculating Magnesium Hardness, as CaCO3.............................................................................................131
Calculating Total Hardness.........................................................................................................................131
Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness.................................................................................. 132
Alkalinity Determination........................................................................................................................... 133
Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness................................................................................. 133
Recarbonation Calculation......................................................................................................................... 134
Calculating Feed Rates............................................................................................................................... 134
Ion Exchange Capacity............................................................................................................................... 135
Water Treatment Capacity.......................................................................................................................... 135
Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required)..................................................................... 136
Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration.................................................................................................. 136
Wastewater Math Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 137
Preliminary Treatment Calculations............................................................................................................... 137
Screening.................................................................................................................................................... 137
Grit Removal............................................................................................................................................... 138
Primary Treatment Calculations..................................................................................................................... 140
Process Control Calculations...................................................................................................................... 140
Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate)...................................................... 140
Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)...................................................................................................141
BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lbs/day)..........................................................................................141
Trickling Filter Calculations........................................................................................................................... 142
Trickling Filter Process Calculations......................................................................................................... 142
Hydraulic Loading...................................................................................................................................... 142
Organic Loading Rate.................................................................................................................................143
Recirculation Flow.......................................................................................................................................143
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs).......................................................................................................... 144
RBC Process Control Calculations............................................................................................................. 144
Hydraulic Loading Rate............................................................................................................................. 144
Soluble BOD............................................................................................................................................... 144
Organic Loading Rate................................................................................................................................ 145
Total Media Area........................................................................................................................................ 145
Activated Biosolids.......................................................................................................................................... 145
Activated Biosolids Process Control Calculations..................................................................................... 146
Moving Averages........................................................................................................................................ 146
BOD or COD Loading................................................................................................................................ 146
Solids Inventory................................................................................................................................................147
x Contents
Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio).................................................................................................147

Calculating Waste Rates Using F/M Ratio................................................................................................. 148
Gould Biosolids Age................................................................................................................................... 148
Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT).......................................................................................................... 149
Estimating Return Rates from SSV60......................................................................................................... 150
Sludge Volume Index (SVI)........................................................................................................................ 150
Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids......................................................................................... 150
Biosolids Waste Based upon Mass Balance............................................................................................... 151
Oxidation Ditch Detention Time................................................................................................................ 151
Treatment Ponds.............................................................................................................................................. 152
Treatment Pond Parameters........................................................................................................................ 152
Determining Flow Rate in Acre-Inches Day.............................................................................................. 152
Treatment Pond Process Control Calculations........................................................................................... 152
Hydraulic Detention Time (Days)............................................................................................................... 152
BOD Loading............................................................................................................................................. 153
Organic Loading Rate................................................................................................................................ 153
BOD Removal Efficiency........................................................................................................................... 153
Population Loading..................................................................................................................................... 153
Hydraulic Loading, In./Day (Hydraulic Overflow Rate)............................................................................ 153
Chemical Dosing............................................................................................................................................. 153
Chemical Feed Rate.................................................................................................................................... 154
Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual...................................................................................................... 154
Hypochlorite Dosage.................................................................................................................................. 155
Solution Chemical Feeder Setting, GPD.................................................................................................... 156
Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting............................................................................................ 157
Chemical Solution Feeder Setting, mL/min............................................................................................... 157
Chemical Feed Calibration......................................................................................................................... 157
Average Use Calculations........................................................................................................................... 159
Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping Calculations........................................................ 159
Primary and Secondary Solids Production Calculations........................................................................... 159
Primary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations...................................................................................... 160
Secondary Clarifier Solids Production Calculation.................................................................................... 160
Percent Solids............................................................................................................................................. 160
Biosolids Pumping.......................................................................................................................................161
Estimating Daily Biosolids Production.......................................................................................................161
Biosolids Production in Pounds per Million Gallons..................................................................................161
Biosolids Production in Wet Tons/Year.......................................................................................................161
Biosolids Pumping Time.............................................................................................................................161
Biosolids Pumped/Day in Pounds.............................................................................................................. 162
Solids Pumped per Day in Pounds............................................................................................................. 162
Volatile Matter Pumped per Day in Pounds............................................................................................... 162
Biosolids Thickening.................................................................................................................................. 162
Gravity/Dissolved Air Flotation Thickener Calculations........................................................................... 162
Solids Loading Rate, lbs/day/ft2................................................................................................................. 163
Concentration Factor (CF).......................................................................................................................... 163
Air-to-Solids Ratio..................................................................................................................................... 163
Centrifuge Thickening Calculations........................................................................................................... 163
Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization............................................................................................................... 164
Aerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations........................................................................................ 164
Volatile Solids Loading, lb/ft3/day.............................................................................................................. 164
Digestion Time, Days................................................................................................................................. 164
pH Adjustment............................................................................................................................................ 164
Anaerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations.................................................................................... 165
Required Seed Volume in Gallons............................................................................................................. 165
Volatile Acids to Alkalinity Ratio.............................................................................................................. 165
Biosolids Retention Time........................................................................................................................... 165
Estimated Gas Production in Cubic Feet/Day............................................................................................ 165
Contents xi
Percent Volatile Matter Reduction.............................................................................................................. 166

Percent Moisture Reduction in Digested Biosolids.................................................................................... 166
Biosolids Dewatering...................................................................................................................................... 166
Pressure Filtration....................................................................................................................................... 166
Plate and Frame Press Calculations............................................................................................................ 166
Belt Filter Press Calculations...................................................................................................................... 167
Hydraulic Loading Rate............................................................................................................................. 167
Flocculant Dosage...................................................................................................................................... 168
Total Suspended Solids............................................................................................................................... 169
Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering Calculations......................................................................................... 169
Filter Loading............................................................................................................................................. 169
Sand Drying Beds........................................................................................................................................170
Biosolids Disposal............................................................................................................................................171
Land Application Calculations....................................................................................................................171
Disposal Cost...............................................................................................................................................171
Biosolids to Compost...................................................................................................................................173
Composting Calculations.............................................................................................................................173
Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations..........................................................................................................174
Faucet Flow Estimation....................................................................................................................................174
Service Line Flushing Time.............................................................................................................................174
Composite Sampling Calculation................................................................................................................175
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Calculations.....................................................................................................176
BOD5 (Unseeded)........................................................................................................................................176
BOD5 (Seeded).............................................................................................................................................176
BOD 7-Day Moving Average.......................................................................................................................176
Moles and Molarity......................................................................................................................................... 177
Moles.......................................................................................................................................................... 177
Normality.................................................................................................................................................... 177
Settleability (Activated Biosolids)....................................................................................................................178
Settleable Solids...............................................................................................................................................178
Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids................................................................................ 179
Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids........................................................................ 179
Biosolids Volume Index (BVI) and Biosolids Density Index (BDI)............................................................... 180
Chapter Review Problems.....................................................................................................................................181
General Math Operations.................................................................................................................................181
General Wastewater Treatment Problems....................................................................................................... 182
References and Suggested Reading...................................................................................................................... 190
Chapter 6 Water Hydraulics...................................................................................................................................................191

What Is Water Hydraulics?....................................................................................................................................191
Basic Concepts......................................................................................................................................................191
Stevin’s Law..................................................................................................................................................... 192
Density and Specific Gravity............................................................................................................................... 192
Force and Pressure............................................................................................................................................... 193
Hydrostatic Pressure........................................................................................................................................ 194
Effects of Water under Pressure...................................................................................................................... 194
Head..................................................................................................................................................................... 195
Static Head....................................................................................................................................................... 195
Friction Head................................................................................................................................................... 195
Velocity Head.................................................................................................................................................. 196
Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head)..................................................................................................... 196
Pressure and Head........................................................................................................................................... 196
Head and Pressure........................................................................................................................................... 196
Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion....................................................................................................... 196
Area and Velocity............................................................................................................................................ 197
Pressure and Velocity...................................................................................................................................... 197
xii Contents
Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem.................................................................................................... 197

Conservation of Energy................................................................................................................................... 198
Energy Head.................................................................................................................................................... 198
Piezometric Surface......................................................................................................................................... 198
Head Loss........................................................................................................................................................ 199
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL).......................................................................................................................... 199
Bernoulli’s Theorem........................................................................................................................................ 199
Bernoulli’s Equation........................................................................................................................................ 200
Well and Wet Well Hydraulics............................................................................................................................. 201
Well Hydraulics............................................................................................................................................... 201
Wet Well Hydraulics........................................................................................................................................ 202
Friction Head Loss............................................................................................................................................... 202
Flow in Pipelines............................................................................................................................................. 202
Major Head Loss............................................................................................................................................. 203
Calculating Major Head Loss.......................................................................................................................... 204
C Factor........................................................................................................................................................... 204
Slope................................................................................................................................................................ 204
Minor Head Loss............................................................................................................................................. 205
Basic Piping Hydraulics....................................................................................................................................... 205
Piping Networks.............................................................................................................................................. 205
Open-Channel Flow............................................................................................................................................. 206
Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow........................................................................................................... 206
Laminar and Turbulent Flow...................................................................................................................... 207
Uniform and Varied Flow........................................................................................................................... 207
Critical Flow............................................................................................................................................... 207
Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow........................................................................................................ 207
Hydraulic Radius........................................................................................................................................ 207
Hydraulic Depth......................................................................................................................................... 207
Slope, S....................................................................................................................................................... 208
Open-Channel Flow Calculations................................................................................................................... 208
Flow Measurement............................................................................................................................................... 209
Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way..................................................................................................210
Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement...........................................................................................................210
Flow-Measuring Devices..................................................................................................................................210
Differential Pressure Flowmeters................................................................................................................210
Types of Differential Pressure Flowmeters.................................................................................................211
Magnetic Flowmeters................................................................................................................................. 212
Ultrasonic Flowmeters................................................................................................................................ 213
Velocity Flowmeters....................................................................................................................................214
Positive-Displacement Flowmeters..............................................................................................................214
Open-Channel Flow Measurement................................................................................................................. 215
Weirs............................................................................................................................................................216
Flumes.........................................................................................................................................................217
Chapter Review Questions....................................................................................................................................217
References and Recommended Reading...............................................................................................................218
Chapter 7 Hydraulic Machines Pumps..................................................................................................................................219

Introduction...........................................................................................................................................................219
Basic Pumping Calculations.................................................................................................................................219
Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline..............................................................................................................219
Pressure-Velocity Relationship........................................................................................................................ 220
Static Head....................................................................................................................................................... 221
Static Suction Head..................................................................................................................................... 221
Static Suction Lift....................................................................................................................................... 221
Static Discharge Head................................................................................................................................ 221
Friction Head................................................................................................................................................... 222
Contents xiii
Velocity Head.................................................................................................................................................. 222

Total Head....................................................................................................................................................... 223
Conversion of Pressure to Head...................................................................................................................... 223
Horsepower...................................................................................................................................................... 223
Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP)...................................................................................................... 223
Brake Horsepower (BHP)................................................................................................................................ 223
Specific Speed................................................................................................................................................. 224
Suction Specific Speed............................................................................................................................... 224
Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps................................................................................................................ 224
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)................................................................................................................. 225
Calculating NPSHA................................................................................................................................... 225
Pumps in Series and Parallel........................................................................................................................... 226
Centrifugal Pumps............................................................................................................................................... 226
Description...................................................................................................................................................... 227
Terminology.................................................................................................................................................... 227
Pump Theory................................................................................................................................................... 229
Pump Characteristics....................................................................................................................................... 229
Head (Capacity).......................................................................................................................................... 229
Efficiency.................................................................................................................................................... 230
Brake Horsepower Requirements............................................................................................................... 230
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Centrifugal Pump............................................................................... 230
Centrifugal Pump Application........................................................................................................................ 231
Pump Control Systems.................................................................................................................................... 232
Float Control............................................................................................................................................... 232
Pneumatic Controls..................................................................................................................................... 232
Electrode Control Systems......................................................................................................................... 232
Other Control Systems................................................................................................................................ 233
Electronic Control Systems............................................................................................................................. 234
Flow Equalization System.......................................................................................................................... 234
Sonar or Other Transmission Type of Controllers...................................................................................... 234
Motor Controllers....................................................................................................................................... 234
Protective Instrumentation......................................................................................................................... 234
Temperature Detectors............................................................................................................................... 234
Vibration Monitors..................................................................................................................................... 234
Supervisory Instrumentation...................................................................................................................... 235
Centrifugal Pump Modifications..................................................................................................................... 235
Submersible Pumps..................................................................................................................................... 235
Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps.......................................................................................................... 236
Turbine Pumps............................................................................................................................................ 236
Positive Displacement Pumps.............................................................................................................................. 237
Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump.............................................................................................................. 237
Diaphragm Pump............................................................................................................................................ 237
Peristaltic Pumps............................................................................................................................................. 238
Chapter Review Questions................................................................................................................................... 238
References and Recommended Reading.............................................................................................................. 238
Chapter 8 Water/Wastewater Conveyance............................................................................................................................ 239

Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization.............................................................................................................. 239
Conveyance Systems............................................................................................................................................ 239
Definitions............................................................................................................................................................ 240
Fluids vs. Liquids................................................................................................................................................. 242
Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems......................................................................................................... 242
Scaling............................................................................................................................................................. 242
Piping System Maintenance............................................................................................................................ 243
Piping System Accessories................................................................................................................................... 243
Piping Systems: Temperature Effects and Insulation...................................................................................... 244
xiv Contents
Metallic Piping..................................................................................................................................................... 244

Piping Materials.............................................................................................................................................. 244
Piping: The Basics........................................................................................................................................... 245
Pipe Sizes........................................................................................................................................................ 245
Pipe Wall Thickness................................................................................................................................... 245
Piping Classification................................................................................................................................... 245
Types of Piping Systems.................................................................................................................................. 246
Code for Identification of Pipelines............................................................................................................ 246
Metallic Piping Materials................................................................................................................................ 246
Characteristics of Metallic Materials.............................................................................................................. 247
Cast-Iron Pipe............................................................................................................................................. 247
Ductile-Iron Pipe........................................................................................................................................ 248
Steel Pipe.................................................................................................................................................... 248
Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping............................................................................................. 248
Expansion and Flexibility........................................................................................................................... 248
Pipe Support Systems................................................................................................................................. 248
Valve Selection........................................................................................................................................... 248
Isolation...................................................................................................................................................... 248
Preventing Backflow................................................................................................................................... 248
Water Hammer............................................................................................................................................ 248
Air Binding................................................................................................................................................. 249
Corrosion Effects........................................................................................................................................ 249
Joining Metallic Pipe....................................................................................................................................... 249
Bell-and-Spigot Joints................................................................................................................................. 249
Screwed or Threaded Joints........................................................................................................................ 250
Flanged Joints............................................................................................................................................. 250
Welded Joints.............................................................................................................................................. 250
Soldered and Brazed Joints......................................................................................................................... 251
Nonmetallic Piping.............................................................................................................................................. 251
Nonmetallic Piping Materials......................................................................................................................... 251
Clay Pipe..................................................................................................................................................... 252
Concrete Pipe.............................................................................................................................................. 252
Plastic Pipe................................................................................................................................................. 254
Tubing................................................................................................................................................................... 254
Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference.................................................................................................................. 255
Advantages of Tubing...................................................................................................................................... 256
Mechanical Advantages of Tubing............................................................................................................. 256
Chemical Advantages of Tubing................................................................................................................. 257
Connecting Tubing.......................................................................................................................................... 257
Cutting Tubing............................................................................................................................................ 257
Soldering Tubing......................................................................................................................................... 257
Connecting Flared/Nonflared Joints.......................................................................................................... 258
Bending Tubing............................................................................................................................................... 258
Types of Tubing............................................................................................................................................... 258
Typical Tubing Applications............................................................................................................................ 259
Industrial Hoses.................................................................................................................................................... 259
Hose Nomenclature......................................................................................................................................... 260
Factors Governing Hose Selection.................................................................................................................. 261
Standards, Codes, and Sizes............................................................................................................................ 261
Hose Size.................................................................................................................................................... 261
Hose Classifications.................................................................................................................................... 261
Nonmetallic Hose....................................................................................................................................... 261
Metallic Hose.............................................................................................................................................. 263
Hose Couplings................................................................................................................................................ 263
Hose Maintenance........................................................................................................................................... 264
Pipe and Tube Fittings.......................................................................................................................................... 264
Fittings............................................................................................................................................................. 264
Contents xv
Functions of Fittings........................................................................................................................................ 264

Changing the Direction of Flow................................................................................................................. 264
Providing Branch Connections................................................................................................................... 265
Changing the Sizes of Lines....................................................................................................................... 265
Sealing Lines.............................................................................................................................................. 265
Connecting Lines........................................................................................................................................ 265
Types of Connection........................................................................................................................................ 265
Screwed Fittings......................................................................................................................................... 265
Flanged Connections.................................................................................................................................. 266
Welded Connections................................................................................................................................... 266
Tubing Fittings and Connections..................................................................................................................... 266
Valves................................................................................................................................................................... 266
Valve Construction.......................................................................................................................................... 268
Types of Valves................................................................................................................................................ 268
Ball Valves.................................................................................................................................................. 268
Gate Valves................................................................................................................................................. 268
Globe Valves............................................................................................................................................... 269
Needle Valves............................................................................................................................................. 269
Butterfly Valves.......................................................................................................................................... 269
Plug Valves................................................................................................................................................. 269
Check Valves.............................................................................................................................................. 269
Quick-Opening Valves................................................................................................................................ 270
Diaphragm Valves...................................................................................................................................... 270
Regulating Valves....................................................................................................................................... 270
Relief Valves............................................................................................................................................... 270
Reducing Valves......................................................................................................................................... 271
Valve Operators............................................................................................................................................... 271
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators................................................................................................ 271
Magnetic Valve Operators.......................................................................................................................... 271
Valve Maintenance.......................................................................................................................................... 271
Piping Systems: Protective Devices..................................................................................................................... 271
Applications..................................................................................................................................................... 271
Strainers........................................................................................................................................................... 272
Filters............................................................................................................................................................... 272
Traps................................................................................................................................................................ 272
Trap Maintenance and Testing................................................................................................................... 273
Piping Ancillaries................................................................................................................................................. 274
Gauges............................................................................................................................................................. 274
Pressure Gauges.............................................................................................................................................. 274
Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges.............................................................................................................. 274
Bourdon-Tube Gauges................................................................................................................................ 275
Bellows Gauge............................................................................................................................................ 275
Plunger Gauge............................................................................................................................................. 275
Temperature Gauges........................................................................................................................................ 276
Vacuum Breakers............................................................................................................................................. 277
Accumulators................................................................................................................................................... 277
Air Receivers................................................................................................................................................... 277
Heat Exchangers.............................................................................................................................................. 278
PART III Characteristics of Water
Chapter 9 Basic Water Chemistry......................................................................................................................................... 283

Chemistry Concepts and Definitions .................................................................................................................. 283
xvi Contents
Concepts.......................................................................................................................................................... 283
Miscibility and Solubility........................................................................................................................... 283
Suspension, Sediments, Particles, and Solids............................................................................................. 283
Emulsion..................................................................................................................................................... 283
Ion............................................................................................................................................................... 284
Mass Concentration.................................................................................................................................... 284
Definitions............................................................................................................................................................ 284
Chemistry Fundamentals..................................................................................................................................... 285
Matter.............................................................................................................................................................. 285
The Content of Matter: The Elements............................................................................................................. 286
Compound Substances.................................................................................................................................... 287
Water Solutions.................................................................................................................................................... 288
Water Constituents............................................................................................................................................... 288
Solids............................................................................................................................................................... 288
Turbidity.......................................................................................................................................................... 289
Color................................................................................................................................................................ 289
Dissolved Oxygen............................................................................................................................................ 289
Metals.............................................................................................................................................................. 289
Organic Matter................................................................................................................................................ 290
Inorganic Matter.............................................................................................................................................. 290
Acids................................................................................................................................................................ 290
Bases................................................................................................................................................................ 290
Salts................................................................................................................................................................. 290
pH.................................................................................................................................................................... 292
Common Water Measurements ........................................................................................................................... 292
Alkalinity........................................................................................................................................................ 292
Water Temperature.......................................................................................................................................... 293
Specific Conductance...................................................................................................................................... 293
Hardness.......................................................................................................................................................... 293
Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment)............................................................................................................ 293
Water Treatment Chemicals............................................................................................................................ 293
Disinfection..................................................................................................................................................... 294
Coagulation..................................................................................................................................................... 294
Taste and Odor Removal................................................................................................................................. 294
Water Softening............................................................................................................................................... 294
Chemical Precipitation............................................................................................................................... 294
Ion Exchange Softening.............................................................................................................................. 295
Recarbonation.................................................................................................................................................. 295
Scale and Corrosion Control........................................................................................................................... 295
Drinking Water Parameters: Chemical................................................................................................................ 295
Organics........................................................................................................................................................... 296
Synthetic organic chemicals............................................................................................................................ 296
Volatile organic chemicals.............................................................................................................................. 297
Total Dissolved Solids..................................................................................................................................... 297
Fluorides.......................................................................................................................................................... 297
Heavy Metals................................................................................................................................................... 297
Nutrients.......................................................................................................................................................... 297
Chapter 10 Water Microbiology.............................................................................................................................................. 301

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 301
Microbiology: What Is It?.................................................................................................................................... 301
Water/Wastewater Microorganisms..................................................................................................................... 302
Key Terms............................................................................................................................................................ 302
Microorganism Classification and Differentiation............................................................................................... 302
Contents xvii
Classification................................................................................................................................................... 302
Differentiation................................................................................................................................................. 304
The Cell................................................................................................................................................................ 304
Structure of the Bacterial Cell ........................................................................................................................ 304
Capsules...................................................................................................................................................... 304
Flagella....................................................................................................................................................... 304
Cell Wall..................................................................................................................................................... 305
Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane)............................................................................................ 305
Cytoplasm................................................................................................................................................... 305
Mesosome................................................................................................................................................... 305
Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region)........................................................................................................... 305
Ribosomes.................................................................................................................................................. 305
Inclusions.................................................................................................................................................... 305
Bacteria................................................................................................................................................................. 305
Bacterial Growth Factors ............................................................................................................................... 306
Destruction Of Bacteria................................................................................................................................... 307
Waterborne Bacteria........................................................................................................................................ 307
Protozoa................................................................................................................................................................ 307
Microscopic Crustaceans..................................................................................................................................... 308
Viruses.................................................................................................................................................................. 309
Algae.................................................................................................................................................................... 309
Fungi......................................................................................................................................................................310
Nematodes And Flatworms(Worms)....................................................................................................................310
Water Treatment And Microbiological Processes.................................................................................................310
Pathogenic Protozoa.........................................................................................................................................311
Giardia..............................................................................................................................................................312
Giardiasis.....................................................................................................................................................312
Cryptosporidium...............................................................................................................................................316
The Basics of Cryptosporidium...................................................................................................................317
Cryptosporidiosis.........................................................................................................................................318
Cyclospora........................................................................................................................................................319
Helminths.........................................................................................................................................................319
Wastewater Treatment and Biological Processes..................................................................................................319
Aerobic Process................................................................................................................................................319
Anaerobic Process........................................................................................................................................... 320
Anoxic Process................................................................................................................................................ 320
Photosynthesis................................................................................................................................................. 320
Growth Cycles................................................................................................................................................. 320
Biogeochemical Cycles........................................................................................................................................ 320
Carbon Cycle................................................................................................................................................... 321
Nitrogen Cycle................................................................................................................................................. 321
Sulfur Cycle..................................................................................................................................................... 322
Phosphorus Cycle............................................................................................................................................ 324
Chapter 11 Water Ecology...................................................................................................................................................... 327

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 327
What is Ecology?................................................................................................................................................. 327
Why is Ecology Important?................................................................................................................................. 328
Why Study Ecology?............................................................................................................................................ 329
Leaf Processing In Streams............................................................................................................................. 329
Family Picnic Hosts Insect Intruders................................................................................................................... 330
History of Ecology................................................................................................................................................331
Example Ecosystem: Agroecosystem Model.................................................................................................. 332
xviii Contents
Agroecosystem Characteristics ................................................................................................................. 332

Ecosystem Pattern and Process ................................................................................................................. 333
Levels of Organization ........................................................................................................................................ 333
Ecosystems .......................................................................................................................................................... 333
Energy Flow in the Ecosystem ............................................................................................................................ 334
Food Chain Efficiency......................................................................................................................................... 335
Ecological Pyramids ........................................................................................................................................... 335
Productivity ......................................................................................................................................................... 336
Population Ecology ............................................................................................................................................. 337
Stream Genesis and Structure ............................................................................................................................. 339
Water-flow in a Stream ................................................................................................................................... 340
Stream Water Discharge ................................................................................................................................. 341
Transport of Material ..................................................................................................................................... 341
Characteristics of Stream Channels ............................................................................................................... 342
Stream Profiles ............................................................................................................................................... 342
Sinuosity ......................................................................................................................................................... 342
Bars, Riffles, and Pools .................................................................................................................................. 342
The Flood Plain .............................................................................................................................................. 342
Adaptations to Stream Current ....................................................................................................................... 345
Types of Adaptive Changes ............................................................................................................................ 346
Specific Adaptations ....................................................................................................................................... 346
Benthic Life ......................................................................................................................................................... 346
Benthic Plants and Animals ........................................................................................................................... 347
Benthic Macroinvertebrates ................................................................................................................................ 347
Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates ................................................................................................. 348
Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web........................................................................................................... 348
Units of Organization ..................................................................................................................................... 349
Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters ............................................................................... 349
Macroinvertebrate Glossary ................................................................................................................................ 349
Insect Macroinvertebrates .............................................................................................................................. 350
Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) .............................................................................................................. 350
Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera) .................................................................................................................... 350
Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) .................................................................................................................351
True Flies (Order: Diptera) ........................................................................................................................ 352
Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) ....................................................................................................................... 352
Water Strider (“Jesus bugs”) (Order: Hemiptera) ...................................................................................... 354
Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera) ..................................................................................... 354
Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) ......................................................................................... 355
Non-insect Macroinvertebrates ...................................................................................................................... 356
Oligochaeta (Family Tuificidae, Genus: Tubifex) ...................................................................................... 356
Hirudinea (Leeches) .................................................................................................................................. 356
Gastropoda (Lung-breathing Snail) ........................................................................................................... 356
Summary Of Key Terms ..................................................................................................................................... 356
Chapter Review Questions .................................................................................................................................. 357
References and Recommended Reading ............................................................................................................. 357
Chapter 12 Water Quality ...................................................................................................................................................... 359

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 359
The Water Cycle .................................................................................................................................................. 359
Water Quality Standards ..................................................................................................................................... 361
Clean Water Act ............................................................................................................................................. 361
Safe Drinking Water Act ............................................................................................................................... 361
Implementing the SDWA................................................................................................................................ 362
Consumer Confidence Report Rule ........................................................................................................... 363
Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater ............................................................................... 364
Physical Characteristics of Water/Wastewater ............................................................................................... 364
Contents xix
Solids.......................................................................................................................................................... 364
Turbidity..................................................................................................................................................... 365
Color........................................................................................................................................................... 365
Taste and Odor............................................................................................................................................ 365
Temperature................................................................................................................................................ 366
Chemical Characteristics of Water.................................................................................................................. 367
Total Dissolved Solids................................................................................................................................ 367
Alkalinity.................................................................................................................................................... 367
Hardness..................................................................................................................................................... 368
Fluoride....................................................................................................................................................... 368
Metals......................................................................................................................................................... 368
Organics...................................................................................................................................................... 369
Nutrients..................................................................................................................................................... 369
Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater......................................................................................................... 370
Organic Substances.................................................................................................................................... 370
Inorganic Substances.................................................................................................................................. 371
Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater...................................................................................... 372
Bacteria....................................................................................................................................................... 372
Viruses........................................................................................................................................................ 372
Protozoa...................................................................................................................................................... 372
Worms (helminths)..................................................................................................................................... 372
Chapter 13 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing ........................................................................................... 375

What Is Biomonitoring?....................................................................................................................................... 375
Advantages of Using Periphyton..................................................................................................................... 375
Advantages of Using Fish................................................................................................................................ 375
Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates................................................................................................... 376
Periphyton Protocols............................................................................................................................................ 376
Fish Protocols....................................................................................................................................................... 377
Macroinvertebrate Protocols................................................................................................................................ 377
The Biotic Index.............................................................................................................................................. 377
Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates.............................................................................................. 378
Biological Sampling in Streams........................................................................................................................... 378
Biological Sampling: Planning........................................................................................................................ 379
Sampling Stations............................................................................................................................................ 379
Sampling Frequency and Notes....................................................................................................................... 380
Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment......................................................................................................... 381
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams................................................................................ 381
Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment............................................................................................................ 383
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams............................................................................... 385
Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment............................................................................................... 387
Post-Sampling Routine.................................................................................................................................... 388
Sampling Devices............................................................................................................................................ 388
Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor............................................................................................. 388
Sampling Nets............................................................................................................................................. 389
Sediment Samplers (Dredges).................................................................................................................... 389
Plankton Sampler........................................................................................................................................ 390
Secchi Disk................................................................................................................................................. 390
Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment.......................................................................................................... 391
The Bottom Line on Biological Sampling....................................................................................................... 391
Drinking Water Quality Monitoring.................................................................................................................... 391
Is the Water Good or Bad?.............................................................................................................................. 392
State Water Quality Standards Programs........................................................................................................ 393
Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program............................................................................................ 393
xx Contents
General Preparation and Sampling Considerations............................................................................................. 393

Cleaning Procedures....................................................................................................................................... 394
Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers.......................................................................... 394
Method B: Acid Wash Procedures.............................................................................................................. 394
Sample Types................................................................................................................................................... 394
Collecting Samples from a Stream.................................................................................................................. 394
Whirl-pak® Bags......................................................................................................................................... 394
Screw-Cap Bottles...................................................................................................................................... 394
Sample Preservation and Storage.................................................................................................................... 395
Standardization Methods................................................................................................................................. 395
Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater......................................................................................... 395
Titrimetric Methods........................................................................................................................................ 396
Colorimetric Methods..................................................................................................................................... 396
Visual Methods................................................................................................................................................ 396
Electronic Methods......................................................................................................................................... 396
Dissolved Oxygen Testing............................................................................................................................... 396
Sampling and Equipment Considerations................................................................................................... 396
Winkler Method (Azide Modification)....................................................................................................... 397
Meter and Probe......................................................................................................................................... 398
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing............................................................................................................ 400
Sampling Considerations............................................................................................................................ 400
BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing....................................................................................................... 400
BOD5 Calculation....................................................................................................................................... 401
Temperature Measurement.............................................................................................................................. 401
Hardness Measurement................................................................................................................................... 402
pH Measurement............................................................................................................................................. 402
Analytical and Equipment Considerations................................................................................................. 402
pH Meters................................................................................................................................................... 402
pH “Pocket Pals” and Color Comparators....................................................................................................... 403
Turbidity Measurement................................................................................................................................... 403
Using a Secchi Disk.................................................................................................................................... 404
Transparency Tube...................................................................................................................................... 404
Orthophosphate Measurement......................................................................................................................... 404
Forms of Phosphorus.................................................................................................................................. 404
The Phosphorus Cycle................................................................................................................................ 404
Testing Phosphorus..................................................................................................................................... 405
Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate.......................................................................... 405
Nitrates Measurement...................................................................................................................................... 406
Cadmium Reduction Method..................................................................................................................... 406
Nitrate Electrode Method........................................................................................................................... 407
Solids Measurement........................................................................................................................................ 407
Solids Sampling and Equipment Considerations........................................................................................ 407
Total Suspended Solids............................................................................................................................... 408
Volatile Suspended Solids Testing.............................................................................................................. 409
Conductivity Testing.........................................................................................................................................410
Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations.....................................................................................410
Total Alkalinity................................................................................................................................................410
Analytical and Equipment Considerations..................................................................................................411
Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing......................................................................................................................411
USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule......................................................................................................................412
Sampling and Equipment Considerations....................................................................................................413
Fecal Coliform Testing................................................................................................................................413
Contents xxi
Apparent Color Testing/Analysis......................................................................................................................417

Odor Analysis of Water...............................................................................................................................418
Chlorine Residual Testing/Analysis.................................................................................................................418
DPD-Spectrophotometry.............................................................................................................................419
DPD-FAS Titration......................................................................................................................................419
Fluorides.......................................................................................................................................................... 420
PART IV Water and Water Treatment
Chapter 14 Potable Water Source........................................................................................................................................... 425

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 425
Key Terms and Definitions................................................................................................................................... 425
Hydrologic Cycle.................................................................................................................................................. 426
Sources of Water.................................................................................................................................................. 427
Surface Water....................................................................................................................................................... 427
Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water........................................................................................... 427
Surface Water Hydrology................................................................................................................................ 427
Raw Water Storage.......................................................................................................................................... 428
Surface Water Intakes..................................................................................................................................... 428
Surface Water Screens..................................................................................................................................... 429
Surface Water Quality..................................................................................................................................... 429
Groundwater......................................................................................................................................................... 429
Groundwater Quality....................................................................................................................................... 430
Groundwater Under the Direct Influence of Surface Water................................................................................. 430
Surface Water Quality and Treatment Requirements...........................................................................................431
Stage 1 D/DBP Rule........................................................................................................................................ 432
Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment (IESWT) Rule.......................................................................... 432
Regulatory Deadlines...................................................................................................................................... 432
Public Water System Quality Requirements........................................................................................................ 432
Well Systems........................................................................................................................................................ 433
Well Site Requirements................................................................................................................................... 433
Type of Wells................................................................................................................................................... 433
Shallow Wells............................................................................................................................................. 433
Deep Wells.................................................................................................................................................. 434
Components of a Well..................................................................................................................................... 434
Well Casing................................................................................................................................................. 434
Grout........................................................................................................................................................... 434
Well Pad...................................................................................................................................................... 434
Sanitary Seal............................................................................................................................................... 434
Well Screen................................................................................................................................................. 434
Casing Vent................................................................................................................................................. 434
Drop Pipe.................................................................................................................................................... 435
Miscellaneous Well Components............................................................................................................... 435
Well Evaluation............................................................................................................................................... 435
Well Pumps...................................................................................................................................................... 436
Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements.................................................................................... 436
Well Maintenance............................................................................................................................................ 437
Troubleshooting Well Problems................................................................................................................. 437
Well Abandonment.......................................................................................................................................... 437
Recommended Reading....................................................................................................................................... 438
xxii Contents
Chapter 15 Water Treatment Operations................................................................................................................................ 439

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................... 439
Waterworks Operator........................................................................................................................................... 439
Purpose of Water Treatment................................................................................................................................. 440
Stages of Water Treatment................................................................................................................................... 440
Pretreatment......................................................................................................................................................... 440
Aeration........................................................................................................................................................... 441
Screening......................................................................................................................................................... 441
Chemical Addition.......................................................................................................................................... 441
Chemical Solutions..................................................................................................................................... 442
Chemical Feeders....................................................................................................................................... 443
Types of Chemical Feeders........................................................................................................................ 443
Chemical Feeder Calibration...................................................................................................................... 443
Calibration Procedures............................................................................................................................... 444
Iron and Manganese Removal.................................................................................................................... 445
Iron and Manganese Removal Techniques................................................................................................. 445
Hardness Treatment.................................................................................................................................... 446
Corrosion Control....................................................................................................................................... 447
Corrosion Control....................................................................................................................................... 448
Coagulation.......................................................................................................................................................... 449
Mixing and Flocculation...................................................................................................................................... 451
Sedimentation....................................................................................................................................................... 452
Filtration............................................................................................................................................................... 452
Types of Filter Technologies........................................................................................................................... 452
Slow Sand Filters........................................................................................................................................ 453
Rapid Sand Filters....................................................................................................................................... 453
Pressure Filter Systems............................................................................................................................... 454
Diatomaceous Earth Filters........................................................................................................................ 454
Direct Filtration.................................................................................................................................................... 454
Alternative Filters............................................................................................................................................ 455
Common Filter Problems................................................................................................................................ 455
Filtration and Compliance with Turbidity Requirements................................................................................ 455
IESWTR Regulatory Requirements........................................................................................................... 455
Reporting and Recordkeeping.................................................................................................................... 457
Additional Compliance Issues.................................................................................................................... 458
Individual Filter Follow-up Action............................................................................................................. 458
Individual Filter Self-Assessment............................................................................................................... 458
Variances and Exemptions......................................................................................................................... 460
Disinfection.......................................................................................................................................................... 460
Need for Disinfections in Water Treatment..................................................................................................... 462
Side Bar 15.1 A Sherlock Holmes-Type at the Pump................................................................................. 462
Pump Handle Removal—To Water Treatment (Disinfection)......................................................................... 463
Pathogens of Primary Concern....................................................................................................................... 464
Recent Waterborne Disease Outbreaks........................................................................................................... 465
Escherichia coli........................................................................................................................................... 465
Giardia lamblia........................................................................................................................................... 466
Cryptosporidium......................................................................................................................................... 466
Legionella pneumophila............................................................................................................................. 466
Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation.............................................................................................................. 466
Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment........................................................................................ 466
Minimization of DBP Formation............................................................................................................... 467
Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels............................................................................. 467
Oxidation of Iron and Manganese.............................................................................................................. 468
Prevention of Re-growth in the Distribution System and Maintenance of Biological Stability................ 468
Removal of Taste and Odors through Chemical Oxidation....................................................................... 469
Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efficiency.............................................................................. 469
Contents xxiii
Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters............................................................. 469

Removal of Color........................................................................................................................................ 469
Types of DBPs and Disinfection Residuals..................................................................................................... 469
DBP Formation................................................................................................................................................ 470
DBP Precursors........................................................................................................................................... 471
Impacts of pH on DBP Formation.............................................................................................................. 471
Organic Oxidation By-products.................................................................................................................. 471
Inorganic By-products and Disinfectants................................................................................................... 472
DBP Control Strategies................................................................................................................................... 472
Source Water Quality Control.................................................................................................................... 472
Precursor Removal..................................................................................................................................... 472
Disinfection Strategy Selection....................................................................................................................... 473
CT Factor......................................................................................................................................................... 473
Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements............................................................................................ 474
Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices.................................................................................... 474
Summary of Methods of Disinfection............................................................................................................. 474
Chlorination..................................................................................................................................................... 475
Chlorine Terminology................................................................................................................................ 475
Chlorine Chemistry.................................................................................................................................... 476
Breakpoint Chlorination............................................................................................................................. 477
Breakpoint Chlorination Curve.................................................................................................................. 477
Gas Chlorination......................................................................................................................................... 477
Hypochlorination........................................................................................................................................ 478
Determining Chlorine Dosage................................................................................................................... 478
Chlorine Generation................................................................................................................................... 480
Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine................................................................................. 481
Factors Affecting Chlorination................................................................................................................... 481
Measuring Chlorine Residual..................................................................................................................... 482
Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy....................................................................................... 482
DBPs........................................................................................................................................................... 483
Application Methods.................................................................................................................................. 484
Safety and Handling Considerations.......................................................................................................... 485
Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Use........................................................................................ 485
Chlorine Summary Table........................................................................................................................... 485
Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water............................................................................................................... 485
Arsenic Exposure............................................................................................................................................ 486
Arsenic Removal Technologies....................................................................................................................... 486
Prescriptive Processes................................................................................................................................ 486
Adsorptive Processes.................................................................................................................................. 488
Membrane Processes.................................................................................................................................. 489
Alternative Technologies............................................................................................................................ 489
Granular Ferric Hydroxide......................................................................................................................... 489
Who Is Ultimately Responsible for Drinking Water Quality?............................................................................. 491
PART V Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment
Chapter 16 Wastewater Treatment Operations....................................................................................................................... 499

Wastewater Operators.......................................................................................................................................... 499
The Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model............................................................................................. 499
Wastewater Terminology and Definitions............................................................................................................ 499
Measuring Plant Performance.............................................................................................................................. 502
Plant Performance/Efficiency.......................................................................................................................... 502
Unit Process Performance and Efficiency............................................................................................................ 502
xxiv Contents
Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge....................................................................................................... 503

Hydraulic Detention Time............................................................................................................................... 503
Detention Time in Days.............................................................................................................................. 503
Detention Time in Hours............................................................................................................................ 503
Detention Time in Minutes......................................................................................................................... 503
Wastewater Sources and Characteristics.............................................................................................................. 504
Wastewater Sources......................................................................................................................................... 504
Generation of Wastewater........................................................................................................................... 504
Classification of Wastewater....................................................................................................................... 504
Wastewater Characteristics.............................................................................................................................. 505
Physical Characteristics.............................................................................................................................. 505
Chemical Characteristics............................................................................................................................ 505
Biological Characteristics and Processes................................................................................................... 506
Wastewater Collection Systems........................................................................................................................... 506
Gravity Collection System............................................................................................................................... 506
Force Main Collection System........................................................................................................................ 506
Vacuum System............................................................................................................................................... 507
Pumping Stations............................................................................................................................................. 507
WetWell/DryWell Pumping Stations.......................................................................................................... 507
Wet Well Pumping Stations........................................................................................................................ 507
Pneumatic Pumping Stations...................................................................................................................... 507
Pumping Station Wet Well Calculations......................................................................................................... 507
Preliminary Treatment......................................................................................................................................... 508
Screening......................................................................................................................................................... 508
Manually Cleaned Screens......................................................................................................................... 508
Mechanically Cleaned Screens................................................................................................................... 509
Screening Safety......................................................................................................................................... 509
Screenings Removal Computations............................................................................................................ 509
Shredding.........................................................................................................................................................510
Comminution...............................................................................................................................................510
Barminution.................................................................................................................................................510
Grit Removal....................................................................................................................................................510
Gravity/Velocity-Controlled Grit Removal.................................................................................................510
Aeration.......................................................................................................................................................511
Centrifugal Force.........................................................................................................................................511
Grit Removal Calculations......................................................................................................................... 512
Preaeration....................................................................................................................................................... 512
Operational Observations/Problems/Troubleshooting............................................................................... 512
Chemical Addition...........................................................................................................................................513
Operational Observations/Problems/Troubleshooting................................................................................513
Equalization......................................................................................................................................................513
Operational Observations/Problems/Troubleshooting................................................................................513
Aerated Systems...............................................................................................................................................513
Cyclone Degritter.........................................................................................................................................513
Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing.................................................................................................513
Other Preliminary Treatment Process Control Calculations...........................................................................513
Primary Treatment (Sedimentation)......................................................................................................................514
Process Description......................................................................................................................................... 515
Overview of Primary Treatment..................................................................................................................... 515
Types Of Sedimentation Tanks....................................................................................................................... 515
Septic Tanks................................................................................................................................................ 515
Two Story (Imhoff) Tank........................................................................................................................... 515
Plain Settling Tanks (Clarifiers)................................................................................................................. 515
Operator Observations, Process Problems, and Troubleshooting....................................................................516
Primary Clarification: Normal Operation...................................................................................................516
Primary Clarification: Operational Parameters (Normal Observations):....................................................516
Process Control Calculations...........................................................................................................................516
Contents xxv
Percent Removal..........................................................................................................................................517
Detention Time............................................................................................................................................517
Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate).......................................................517
Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)...................................................................................................517
Sludge Pumping...........................................................................................................................................517
Percent Total Solids (% TS).........................................................................................................................518
BOD and SS Removal.................................................................................................................................518
Problem Analysis..............................................................................................................................................518
Causal Factors for Poor Suspended Solids Removal (Primary Clarifier)...................................................518
Causal Factors for Floating Sludge..............................................................................................................518
Causal Factors for Septic Wastewater or Sludge.........................................................................................518
Causal Factors for Too Low Primary Sludge Solids Concentrations..........................................................518
Causal Factors for Too High Primary Sludge Solids Concentrations.........................................................518
Effluent from Settling Tanks............................................................................................................................519
Secondary Treatment............................................................................................................................................519
Treatment Ponds...............................................................................................................................................519
Types of Ponds............................................................................................................................................ 520
Ponds Based on Location and Types of Wastes They Receive................................................................... 520
Ponds Based on the Type of Processes Occurring Within......................................................................... 521
Elements of Pond Processes....................................................................................................................... 522
Biochemistry in a Pond............................................................................................................................... 523
Physical Factors.......................................................................................................................................... 525
Did You Know?.......................................................................................................................................... 526
Pond Nutritional Requirements.................................................................................................................. 526
Process Control Calculations for Stabilization
Ponds........................................................................................................................................................... 527
Trickling Filters............................................................................................................................................... 528
Trickling Filter Definitions......................................................................................................................... 528
Trickling Filter Equipment......................................................................................................................... 530
Filter Classifications....................................................................................................................................531
Standard Operating Procedures...................................................................................................................531
General Process Description.......................................................................................................................531
Overview and Brief Summary of Trickling Filter Process........................................................................ 532
Operator Observations................................................................................................................................ 532
Process Control Sampling and Testing....................................................................................................... 533
Troubleshooting Operational Problems...................................................................................................... 533
Process Calculations................................................................................................................................... 535
Rotating Biological Contactors....................................................................................................................... 537
RBC Equipment.......................................................................................................................................... 537
RBC Operation........................................................................................................................................... 538
RBC Expected Performance....................................................................................................................... 538
RBC Process Control Sampling and Testing.............................................................................................. 539
RBC: Process Control Calculations............................................................................................................ 540
Activated Sludge................................................................................................................................................... 541
Activated Sludge Terminology........................................................................................................................ 541
Activated Sludge Process: Equipment............................................................................................................. 543
Aeration Tank............................................................................................................................................. 543
Aeration...................................................................................................................................................... 543
Settling Tank............................................................................................................................................... 543
Return Sludge............................................................................................................................................. 543
Waste Sludge............................................................................................................................................... 543
Overview of Activated Sludge Processes........................................................................................................ 543
Factors Affecting Operation of the Activated Sludge Process........................................................................ 544
Growth Curve.................................................................................................................................................. 544
xxvi Contents
Activated Sludge Formation............................................................................................................................ 544

Activated Sludge: Performance-Controlling
Factors............................................................................................................................................................. 544
Aeration...................................................................................................................................................... 544
Alkalinity.................................................................................................................................................... 544
Nutrients..................................................................................................................................................... 545
pH............................................................................................................................................................... 545
Temperature................................................................................................................................................ 545
Toxicity....................................................................................................................................................... 545
Hydraulic Loading...................................................................................................................................... 545
Organic Loading......................................................................................................................................... 545
Activated Sludge Modification........................................................................................................................ 545
Extended Aeration...................................................................................................................................... 546
Oxidation Ditch.......................................................................................................................................... 546
Extended Aeration: Package Plants............................................................................................................ 546
Oxidation Ditches....................................................................................................................................... 547
Activated Sludge Process Control Parameters................................................................................................ 548
Alkalinity.................................................................................................................................................... 548
Dissolved Oxygen....................................................................................................................................... 548
pH............................................................................................................................................................... 548
MLSS, MLVSS, and Mixed Liquor TSS.................................................................................................... 548
RAS Rate and Concentration..................................................................................................................... 548
Waste-Activated Sludge Flow Rate............................................................................................................ 548
Temperature................................................................................................................................................ 549
Sludge Blanket Depth................................................................................................................................. 549
Activated Sludge Operational Control Levels............................................................................................ 549
Influent Characteristics............................................................................................................................... 549
Industrial Contributions.............................................................................................................................. 549
Process Sidestreams.................................................................................................................................... 549
Seasonal Variations.................................................................................................................................... 549
Control Levels at Startup............................................................................................................................ 549
Visual Indicators for Influent or Aeration Tank.............................................................................................. 550
Turbulence.................................................................................................................................................. 550
Surface Foam and Scum............................................................................................................................. 550
Sludge Color and Odor............................................................................................................................... 550
Mixed Liquor Color.................................................................................................................................... 550
Final Settling Tank (Clarifier) Observations................................................................................................... 550
Process Control Testing And Sampling.......................................................................................................... 550
Aeration Influent Sampling.........................................................................................................................551
Aeration Tank..............................................................................................................................................551
Settling Tank Influent................................................................................................................................. 554
Settling Tank............................................................................................................................................... 554
Settling Tank Effluent................................................................................................................................. 554
Return-Activated Sludge and Waste-Activated Sludge.............................................................................. 555
Process Control Adjustments...................................................................................................................... 555
Food to Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio)................................................................................................ 558
F/M Ratio Control...................................................................................................................................... 558
Process Parameters and Impact on MCRT/MCRT Impact on Parameters..................................................... 560
Typical MCRT Values................................................................................................................................ 560
Control Values for MCRT........................................................................................................................... 560
Waste Quantities/Requirements................................................................................................................. 560
Waste Rate in Million Gallons/Day........................................................................................................... 560
Mass Balance.............................................................................................................................................. 561
Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids......................................................................................... 561
Mass Balance: Biological Process.............................................................................................................. 562
Contents xxvii
Solids Concentration: Secondary Clarifier...................................................................................................... 563

Activated Sludge Process Recordkeeping Requirements................................................................................ 563
Disinfection of Wastewater.................................................................................................................................. 563
Chlorine Disinfection...................................................................................................................................... 564
Chlorination Terminology.......................................................................................................................... 564
Wastewater Chlorination: Facts and Process Description.......................................................................... 564
Wastewater Chlorination Process Description........................................................................................... 565
Chlorination Equipment............................................................................................................................. 565
Chlorine Systems........................................................................................................................................ 565
Chlorination: Operation.............................................................................................................................. 565
Troubleshooting Operation Problems......................................................................................................... 565
Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety....................................................................................... 568
Chlorine: Safe Work Practice..................................................................................................................... 568
Work: Chemical Handling—Chlorine....................................................................................................... 568
Chlorination Process Calculations............................................................................................................. 569
UV Irradiation................................................................................................................................................. 571
Advantages and Disadvantages.................................................................................................................. 571
Applicability............................................................................................................................................... 572
Operation and Maintenance....................................................................................................................... 572
Ozonation........................................................................................................................................................ 573
Advantages and Disadvantages.................................................................................................................. 573
Applicability............................................................................................................................................... 573
Bromine Chloride....................................................................................................................................... 574
No Disinfection............................................................................................................................................... 574
Advanced Wastewater Treatment......................................................................................................................... 574
Chemical Treatment........................................................................................................................................ 575
Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures......................................................................... 575
Microscreening................................................................................................................................................ 575
Filtration.......................................................................................................................................................... 576
Filtration Process Description.................................................................................................................... 576
Biological Denitrification................................................................................................................................ 578
Observational Operations, Problems, and Troubleshooting....................................................................... 578
Carbon Adsorption.......................................................................................................................................... 578
Operational, Observations, and Troubleshooting....................................................................................... 579
Land Application........................................................................................................................................ 579
Type and Modes of Land Application........................................................................................................ 579
Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting....................................................................... 580
Biological Nutrient Removal........................................................................................................................... 581
Description.................................................................................................................................................. 582
Process........................................................................................................................................................ 583
Performance................................................................................................................................................ 584
Enhanced Biological Nutrient Removal.......................................................................................................... 585
0.5-MGD Capacity Plant............................................................................................................................ 585
1.55-MGD Capacity Plant.......................................................................................................................... 586
2-MGD Capacity Plant............................................................................................................................... 586
24-MGD Capacity Plant............................................................................................................................. 586
xxviii Contents

67-MGD Capacity Plant.............................................................................................................................. 587
Solids (Sludge/Biosolids) Handling...................................................................................................................... 587
Sludge: Background Information.................................................................................................................... 588
Sources Of Sludge................................................................................................................................................ 588
Sludge Characteristics.......................................................................................................................................... 588
Sludge Pathogens and Vector Attraction......................................................................................................... 589
Direct Contact................................................................................................................................................. 589
Indirect Contact............................................................................................................................................... 590
Sludge Pumping Calculations.......................................................................................................................... 590
Estimating Daily Sludge Production.......................................................................................................... 590
Sludge Pumping Time................................................................................................................................ 591
Gallons of Sludge Pumped per Day............................................................................................................ 591
Pounds Sludge Pumped per Day................................................................................................................. 591
Pounds of Solids Pumped per Day............................................................................................................. 591
Pounds Volatile Matter (VM) Pumped per Day......................................................................................... 591
Sludge Production in Pounds/Million Gallons........................................................................................... 591
Sludge Production in Wet Tons/Year.......................................................................................................... 592
Sludge Thickening........................................................................................................................................... 592
Gravity Thickening..................................................................................................................................... 592
Flotation Thickening.................................................................................................................................. 593
Solids Concentrators................................................................................................................................... 593
Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting Procedures.................................................... 593
Process Calculations (Gravity/Dissolved Air Flotation)............................................................................ 594
Surface Loading Rate (gpd/ft2).................................................................................................................. 594
Sludge Stabilization......................................................................................................................................... 595
Aerobic Digestion....................................................................................................................................... 595
Anaerobic Digestion................................................................................................................................... 597
Sludge Withdrawal...................................................................................................................................... 597
Anaerobic Digester: Process Control Calculations.................................................................................... 598
Other Sludge Stabilization Processes......................................................................................................... 599
Definitions of Key Terms..................................................................................................................................... 600
Stabilization Operation............................................................................................................................... 607
Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting Procedures.....................................................614
Rotary Vacuum Filtration.................................................................................................................................615
Types of Rotary Vacuum Filters..................................................................................................................615
Operational Observation, Problems, and Troubleshooting Procedures......................................................615
Process Control Calculations.......................................................................................................................616
Pressure Filtration........................................................................................................................................617
Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting........................................................................617
Filter Press Process Control Calculations...................................................................................................618
Hydraulic Loading Rate: Belt Filter Press...................................................................................................618
Centrifugation...................................................................................................................................................619
Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting........................................................................619
Sludge Incineration.......................................................................................................................................... 620
Process Description.................................................................................................................................... 621
Incineration Processes................................................................................................................................ 621
Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting....................................................................... 621
Land Application of Biosolids......................................................................................................................... 623
Process Control: Sampling and Testing...................................................................................................... 623
Permits, Records, and Reports............................................................................................................................. 625
Definitions....................................................................................................................................................... 625
NPDES Permits............................................................................................................................................... 626
Monitoring.................................................................................................................................................. 626
Reporting.................................................................................................................................................... 626
Sampling and Testing...................................................................................................................................... 626
Contents xxix
Effluent Limitations.................................................................................................................................... 626

Compliance Schedules................................................................................................................................ 627
Special Conditions...................................................................................................................................... 627
Licensed Operator Requirements............................................................................................................... 627
Chlorination/Dechlorination Reporting..................................................................................................... 627
Reporting Calculations.................................................................................................................................... 627
Average Monthly Concentration................................................................................................................. 627
Average Weekly Concentration.................................................................................................................. 627
Average Hourly Concentration................................................................................................................... 627
Daily Quantity (kilograms/day).................................................................................................................. 627
Average Monthly Quantity......................................................................................................................... 627
Average Weekly Quantity........................................................................................................................... 627
Minimum Concentration............................................................................................................................ 627
Maximum Concentration............................................................................................................................ 627
Bacteriological Reporting........................................................................................................................... 627
Chapter 17 Practice Exam...................................................................................................................................................... 633

Exam.................................................................................................................................................................... 633
Appendix A: Chapter review quiz answers........................................................................................................................... 647
Appendix B: Formulae............................................................................................................................................................ 665
Index.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 667
Foreword
It is very difficult to make an accurate prediction, espe- unsightly, stinking mess was deposited into rivers, lakes,
cially about the future. streams, oceans, or into landfills. Sometimes these mountains
of unwanted wastes were torn down and piled up again on
—Niels Bohr
barges that were towed from port to port to port with no place
A rational person would have difficulty arguing against to land; no one wanted these floating mountains of waste: Not
Bohr’s view concerning the difficulty of making accurate In My Backyard (NIMBY). All these observations, of course,
predictions about the future. It must be said, however, that were indicators of what was occurring environmentally in
rational people are also capable of recognizing that in a few the here-and-now; moreover, they were “actions” portend-
instances there are exceptions to every rule. More specifically, ing what was in store for the inhabitants of Earth and for the
as the result of certain “actions” that occur, knowledgeable future generations to come. Thus, these present indicators of
and observant individuals can make fairly accurate predic- environmental problems became reliable predictors of greater
tions about the potential future consequences of such actions. environmental problems ahead in the future.
As a case in point, consider the actions of Man that pollute Along with the organizers and participants of that first
the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the land we live Earth Day celebration in 1970, there were other citizens
on and gain our sustenance from. It is probably safe to predict who were concerned about their futures and the futures of
that when contamination and destruction of our life-sustain- their loved ones. And although Niels Bohr was correct in
ing environment occur on a daily basis, certain fairly accurate his statement about the difficulty in making accurate pre-
predictions can be made about future consequences. Through dictions, especially about those in the future, in 1970 it
the observance and/or the awareness of certain “actions,” a was clear to many concerned individuals that if corrective
sense of foreboding concerning the dire consequences of Man actions were not quickly taken to protect and preserve the
destroying his environment motivated a group of concerned Earth’s environment, then there would be no need to worry
and enlightened individuals to organize the first Earth Day about making future predictions; that is, there would be no
celebration in 1970. future to predict.
The organizers of the first Earth Day celebration were To say that we face huge environmental challenges today,
concerned about certain “actions” of Man. To a degree, the as was the case in 1970, is to make an accurate statement.
organizers’ concern was driven by obvious “predictors” of a While it is true that since that first Earth Day celebration in
quality of life anticipated for the future that was not that prom- 1970 progress has been made in restoring Earth’s environ-
ising. Some of these organizers and other concerned individu- ment, it is also true that there is still a long way to go before
als made dire predictions based on what they had observed, the “predictors” or “indicators” of the future consequences of
on what they had read, or on what they had heard. For exam- the on-going damage to Earth’s environment are less salient
ple, they might have observed or learned about certain riv- than they are today. It should come as no surprise to anyone
ers within the United States that were so oil-soaked that they that it can be said with a great deal of accuracy that the qual-
actually burned. Moreover, others had observed or heard or ity of life here on Earth is directly connected to our “actions.”
read about skies above great metropolitan areas that were red It should be pointed out that not all the news concerning
with soot. Others had breathed air that they could actually man-made waste and its disposal is of the doom and gloom
see. And still, others had observed lakes choked with algae— variety. For example, it is noteworthy to take into account
lakes that were dying. Then there were those mountains they the steps that have been taken in recent years to clean up our
had observed, had read about, or had heard about. These were air and our lakes and to properly dispose of our waste using
mountains unlike the Alps or the Rocky Mountains, however. Earth-friendly disposal techniques. One such clean-up step,
Instead, these were mountains of trash, garbage, refuse, dis- the cleaning of the water we drink and dispose of, is described
carded materials, and other waste products. As with all things in this text.
that disgust Man, the same fate awaited these mountains of Note: This work, as with all the other authors’ works,
waste and filth; that is, they became unbearable for Man to is written in conversational style; this is simply the case to
live with and they were torn down. After teardown, the entire ensure that there is no failure to communicate.
xxxi
Preface to 4th Edition
This proven study and operational aid has been hailed as the • Discussion of water quality reports
flagship, best-selling work on water and wastewater treatment • Update on Energy Conservation Measures with
operations and is used both in preparing for operator certifi- applicable case studies
cation examinations and as a general information source and • Discussion of membrane bioreactors (MBR)
troubleshooting guide by plant personnel and administrators. • Discussion of variable frequency controls
This 4th edition has been condensed to emphasize important • Discussion of Phased Isolation Ditch (PID) control
content and updated as necessary as recommended by the systems
users of the first three volumes. Virtually most of the infor- • Expanded discussion of ultraviolet disinfection
mation needed by operators for plant, water, and wastewater
operations; conveyance operations; and preparation for opera- As with the earlier editions, the 4th edition is designed to
tor licensure examinations are included. As in the previous assist utility administrators, managers, and directors, law-
editions, the new 4th edition includes the addition of: yers, water and wastewater plant managers, plant operators,
conveyance personnel, and maintenance operators to oversee,
• Updates on current issues facing the water and manage, gain knowledge of, and/or operate their treatment
wastewater treatment industries works in a successful and compliant manner; again, this new
• Math operations with solutions edition (as was the purpose of the other editions) is designed
• Expanded water operations sample questions—250 to aid and assist all personnel preparing for all levels of water
multiple choice sample questions have been added and wastewater operator licensure, and as an examination aid
(again, as recommended by previous users of earlier the final chapter provides a 250 question practice examination
editions of this text) on package units that may assist operators in passing licensure examinations.
• Discussion of oxidation ditches
• Discussion of biological nutrient removal (BNR) Frank R. Spellman
processes Norfolk, VA
xxxiii
To the Reader
In reading this text, you are going to spend some time follow- When this happens, we must sometimes treat the water
ing water on its travels. before we consume it.
Even after being held in bondage, sometimes for eons, Whether this is the case or not, water continues its endless
eventually water moves. cycle.
Do you have any idea where this water has been? And for us this is the best of news.
Where this water is going? So, again, do you have any idea where water has been?
What changes it has undergone, during all the long ages More importantly, where the water is going?
water has lain on and under the face of the Earth?
Sometimes we can look at this water … analyze this water If we could first know where we are and whither we are tend-
… test this water to find out where it has been. ing, we could better judge what we do and how to do it.
Water, because it is the universal solvent, has a tendency to
pick up materials through which it flows. —Abraham Lincoln
xxxv
Author
Frank R. Spellman is a retired U.S. Naval Officer with the globe. Spellman holds a BA in Public Administration,
26 years of active duty, a retired environmental safety and BS in Business Management, MBA, and MS/PhD in
health manager for a large wastewater sanitation district Environmental Engineering. In 2011/2012, he traced and
in Virginia, and retired assistant professor of environmen- documented the ancient water distribution system at Machu
tal health at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia. Picchu, Peru, and surveyed several drinking water resources
The author/co-author of 148 books, Spellman consults on in Coco and Amazonia, Ecuador. Spellman also studied
environmental matters with the US Department of Justice, and surveyed two separate potable water supplies in the
and various law firms and environmental entities throughout Galapagos Islands.
Photo of author in Upper Amazon Jungle in Ecuador (2013).
xxxvii
Part I
Water and Wastewater Operations
An Overview
1 Current Issues in Water and
Wastewater Treatment Operations
Water is crucial for all aspects of life, the defining fea-

ture of our planet. DID YOU KNOW?
—UN (2010) More than 50% of Americans drink bottled water occa-
sionally or as their major source of drinking water—an
The failure to provide safe drinking waterand adequate
astounding fact given the high quality and low cost of
sanitation services to all people is perhaps the greatest
U.S. tapwater.
development failure of the twentieth century.
—Gleick (1998, 2000)
SICK WATER
INTRODUCTION
The term sick water was coined by the United Nations in
Water and wastewater operations are hidden functions. a 2010 press release addressing the need to recognize that
Treatment plants are usually isolated; the piping systems are it is time to arrest the global tide of sick water. The gist of
usually buried underground; and the customers and ratepay- the UN report pointed out that transforming waste from a
ers hardly think about either, that is, until the rude awaken- major health and environmental hazard into a clean, safe,
ing—until the tap runs dry, the toilet backs up, the bill is and economicallyattractive resource is emerging as a key
received in the mail or online. Although not often thought of challenge in the 21st century. As a practitioner of envi-
as a commodity (or, for that matter, not thought about at all), ronmental health, I certainly support the United Nations’
water is a commodity—a very valuable, an absolute vital view on this important topic.
commodity. We consume water, waste it, discard it, pollute However, when I discuss sick water, in the context of this
it, poison it, flush it, and relentlessly modify the hydrologi- text and in many others I have authored or co-authored on
cal cycles (natural and urban cycles), with total disregard to the topic, I go a few steps further than the United Nations in
the consequences: “too many people, too little water, water describing the real essence and tragic implications of water
in the wrong places and in the wrong amounts. The human that makes people or animals sick or worse, or at least that can
population is burgeoning, but water demand is increasing be classified as sick—again, in my opinion.
twice as fast” (De Villiers, 2000). It is our position that with Water that is sick is actually a filthy medium, wastewater—
the passage of time, potable water will become even more a cocktail of fertilizer run-off and sewage disposal alongside
valuable. Moreover, with the passage of even more time, animal, industrial, agricultural, and other wastes. In addition
potable water will be even more valuable than we might ever to these listed wastes of concern, other wastes are beginning
imagine—possibly (likely) comparable in pricing, gallon to garner widespread attention; they certainly have garnered
for gallon, to what we pay for gasoline, or even more. From our attention in our research on the potential problems related
urban growth to infectious disease and newly identified con- to these so-called “other” wastes.
taminants in water, greater demands are being placed on What are these other wastes? Any waste or product we dis-
our planet’s water supply (and other natural resources). As pose of in our waters, that we flush down the toilet, pour down
the global population continues to grow, people will place the sink, or bathtub, or down the drain of a worksite deep sink.
greater and greater demands on our water supply. The fact Consider the following example of “pollutants” we discharge
is—simply and profoundly, without a doubt in the author’s to our wastewater treatment plants or septic tanks that we do
mind—water is the “new oil.” not often consider as waste products, but in reality are waste
Earth was originally allotted a finite amount of water; we products.
have no more or no less than that original allotment today— Each morning a family of four wakes up and prepares for
they are not making any more of it. Thus, it logically fol- the workday for the two parents and for school for the two
lows that, in order to sustain life as we know it, we must do teenagers. Fortunately, this family has three upstairs bath-
everything we can to preserve and protect our water supply. rooms to accommodate each person’sneed to prepare via
Moreover, we also must purify and reuse the water we pres- the morning natural waste disposal, shower and soap usage,
ently waste (i.e., wastewater). cosmetic application, hair treatments, vitamins, sunscreen,
3
4 Water and Wastewater Treatment
fragrances, and prescribed medications. In addition, the over- into the local wastewater treatment system cause problems
night deposit of cat and dog waste is routinely picked up and for anyone or anything else downstream, so to speak? When
flushed down the toilet. Let’s fashion a short inventory list we ingest locally treated water, are we also ingesting flushed-
of what this family of four has disposed of or has applied to down-the-toilet-or-the-drain antibiotics, other medications,
themselves as they prepare for their day outside the home: illicit drugs, animal excretions, cosmetics, vitamins, vaginal
cleansing products, sunscreen products, diagnostic agents,
• Toilet-flushed animal wastes crankcase oil, grease, oil, fats, and veterinary drugs each time
• Prescription and over-the-counter therapeutic drugs we drink a glass of tap water?
• Veterinary drugs Well, Joni, bar the door—we certainly hope not. But hope
• Fragrances is not always fact.
• Soap The jury is still out on these questions. Simply, we do not
• Shampoo, condition, other hair treatment products know what we do not know about the fate of PPCPs or their
• Body lotion, deodorant, body powder impact on the environment once they enter our wastewater
• Cosmetics treatment systems, the water cycle, and eventually our drink-
• Sunscreen products ing water supply systems. This is the case even though some
• Diagnostic agents PPCPs are easily broken down and processed by the human
• Nutraceuticals (e.g., vitamins, medical foods, func- body or degraded quickly in the environment. Moreover,
tional foods, etc.) we have known for some time, since the time of the mythi-
cal hero Hercules, arguably the world’s first environmental
Even though these bioactive substances have been around engineer, when he was ordered to perform his fifth labor by
for decades, today we group all of them (the exception being Eurystheus to clean up King Augeas’ stables. Hercules, faced
animal wastes), substances and/or products, under the title of literally with a mountain of horse and cattle waste piled high
pharmaceuticals and personal care products called “PPCPs” in the stable area, had to devise some method to dispose of
(see Figure 1.1). the waste; so, he did. He diverted a couple of river streams
I pointed to the human activities of the family of four in to the inside of the stable area so that all the animal waste
contributing PPCPs to the environment, but there are other could simply be deposited into the river: Out of sight, out of
sources of PPCPs that should also be recognized. For exam- mind. The waste simply flowed downstream—now someone
ple, residues from pharmaceutical manufacturing, hospitals, else’s problem. Hercules understood the principal point in
illicit drug disposal (i.e., police knock on the door and the pollution-control technology that is pertinent to this very day;
frightened user flushes the illicit drugs down the toilet,along that is, dilution is the solution to pollution.
with $100 bills, weapons, self-aborted fetuses, dealers’ phone As applied to today, the fly in the ointment in Hercules’
numbers, etc., and into the wastewater stream), veterinary dilution is the solution to pollution approach is today’s mod-
drug use (particularly antibiotics and steroids), and agribusi- ern PPCPs. Although he was able to dispose of animal waste
ness are all contributors of PPCPs in the environment. into a running water system where eventually the water’s self-
With regard to personal deposits of PPCPs to the envi- purification process would clean the stream, he did not have
ronment and to the local wastewater supply, let’s return to to deal with today’s personal pharmaceuticals and hormones
the family of four for now. After having applied or taken in that are given to too many types of livestock to enhance their
the various substances mentioned earlier, the four individu- health and growth.
als involved add these products, PPCPs, to the environment The simple truth is that studies have shown that phar-
through excretion (the elimination of waste material from maceuticals are present in our nation’s waterbodies. Further
the body),when bathing later after returning home, and then research suggests that certain drugs may cause ecological
possibly through the disposal of any unwanted medications harm. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
to sewers and trash. How many of us have found old medical (USEPA) and other research agencies are committed to inves-
prescriptions in the family medicine chest and decided they tigating this topic and developing strategies to help protect the
were no longer needed? How many of us have grabbed up health of both the environment and the public. To date, scien-
such unwanted medications and simply disposed of them with tists have found no evidence of adverse human health effects
a single toilet flush? Many of these medications, for example from PPCPs in the environment. Moreover, others might
antibiotics, are not normally found in the environment. And argue that even if PPCPs were present today or in ancient (and
then there are those who dump the deep fat fryer grease down mythical) times the amount present in local water systems and
the toilet—please, do not do that! others would represent only a small fraction (ppt—parts per
Earlier I stated that wastewater is a cocktail of fertilizer trillion, 10 −12) of the total volume of water. And the critics
run-off and sewage disposal alongside animal, industrial, would be quick to point out that when we are speaking of parts
agricultural, and other wastes. When we factor in the addition per trillion (ppt) we are speaking of a proportion equivalent
of PPCPs to this cocktail we can state analogously that we are to one-twentieth of a drop of water diluted into an Olympic-
simply adding a mixer to the mix. size swimming pool. I remember when I had one student in
The questions about our mixed waste cocktail are obvi- my environmental health classes who stated that he did not
ous: Does the disposal of antibiotics and/or other medications think the water should be termed “sick water” because it was
Current Issues
5
FIGURE 1.1 Origins and fate of PPCPs in the environment.Source: EPA accessed 06/09/11 @ http://epa.gov/nerlesd1/chemistry/pharma /.
evident to him that if the water contained so many medica- matching funds for upgrades), as well as usage fees for water
tions, for example, how could it be sick? Instead it might be and wastewater customers. In smaller communities, in fact,
termed “‘getting well water’—making anyone who drinks it the water and wastewater plants may be the only city services
well, cured, no longer sick, etc.” that actually generate income. This is especially true in water
It is important to point out that the term sick water can be treatment and delivery, which is commonly looked upon as
applied to not only PPCP-contaminated water but also to any the “cash cow” of city services. As a cash cow, the water treat-
filthy, dirty, contaminated, vomit-filled, polluted, pathogen- ment works generate cash in excess of the amount of cash
filled drinking water source. The fact is, dirty or sick water needed to maintain the treatment works. These treatment
means more people now die from contaminated and polluted works are “milked” continuously with as little investment as
water than from all forms of violence including wars (UN, possible. Funds generated by the facility do not always stay
2010). The United Nations also points out that dirty or sick with the facility. Funds can be re-assigned to support other
water is also a key factor in the rise of de-oxygenated dead city services—and when facility upgrade time comes, fund-
zones that have been emerging in seas and oceans across the ing for renovations can be problematic. On the other end of
globe. the spectrum, spent water (wastewater) treated in a POTW
is often looked upon as one of the “cash dogs” of city ser-
PUBLICLY OWNED TREATMENT WORKS: vices. Typically, these units make only enough money to sus-
tain operations. This is the case, of course, because managers
CASH COWS OR CASH DOGS?
and oversight boards or commissions are fearful, for political
While most Americans worry about gas and heating oil reasons, of charging ratepayers “too much” for treatment ser-
prices, water rates havesurged in the past dozen years, vices. Some progress has been made, however, in marketing
according to a USA TODAY study of 100municipali- and selling treated wastewater for reuse in industrial cooling
ties. Prices at least doubled in more than a quarter of the applications and some irrigation projects. Moreover, wastewa-
locations andeven tripled in a few. ter solids have been reused as soil amendments; also, ash from
incinerated biosolids has been used as a major ingredient in
—McCoy, 2012
forming cement revetment blocks used in areas susceptible to
Water and wastewater treatment facilities are usually owned, heavy erosion from river and sea inlets and outlets.
operated, and managed by the community (the municipality)
where they are located. While some of these facilities are pri-
THE PARADIGM SHIFT
vately owned, the majority of Water Treatment Plants (WTPs)
and Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) are POTWs— Historically, the purpose of water supply systems has been to
Publicly Owned Treatment Works (i.e., owned by local gov- provide pleasant drinking water that is free of disease organ-
ernment agencies). isms and toxic substances. In addition, the purpose of waste-
These publicly owned facilities are managed and operated water treatment has been to protect the health and well being
on-site by professionals in the field. Onsite management, how- of our communities. Water/wastewater treatment operations
ever, is usually controlled by a board of elected, appointed, have accomplished this goal by (1) prevention of disease and
or hired directors/commissioners, who set policy, determine nuisance conditions; (2) avoidance of contamination of water
budget, plan for expansion or upgrading, hold decision-mak- supplies and navigable waters; (3) maintenance of clean water
ing power for large purchases, set rates for ratepayers, and in for survival of fish and for bathing and recreation; and gener-
general, control the overall direction of the operation. ally (4) conservation of water quality for future use.
When final decisions on matters that affect plant perfor- The purpose of water supply systems and wastewater treat-
mance are in the hands of, for example, a board of directors ment processes has not changed. However, primarily because
comprised of elected and appointed city officials, their knowl- of new regulations that include (1) protecting against protozoan
edge of the science, the engineering, and the hands-on prob- and virus contamination, (2) implementation of the multiple-
lems that those who are on site must solve can range from barrier approach to microbial control, (3) new requirements
“everything” to “none.” Matters that are of critical importance of the Ground Water Disinfection Rule (GWDR), the Total
to those in onsite management may mean little to those on the Coliform Rule (TCR) and Distribution System (DS), the Lead
board. The board of directors may indeed also be responsible and Copper (Pd/Cu) rule, (4) regulations for trihalometh-
for other city services, and have an agenda that encompasses anes (THMs) and Disinfection By-Products (DBPs), and (5)
more than just the water or wastewater facility. Thus, deci- new requirements to remove even more nutrients (nitrogen
sions that affect onsite management can be influenced by and phosphorus) from wastewater effluent, the paradigm has
political and financial concerns that have little to do with the shifted. We discuss this important shift momentarily, but first
successful operation of a WTP or POTW. it is important to abide by Voltaire’s advice; that is, “If you
Finances and funding are always of concern, no mat- wish to converse with me, please define your terms.”
ter how small or large, well-supported, or under-funded the For those not familiar with the term paradigm, it can be
municipality. Funding for publicly owned treatment works defined in the following ways. A paradigm is the consensus
generally comes from a combination of sources. These include of the scientific community: “concrete problem solutions
local taxes, state and federal monies (including grants and that the profession has come to accept” (Holyningen-Huene,
Current Issues 7
1993). Thomas Kuhn coined the term paradigm. He outlined Cryptosporidium, and others. (Note: To effectively remove
it in terms of the scientific process. He felt that “one sense the protozoans Giardia and Cryptosporidium, filtration is
of paradigm is global, embracing all the shared commit- required; disinfection is not effective against the oocysts of
ments of a scientific group; the other isolates a particularly Cryptosporidium). Another example of the traditional vs.
important sort of commitment and is thus a subset of the first” current practices is seen in the traditional approach to par-
(Holyningen-Huene, 1993). The concept of paradigm has two ticulate removal in water to lessen turbidity and improve
general levels. The first is the encompassing whole, the sum- aesthetics. Current practice is still to decrease turbidity to
mation of parts. It consists of the theories, laws, rules, mod- improve aesthetics, but now microbial removal plus disinfec-
els, concepts, and definitions that go into a generally accepted tion is practical.
fundamental theory of science. Such a paradigm is “global” Another significant factor that contributed to the para-
in character. The other level of paradigm is that it can also digm shift in water supply systems was the introduction of
be just one of these laws, theories, models, etc., that combine the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) in 1989. SWTR
to formulate a “global” paradigm. These have the property requires water treatment plants to achieve 99.9% (3 log)
of being “local.” For instance, Galileo’s theory that the earth removal activation/inactivation of Giardia and 99.99% (4 log)
rotated around the sun became a paradigm in itself, namely a removal/inactivation of viruses. SWTR applies to all surface
generally accepted law in astronomy. Yet, on the other hand, waters and groundwaters under direct influence (GWUDI).
his theory combined with other “local” paradigms in areas As mentioned earlier, the removal of excess nutrients such
such as religion and politics to transform culture. Paradigm as nitrogen and phosphorus in wastewater effluent is now
can also be defined as a pattern or point of view that deter- receiving more attention from regulators (like the USEPA)
mines what is seen as reality. I use this definition in this text. and others. One of the major concerns is over the appearance
A paradigm shiftis defined as a major change in the way of dead zones in various water bodies (i.e., excess nutrients
things are thought about, especially scientifically. Once a cause oxygen-consuming algae to grow and thus create oxy-
problem can no longer be solved in the existing paradigm, gen-deficient dead zones).
new laws and theories emerge and form a new paradigm,
overthrowing the old if it is accepted. Paradigm shifts are
the “occasional, discontinuous, revolutionary changes in tac- MULTIPLE-BARRIER CONCEPT
itly shared points of view and preconceptions” (Daly, 1980). On August 6, 1996, during the Safe Drinking Water Act
Simply, a paradigm shift represents “a profound change in the Reauthorization signing ceremony, President Bill Clinton
thoughts, perceptions, and values that form a particular vision stated:
of reality” (Capra, 1982). For our purposes, I use the term
paradigm shift to mean a change in the way things are under- A fundamental promise we must make to our people is that
stood and done. the food they eat and the water they drink are safe.
A Change in the Way Things Are No rational person could doubt the importance of the promise
made in this statement.
Understood and Done
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SWDA), passed in 1974 and
In water supply systems, the historical focus, or the tradi- amended in 1986 and (as stated above) re-authorized in 1996,
tional approach, had been on controlling turbidity, iron and gives the United States Environmental Protection Agency
manganese, taste and odor, color, and coliforms. New regula- (USEPA) the authority to set drinking water standards. This
tions provided new focus, and thus a paradigm shift. Today document is important for many reasons, but is even more
the traditional approach is no longer sufficient. Providing important because it describes how USEPA establishes these
acceptable water has become more sophisticated and costly. standards.
In order to meet the requirements of the new paradigm, a sys- Drinking water standards are regulations that USEPA sets
tems approach must be employed. In the systems approach, all to control the level of contaminants in the nation’s drinking
components are inter-related. What affects one impacts oth- water. These standards are part of the Safe Drinking Water
ers. The focus has shifted to multiple requirements (i.e., new Act’s “multiple-barrier approach” to drinking water protec-
regulations require the process to be modified or the plant tion. As shown in Figure 1.2, the multiple-barrier approach
upgraded). includes the following elements:
To illustrate the paradigm shift in the operation of water
supply systems, let us look back on the traditional approach 1.
Assessing and protecting drinking water sources—
of disinfection. Disinfection was used in water to destroy This means doing everything possible to prevent
harmful organisms. Currently, disinfection is still used in microbes and other contaminants from entering
water to destroy harmful organisms, but is now only one part water supplies. Minimizing human and animal activ-
of the multiple-barrier approach. Moreover, disinfection has ity around our watersheds is one part of this barrier.
traditionally been used to treat for coliforms only. Currently, 2.
Optimizing treatment processes—This provides a
because of the paradigm shift, disinfection now (and in second barrier. It usually means filtering and disin-
the future) is used against coliforms, Legionella, Giardia, fecting the water. It also means making sure that the
Source Protection acceptable to return it to the environment or for immediate

reuse (i.e., at the present time, reuse in such applications as
irrigation of golf courses, etc.).
Optimization of Treatment Process Water and wastewater professionals maintain a continuous
Trained & Certified Plant Operators urban water cycle on a daily basis. B.D. Jones (1980) summed
this up as follows:
Delivering services is the primary function of municipal

Sound Distribution System Management
government. It occupiesthe vast bulk of the time and effort
A Second Dose of Disinfectan
of most city employees, is the source of mostcontacts that
citizens have with local governments, occasionally becomes
the subjectof heated controversy, and is often surrounded by
myth and misinformation. Yet, service delivery remains the
Cross-Connection Control
“hidden function” of local government.
Continuous Monitoring & Testing DID YOU KNOW?
FIGURE 1.2 Multiple-barrier approach. Artificially generated water cycles or the urban water
cycles consists of (1) source (surface or groundwater),
people who are responsible for our water are prop- (2) water treatment and distribution, (3) use and reuse,
erly trained and certified and knowledgeable of the and (4) wastewater treatment and disposition, as well as
public health issues involved. the connection of the cycle to the surrounding hydro-
3.
Ensuring the integrity of distribution systems—This logical basins.
consists of maintaining the quality of water as it
moves through the system on its way to the custom-
er’s tap. In the Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment
4.
Effecting correct cross-connection control proce- Plant Operations, fourth edition, we focus on sanitary (or
dures—This is a critical fourth element in the barrier environmental) services (excluding solid-waste disposal)—
approach. It is critical because the greatest potential water and wastewater treatment—because they have been and
hazard in water distribution systems is associated remain indispensable for the functioning and growth of cit-
with cross-connections to nonpotable waters. There ies. Water (next to air) is the most important life-sustaining
are many connections between potable and nonpo- product on Earth. Yet it is its service delivery (and all that
table systems—every drain in a hospital constitutes it entails) that remains a “hidden function” of local govern-
such a connection—but cross-connections are those ment (Jones, 1980). This “hidden function” is what this text
through which backflow can occur (Angele, 1974). is all about. We present our discussion in a completely new
5.
Continuous monitoring and testing of the water and unique dual manner—in what we call the new paradigm
before it reaches the tap—Monitoring water quality shift in water management and in the concept of the multi-
is a critical element in the barrier approach. It should ple-barrier approach. Essentially, in blunt, plain English the
include having specific procedures to follow should Handbook takes the “hidden” part out of services delivered
potable water ever fail to meet quality standards. by water and wastewater professionals.
Water service professionals provide water for typical urban
With the involvement of USEPA, local governments, drink- domestic and commercial uses, eliminate wastes, protect the
ing water utilities, and citizens, these multiple barriers ensure public health and safety, and help control many forms of pol-
that the tap water in the United States and territories is safe lution. Wastewater service professionals treat the urban wast-
to drink. Simply, in the Multiple-Barrier Concept, we employ estream to remove pollutants before discharging the effluent
a holistic approach to water management that begins at the into the environment. Water and wastewater treatment ser-
source, continues with treatment, through disinfection and vices are the urban circulatory system—the hidden circula-
distribution. tory system. In addition, like the human circulatory system,
the urban circulatory system is less than effective if flow is not
maintained. In a practical sense, we must keep both systems
Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations
plaque-free and free-flowing.
Not shown in Figure 1.2 is the fate of the used water. What Maintaining flow is what water and wastewater operations
happens to the wastewater produced? Wastewater is treated are all about. This seems easy enough: Water has been flow-
via the multiple-barrier treatment train, which is the coming literally for eons, emerging from mud, rocks, silt, and the
bination of unit processes used in the system. The primary very soul of moving water, to carve a path, to pick up its load,
mission of the wastewater treatment plant (and the operator/ to cargo its way to the open arms of a waiting sea, where the
practitioner) is to treat the wastestream to a level of purity marriage is consummated.
Current Issues 9
This is not to say that water and wastewater operations are or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or color)
not without problems and/or challenges. After surviving the in drinking water. USEPA recommends second-
Y2K fiasco (were you surrounded by dysfunctional manag- ary standards to water systems but does not require
ers running about helter-skelter waiting until midnight?—as I systems to comply. However, states may choose to
was), the dawn of the 21st century brought with it, for many of adopt them as enforceable standards. This informa-
us, aspirations of good things ahead in the constant struggle tion focuses on national primary standards.
to provide quality food and water for humanity. However, the
only way in which we can hope to accomplish this is to stay Drinking water standards apply to public water systems,
on the cutting edge of technology and to face all challenges which provide water for human consumption through at least
head on. Some of these other challenges are addressed in the 15 service connections, or regularly serve at least 25 individu-
following sections. als. Public water systems include municipal water companies,
homeowner associations, schools, businesses, campgrounds,
and shopping malls.
CHALLENGES: WATER AND More recent requirements, for example the Clean Water
WASTEWATER OPERATIONS Act Amendments that went into effect in February of 2001,
require water treatment plants to meet tougher standards, pre-
Challenges and associated problems come and go, shifting senting new problems for treatment facilities to deal with, and
from century to century, decade-to-decade, year-to-year, and offering some possible solutions to the problems of meeting
site-to-site. They range from the problems caused by natu- the new standards. These regulations provide for communi-
ral forces (storms, earthquakes, fires, floods, and droughts) ties to upgrade existing treatment systems, replacing aging
to those caused by social forces, currently including terror- and outdated infrastructure with new process systems. Their
ism. In general, seven areas are of concern to many water and purpose is to ensure that facilities are able to filter out higher
wastewater management personnel. levels of impurities from drinking water, thus reducing the
health risk from bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, and that they
1. Complying with regulations, and coping with new are able to decrease levels of turbidity, and reduce concentra-
and changing regulations tions of chlorine by-products in drinking water.
2. Maintaining infrastructure With regard to wastewater collection and treatment, the
3. Privatization and/or re-engineering National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
4. Benchmark it! program established by the Clean Water Act, issues permits
5. Upgrading security that control wastewater treatment plant discharges. Meeting
6. Technical versus professional management permit is always a concern for wastewater treatment manag-
7. Energy conservation measures and sustainability ers because the effluent discharged into water bodies affects
those downstream of the release point. Individual point source
Compliance with New, Changing, dischargers must use the best available technology (BAT) to
and Existing Regulations
control the levels of pollution in the effluent they discharge
into streams. As systems age, and as best available technology
Adapting the workforce to the challenges of meeting chang- changes, meeting permits with existing equipment and unit
ing regulations and standards for both water and wastewater processes becomes increasingly difficult.
treatment is a major concern. As mentioned, drinking water
standards are regulations that USEPA sets to control the level
of contaminants in the nation’s drinking water. Again, these Maintaining Infrastructure
standards are part of the SDWA’s multiple-barrier approach to During the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. government encouraged
drinking water protection. There are two categories of drink- the prevention of pollution by providing funds for the con-
ing water standards: struction of municipal wastewater treatment plants, waterpol-
lution research, and technical training and assistance. New
1. A National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (pri- processes were developed to treat sewage, analyze wastewa-
mary standard)—This is a legally enforceable stan- ter, and evaluate the effects of pollution on the environment.
dard that applies to public water systems. Primary In spite of these efforts, however, expanding population and
standards protect drinking water quality by limiting industrial and economic growth caused the pollution and
the levels of specific contaminants that can adversely health difficulties to increase.
affect public health and that are known or anticipated In response to the need to make a coordinated effort to pro-
to occur in water. They take the form of Maximum tect the environment, the National Environmental Policy Act
Contaminant Levels or Treatment Techniques. (NEPA) was signed into law on January 1, 1970. In December
2. A National Secondary Drinking Water Regulation of that year, a new independent body, the USEPA was cre-
(secondary standard)—This is a non-enforceable ated to bring under one roof all of the pollution-control pro-
guideline regarding contaminants that may cause grams related to air, water, and solid wastes. In 1972, the
cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration) Water Pollution Control Act Amendments expanded the role
of the federal government in water pollution control and sig- Note: Changes resulting because of regulatory pressure
nificantly increased federal funding for construction of waste- sometimes mean replacing or changing existing equipment
water treatment plants. and increasing chemical costs (e.g., substituting hypochlorite
Many of the wastewater treatment plants in operation for chlorine typically increases costs three-fold) and could eas-
today are the result of federal grants made over the years. For ily involve increased energy and personnel costs. Equipment
example, because of the 1977 Clean Water Act Amendment to conditions, new technology, and financial concerns are all
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 and the 1987 considerations when upgrades or new processes are chosen.
Clean Water Act reauthorization bill, funding for wastewa- In addition, the safety of the process must be considered, of
ter treatment plants was provided. Many large sanitation dis- course, because of the demands made by USEPA and OSHA.
tricts, with their multiple plant operations, and even a larger The potential of harm to workers, the community, and the
number of single plant operations in smaller communities environment are all under study, as are the possible long-term
in operation today are a result of these early environmental effects of chlorination on the human population.
laws. Because of these laws, the federal government provided
grants of several hundred million dollars to finance construc-
Privatization and/or Re-Engineering
tion of wastewater treatment facilities throughout the country.
Many of these locally or federally funded treatment plants As mentioned, water and wastewater treatment operations are
are aging; based on my experience, I rate some as dinosaurs. undergoing a new paradigm shift. I explained that this para-
The point is many facilities are facing problems caused by aging digm shift focused on the holistic approach to treating water.
equipment, facilities, and infrastructure. Complicating the The shift is, however, more inclusive. It also includes think-
problems associated with natural aging is the increasing pres- ing outside the box. In order to remain efficient and therefore
sure on inadequate older systems to meet demands of increased competitive in the real world of operations, water and waste-
population and urban growth. Facilities built in the 1960s and water facilities have either bought into the new paradigm shift
1970s are now 30–40 years old, and not only are they showing or been forcibly “shifted” to doing other things (often these
signs of wear and tear, they simply were not designed to handle “other” things have little to do with water/wastewater opera-
the level of growth that has occurred in many municipalities. tions) (Johnson & Moore, 2002).
Regulations often necessitate a need to upgrade. By match- Experience has shown that few words conjure up more fear
ing funds or providing federal money to cover some of the among plant managers than “privatization” or “re-engineer-
costs, municipalities can take advantage of a window of ing.” Privatization means allowing private enterprises to com-
opportunity to improve their facility at a lower direct cost pete with the government in providing public services, such as
to the community. Those federal dollars, of course, do come water and wastewater operations. Privatization is often pro-
with strings attached; they are to be spent on specific projects posed as one solution to the numerous woes facing water and
in specific areas. On the other hand, many times new regula- wastewater utilities, including corruption, inefficiencies (dys-
tory requirements are put in place without the financial assis- functional management), and the lack of capital for needed
tance needed to implement. When this occurs, either the local service improvements and infrastructure upgrades and main-
communities ignore the new requirements (until caught and tenance. Existing management, on the other hand, can accom-
forced to comply) or they face the situation and implement plish re-engineering, internally, or it can be used (and usually
through local tax hikes to pay the cost of compliance. is) during the privatization process. Re-engineering is the sys-
An example of how a change in regulations can force the tematic transformation of an existing system into a new form
issue is demonstrated by the demands made by Occupational to realize quality improvements in operation, system capabil-
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and USEPA in ity, functionality, performance, or evolvability at a lower cost,
their Process Safety Management (PSM)/Risk Management schedule, or risk to the customer.
Planning (RMP) regulations (29 CFR 1910.119—OSHA). Many onsite managers consider privatization and/or re-engi-
These regulations put the use of elemental chlorine (and other neering schemes threatening. In the worst case scenario, a private
listed hazardous materials) under scrutiny. Moreover, because contractor could bid the entire staff out of their jobs. In the best
of these regulations, plant managers throughout the country case, privatization and re-engineering are often a very real threat
are forced to choose which side of a double-edged sword cuts that forces onsite managers into workforce cuts (the Waldrop
their way the most. One edge calls for full compliance with Syndrome, explained in case study 1.3), improving efficiency,
the regulations (analogous to stuffing the regulation through and cutting costs. While at the same time, onsite managers work
the eye of a needle). The other edge calls for substitution. That to ensure the community receives safe drinking water and the
is, replacing elemental chlorine with a non-listed chemical facility meets standards and permits, with fewer workers—and
(e.g., hypochlorite) or a physical (ultraviolet irradiation, UV) without injury to workers, the facility, or the environment.
disinfectant—either way, a very costly undertaking. Local officials are to take a hard look at privatization and
Note: Many of us who have worked in water and waste- re-engineering for a number of reasons:
water treatment for years characterize PSM and RMP as the
elemental chlorine killer. You have probably heard the old 1.
Decaying Infrastructures—Many water and waste-
saying: “If you can’t do away with something in one way, then water operations include water and wastewater infra-
regulate it to death.” structures that date back to the early 1900s. The
Current Issues 11
most recent systems were built with federal funds prevent creating a home for dysfunctional managers and for
during the 1970s, and even these now need upgrad- ROAD Gangers (Retired On Active Duty clan members).
ing or replacing. The USEPA recently estimated that The bottom line: Water and wastewater are commodities
the nation’s 75,000+ drinking water systems alone of which the quantity and quality are much too important to
would require more than $100 billion in investments leave at the whims of public authorities.
over the next 20 years. Wastewater systems will
require a similar level of investment.
Benchmark It!*
2.
Mandates—The federal government has reduced
its contributions to local water and wastewater sys- Note: Based on personal experience and my own opinion,
tems over the past 30 years, while at the same time benchmarking can be a double-edged sword; one edge
imposing stricter water quality and effluent stan- wielded by a dysfunctional manager and the other edge by a
dards under the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking champion of functional organization. The dysfunctional edge
Water Act. Moreover, as previously mentioned, is used primarily as a self-defense mechanism, namely, by
new unfunded mandated safety regulations, such as public service utility managers out of their own need for self-
OSHA’s Process Safety Management and USEPA’s preservation (to retain their lucrative positions—to survive
Risk Management Planning, are expensive to imple- their in-the-bunker mode). For example, it is their own self-
ment using local sources of revenues or state revolv- preservation that is the primary reason for many utility direc-
ing loan funds. tors to work against the trend to privatize water, wastewater,
3.
Hidden Function—Earlier we stated that much of and other public operations; they realize that privatization
the work of water/wastewater treatment is a “hid- usually results in more efficient and less costly operations
den function.” Because of this lack of visibility, it is and that their positions would be at risk. Usually the real
often difficult for local officials to commit to mak- work to prevent privatization and to save unneeded jobs and
ing the necessary investments in community water procedures and methods and work practices, etc., etc., etc., is
and wastewater systems. Simply, the local politicians delegated to individual managers in charge of specific opera-
lack the political will—water pipes and interceptors tions because they usually (usually is a very big word in this
are not visible and not perceived as immediately case) know what they are doing and also have a stake in mak-
critical for adequate funding. Thus, it is easier for ing sure that their relatively secure careers are not affected
elected officials to ignore them in favor of expendi- by privatization. It can be easily seen that working against
tures of more visible services, such as police and fire. privatization by these “local” managers is in their own self-
Additionally, raising water and sewage rates to cover interest and in the interest of their workers because their jobs
operations and maintenance is not always affected may be at stake.
because it is an unpopular move for elected officials The question is, of course, how does one go about prevent-
to make. This means that water and sewer rates do ing his water and wastewater operation from being privatized?
not adequately cover the actual cost of providing ser- The answer is rather straightforward and clear: Use the func-
vices in many municipalities. tional edge of the sword by increasing efficiency and reducing
the cost of operations. In the real world, this is easier said than
In many locations throughout the United States, expendi- done—but is not impossible. For example, for those facili-
tures on water and wastewater services are the largest fac- ties under properly implemented and managed Total Quality
ing local governments today. (This is certainly the case Management (TQM), the process can be much easier. The
for those municipalities struggling to implement the latest main advantage a properly installed and managed TQM offers
stormwater and nutrient reduction requirements.) Thus, this the plant manager is a variety of tools to help plan, develop,
area presents a great opportunity for cost savings. Through and implement water and wastewater operational efficiency
privatization, water/wastewater companies can take advan- measures. These tools include self-assessments, statistical
tage of advanced technology, more flexible management process control, International Organization for Standards
practices, and streamlined procurement and construction (ISO) 9000 and 14000, process analysis, quality circle, com-
practices to lower costs and make the critical improvements mon sense, and benchmarking (see Figure 1.3).
more quickly. In this text, benchmarking is presented to illustrate how it
With regard to privatization, the view taken in this text is is used to ensure energy efficiency and sustainability and in
that ownership of water resources, treatment plants, and waste- general form in the Rachel’s Creek case study. Cobblers are
water operations should be maintained by the public (local credited with coining the term benchmarking. They used the
government entities) to prevent a Tragedy of the Commons-
likeevent (i.e., free access and unrestricted demand for water Start --- Plan --- Research --- Observe --- Analysis --- Adapt
[or other natural resources] ultimately structurally dooms
the resource through over-exploitation by private interests). FIGURE 1.3 Benchmarking process.
However, because management is also a “hidden function”
of many public service operations (e.g., water and wastewa- * Adapted from F.R. Spellman (2013). Water & Wastewater Infrastructure:
ter operations), privatization may be a better alternative to Energy Efficiency and Sustainability. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
term to measure people’s feet for shoes. They would place the energy-saving strategies and on how to ensure sustainability
person’s foot on a “bench” and mark it out to make the pattern in the long run. Keep in mind that forming a “team” is not the
for the shoes. Benchmarking is still used to measure but now same as fashioning a silver bullet—the team is only as good
specifically gauges performance based on specific indicators as its leadership and its members. Again, benchmarking is a
such as cost per unit of measure, productivity per unit of mea- process for rigorously measuring your performance vs. best-
sure, cycle time of some value per unit of measure, or defects in-class operations, and using the analysis to meet and exceed
per unit of measure. the best-in-class; thus, those involved in the benchmarking
It is interesting to note that there is no specific benchmark- process should be the best of the best (Spellman, 2009).
ing process that has been universally adopted; this is the case
because of its wide appeal and acceptance. Accordingly, What Benchmarking Is
benchmarking manifests itself via various methodologies. 1. Benchmarking vs. best practices gives water and
Robert Camp (1989) wrote one of the earliest books on bench- wastewater operations a way to evaluate their opera-
marking and developed a 12 stage approach to benchmarking. tions overall.
Camp’s 12 stage methodology consists of: a. How effective?
b. How cost effective?
1. Select subject 2. Benchmarking shows plants both how well their
2. Define the process operations stack up, and how well those operations
3. Identify potential partners are implemented.
4. Identify data sources 3. Benchmarking is an objective-setting process.
5. Collect data and select partners 4. Benchmarking is a new way of doing business.
6. Determine the gap 5. Benchmarking forces an external view to ensure cor-
7. Establish process differences rectness of objective-setting.
8. Target future performance 6. Benchmarking forces internal alignment to achieve
9. Communicate plant goals.
10. Adjust goal 7. Benchmarking promotes teamwork by directing
11. Implement attention to those practices necessary to remain
12. Review and recalibrate competitive.
With regard to improving energy efficiency and sustainabil- Potential Results of Benchmarking
ity in drinking water and wastewater treatment operations, Benchmarking may indicate the direction of required change
benchmarking is simply defined (in this text) as the process of rather than specific metrics: costs must be reduced; customer
comparing the energy usage of their drinking water or waste- satisfaction must be increased; and return on assets must be
water treatment operation to similar operations. Local utilities increased, with improved maintenance and improved opera-
of similar size and design are excellent points of comparison. tional practices. Best practices translate into operational units
Broadening the search, one can find several resources dis- of measure.
cussing the “typical” energy consumption across the United
States for a water or wastewater utility of a particular size and Targets
design. Consideration of available resources converts benchmark
Keep in mind that in drinking water and wastewater findings to targets. A target represents what can realistically
treatment utilities (and other utilities and industries) bench- be accomplished in a given time frame; it can show progress
marking is often used by management personnel to increase toward benchmark practices and metrics; and quantification of
efficiency and ensure sustainability of energy resources but precise targets should be based on achieving the benchmark.
is also used, as mentioned earlier, to ensure their own self- Note: Benchmarking can be performance-based, pro-
preservation (i.e., to retain their lucrative positions). With cess-based, or strategic-based and can compare financial or
self-preservation as their motive, benchmarking is used as a operational performance measures, methods or practices, or
tool to compare operations with best-in-class-like facilities or strategic choices.
operations to improve performance to avoid the current (and
on-going) trend to privatize water, wastewater, and other pub- Benchmarking: The Process
lic operations. When forming a benchmarking team, the goal should be to
Earlier, Camp’s (1989) 12 stage benchmarking process was provide a benchmark that evaluates and compares privatized
discussed. In the pursuit of energy efficiency and sustainabil- and re-engineered water and wastewater treatment operations
ity in drinking water and wastewater treatment operations, to your operation in order to be more efficient and to remain
Camp’s 12 stages can be simplified into the six step process competitive and make continual improvements. It is impor-
shown in Figure 1.3. tant to point out that benchmarking is more than simply set-
In energy efficiency and sustainability projects, before ting a performance reference or comparison; it is a way to
the benchmarking tool is used, an Energy Team should be facilitate learning for continual improvements. The key to the
formed and assigned the task of studying how to implement learning process is looking outside one’s own plant to other
Current Issues 13
plants that have discovered better ways of achieving improved important to collect data that is comparable like oranges to
performance. oranges, apples to apples, grapes to grapes, and so forth. It
does little good, makes no sense, and wastes time and money
Benchmarking Steps to collect nomenclature data from equipment, machinery, and
As shown in Figure 1.3, the benchmarking process consists of operations that are not comparable to the utility or utilities
five major steps: your data is to be compared to.
The first step is to determine what data you already have
1. Planning—Managers must select a process (or pro- available. At a minimum, have one full year of monthly data
cesses) to be benchmarked. A benchmarking team for consumption of electricity, natural gas, and other fuels—if
should be formed. The process of benchmarking you can get three years of data, even better. However, if you
must be thoroughly understood and documented. don’t have data going this far back, use what you have or can
The performance measure for the process should be easily collect. In addition, if you can get the data at daily or
established (i.e., cost, time, and quality). hourly intervals, you may be able to identify a wider range of
2. Research—Information on the best-in-class per- energy opportunities (USEPA, 2008).
former must be determined through research. The Here are several data elements to document and track
information can be derived from the industry’s for your utility in order to review energy improvement
network, industry experts, industry and trade asso- opportunities.
ciations, publications, public information, and other
award-winning operations. • Water and/or wastewater flows—These are key to
3. Observation—The observation step is a study of the determining your energy performance per gallon
benchmarking subject’s performance levels, pro- treated. For drinking water, the distance of travel
cesses, and practices that have helped achieve those and the number of pumps are also key factors.
levels, and other enabling factors. • Electricity data—It includes overall electricity con-
4. Analysis—In this phase, comparisons in perfor- sumption (kWh) as well as peak demand (kW) and
mance levels among facilities are determined. The load profiles if available.
root causes for the performance gaps are studied. • Other energy data—It includes purchases of diesel
To make accurate and appropriate comparisons, the fuel, natural gas, or other energy sources, including
comparison data must be sorted, controlled for qual- renewables.
ity, and normalized. • Design specifications—These can help you identify
5. Adaptation—This phase is putting what is learned how much energy a given process or piece of equip-
throughout the benchmarking process into action. ment should be using.
The findings of the benchmarking study must be • Operating schedules—For intermittent processes,
communicated to gain acceptance, functional goals these will help you make sense of your load profile
must be established, and a plan must be developed. and possibly plan an energy-saving or cost-saving
Progress should be monitored and, as required, cor- alternative.
rections in the process made.
Along with making sure that the data you collect is
Note: Benchmarking should be interactive. It should also comparable(i.e., apples to apples, etc.), keep in mind that
recalibrate performance measures and should improve the energy units may vary. If you are comparing apples to apples,
process itself. are you comparing bushel to bushel, pound to pound, or quan-
tity to quantity? In an energy efficiency and sustainability
benchmarking study comparison, for example, captured meth-
DID YOU KNOW? ane or purchased natural gas may be measured in 100 cubic
feet (CCF) or millions of British Thermal Units (MMBTU).
Benchmarking can be useful, but no two utilities are
Develop a table like Table 1.1 to document and track your data
ever exactly the same. You’ll have some characteristics
needs (USEPA, 2008).
that affect your relative performance and are beyond a
utility’s control.
REMEMBER
Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use Keep units consistent!
Using the five stage benchmarking procedure detailed above,
your benchmarking team identifies, locates, and assembles
baseline data information that can help you in determining Consider any other quantities that you’ll want to measure.
what is needed to improve your energy performance. Keep Is there anything you would add to Table 1.1? Chances are
in mind that the data you collect will be compared to like good that you will add quantities and that is why it is labeled
operations in the benchmarking process. The point is it is Table 1.1 with other renditions to follow. Let’s get back to
during the afternoon, has a second, less intensive peak in the

TABLE 1.1 early evening, and hits the lowest point overnight. Normally,
Data Needs energy use for water and wastewater treatment operations
Data Need Units could be expected to follow a pattern of water flows. However,
this effect can be delayed by the travel time from the source,
Wastewater flow MGD
through the collection system, to the plant, or by storage tanks
Electricity consumption kWh
within the distribution system to customers. A larger system
Peak demand kW
will have varying travel times, whereas a smaller system will
Methane capture (applies to plants that digest biosolids) MMBTU
Microturbine generation kWh
have lower variability. Moreover, this effect can be totally
Natural gas consumed MMBTU
eliminated if the plant has an equalization tank (USEPA,
Fuel oil consumed Gallons 2008).
Diesel fuel consumed Gallons If your utilities cost a great deal of money for peak demand
Design specifications N/A charges, you might consider the capital investment of an
Operating schedules N/A equalization tank. Demand charges can be significant for
Grease trap waste collected (future renewable fuel source) Gallons wastewater utilities, as they are generally about 25% of the
Other (based on your operation) TBD utility’s electricity bill (WEF, 1997).
The next step is to determine how you will collect baseline
data. Energy data is recorded by your energy provider (e.g.,
electrical utility, natural gas utility, or heating oil and diesel
unit selection for your tables. Make sure you select units that oil companies). A monthly energy bill contains the total con-
your Energy Team is comfortable with and that your data is sumption for that month, as well as the peak demand. In some
typically available in. If the data is reported using the wrong cases, your local utilities will record the demand on every
units, you may have some conflicting or confusing results. meter for every fifteen-minute interval of the year. Similar
Keep in mind that units by themselves are not that infor- data may be available if you have a system at your utility that
mative; to be placed in proper context, they need to be asso- monitors energy performance. Sources of energy data include
ciated with an interval of time. Therefore, for the next step the following:
simply expand Table 1.1 by adding another column to make
Table 1.2 “Desired Frequency of Data.” • Monthly energy bills—These vary in detail but all
Remember, while knowing your utility’s energy consump- contain the most essential elements.
tion per month is useful, knowing it in kWh per day is better. • The energy provider—It may be able to provide
With hourly consumption data, you develop a “load profile” more detailed information.
or a breakdown of your energy demand during the day if • An energy management program—It automatically
your load profile is relatively flat, or if your energy demand tracks energy data, often with sub-meters to identify
is greater in the off-peak hours (overnight and early morning) the load on individual components (e.g., Supervisory
than in the peak hours (daytime and early evening), your util- Control and Data Acquisition—SCADA). If such
ity may qualify for special pricing plants from your energy a system is in place at your utility, you will have a
provider. large and detailed data set on hand.
Typically, water and wastewater treatment operations have
a predictable diurnal variation (i.e., fluctuations that occur The Baseline Audit
during each day). Usage is most heavy during the early over- The energy audit is an essential step in energy conservation and
night. Usage is most heavy during the early morning, lags energy management efforts. Your drinking water or wastewa-
ter operation may have had an energy audit or energy program
review conducted at some point. If so, find the final report and
TABLE 1.2 have your Energy Team review it. How long did the process
Data Needs with Desired Frequency of Data take? Who participated in it—your team, the electrical util-
Data Need Units Desired Frequency of Data ity, independent contractors? What measures were suggested
Wastewater flow MGD Daily
to improve energy efficiency? What measures were actually
Electricity consumption kWh Hourly if possible or daily if not
implemented and did they meet expectations? Were there les-
Peak demand kW Monthly sons learned from the process that should be applied to future
Methane capture MMBTU Monthly audits? In addition, if your facility’s previous energy audit had
Microturbine generation kWh Monthly recommended measures, determine if they are still viable.
Natural gas consumed MMBTU Monthly In many cases, electrical utilities offer audits as part of
Fuel oil consumed Gallons Monthly their energy conservation programs. Independent energy ser-
Diesel fuel consumed Gallons Monthly vice companies also provide these services. An outside review
Design specifications N/A N/A from an electrical utility or an engineering company can pro-
Operating schedules N/A N/A vide useful input, but it is important to ensure that any third
party is familiar with water and wastewater systems.
Current Issues 15
Some energy audits focus on specific types of equipment and identifying the energy demand of each piece of equip-
such as lighting, HVAC, or pumps. Others look at the pro- ment is provided in the 1997 book Energy Conservation
cesses used and take a more systematic approach. Audits in Wastewater Treatment Facilities: Manual of Practice
focused on individual components, as well as in-depth pro- No. MFD-2, by WaterEnvironment Federation. The basics
cess audits, will include testing equipment. For example, in are presented here, but readers are encouraged to review
conducting the baseline energy audit, the Energy Team may the WEF (1997) Manual of Practice for a more thorough
compare the nameplate efficiency of a motor or pump to its explanation.
actual efficiency. Example drinking water and/or wastewater treatment
In a process approach, a preliminary walk-through or operations equipment inventories and the relevant energy data
walk-around audit is often used as a first step to determine to collect could include the following:
if there are likely to be opportunities to save energy. If such
opportunities exist, then a detailed process audit is conducted. Motors and Related Equipment
This may include auditing the performance of the individual • Start at each motor control center (MCC) and
components as well as considering how they work together as itemize each piece of equipment in order as
a whole. Much like an environmental management system’s listed on the MCC.
initial assessment that reviews the current status of regulatory • Itemize all electric meters on MCCs and local
requirements, training, communication, operating conditions, control panels.
and current practices and processes, a preliminary energy • Have a qualified electrician check the power
audit or energy program review will provide your utility with draw of each major piece of equipment.
a baseline of what your energy consumption is at that point Pumps
in time. • From the equipment manufacturer’s literature,
Once you have collected your utility’s baseline data and determine the pump’s power ratio (this may be
tracked monthly and annual energy use, there are two addi- expressed in kW/MGD).
tional steps to completing your energy assessment or base- • Multiply horsepower by 0.746 to obtain kilowatts.
line energy audit: Conduct a field investigation and create an • Compare the manufacturer’s data with field-
Equipment Inventory and Distribution of Demand and Energy obtained data.
(USEPA, 2008). Aeration Equipment
• The power draw of aeration equipment is diffi-
The Field Investigation cult to estimate and should bemeasured.
The field investigation is the heart of an energy audit. It will • Measure aspects related to biochemical oxy-
include obtaining information for an equipment inventory, gen demand (BOD) loading, foot-to-microor-
discussing process operations with the individuals responsible ganism ratio, and oxygen-transfer efficiency
for each operation, discussing the impact of specific energy (OTE). Note that OTE levels depend on the
conservation ideas, soliciting ideas from your Energy Team, type and condition of aeration equipment.
and identifying the energy profiles of individual system com- Actual OTE levels are often considerably lower
ponents. The Electric Power Research Institutes (EPRI) rec- than described in the literature or in manufac-
ommends evaluating how each process or piece of equipment turers’ materials.
could otherwise be used. For example, it might be possible
for a given system to be replaced or complemented for nor-
mal operation by one of lower capacity; to run fewer hours; to DID YOU KNOW?
run during off-peak hours; to employ a variable speed drive;
and/or to be replaced by a newer or more efficient system. Some utilities will have an inherently higher or lower
Depending on the situation, one or more of these changes energy demand due to factors beyond their control. For
might be appropriate. example, larger plants will, in general, have a lower
energy demand per million gallons treated due to
Create Equipment Inventory and economies of scale. A plant that is large relative to its
Distribution of Demand and Energy typical load is going to have a higher energy demand
This is a record of your operation’s equipment, equipment per million gallons treated. Some secondary treatment
names, nameplate horsepower (if applicable), hours of opera- processes require greater energy consumption than oth-
tion per year, measured power consumption, and total kilo- ers. Still, benchmarking allows a rough estimate of the
watt-hours (kWh) of electrical consumption per year. Other utility’s relative energy performance. Benchmarking of
criteria such as age may also be included. In addition, differ- individual components is also useful. A survey of one’s
ent data may be appropriate for other types of systems such as peers may identify what level of performance can real-
methane-fired heat and power systems. istically be expected from, say, a combined heat and
You may find that you already have much of this informa- power system or a specific model of a methane-fueled
tion in your maintenance management system (if applicable). microturbine (USEPA, 2008).
A detailed approach for developing an equipment inventory
d. Finance and administration

Case Study 1.1 Benchmarking: A General Example e. Laboratory
To gain a better understanding of the general benchmark- f. Human resources
ing process used in water and wastewater treatment plant
operations, the following example is provided. (It is in Summary of Findings
outline and summary form only, as a discussion of a full- Our overall evaluation of Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District
blown study is beyond the scope of this text.) as compared to our benchmarking targets is a good one;
that is, we are in good standing as compared to the 41 tar-
RACHEL’S CREEK SANITATION DISTRICT get facilities we benchmarked with. In the area of safety,
Introduction we compare quite favorably. Only plant 34, with its own
In January 2007, Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District full-time safety manager, appeared to be better than we are.
formed a benchmarking team with the goal of provid- We were very competitive with the privatized plants in our
ing a benchmark that evaluates and compares privatized usage of chemicals and far ahead of many public plants.
and re-engineered wastewater treatment operations to We were also competitive in the use of energy. Our survey
Rachel’s Creek operations in order to be more efficient of what other plants are doing to cut energy costs showed
and to remain competitive. After three months of evalu- that we clearly identified those areas of improvement, and
ating wastewater facilities using the benchmarking tool, our current effort to further reduce energy costs is on track.
our benchmarking is complete. This report summarizes We were far ahead in the optimization of our unit processes
our findings and should serve as a benchmark by which to and we were leaders in the area of odor control.
compare and evaluate Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District We also found areas that we need to improve. To the
operations. Rachel’s Creek employee, re-engineering applies to only
the treatment department and has been limited to cutting
Facilities staff while plant practices and organizational practices
Forty-one wastewater treatment plants are available are outdated and inefficient. Under the re-engineering
throughout the United States. section of this report, we have provided a summary of
re-engineering efforts at the re-engineered plants visited.
Target Areas The experiences of these plants can be used to improve
The benchmarking team focused on the following target our own re-engineering effort. Next are our organiza-
areas for comparison: tion and staffing levels. A private company could reduce
the entire treatment department staff by about 18–24%,
1. Re-engineering which is based on the number of employees and not costs.
2. Organization In the organization section of this report, organizational
3. Operations and maintenance models and their staffing levels are provided as guidelines
a. Contractual services to improving our organization and determining optimum
b. Materials and supplies staffing levels. The last big area that we need to improve is
c. Sampling and data collection in the way we accomplish the work we perform. Our peo-
d. Maintenance ple are not used efficiently because of outdated and inef-
4. Operational directives ficient policies and work practices. Methods to improve
5. Utilities—energy consumption the way we do work are found throughout this report. We
6. Chemicals noted that efficient work practices used by private compa-
7. Technology nies allow plants to operate with small staffs.
8. Permits Overall, Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District’s treatment
a. Water quality plants are much better than other public service plants.
b. Solids quality Although some plants may have better equipment, better
c. Air quality technology, and cleaner effluents, the costs in labor and
d. Odor quality materials are much higher than ours. Several of the public
9. Safety plants were in bad condition. Contrary to popular belief,
10. Training and development the privately operated plants had good to excellent opera-
11. Process tions. These plants met permits, complied with safety
12. Communication regulations, maintained plant equipment, and kept the
13. Public relations plant clean. Due to their efficiency and low staff, we felt
14. Reuse that most of the privately operated plants were better than
15. Support services us. We agreed this needs to be changed. Using what we
a. Pretreatment learned during our benchmarking effort, we can be just
b. Collection systems as efficient as a privately operated plant and still maintain
c. Procurement our standards of quality (Spellman, 2009).
Current Issues 17
unfortunately, exposed me to more dysfunctional than func-

DID YOU KNOW? tional managers.
So what is dysfunctional management? How is it defined?
Growing algae in wastewater will soak up nutrients in
Well, we have all encountered one or more exposures to dys-
wastewater at the wastewater plant, thus helping the
functional managers in our working careers; thus, there is no
receiving water body that could suffer from excessive
need to discuss this matter any further here.
nutrients discharged by such treatment plants.
Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability
Technical versus Professional Management There are a number of long-term economic, social, and envi-
ronmental trends (Elkington’s [1999] so-called Triple Bottom
Water treatment operations management is management that Line) evolving around us. Many of these long-term trends are
is directed toward providing water of the right quality, in developing because of us and specifically for us or simply to
the right quantity, at the right place, at the right time, and at sustain us. Many of these long-term trends follow general
the right price to meet various demands. Wastewater treat- courses and can be described by the jargon of the day; that is,
ment management is directed toward providing treatment of they can be alluded to or specified by a specific buzzword or
incoming raw influent (no matter what the quantity), at the buzzwords common in usage today. We frequently hear these
right time, to meet regulatory requirements, and at the right buzzwords used in general conversation (especially in abbre-
price to meet various requirements. The techniques of man- viated texting form). Buzzwords such as empowerment, out-
agement are manifold both in water resource management side the box, streamline, wellness, synergy, generation X, face
and in wastewater treatment operations. In water treatment time, exit strategy, LOL, clear goal, and so on and so forth are
operations, for example, management techniques may include just part of our daily vernacular.
(Mather, 1984): In this section, the popular buzzword we are concerned
with is sustainability, which is often used in business.
Storage to detain surplus water available at one time of the However, in water and wastewater treatment, sustainability is
year for use later, transportation facilities to move water from much more than just a buzzword; it is a way of life (or should
one place to another, manipulation of the pricing structure
be). There are numerous definitions of sustainability that are
for water to reduce demand, use of changes in legal systems
to make better use of the supplies available, introduction of overwhelming, vague, and/or indistinct. For our purposes,
techniques to make more water available through watershed there is a long definition and short definition of sustainability.
management, cloud seeding desalination of saline or brackish The long definition: ensuring that water and wastewater treat-
water, or area-wide educational programs to teach conserva- ment operations occur indefinitely without negative impact.
tion or reuse of water. The short definition: the capacity of water and wastewater
operations to endure. Whether we define it in a long or a short
Many of the management techniques employed in water fashion, what does sustainability really mean in the real world
treatment operations are also employed in wastewater treat- of water and wastewater treatment operations?
ment. In addition, wastewater treatment operations employ We defined sustainability in what we call long and short
management techniques that may include upgrading pres- terms. Note however that sustainability in water and wastewa-
ent systems for nutrient removal, reuse of process residu- ter treatment operations can be characterized in broader or all
als in an Earth-friendly manner, and area-wide educational encompassing terms than those simple definitions. As men-
programs to teach proper domestic and industrial waste dis- tioned, using the Triple Bottom Line scenario, in regard to sus-
posal practices. tainability, the environmental aspects, economic aspects, and
Whether managing a waterworks or wastewater treatment social aspects of water and wastewater treatment operations
plant, the expertise of the manager must include being a well- can define today’s and tomorrow’s needs more specifically.
rounded, highly skilled individual. No one questions the need Infrastructure is another term used in this text; it can be
for incorporation of these highly-trained practitioners—well- used to describe water and wastewater operation as a whole or
versed in the disciplines and practice of sanitary engineering, can identify several individual or separate elements of water
biology, chemistry, hydrology, environmental science, safety and wastewater treatment operations (unit processes). For
principles, accounting, auditing, technical aspects, energy example, in wastewater operations, we can devote extensive
conservation, security needs, and operations—in both profes- coverage of wastewater collection and interceptor systems, lift
sions. Based on years of experience in the water and waste- or pumping stations, influent screening, grit removal, primary
water profession and personal experience dealing with high clarification, aeration, secondary clarification, disinfection,
level public service managers, however, engineers, biologists, outfalling, and a whole range of solids handling unit pro-
chemists, and others with no formal management training and cesses. On an individual basis each of these unit processes can
no proven leadership expertise are often hindered (limited) be described as an integral infrastructure component of the
in their ability to solve the complex management problems process. Or, holistically, we simply could group each unit pro-
currently facing both industries. I admit my biased view in cess as one, as a whole, combining all wastewater treatment
this regard because my experience in public service has, plant unit processes as the operational infrastructure. We
could do the same for water treatment operations. For exam- Practices that encourage water and wastewater sector utili-
ple, as individual water treatment infrastructure components, ties and their customers to address existing needs so that future
fundamental systems, or unit processes we could list source generations will not be left to address the approaching wave of
water intake, pretreatment, screening, coagulation and mix- needs resulting from aging water and wastewater infrastruc-
ing, flocculation, settling and biosolids processing, filtering, ture must continuously be promoted by sector professionals.
disinfection, and storage and distribution systems. Otherwise To be on a sustainable path, investments need to result in effi-
we could simply describe water treatment plant operations as cient infrastructure and infrastructure systems and need to be
the infrastructure. at a pace and a level that allow the water and wastewater sec-
How one chooses to define infrastructure is not important. tors to provide the desired levels of service over the long term.
What is important is to maintain and manage infrastructure in Sounds easy enough: the water/wastewater manager simply
the most efficient and economical manner possible to ensure its needs to put his or her operation on a sustainable path; more-
sustainability. This is no easy task. Consider, for example, the over, he or she can simply accomplish this by investing, right?
2009 Report Card for American Infrastructure produced by the Well, investing what? Investing in what? Investing how much?
American Society of Civil Engineers shown in Table 1.3. These are questions that require answers, obviously. Before
Not only must water and wastewater treatment managers moving on with this discussion it is important first to discuss
maintain and operate aging and often under-funded infra- plant infrastructure basics (focusing primarily on wastewater
structure, they must also comply with stringent environmental infrastructure and in particular on piping systems) and sec-
regulations and they must also keep stakeholders and rate- ondly to discuss funding (the cash cow vs. cash dog syndrome).
payers satisfied with operations and with rates. Moreover, in
line with these considerations, managers must incorporate
Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure
economic considerations into every decision. For example,
as mentioned, they must meet regulatory standards for the
quality of treated drinking water and outfalled wastewater DID YOU KNOW?
effluent. They must also plan for future upgrades or retro-
fits that will enable the water or wastewater facility to meet Looking at water distribution piping only, EPA’s 2000
future water quality and future effluent regulatory standards. survey on community water systems found that in sys-
Finally, and most importantly, managers must optimize the tems that serve more than 100,000 people, about 40%
use of manpower, chemicals, and electricity. of drinking water pipes are greater than 40 years old.
However, it is important to note that age, in and of itself,
does not necessarily point to problems. If a system is
Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure well maintained, it can operate over a long time period
EPA (2012) points out that sustainable development can be (EPA, 2012).
defined as that which meets the needs of the present genera-
tion without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs. The current U.S. population benefits from Note that water and wastewater treatment plants typically
the investments that were made over the past several decades have a useful life of 20–50 years before they require expan-
to build our nation’s water/wastewater infrastructure. sion or rehabilitation. Collection, interceptor and distribu-
tion pipes have life cycles that can range from 15 years to
100 years, depending on the type of material and where they
are laid. Long-term corrosion reduces a pipe’s carrying capac-
TABLE 1.3
ity, requiring increasing investments in power and pumping.
2009 Report Card for American Infrastructure When water or wastewater pipes age to that point of failure,
Infrastructure Grade the result can be contamination of drinking water, the release
Bridges C of wastewater into our surface waters or basements, and high
Dams D costs both to replace the pipes and repair any resulting dam-
Drinking water D− age. With pipes, the material used and proper installation of
Energy D+ the pipe can be a greater indicator of failure than age.
Hazardous waste D
Rail C−
Roads D−
The Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap
Schools D A 2002 EPA report referenced a Water Infrastructure Gap
Wastewater D− Analysis that compared current spending trends at the
America’s Infrastructure GPA: D nation’s drinking water and wastewater treatment facilities
Source: Modified from the American Society of Civil Engineers (2012). to the expenses they can expect to incur for both capital and
Report Card for American Infrastructure 2009. Accessed operations and maintenance costs. The “gap” is the difference
01/04/2012 @ www.infrastrucutrereportcard.org/. between projected and needed spending and was found to be
over $500 billion over a 20-year period. This important 2002
Current Issues 19
EPA gap analysis study is just as pertinent today as it was 1.10 Of all the current issues facing water and wastewater
10 years ago. Moreover, the author draws upon many of the treatment operations discussed in this chapter which
tenets presented in the EPA analysis in formulating many of one do you feel is the most urgent to resolve?
the basic points and ideas presented herein.
Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater REFERENCE AND RECOMMENDED READING

Treatment Operations Angele, F.J., Sr., 1974. Cross Connections and Backflow Protection,
2nd ed. Denver, CO: American Water Association.
Obviously, as the title of this section intimates, we are con- Camp, R., 1989. The Search for Industry Best Practices That Lead
cerned with water and wastewater infrastructure. This could 2 Superior Performance. Boca Raton, FL: Productivity Press
mean we are concerned with the pipes, treatment plants, and (CRC Press).
other critical components that deliver safe drinking water to Capra, F., 1982. The Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising
our taps and remove wastewater (sewage) from our homes Culture. New York: Simon & Schuster, p. 30.
and other buildings. Although any component or system Daly, H.E., 1980. Introduction to the Steady-State Economic In
that makes up water and wastewater infrastructure is impor- Ecology, Ethics: Essays toward a Steady State Economy. New
York: W.H. Freeman & Company.
tant, remember that all water-related infrastructure can’t De Villiers, M., 2000. Water: The Fate of Our Most Precious
function without the aid of some motive force. This motive Resource. Boston, MA: Mariner Books.
force (energy source) can be provided by gravitational pull, Drinan, J.E., 2001. Water & Wastewater Treatment: A Guide for the
mechanical means, or electrical energy. We simply can’t sus- Non-engineering Professional. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
tain the operation of water and wastewater infrastructure with- Drinan, J.E. & Spellman, F.R., 2012. Water & Wastewater
out energy. As a case in point, consider that drinking water Treatment: A Guide for the Nonengineering Professional, 2nd
and wastewater systems account for approximately 3–4% of ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
EIA, 2012. The Current and Historical Monthly Retail Sales,
energy use in the United States, adding over 45 million tons
Revenues and Average Revenue per Kilowatt Hour by State
of greenhouse gases annually. Further, drinking water and and by Sector. Accessed 04/09/19 @ http://www.eia.doe.gov/
wastewater plants are typically the largest energy consumers cneaf/Electricity/page/sales_reveune.xis.
of municipal governments, accounting for 30–40% of total Elkington, J., 1999. Cannibals with Forks. New York: Wiley.
energy consumed. Energy as a percent of operating costs for EPA, 2002. The Clean Water and Drinking Water Infrastructure
drinking water systems can also reach as high as 40% and is Gap Analysis. Washington, DC: United States Environmental
expected to increase 20% in the next 15 years due to popula- Protection Agency. EPA-816-R-02-020.
EPA, 2003. EFAB Newsletter Providing Advice on How to Pay
tion growth and tightening drinking water regulations.
for Environmental Protection: Diamonds and Water, 3(2).
Not all the news is bad, however. Studies estimate potential Accessed 09/27/07 @ www.epa.gov/efinpage/efab/newslaters/
savings of 15–30% that are “readily achievable” in water and newsletters6.htm.
wastewater treatment plants, with substantial financial returns EPA, 2012. Frequently Asked Questions: Water Infrastructure and
in the thousands of dollars and within payback periods of only Sustainability. Accessed 04/01/2019 @ http://water.ep.gov/
a few months to a few years. infrastrure/sustain/si_faqs.cfm.
Garcia, M.L., 2001. The Design and Evaluation of Physical
Protection Systems. Butterworth: Heinemann.
CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Gellman, B., 2002. Cyber-Attacks by Al Qaeda Feared: Terrorists
at Threshold of Using Internet as Tool of Bloodshed, Experts
Answers to chapter review questions are found in Appendix A.
Say. Washington Post, June 27, p. A01.
Gleick, P.H., 1998. The World’s Water 1998–1999: The Biennial
1.1 Define paradigm as used in this text. Report on Freshwater Resources. Washington, DC: Island
1.2 List five elements of the multiple-barrier approach. Press.
1.3 “Water service delivery remains one of the ‘hidden Gleick, P.H., 2000. The World’s Water 2000–2001: The Biennial
functions’ of local government.” Explain. Report on Freshwater Resources. Washington, DC: Island
1.4 __________ Drinking water standards are not Press.
Gleick, P.H., 2004. The World’s Water 2004–2005: The Biennial
enforceable.
Report on Freshwater Resources. Washington, DC: Island
1.5 Explain the difference between privatization and Press.
re-engineering. Harper, S., 2007. Va. Grants to Fuel Green Research. The Virginian-
1.6 Define benchmarking. Pilot, Norfolk, Va. June 30.
1.7 List the five benchmarking steps. Holyningen-Huene, P., 1993. Reconstructing Scientific Revolutions.
Chicago, IL: University of Chicago, p. 134.
Thought-Provoking Questions (Answers Will Vary): IBWA, 2004. Bottled Water Safety and Security. Alexandria, VA:
International Bottled Water Association.
Johnson, R. & Moore, A., 2002. Policy Brief 17 Opening the
1.8 Given the assignment and the proper resources, how Floodgates: Why Water Privatization Will Continue. Page,
would you clean up Chesapeake Bay? AZ: Reason Public Institute. [www rppi.org.pbrief17].
1.9 Is the use of renewable energy sources in water and Jones, B.D., 1980. Service Delivery in the City: Citizens Demand
wastewater treatment plants a feasible option? and Bureaucratic Rules. New York: Longman, p. 2.
Jones, F.E., 1992. Evaporation of Water. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Spellman, F.R., 2009. Handbook of Water and Wastewater
Publishers. Treatment Plant Operations, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Jones, T., 2006. Water-Wastewater Committee: Program Press.
Opportunities in the Municipal Sector: Priorities for 2006, Turk, J. & Turk, A., 1988. Saunders College Publishing, 4th ed.
presentation to CEE June Program Meeting, June 2006. Philadelphia, PA: Environmental Science.
Boston, MA. UN, 2010. Sick Water? The Central Role of Wastewater Management
Lewis, S.A., 1996. The Sierra Club Guide to Safe Drinking Water. in Sustainable Development. New York: UNEP.
San Francisco, CA: Sierra Club Books. USEPA, 2005. Water and Wastewater Security Product Guide.
Mather, J.R., 1984. Water Resources: Distribution, Use, and Accessed 6/06/19 @ http://cfpub.epa.gov.safewater/watersecu
Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons. rity/guide.
McCoy, K., 2012. USA Today Analysis: Nation’s Water Costs USEPA, 2006. Watersheds. Accessed 12/06/19 @ http://www.epa.
Rushing Higher. Accessed 10/02/19 @ http://www.usatoday. gov/owow/watershed/whatis.html.
com/money/e conomy/story/2012-09 -27/water-rates-risi ng/5 USEPA, 2008. Ensuring a Sustainable Future: An Energy
7849626/1. Management Guidebook for Wastewater and Water Utilities.
McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed. New York: Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Agency.
Meyer, W.B., 1996. Human Impact on Earth. New York: Cambridge US Fish and Wildlife, 2007. Nutrient Pollution. Accessed 09/26/07
University Press. @ http://www.fws.gov/chesapeakebay/nutrient.htm.
Peavy, H.S., et al., 1985. Environmental Engineering. New York: USGS, 2004. Estimated Use of Water in the United States in 2000.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey.
Pielou, E.C., 1998. Fresh Water. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago USGS, 2006. Water Science in Schools. Washington, DC: U.S.
Press. Geological Survey.
Powell, J.W., 1904. Twenty-Second Annual Report of the Bureau U.S. News Online, 2000. USGS Says Water Supply Will Be One of
of American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Challenges in Coming Century. Accessed 09/20/07 @ http://
Institution, 1900–1901. Washington, DC: Government www.uswaternews.com /archives/arcsupply/tusgay3.html.
Printing Office. WEF, 1997. Energy Conservation in Wastewater Treatment
Spellman, F.R., 2003. Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Facilities. Manual of Practice No. MFD-2. Alexandria, VA:
Plant Operations. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers. Water Environment Federation.
2 Water/Wastewater Operators
Our Planet is shrouded in water, and yet 8 million chil- Beyond the distinct job classification titles, over the years
dren under the age of five will die this year from lack those operating water and wastewater plants have been called
of safe water. by a variety of various titles. These include water jockey,
practitioner of water, purveyor of water, sewer rat, or just plain
—United Nations Environmental Program
water or wastewater operator. Based on our experience we
If you are short of water, the choices are stark: conser- have come up with a title that perhaps more closely character-
vation, treatment and reuse of wastewater, technological izes what the water/wastewater operator really is: a Jack or Jill
invention, or the politics of violence. of all trades. This characterization seems only fitting when
you take into account the knowledge and skills required of
It is not technology (engineering and science) that will
operators to properly perform their assigned duties. Moreover,
mitigate the looming water crisis. Instead, providing
operating the plant or distribution/collection system is one
safe drinking water to the masses can only be accom-
thing, taking samples, operating equipment, monitoring con-
plished through politics and management. The irony is
ditions, and determining settings for chemical feed systems
that it is both politics and management that are at the
and high-pressure pumps, along with performing laboratory
heart of the water crisis.
tests and recording the results in the plant daily operating log,
Perhaps the most important person at a water (and waste- is another.
water) treatment plant is the plant operator because that It is, however, the non-typical functions, the diverse func-
person is responsible for treating the water to meet or tions, and the off-the-wall functions that cause us to describe
exceed the Federal Safe Drinking Water Act (and Clean operators as Jacks or Jills of all trades. For example, in addi-
Water Act) standards and public expectations. tion to their normal, routine, daily operating duties, operators
may be called upon to make emergency repairs to systems
—D.S. Sarai, 2006
(e.g., making a welding repair to a vital piece of machinery to
keep the plant or unit process on line); perform material han-
dling operations; make chemical additions to process flow;
INTRODUCTION respond to hazardous materials emergencies; make confined
space entries; perform site landscaping duties, and; carry out
To begin our discussion of water and wastewater operators, it
several other assorted functions. Remember, the plant opera-
is important that we point out a few significant factors.
tor’s job is to keep the plant running and to make permits.
Keeping the plant running and the flow flowing and making
• Employment as a water and wastewater operator is
permits—no matter what—require not only talent but also the
concentrated in local government and private water
performance of a wide range of functions—many of which
supply and sanitary services companies.
are not called for in written job descriptions.
• Postsecondary training is increasingly an asset as
the number of regulated contaminants grows and
treatment unit processes become more complex. DID YOU KNOW?
• Operators must pass examinations certifying that they
are capable of overseeing various treatment processes. Water and wastewater treatment plant and system oper-
• Plants operate 24/7; therefore, plant operators must ators held about 94,000 jobs in 2004. Almost four in
be willing to work shifts. five operators worked for local governments. Others
• Operators have a relatively high incidence of on-the- worked primarily for private water, sewage, and other
job injuries. systems utilities and for private waste treatment and
disposal and waste management services companies.
To properly operate a water treatment and distribution or a Private firms are increasingly providing operation and
wastewater treatment and collection system usually requires management services to local governments on a con-
a team of highly skilled personnel filling a variety of job tract basis (BLS, 2006).
classifications. Typical positions include plant manager/plant
superintendent, plant engineer, chief operator, lead operator,
operator, maintenance operator, distribution and/or intercep-
tor system technicians, assistant operators, laboratory pro- SETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT
fessionals, electricians, instrument technicians, recycling Based on experience, I have found that most people either
manager, safety and health manager, and clerical personnel, have a preconceived notion as to what water and wastewater
to list just a few. operations are all about or have nary a clue. On the one hand,
21
most of us understand that clean water is essential for every- electronic processing and security equipment through central
day life. Moreover, we have at least a vague concept that water and remote terminal locations in a solids processing, water
treatment plants and water operators treat water to make it purification, or wastewater treatment plant. In those treatment
safe for consumption. On the other hand, when it comes to facilities that are not completely or partially automated, com-
wastewater treatment and system operations, many of us have puter controlled, computers are used in other applications,
an ingrained image of toilets flushed or a sewer system man- such as in clerical applications and in a computer maintenance
aged and run by a bunch of sewer rats. Others give wastewater management system (CMMS). The operator must be qualified
and its treatment and the folks who treat it no thought at all to operate and navigate such computer systems.
(that is, unless they are irate ratepayers upset at a back-flushed Typical examples of the computer-literate operator’s work
toilet or the cost of wastewater service). (for illustrative purposes only) are provided as follows:
Typically, the average person has other misconceptions
about water and wastewater operations. For example, very few • Monitors, adjusts, starts, and stops automated water
people can identify the exact source supply of their drinking treatment processes and emergency response systems
water. Is it pumped from wells, rivers, or streams to water to maintain a safe and efficient water treatment oper-
treatment plants? Similarly, where it is treated and distributed ation; monitors treatment plant processing equipment
to customers? The average person is clueless as to the ultimate and systems to identify malfunctions and their prob-
fate of wastewater. Once the toilet is flushed, it is out of sight able cause following prescribed procedures; places
out of mind and that is that. equipment in or out of service or redirects processes
Beyond the few functions we have pointed out to this point, around failed equipment; following prescribed pro-
what exactly is it those water and wastewater operators, the cedures monitors and starts process related equip-
90,000+ Jacks or Jills of all trades in the U.S. do? Operators ment, such as boilers, to maintain process and permit
in both water and wastewater treatment systems control unit objectives; refers difficult equipment maintenance
processes and equipment to remove or destroy harmful mate- problems and malfunctions to the supervisor; moni-
rials, chemical compounds, and microorganisms from the tors the system through a process integrated control
water. They also control pumps, valves, and other process- terminal or remote station terminal to assure control
ing equipment (including a wide array of computerized sys- devices are making proper treatment adjustments;
tems) to convey the water or wastewater through the various operates the central control terminal keyboard to
treatment processes (unit processes), and dispose of (or reuse) perform backup adjustments to such treatment pro-
the removed solids (waste materials: sludge or biosolids). cesses as influent and effluent pumping, chemi-
Operators also read, interpret, and adjust meters and gauges to cal feed, sedimentation, and disinfection; monitors
make sure plant equipment and processes are working prop- specific treatment processes and security systems at
erly. They operate chemical-feeding devices, take samples assigned remote plant stations; observes and reviews
of the water or wastewater, perform chemical and biological terminal screen display of graphs, grids, charts, and
laboratory analyses, and adjust the amount of chemicals, such digital readouts to determine process efficiency;
as chlorine, in the water/wastestream. They use a variety of responds to visual and audible alarms and indicators
instruments to sample and measure water quality, and com- that indicate deviations from normal treatment pro-
mon hand and power tools to make repairs and adjustments. cesses and chemical hazards; identifies false alarms
Operators also make minor repairs to valves, pumps, basic and other indicators that do not require immediate
electrical equipment (Note: electrical work should only be response; alerts remote control locations to respond
accomplished by qualified personnel), and other equipment. to alarms indicating trouble in that area; performs
As mentioned, water and wastewater system operators alarm investigations.
increasingly rely on computers to help monitor equipment, • Switches over to semi-automatic or manual con-
store sampling results, make process-control decisions, trol when the computer control system is not prop-
schedule and record maintenance activities, and produce erly controlling the treatment process; off-scans a
reports. Computer-operated automatic sampling devices are malfunctioning field sensor point and inserts data
beginning to gain widespread acceptance and use in both obtained from field in order to maintain computer
industries, especially at the larger facilities. When a system control; controls automated mechanical and elec-
malfunction occurs, operators may use system computers to trical treatment processes through the computer
determine the cause and the solution to the problem. keyboard when computer programs have failed;
performs field tours to take readings when problems
cannot be corrected through the computer keyboard;
THE DIGITAL WORLD
makes regular field tours of the plant to observe
At many modern water/wastewater treatment plants, opera- physical conditions; manually controls processes
tors are required to perform skilled treatment plant operations when necessary.
work and to monitor, operate, adjust, and regulate a computer- • Determines and changes the amount of chemicals
based treatment process. In addition, the operator is also to be added for the amount of water, wastewater,
required to operate and monitor electrical, mechanical, and or biosolids to be treated; takes periodic samples of
Water/Wastewater Operators 23
treated residuals, biosolids processing products and sulfide and methane. To handle these conditions, operators
byproducts, and clean water or wastewater for labo- are trained to make an emergency management response and
ratory analysis; receives, stores, handles, and applies to use special safety equipment and procedures to protect
chemicals and other supplies needed for operation co-workers, public health, the facility, and the environment.
of assigned station; maintains inventory records of During emergencies, operators may work under extreme pres-
suppliers on hand and quantities used; prepares and sure to correct problems as quickly as possible. These periods
submits daily shift operational reports; records daily may create dangerous working conditions; operators must be
activities in plant operation log, computer database extremely careful and cautious.
or from a computer terminal; changes chemical feed Operators who must aggressively respond to hazardous
tanks, chlorine cylinders, and feed systems; flushes chemical leaks or spills (e.g., enter a chlorine gas-filled room
clogged feed and sampling lines. and install chlorine repair kit B on a damaged 1-ton cylin-
• Notes any malfunctioning equipment; makes der to stop the leak) must possess a HAZMAT Emergency
minor adjustments when required; reports major Response Technician 24-hour certification. Additionally,
malfunctions to a higher-level operator and enters many facilities, where elemental chlorine is used for disinfec-
maintenance and related task information into a tion, odor control, or other process applications, require oper-
computerized maintenance management system ators to possess an appropriate certified pesticide applicator
(CMMS) and processes work requests for skilled training completion certificate. Because of OSHA’s specific
maintenance personnel. confined space requirement whereby a standby rescue team
• Performs routine mechanical maintenance such for entrants must be available, many plants require operators
as packing valves, adjusting belts, and replacing to hold and maintain CPR/First Aid certification.
shear pins and air filters; lubricates equipment by Note: It is important to point out that many wastewater
applying grease and adding oil, changes and cleans facilities have substituted elemental chlorine with sodium
strainers; drains condensate from pressure vessels, or calcium hypochlorite, ozone, or ultraviolet irradiation
gearboxes, and drip traps; performs minor electrical because of the stringent requirements of OSHA’s Process
maintenance such as replacing bulbs and resetting Safety Management Standard (29 CFR 1910.119) and
low voltage circuit switches; prepares equipment USEPA’s Risk Management Program. This is not the case
for maintenance crews by unblocking pipelines in most water treatment operations, however. In water treat-
and pumps, and by isolating and draining tanks; ment systems, elemental chlorine is still employed because it
checks equipment as part of a preventive and pre- provides chlorine residual that is important in maintaining
dictive maintenance program; reports more complex safe drinking water supplies, especially throughout lengthy
mechanical-electrical problems to supervisors. distribution systems.
• Responds, in a safe manner, to chlorine leaks
and chemical spills in compliance with OSHA’s OPERATOR DUTIES AND
HAZWOPER (29 CFR 1910.120) requirements and
WORKING CONDITIONS
with plant-specific emergency response procedures;
participates in chlorine and other chemical emer- The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type and
gency response drills. size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may control all
• Prepares operational and maintenance reports as machinery, perform sampling and lab analyses, keep records,
required, including flow and treatment informa- handle customer complaints, and troubleshoot and make
tion; changes charts and maintains recording equip- repairs, or perform routine maintenance. In some locations,
ment; utilizes system and other software packages to operators may handle both water treatment and wastewater
generate reports and charts and graphs of flow and treatment operations. On the other hand, in larger plants with
treatment status and trends; maintains workplace many employees, operators may be more specialized and
housekeeping. only monitor one unit process (e.g., a solids handling operator
who operates and monitors an incinerator). Along with treat-
PLANT OPERATORS AS ment operators, plant staffing may include environmental-
ists, biologists, chemists, engineers, laboratory technicians,
EMERGENCY RESPONDERS
maintenance operators, supervisors, clerical help, and various
As mentioned, occasionally operators must work under emer- assistants.
gency conditions. Sometimes these emergency conditions In the United States, notwithstanding a certain amount of
are operational and not necessarily life threatening. A good downsizing brought on by privatization activities, employ-
example occurs during a rain event when there may be a tem- ment opportunities for water/wastewater operators have
porary loss of electrical power and large amounts of liquid increased in number. The number of operators has increased
waste flow into sewers, exceeding a plant’s treatment capac- because of the on-going construction of new water/wastewa-
ity. Emergencies can also be caused by conditions inside a ter and solids handling facilities. In addition, operator jobs
plant, such as oxygen deficiency within a confined space or have increased because of water pollution standards that have
exposure to toxic and/or explosive off-gases such as hydrogen become increasingly more stringent since adoption of two
major federal environmental regulations: the Clean Water Act Along with all the major classifications of hazards, other fac-
of 1972 (and subsequent amendments), which implemented a tors cause the high incidence of injury in the water/wastewa-
national system of regulation on the discharge of pollutants, ter industry. Some of these can be attributed to the injuries
and the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974, which established can be attributed to:
standards for drinking water.
Operators are often hired in industrial facilities to monitor or • Complex treatment systems
pretreat wastes before discharge to municipal treatment plants. • Shift work
These wastes must meet certain minimum standards to ensure • New employees
that they have been adequately pretreated and will not damage • Liberal workers’ compensation laws
municipal treatment facilities. Municipal water treatment plants • Absence of safety laws
also must meet stringent drinking water standards. This often • Absence of safe work practices and safety programs
means that additional qualified staff members must be hired to
monitor and treat/remove specific contaminants. Complicating Experience has shown that a lack of well-managed safety
the problem is the fact that the list of contaminants regulated programs and safe work practices is a major factor causing
by these regulations has grown over time. For example, the the water/wastewater industry’s high incidence of on-the-job
1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments include standards injuries (Spellman 2001).
for monitoring Giardia and Cryptosporidium, two protozoans
that cause health problems. Operators must be familiar with
OPERATOR CERTIFICATION AND LICENSURE
the guidelines established by federal regulations and how they
affect their plant. In addition to federal regulations, operators A high school diploma or its equivalency usually is required as
must be aware of any guidelines imposed by the state or local- the entry-level credential to become a water or wastewater treat-
ity in which the treatment process operates. ment plant operator-in-training. Operators need mechanical
Another unique factor related to water/wastewater opera- aptitude and should be competent in basic mathematics, chem-
tors is their working conditions. Water and wastewater treat- istry, and biology. They must have the ability to apply data to
ment plant operators work indoors and outdoors in all kinds of formulas of treatment requirements, flow levels, and concentra-
weather. Operators’ work is physically demanding and often tion levels. Some basic familiarity with computers also is nec-
is performed in unclean locations (hence, the emanation of essary because of the present trend toward computer-controlled
the descriptive but inappropriate title “sewer rat”). They are equipment and more sophisticated instrumentation. Certain
exposed to slippery walkways, vapors, odors, heat, dust, and operator positions—particularly in larger cities—are covered
noise from motors, pumps, engines, and generators. They by civil service regulations. Applicants for these positions may
work with hazardous chemicals. In water and wastewater be required to pass a written examination testing mathematics
plants, operators may be exposed to many bacterial and viral skills, mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence.
conditions. As mentioned, dangerous gases such as methane Because treatment operations are becoming more complex,
and hydrogen sulfide could be present so they need to use completion of an associate’s degree or a 1-year certificate pro-
proper safety gear. gram in water quality and wastewater treatment technology
Operators generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week. However, is highly recommended. These credentials increase an appli-
many treatment plants are in operation 24/7, and operators cant’s chances for both employment and promotion. Advanced
may have to work nights, weekends, holidays, or rotating training programs are offered throughout the country. They
shifts. Some overtime is occasionally required in emergencies. provide a good general through advanced training on water
Over the years, statistical reports have related historical and wastewater treatment processes, as well as basic prepara-
evidence showing that the water/wastewater industry is an tion for becoming a licensed operator. They also offer a wide
extremely unsafe occupational field. This less than stellar range of computer training courses.
safety performance has continued to deteriorate even in the New water and wastewater operators-in-training typically
age of the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OHSA, 1970). start out as attendants or assistants and learn the practical
The question is why is the water/wastewater treatment aspects of their job under the direction of an experienced
industry on-the-job injury rate so high? Several reasons help operator. They learn by observing, show-and-tell, and doing
to explain this high injury rate. First, all of the major classifi- routine tasks such as recording meter readings; taking sam-
cations of hazards exist at water/wastewater treatment plants ples of liquid waste and sludge; and performing simple main-
(the typical exception being radioactivity): tenance and repair work on pumps, electrical motors, valves,
and other plant or system equipment. Larger treatment plants
• oxygen deficiency generally combine this on-the-job training (OJT) with formal
• physical injuries classroom or self-paced study programs. Some large sanitation
• toxic gases and vapors districts operate their own 3–4 year apprenticeship schools. In
• infections some of these programs, each year of apprenticeship school
• fire completed not only prepares the operator for the next level of
• explosion certification or licensure but also satisfies a requirement for
• electrocution advancement to the next higher pay grade.
Water/Wastewater Operators 25
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of

1996, enforced by the USEPA, specify national minimum TABLE 2.1
standards for certification (licensure) and recertification of Specialized Topics for Waterworks Operators
operators of community and nontransient, noncommunity Chemical addition Hydraulics—Math
water systems. As a result, operators must pass an exami- Chemical feeders Laboratory practices
nation to certify that they are capable of overseeing water/ Chemical feeders—Math Measuring and control
wastewater treatment operations. There are different lev- Clarification Piping and valves
els of certification depending on the operator’s experience Coagulation-flocculation Public health
and training. Higher certification levels qualify the opera- Corrosion control Pumps
tor for a wider variety of treatment processes. Certification Disinfection Recordkeeping
requirements vary by state and by size of treatment plants. Disinfection—Math General science
Although relocation may mean having to become certi- Basic electricity and controls Electric motors
fied in a new location, many states accept other states’ Filtration Finances
certifications. Filtration—Math Storage
In an attempt to ensure currency of training and qualifica- Fluoridation Leak detection
tions and to improve operators’ skills and knowledge, most Fluoridation—Math Hydrants
General safe work practices Cross connection control and backflow
state drinking water and water pollution control agencies offer
on-going training courses. These courses cover principles of Bacteriology Stream ecology
treatment processes and process-control methods, laboratory
practices, maintenance procedures, management skills, col-
lection system operation, general safe work practices, chlo- TABLE 2.2
rination procedures, sedimentation, biological treatment, Specialized Topics for Wastewater Operators
sludge/biosolids treatment, biosolids land application and dis-
Wastewater Math Fecal coliform testing
posal, and flow measurements. Correspondence courses cov-
Troubleshooting techniques Recordkeeping
ering both water/wastewater operations and preparation for
Preliminary treatment Flow measurement
state licensure examinations are provided by various state and
Sedimentation Sludge dewatering
local agencies. Many employers provide tuition-assistance for
Ponds Drying beds
formal college training.
Trickling filters Centrifuges
Whether received from formal or informal sources, train- Rotating biological contactors Vacuum filtration
ing provided for or obtained by water and wastewater opera- Activated sludge Pressure filtration
tors must include coverage of very specific subject/topic Chemical treatment Sludge incineration
areas. Though much of their training is similar or the same, Disinfection Land application of biosolids
waterworks and wastewater operators are expected to have a Solids thickening Laboratory procedures
fundamental knowledge of many of the specific specialized Solids stabilization General safety
topics listed in Tables 2.1 and 2.2.
Note: It is important to note that both water and wastewater
operators must have a fundamental knowledge of basic sci- 2.5 Specify national minimum standard for certifica-
ence and math operations. tion (licensure) and recertification for water/waste-
Note: For many water/wastewater operators, crossover water operators.
training or overlapping training is common practice.
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING

CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS
BLS, 2006. Water and Liquid Waste Treatment Plant and System
2.1 Briefly explain the causal factors behind the high Operators. Accessed 09/30/07 @ www.bls.gov.oco/229.htm.
incidence of on-the-job injuries for water/wastewater OSHA, 1970. Occupational Health and Safety Act. Washington,
operators. DC: U.S. Dept of Labor.
Sarai, D.S., 2006. Water Treatment Made Simple for Operators.
2.2 Why is computer literacy so important in operating a
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
modern water/wastewater treatment system? Spellman, F.R., 2001. Safe Work Practices for Wastewater Treatment
2.3 Define CMMS. Plants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
2.4 What are the necessary training requirements for Spellman, F.R., 2007. The Science of Water, 2nd ed. Boca Raton:
HAZMAT responders? CRC Press.
3 Plant Security
You may say Homeland Security is a Y2K problem that 1 MGD being considered small; they number approximately
doesn’t end Jan. 1 of any given year. 13,057 systems. For the purpose of determining population
served, 1 MGD equals approximately 10,000 persons served.
—Governor Tom Ridge
Disruption of a wastewater treatment system or service can
U.S. Sees Increase in Cyber Attacks on Infrastructure cause loss of life, economic impacts, and severe public health
incidents. If structural damage occurs, wastewater systems
The top U.S. military official responsible for defending
can become vulnerable to inadequate treatment. The public is
the United States against cyber attacks said Thursday
much less sensitive to wastewater as an area of vulnerability
that there had been a 17-fold increase in computer
than it is to drinking water; however, wastewater systems do
attacks on U.S. infrastructure between 2009 and 2011,
provide opportunities for terrorist threats.
initiated by criminal gangs, hackers and other nations.
Federal and state agencies have long been active in
—New York Times, 07/27/2012 addressing these risks and threats to water and wastewater
utilities through regulations, technical assistance, research,
and outreach programs. As a result, an extensive system of
INTRODUCTION regulations governing maximum contaminant levels of 90
conventional contaminants (most established by EPA), con-
According to USEPA (2004), there are approximately 160,000
struction and operating standards (implemented mostly by the
public water systems (PWSs) in the United States, each of
states), monitoring, emergency response planning, training,
which regularly supplies drinking water to at least 25 persons
research, and education has been developed to better protect
or 15 service connections. Of the total U.S. population, 84%
the nation’s drinking water supply and receiving waters. Since
is served by PWSs, while the remainder is served primarily
the events of 9/11, the EPA has been designated as the sec-
by private wells. PWSs are divided into community water sys-
tor-specific agency responsible for infrastructure protection
tems (CWSs) and non-community water systems (NCWSs).
activities for the nation’s drinking water and wastewater sys-
Examples of CWSs include municipal water systems that serve
tem. The EPA is utilizing its position within the water sector
mobile home parks of residential developments. Examples
and working with its stakeholders to provide information to
of NCWSs include schools, factories, churches, commercial
help protect the nation’s drinking water supply from terrorism
campgrounds, hotels, and restaurants.
or other intentional acts.
DID YOU KNOW?

SECURITY HARDWARE/DEVICES
As of 2003, community water systems serve by far the
largest proportion of the U.S. population—273 million Keep in mind that when it comes to making “anything” abso-
out of a total population of 290 million (USEPA 2004). lutely secure from intrusion or attack, there is inherently, or
otherwise, no silver bullet. However, careful preplanning and
installation of security hardware and/or devices-products can
Because drinking water is consumed directly, health significantly affect the plant’s ability to weather the storm, so
effects associated with contamination have long been major to speak. USEPA (2005) groups the water/wastewater infra-
concerns. In addition, interruption or cessation of the drink- structure security devices or products described below into
ing water supply can disrupt society, impacting human health four general categories:
and critical activities such as fire protection. Although they
have no clue as to its true economic value and to its future • Physical asset monitoring and control devices
worth, the general public correctly perceives drinking water • Water monitoring devices
as central to the life of an individual and of society. However, • Communication and integration
the general public knows even less about or the importance of • Cyber protection devices
wastewater treatment and the fate of its end product.
Wastewater treatment is important for preventing disease Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices
and protecting the environment. Wastewater is treated by pub-
licly owned treatment works (POTWs) and by private facili- Aboveground, Outdoor Equipment Enclosures
ties such as industrial plants. There are approximately 2.3 Water and wastewater systems consist of multiple components
million miles of distribution system pipes and approximately spread over a wide area, and typically include a centralized
16,255 POTWs in the United States. Of the total U.S. popula- treatment plant, as well as distribution or collection system
tion, 75% is served by POTWs, with existing flows of less than components that are typically distributed at multiple locations
27
throughout the community. However, in recent years, distri- Alarm systems can be integrated with fire detection sys-
bution and collection system designers have favored placing tems, intrusion detection systems (IDSs), access control
critical equipment—especially assets that require regular use systems, or closed circuit television (CCTV) systems, such
and maintenance—aboveground. that these systems automatically respond when the alarm is
One of the primary reasons for doing so is that locating triggered. For example, a smoke detector alarm can be set
this equipment aboveground eliminates the safety risks asso- up to automatically notify the fire department when smoke
ciated with confined space entry, which is often required for is detected; or an intrusion alarm can automatically trigger
the maintenance of equipment located belowground. In addi- cameras to turn on in a remote location so that personnel can
tion, space restrictions often limit the amount of equipment monitor that location.
that can be located inside, and there are concerns that some An alarm system consists of sensors that detect differ-
types of equipment (such as backflow prevention devices) can, ent types of events; an arming station that is used to turn the
under certain circumstances, discharge water that could flood system on and off; a control panel that receives information,
pits, vaults, or equipment rooms. Therefore, many pieces of processes it, and transmits the alarm; and an annunciator that
critical equipment are located outdoors and aboveground. generates a visual and/or audible response to the alarm. When
Many different system components can be installed outdoors a sensor is tripped it sends a signal to a control panel, which
and aboveground. Examples of these types of components triggers a visual or audible alarm and/or notifies a central
could include: monitoring station. A more complete description of each of
the components of an alarm system is provided below.
• Backflow prevention devices Detection devices (also called sensors) are designed to
• Air release and control valves detect a specific type of event (such as smoke, intrusion, etc.).
• Pressure vacuum breakers Depending on the type of event they are designed to detect,
• Pumps and motors sensors can be located inside or outside of the facility or other
• Chemical storage and feed equipment asset. When an event is detected, the sensors use some type of
• Meters communication method (such as wireless radio transmitters,
• Sampling equipment conductors, or cables) to send signals to the control panel to
• Instrumentation generate the alarm. For example, a smoke detector sends a
signal to a control panel when it detects smoke.
Much of this equipment is installed in remote locations and/or An arming station, which is the main user interface with
in areas where the public can access it. the security system, allows the user to arm (turn on), disarm
One of the most effective security measures for protecting (turn off), and communicate with the system. How a specific
aboveground equipment is to place it inside a building. When system is armed will depend on how it is used. For example,
or where this is not possible, enclosing the equipment or parts while IDSs can be armed for continuous operation (24 hr/day),
of the equipment using some sort of commercial or home- they are usually armed and disarmed according to the work
made add-on structure may help to prevent tampering with schedule at a specific location so that personnel going about
the equipment. Equipment enclosures can generally be cat- their daily activities do not set off the alarms. In contrast, fire
egorized into one of four main configurations, which include: protection systems are typically armed 24hours a day.
The control panel receives information from the sensors
• O-piece, drop over enclosures and sends it to an appropriate location, such as to a central
• Hinged or removable top enclosures operations station or to a 24-hour monitoring facility. Once
• Sectional enclosures the alarm signal is received at the central monitoring loca-
• Shelters with access locks tion, personnel monitoring for alarms can respond (such as
by sending security teams to investigate or by dispatching the
Other security features that can be implemented on aboveg- fire department).
round, outdoor equipment enclosures include locks, mounting The annunciator responds to the detection of an event by
brackets, tamper-resistant doors, and exterior lighting. emitting a signal. This signal may be visual, audible, elec-
tronic, or a combination of these three. For example, fire
Alarms alarm signals will always be connected to audible annuncia-
An alarm system is a type of electronic monitoring system tors, whereas intrusion alarms may not be.
that is used to detect and respond to specific types of events— Alarms can be reported locally, remotely, or both locally
such as unauthorized access to an asset, or a possible fire. In and remotely. A local alarm emits a signal at the location of
water and wastewater systems, alarms are also used to alert the event (typically using a bell or siren). A “local only” alarm
operators when process operating or monitoring conditions go emits a signal at the location of the event but does not transmit
out of preset parameters (i.e., process alarms). These types of the alarm signal to any other location (i.e., it does not trans-
alarms are primarily integrated with process monitoring and mit the alarm to a central monitoring location). Typically, the
reporting systems (i.e., SCADA systems). Note that this dis- purpose of a “local only” alarm is to frighten away intruders,
cussion does not focus on alarm systems that are not related to and possibly to attract the attention of someone who might
a utility’s processes. notify the proper authorities. Because no signal is sent to a
Plant Security 29
central monitoring location, personnel can only respond to a Hardwired systems rely on wires that run from the control
local alarm if they are in the area and can hear and/or see the panel to each of the detection devices and annunciators.
alarm signal. Wireless systems transmit signals from a transmitter to a
Fire alarm systems must have local alarms, including both receiver through the air—primarily using radio or other waves.
audible and visual signals. Most fire alarm signal and response Hardwired systems are usually lower-cost, more reliable (they
requirements are codified in the National Fire Alarm Code, are not affected by terrain or environmental factors), and sig-
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 72. NFPA 72 nificantly easier to troubleshoot than are wireless systems.
discusses the application, installation, performance, and However, a major disadvantage of hardwired systems is that
maintenance of protective signaling systems and their com- it may not be possible to hardwire all locations (for example,
ponents. In contrast to fire alarms, which require a local sig- it may be difficult to hardwire remote locations). In addition,
nal when fire is detected, many IDSs do not have a local alert running wires to their required locations can be both time
device, because monitoring personnel do not wish to inform consuming and costly. The major advantage to using wireless
potential intruders that they have been detected. Instead, systems is that they can often be installed in areas where hard-
these types of systems silently alert monitoring personnel that wired systems are not feasible. However, wireless components
an intrusion has been detected, thus allowing monitoring per- can be much more expensive when compared to hardwired
sonnel to respond. systems. In addition, in the past, it has been difficult to per-
In contrast to systems that are set up to transmit “local form self-diagnostics on wireless systems to confirm that they
only” alarms when the sensors are triggered, systems can also are communicating properly with the controller. Presently,
be set up to transmit signals to a central location, such as the majority of wireless systems incorporate supervising cir-
to a control room or guard post at the utility, or to a police cuitry, which allows the subscriber to know immediately if
or fire station. Most fire/smoke alarms are set up to signal there is a problem with the system (such as a broken detection
both at the location of the event and at a fire station or central device or a low battery), or if a protected door or window has
monitoring station. Many insurance companies require that been left open.
facilities install certified systems that include alarm commu-
nication to a central station. For example, systems certified by Backflow Prevention Devices
the Underwriters Laboratory (UL) require that the alarm be As their name suggests, backflow prevention devices are
reported to a central monitoring station. designed to prevent backflow, which is the reversal of the nor-
The main differences between alarm systems lie in the mal and intended direction of water flow in a water system.
types of event detection devices used in different systems. Backflow is a potential problem in a water system because
Intrusion sensors, for example, consist of two main catego- it can spread contaminated water back through a distribu-
ries: perimeter sensors and interior (space) sensors. Perimeter tion system. For example, backflow at uncontrolled cross-
intrusion sensors are typically applied on fences, doors, walls, connections (cross-connections are any actual or potential
windows, etc., and are designed to detect an intruder before connection between the public water supply and a source of
he/she accesses a protected asset (i.e., perimeter intrusion sen- contamination) or pollution can allow pollutants or contami-
sors are used to detect intruders attempting to enter through nants to enter the potable water system. More specifically,
a door, window, etc.). In contrast, interior intrusion sensors backflow from private plumbing systems, industrial areas,
are designed to detect an intruder who has already accessed hospitals, and other hazardous contaminant-containing sys-
the protected asset (i.e., interior intrusion sensors are used to tems, into public water mains and wells poses serious pub-
detect intruders once they are already within a protected room lic health risks and security problems. Cross-contamination
or building). These two types of detection devices can be com- from private plumbing systems can contain biological hazards
plementary, and they are often used together to enhance secu- (such as bacteria or viruses) or toxic substances that can con-
rity for an asset. For example, a typical intrusion alarm system taminate and sicken an entire population in the event of back-
might employ a perimeter glass-break detector that protects flow. The majority of historical incidences of backflow have
against intruders accessing a room through a window, as well been accidental, but growing concern that contaminants could
as an ultrasonic interior sensor that detects intruders that have be intentionally backfed into a system is prompting increased
gotten into the room without using the window. awareness for private homes, businesses, industries, and areas
Fire detection/fire alarm systems consist of different types most vulnerable to intentional strikes. Therefore, backflow
of fire detection devices and fire alarm systems. These sys- prevention is a major tool for the protection of water systems.
tems may detect fire, heat, smoke, or a combination of any of Backflow may occur under two types of conditions: back-
these. For example, a typical fire alarm system might consist pressure and backsiphonage. Backpressure is the reverse from
of heat sensors, which are located throughout a facility and normal flow direction within a piping system that is the result
which detect high temperatures or a certain change in tem- of the downstream pressure being higher than the supply pres-
perature over a fixed time period. A different system might be sure. These reductions in the supply pressure occur whenever
outfitted with both smoke and heat detection devices. the amount of water being used exceeds the amount of water
When a sensor in an alarm system detects an event, it supplied, such as during water line flushing, fire fighting, or
must communicate an alarm signal. The two basic types of breaks in water mains. Backsiphonage is the reverse from
alarm communication systems are hardwired and wireless. normal flow direction within a piping system that is caused by
negative pressure in the supply piping (i.e., the reversal of nor- and resistant to breaking or cracking, thereby allowing them
mal flow in a system caused by a vacuum or partial vacuum to withstand the impact from a vehicle attempting to crash
within the water supply piping). Backsiphonage can occur through them. In addition, both of these materials help to
where there is a high velocity in a pipe line; when there is a transfer the energy of the impact over the barrier’s entire vol-
line repair or break that is lower than a service point; or when ume, thus helping to prevent the barrier from being sheared
there is lowered main pressure due to high water withdrawal off its base. In addition, because the barrier is angled away
rates, such as during fire fighting or water main flushing. from traffic, the force of any vehicle impacting the barrier
To prevent backflow, various types of backflow preventers is distributed over the entire surface of the barrier and is not
are appropriate for use. The primary types of backflow pre- concentrated at the base, which helps prevent the barrier from
venters are: breaking off at the base. Finally, the angle of the barrier helps
hang up any vehicles attempting to drive over it.
• Air Gap Drains Wedge barriers can be fixed or portable. Fixed wedge bar-
• Double Check Valves riers can be mounted on the surface of the roadway (“surface-
• Reduced Pressure Principle Assemblies mounted wedges”) or in a shallow mount in the road’s surface,
• Pressure Vacuum Breakers or they can be installed completely below the road surface.
Surface-mounted wedge barricades operate by rising from
a flat position on the surface of the roadway, while shallow-
Barriers mount wedge barriers rise from their resting position just
Active Security Barriers (Crash Barriers) below the road surface. In contrast, below-surface wedge bar-
Active security barriers (also known as crash barriers) are riers operate by rising from beneath the road surface. Both the
large structures that are placed in roadways at entrance and shallow-mounted and surface-mounted barriers require little
exit points to protected facilities to control vehicle access to or no excavation, and thus do not interfere with buried utili-
these areas. These barriers are placed perpendicular to traffic ties. All three barrier mounting types project above the road
to block the roadway, so that the only way that traffic can pass surface and block traffic when they are raised into the armed
the barrier is for the barrier to be moved out of the roadway. position. Once they are disarmed and lowered, they are flush
These types of barriers are typically constructed from sturdy with the road, thereby allowing traffic to pass portable wedge
materials, such as concrete or steel, such that vehicles cannot barriers that are moved into place on wheels that are removed
penetrate through them. They are also designed at a certain after the barrier has been set into place.
height off the roadway so that vehicles cannot go over them. Installing rising wedge barriers requires preparation of
The key difference between active security barriers, which the road surface. Installing surface-mounted wedges does
include wedges, crash beams, gates, retractable bollards, and not require that the road be excavated; however, the road
portable barricades, and passive security barriers, which surface must be intact and strong enough to allow the bolts
include non-movable bollards, jersey barriers, and planters, anchoring the wedge to the road surface to attach properly.
is that active security barriers are designed so that they can Shallow-mount and below-surface wedge barricades require
be raised and lowered or moved out of the roadway easily to excavation of a pit that is large enough to accommodate the
allow authorized vehicles to pass them. Many of these types wedge structure, as well as any arming/disarming mecha-
of barriers are designed so that they can be opened and closed nisms. Generally, the bottom of the excavation pit is lined
automatically (i.e., mechanized gates and hydraulic wedge with gravel to allow for drainage. Areas not sheltered from
barriers), while others are easy to open and close manually rain or surface runoff can install a gravity drain or self-prim-
(swing crash beams and manual gates). In contrast to active ing pump.
barriers, passive barriers are permanent, non-movable barri- Crash beam barriers consist of aluminum beams that
ers, and thus they are typically used to protect the perimeter can be opened or closed across the roadway. While there are
of a protected facility, such as sidewalks and other areas that several different crash beam designs, every crash beam sys-
do not require vehicular traffic to pass them. Several of the tem consists of an aluminum beam that is supported on each
major types of active security barriers such as wedge barriers, side of the road and is made by a solid footing or buttress,
crash beams, gates, bollards, and portable/removable barri- which is typically constructed from concrete, steel, or some
cades are described below. other strong material. Beams typically contain an interior
Wedge barriers are plated, rectangular steel buttresses steel cable (typically at least one inch in diameter) to give the
approximately 2–3 feet high that can be raised and lowered beam added strength and rigidity. The beam is connected by
from the roadway. When they are in the open position, they a heavy-duty hinge or another mechanism to one of the foot-
are flush with the roadway and vehicles can pass over them. ings so that it can swing or rotate out of the roadway when
However, when they are in the closed (armed) position, they it is open, and can swing back across the road when it is in
project up from the road at a 45 degree angle, with the upper the closed (armed) position, blocking the road and inhibiting
end pointing towards the oncoming vehicle and the base of access by unauthorized vehicles. The non-hinged end of the
the barrier away from the vehicle. Generally, wedge barriers beam can be locked into its footing, thus providing anchor-
are constructed from heavy gauge steel, or from concrete that ing for the beam on both sides of the road and increasing
contains an impact-dampening iron rebar core that is strong the beam’s resistance to any vehicles attempting to penetrate
Plant Security 31
through it. In addition, if the crash beam is hit by a vehicle, to pass them. In contrast to passive bollards, retractable bol-
the aluminum beam transfers the impact energy to the inte- lards are active security barriers that can easily be raised and
rior cable, which in turn transfers the impact energy through lowered to allow vehicles to pass between them. Thus, they
the footings and into their foundation, thereby minimizing can be used in driveways or on roads to control vehicular
the chance that the impact will snap the beam and allow the access. When the bollards are raised, they protect above the
intruding vehicle to pass through. road surface and block the roadway; when they are lowered,
Crash beam barriers can employ drop-arm, cantilever, they sit flush with the road surface, and thus allow traffic to
or swing beam designs. Drop-arm crash beams operate by pass over them. Retractable bollards are typically constructed
raising and lowering the beam vertically across the road. from steel or other materials that have a low weight-to-volume
Cantilever crash beams are projecting structures that are ratio so that they require low power to raise and lower. Steel is
opened and closed by extending the beam from the hinge but- also more resistant to breaking than is a more brittle material,
tress to the receiving buttress located on the opposite side of such as concrete, and is better able to withstand direct vehicu-
the road. In the swing beam design, the beam is hinged to lar impact without breaking apart.
the buttress in such a way that it swings horizontally across Retractable bollards are installed in a trench dug across a
the road. Generally, swing beam and cantilever designs are roadway—typically at an entrance or gate. Installing retract-
used at locations where a vertical lift beam is impractical. For able bollards requires preparing the road surface. Depending
example, the swing beam or cantilever designs are utilized at on the vendor, bollards can be installed either in a continuous
entrances and exits with overhangs, trees, or buildings that slab of concrete, or in individual excavations with concrete
would physically block the operation of the drop-arm beam poured in place. The required excavation for a bollard is typi-
design. Installing any of these crash beam barriers involves cally slightly wider and slightly deeper than the bollard height
the excavation of a pit approximately 48 inches deep for both when extended aboveground. The bottom of the excavation is
the hinge and the receiver footings. Due to the depth of exca- typically lined with gravel to allow drainage. The bollards are
vation, the site should be inspected for underground utilities then connected to a control panel which controls the raising
before digging begins. and lowering of the bollards. Installation typically requires
In contrast to wedge barriers and crash beams, which are mechanical, electrical, and concrete work; if utility personnel
typically installed separately from a fence line, gates are often with these skills are available, then the utility can install the
integrated units of a perimeter fence or wall around a facil- bollards themselves.
ity. Gates are basically movable pieces of fencing that can Portable/removable barriers, which can include remov-
be opened and closed across a road. When the gate is in the able crash beams and wedge barriers, are mobile obstacles
closed (armed) position, the leaves of the gate lock into steel that can be moved in and out of position on a roadway. For
buttresses that are embedded in concrete foundation located example, a crash beam may be completely removed and stored
on both sides of the roadway, thereby blocking access to the off-site when it is not needed. An additional example would
roadway. Generally, gate barricades are constructed from be wedge barriers that are equipped with wheels that can be
a combination of heavy gauge steel and aluminum that can removed after the barricade is towed into place.
absorb an impact from vehicles attempting to ram through When portable barricades are needed, they can be moved
them. Any remaining impact energy not absorbed by the gate into position rapidly. To provide them with added strength and
material is transferred to the steel buttresses and their con- stability, they are typically anchored to buttress boxes that are
crete foundation. located on either side of the road. These buttress boxes, which
Gates can utilize a cantilever, linear, or swing design. may or may not be permanent, are usually filled with sand,
Cantilever gates are projecting structures that operate by water, cement, gravel, or concrete to make them heavy and to
extending the gate from the hinge footing across the roadway aid in stabilizing the portable barrier. In addition, these but-
to the receiver footing. A linear gate is designed to slide across tresses can help dissipate any impact energy from vehicles
the road on tracks via a rack and pinion drive mechanism. crashing into the barrier itself.
Swing gates are hinged so that they can swing horizontally Because these barriers are not anchored into the roadway,
across the road. Installation of the cantilever, linear, or swing they do not require excavation or other related construction
gate designs described above involve the excavation of a pit for installation. In contrast, they can be assembled and made
approximately 48 inches deep for both the hinge and receiver operational in a short period of time. The primary shortcom-
footings to which the gates are attached. Due to the depth of ing of this type of design is that these barriers may move if
excavation, the site should be inspected for underground utili- they are hit by vehicles. Therefore, it is important to carefully
ties before digging begins. assess the placement and anchoring of these types of barriers
Bollards are vertical barriers at least 3 feet tall and 1–2 to ensure that they can withstand the types of impacts that
feet in diameter that are typically set 4–5 feet apart from each may be anticipated at that location.
other so that they block vehicles from passing between them. Because the primary threat to active security barriers is
Bollards can either be fixed in place, removable, or retractable. that vehicles will attempt to crash through them, their most
Fixed and removable bollards are passive barriers that are typ- important attributes are their size, strength, and crash resis-
ically used along building perimeters or on sidewalks to pre- tance. Other important features for an active security barrier
vent vehicles from passing them, while allowing pedestrians are the mechanisms by which the barrier is raised and lowered
to allow authorized vehicle entry, and other factors, such as is measurably different from person to person—for example
weather resistance and safety features. fingerprints or eye characteristics—can serve as a unique
biometric identifier for that individual. Biometric systems
Passive Security Barriers recognizing fingerprints, palm shape, eyes, face, voice, and
One of the most basic threats facing any facility is from signature comprise the bulk of the current biometric systems;
intruders accessing the facility with the intention of caus- however, biometric systems that recognize other biological
ing damage to its assets. These threats may include intruders features do exist. Biometric security systems use biometric
actually entering the facility, as well as intruders attacking the technology combined with some type of locking mechanism
facility from outside without actually entering it (i.e., detonat- to control access to specific assets. In order to access an asset
ing a bomb near enough to the facility to cause damage within controlled by a biometric security system, an individual’s bio-
its boundaries). metric trait must be matched with an existing profile stored
Security barriers are one of the most effective ways to in a database. If there is a match between the two, the lock-
counter the threat of intruders accessing a facility or the ing mechanisms (which could be a physical lock, such as at a
facility perimeter. Security barriers are large, heavy struc- doorway, an electronic lock, such asat a computer terminal, or
tures that are used to control access through a perimeter by some other type of lock) are disengaged, and the individual is
either vehicles or personnel. They can be used in many dif- given access to the asset. A biometric security system is typi-
ferent ways depending on how or where they are located at cally comprised of the following components:
the facility. For example, security barriers can be used on or
along driveways or roads to direct traffic to a checkpoint (i.e., • A sensor, which measures/records a biometric char-
a facility may install jersey barriers in a road to direct traffic acteristic or trait
in a certain direction). Other types of security barriers (crash • A control panel, which serves as the connection
beams, gates) can be installed at the checkpoint so that guards point between various system components (The con-
can regulate which vehicles can access the facility. Finally, trol panel communicates information back and forth
other security barriers (i.e., bollards or security planters) can between the sensor and the host computer, and con-
be used along the facility perimeter to establish a protective trols access to the asset by engaging or disengaging
buffer area between the facility and approaching vehicles. the system lock based on internal logic and informa-
Establishing such a protective buffer can help in mitigating tion from the host computer)
the effects of the type of bomb blast described above, both by • A host computer, which processes and stores the bio-
potentially absorbing some of the blast, and also by increas- metric trait in a database
ing the “stand-off” distance between the blast and the facility • Specialized software, which compares an individual
(the force of an explosion is reduced as the shock wave travels image taken by the sensor with a stored profile or
further from the source, and thus the further the explosion is profiles
from the target, the less effective it will be in damaging the • A locking mechanism which is controlled by the bio-
target). metric system
Security barriers can be either “active” or “passive.” • A power source to power the system
“Active” barriers, which include gates, retractable bollards,
wedge barriers, and crash barriers, are readily movable, and Biometric Hand and Finger Geometry Recognition
thus they are typically used in areas where they must be Hand and finger geometry recognition is the process of iden-
moved often to allow vehicles to pass—such as in roadways at tifying an individual through the unique “geometry” (shape,
entrances and exits to a facility. In contrast to active security thickness, length, width, etc.) of that individual’s hand or fin-
barriers, “passive” security barriers, which include jersey bar- gers. Hand geometry recognition has been employed since
riers, bollards, and security planters, are not designed to be the early 1980s and is among the most widely used biomet-
moved on a regular basis, and thus they are typically used in ric technologies for controlling access to important assets. It
areas where access is not required or allowed—such as along is easy to install and use, and is appropriate for use in any
building perimeters or in traffic control areas. Passive security location requiring the use of two-finger highly accurate, non-
barriers are typically large, heavy structures that are usually intrusion biometric security. For example, it is currently used
several feet high, and they are designed so that even heavy- in numerous workplaces, daycare facilities, hospitals, univer-
duty vehicles cannot go over or through them. Therefore, sities, airports, and power plants.
they can be placed in a roadway parallel to the flow of traffic A newer option within hand geometry recognition technol-
so that they direct traffic in a certain direction (such as to ogy is finger geometry recognition (not to be confused with
a guardhouse, a gate, or some other sort of checkpoint), or fingerprint recognition). Finger geometry recognition relies
perpendicular to traffic such that they prevent a vehicle from on the same scanning methods and technologies as does hand
using a road or approaching a building or an area. geometry recognition, but the scanner only scans two of the
user’s fingers, as opposed to his entire hand. Finger geometry
Biometric Security Systems recognition has been in commercial use since the mid-1990s
Biometrics involves measuring the unique physical character- and is mainly used in time and attendance applications (i.e., to
istics or traits of the human body. Any aspect of the body that track when individuals have entered and exited a location). To
Plant Security 33
date the only large-scale commercial use of two-finger geom- often referred to as a frame grabber. The unique characteris-
etry for controlling access is at Disney World, where season tics identified in this image are then converted into a numeric
pass holders use the geometry of their index and middle finger code, which is stored as a template for that user.
to gain access to the facilities.
Hand and finger geometry recognition systems can be used Card Identification/Access/Tracking Systems
in several different types of applications, including access A card reader system is a type of electronic identification sys-
control and time and attendance tracking. While time and tem that is used to identify a card and then perform an action
attendance tracking can be used for security, it is primar- associated with that card. Depending on the system, the card
ily used for operations and payroll purposes (i.e., clocking may identify where a person is or where they were at a certain
in and clocking out). In contrast, access control applications time; or it may authorize another action, such as disengag-
are more likely to be security-related. Biometric systems are ing a lock. For example, a security guard may use his card at
widely used for access control, and can be used on various card readers located throughout a facility to indicate that he
types of assets, including entryways, computers, vehicles, has checked a certain location at a certain time. The reader
etc. However, because of their size, hand/finger recogni- will store the information and/or send it to a central location,
tion systems are primarily used in entryway access control where it can be checked later to ensure that the guard has
applications. patrolled the area. Other card reader systems can be associ-
ated with a lock, so that the cardholder must have their card
Iris Recognition read and accepted by the reader before the lock disengages. A
The iris, which is the colored or pigmented area of the eye complete card reader system typically consists of the follow-
surrounded by the sclera (the white portion of the eye), is a ing components:
muscular membrane that controls the amount of light enter-
ing the eye by contracting or expanding the pupil (the dark • Access cards that are carried by the user
center of the eye). The dense, unique patterns of connective • Card readers, which read the card signals and send
tissue in the human iris were first noted in 1936, but it was not the information to control units
until 1994, when algorithms for iris recognition were created • Control units, which control the response of the card
and patented, that commercial applications using biometric reader to the card
iris recognition began to be used extensively. There are now • A power source
two vendors producing iris recognition technology: both the
original developer of these algorithms and a second company Numerous card reader systems are available. The primary dif-
which has developed and patented a different set of algorithms ferences between card reader systems are in the way that data
for iris recognition. is encoded on the cards and in the way these data are trans-
The iris is an ideal characteristic for identifying individu- ferred between the card and the card reader, and in the types
als because it is formed in utero, and its unique patterns stabi- of applications for which they are best suited. However, all
lize around eight months after birth. No two irises are alike; card systems are similar in the way that the card reader and
neither an individual’s right or left irises, nor the irises of control unit interact to respond to the card.
identical twins. The iris is protected by the cornea (the clear While card readers are similar in the way that the card
covering over the eye), and therefore it is not subject to the reader and control unit interact to control access, they are dif-
aging or physical changes (and potential variation) that are ferent in the way data is encoded on the cards and the way
common to some other biometric measures, such as the hand, these data are transferred between the card and the card
fingerprints, and the face. Although some limited changes reader. There are several types of technologies available for
can occur naturally over time, these changes generally occur card reader systems. These include:
in the iris’ melanin and therefore affect only the eye’s color,
and not its unique patterns (in addition, because iris scanning • Proximity
uses only black and white images, color changes would not • Wiegand
affect the scan anyway). Thus, barring specific injuries or cer- • Smartcard
tain rate surgeries directly affecting the iris, the iris’ unique • Magnetic Stripe
patterns remain relatively unchanged over an individual’s • Bar Code
lifetime. • Infrared
Iris recognition systems employ a monochromatic, or black • Barium Ferrite
and white, video camera that uses both visible and near-infra- • Hollerith
red light to take video of an individual’s iris. Video is used • Mixed Technologies
rather than still photography as an extra security procedure.
The video is used to confirm the normal continuous fluctua- The level of security rate (low, moderate, or high) is deter-
tions of the pupil as the eye focuses, which ensures that the mined based on the level of technology a given card reader
scan is of a living human being, and not a photograph or some system has and on how simple it is to duplicate that tech-
other attempted hoax. A high resolution image of the iris is nology, and thus to bypass the security. Vulnerability rat-
then captured or extracted from the video, using a device ings were based on whether the card reader can be damaged
easily due to frequent use or difficult working conditions (i.e., can be controlled through security at gates or doors through
weather conditions if the reader is located outside). Often this the fence (for example, by posting a guard at the gate or by
is influenced by the number of moving parts in the system— locking it). In order to gain access to the asset, unauthorized
the more the moving parts, the greater the system’s potential persons could have to go either around or through the fence.
susceptibility to damage. The life cycle rating is based on the Fences are often compared with walls when determin-
durability of a given card reader system over its entire opera- ing the appropriate system for perimeter security. While
tional period. Systems requiring frequent physical contact both fences and walls can provide adequate perimeter secu-
between the reader and the card often have a shorter life cycle rity, fences are often easier and less expensive to install than
due to the wear and tear to which the equipment is exposed. walls. However, they do not usually provide the same physical
For many card reader systems, the vulnerability rating and strength that walls do. In addition, many types of fences have
life cycle ratings have a reciprocal relationship. For instance, gaps between the individual pieces that make up the fence
if a given system has a high vulnerability rating it will almost (i.e., the spaces between chain links in a chain link fence or
always have a shorter life cycle. the space between pickets in a picket fence). Thus, many types
Card reader technology can be implemented for facilities of fences allow the interior of the fenced area to be seen. This
of any size and with any number of users. However, because may allow intruders to gather important information about the
individual systems vary in the complexity of their technology locations or defenses of vulnerable areas within the facility.
and in the level of security they can provide to a facility, indi- Numerous types of materials are used to construct fences,
vidual users must determine the appropriate system for their including chain link iron, aluminum, wood, or wire. Some
needs. Some important features to consider when selecting a types of fences, such as split rails or pickets, may not be appro-
card reader system include: priate for security purposes because they are traditionally low
fences, and they are not physically strong. Potential intruders
• What level of technological sophistication and secu- may be able to easily defeat these fences either by jumping or
rity does the card system have? climbing over them or by breaking through them. For example,
• How large is the facility, and what are its security the rails in a split fence may be able to be broken easily.
needs? Important security attributes of a fence include the height
• How frequently will the card system be used? For to which it can be constructed, the strength of the material
systems that will experience a high frequency of use comprising the fence, the method and strength of attaching
it is important to consider a system that has a longer the individual sections of the fence together at the posts, and
life cycle and lower vulnerability rating, thus making the fence’s ability to restrict the view of the assets inside the
it more cost effective to implement. fence. Additional considerations should include the ease of
• Under what conditions will the system be used? (Will installing the fence and the ease of removing and reusing sec-
it be installed on the interior or exterior of buildings? tions of the fence.
Does it require light or humidity controls?) Most Some fences can include additional measures to delay, or
card reader systems can operate under normal envi- even detect, potential intruders. Such measures may include
ronmental conditions, and therefore this would be a the addition of barbed wire, razor wire, or other deterrents
mitigating factor only in extreme conditions. at the top of the fence. Barbed wire is sometimes employed
• What are the system costs? at the base of fences as well. This can impede a would-be
intruder’s progress in even reaching the fence. Fences may
Fences also be fitted with security cameras to provide visual surveil-
A fence is a physical barrier that can be set up around the lance of the perimeter. Finally, some facilities have installed
perimeter of an asset. Fences often consist of individual pieces motion sensors along their fences to detect movement on the
(such as individual pickets in a wooden fence, or individual fence. Several manufacturers have combined these multiple
sections of a wrought iron fence) that are fastened together. perimeter security features into one product and offer alarms,
Individual sections of the fence are fastened together using and other security features.
posts, which are sunk into the ground to provide stability and The correct implementation of a fence can make it a much
strength for the sections of the fence hung between them. more effective security measure. Security experts recommend
Gates are installed between individual sections of the fence to the following when a facility constructs a fence:
allow access inside the fenced area.
Fences are often used as decorative architectural features • The fence should be at least 7–9 feet high.
to separate physical spaces. They may also be used to physi- • Any outriggers, such as barbed wire, that are affixed
cally mark the location of a boundary (such as a fence installed on top of the fence should be angled out and away
along a property line). However, a fence can also serve as an from the facility, and not in and towards the facil-
effective means for physically delaying intruders from gain- ity. This will make climbing the fence more difficult,
ing access to a water or wastewater asset. For example, many and will prevent ladders from being placed against
utilities install fences around their primary facilities, around the fence.
remote pump stations, or around hazardous materials storage • Other types of hardware can increase the security
areas or sensitive areas within a facility. Access to the area of the fence. This can include installing concertina
Plant Security 35
wire along the fence (this can be done in front The primary attributes of films for shatter protection are:
of the fence or at the top of the fence), or adding
intrusion sensors, camera, or other hardware to the • The materials from which the film is made
fence. • The adhesive that bonds the film to the glass surface
• All undergrowth should be cleared for several feet • The thickness of the film
(typically 6 ft) on both sides of the fence. This will
allow for a clearer view of the fence by any patrols Fire Hydrant Locks
in the area. Fire hydrants are installed at strategic locations throughout a
• Any trees with limbs or branches hanging over the community’s water distribution system to supply water for fire
fence should be trimmed so that intruders cannot use fighting. However, because there are many hydrants in a sys-
them to go over the fence. Also, it should be noted tem, and because they are often located in residential neigh-
that fallen trees can damage fences, and so manage- borhoods, industrial districts, and other areas where they
ment of trees around the fence can be important. cannot be easily observed and/or guarded, they are poten-
This can be especially important in areas where the tially vulnerable to unauthorized access. Many municipali-
fence goes through a remote area. ties, states, and EPA regions have recognized this potential
• Fences that do not block the view from outside the vulnerability and have instituted programs to lock hydrants.
fence to inside the fence allow patrols to see inside For example, EPA Region 1 has included locking hydrants as
the fence without having to enter the facility. number 7 on its “Drinking Water Security and Emergency
• “No Trespassing” signs posted along the fence can Preparedness” Top Ten List for small groundwater suppliers.
be a valuable tool in prosecuting any intruders who A “hydrant lock” is a physical security device designed
claim that the fence was broken and that they did to prevent unauthorized access to the water supply through a
not enter through the fence illegally. Adding signs hydrant. They can also ensure water and water pressure avail-
that highlight the local ordinances against trespass- ability to fire fighters and prevent water theft and associated
ing can further persuade simple troublemakers for lost water revenue. These locks have been successfully used in
illegally jumping or climbing the fence. numerous municipalities and in various climates and weather
conditions.
Films for Glass Shatter Protection Fire hydrant locks are basically steel covers or caps that are
Most water and wastewater utilities have numerous windows locked in place over the operating nut of a fire hydrant. The
on the outside of buildings, in doors, and in interior offices. lock prevents unauthorized persons from accessing the oper-
In addition, many facilities have glass doors or other glass ating nut and opening the fire hydrant valve. The lock also
structures, such as glass walls or display cases. These glass makes it more difficult to remove the bolts from the hydrant
objects are potentially vulnerable to shattering when heavy and access the system that way. Finally, hydrant locks shield
objects are thrown or launched at them, when explosions the valve from being broken off. Should a vandal attempt to
occur near them, or when there are high winds (for exterior breach the hydrant lock by force and succeed in breaking the
glass). If the glass is shattered, intruders may potentially hydrant lock, the vandal will only succeed in bending the
enter an area. In addition, shattered glass projected into a operating valve. If the hydrant’s operating valve is bent, the
room from an explosion or from an object being thrown hydrant will not be operational, but the water asset remains
through a door or window can injure and potentially inca- protected and inaccessible to vandals. However, the entire
pacitate personnel in the room. Materials that prevent glass hydrant will need to be replaced.
from shattering can help to maintain the integrity of the door, Hydrant locks are designed so that the hydrants can be
window, or other glass object, and can delay an intruder from operated by special “key wrenches” without removing the
gaining access. These materials can also prevent flying glass lock. These specialized wrenches are generally distributed
and thus reduce potential injuries. to the fire department, public works department, and other
Materials designed to prevent glass from shattering include authorized persons so that they can access the hydrants as
specialized films and coatings. These materials can be needed. An inventory of wrenches and their serial numbers
applied to existing glass objects to improve their strength and is generally kept by a municipality so that the location of all
their ability to resist shattering. The films have been tested wrenches is known. These operating key wrenches may only
against many scenarios that could result in glass breakage, be purchased by registered lock owners.
including penetration by blunt objects, bullets, high winds, The most important features of hydrant are their strength
and simulated explosions. Thus, the films are tested against and the security of their locking systems. The locks must be
both simulated weather scenarios (which could include both strong so that they cannot be broken off. Hydrant locks are
the high winds themselves and the force of objects blown into constructed from stainless or alloyed steel. Stainless steel
the glass) and criminal/terrorist scenarios, where the glass is locks are stronger and are ideal for all climates; however, they
subject to explosives or bullets. Many vendors provide infor- are more expensive than alloy locks. The locking mechanisms
mation on the results of these types of tests, and thus potential for each fire hydrant locking system ensure that the hydrant
users can compare different product lines to determine which can only be operated by authorized personnel who have the
products best suit their needs. specialized key to work the hydrant.
Hatch Security outdoor, or “exterior” space (i.e., a fence line or perimeter).

A hatch is basically a door installed on a horizontal plane Interior intrusion sensors are designed to protect the interior
(such as in a floor, a paved lot, or a ceiling), instead of on a space of a facility by detecting an intruder who is attempting
vertical plane (such as in a building wall). Hatches are usu- to enter, or who has already entered a room or building. In
ally used to provide access to assets that are either located contrast, exterior intrusion sensors are designed to detect an
underground (such as hatches to basements or underground intrusion into a protected outdoor/exterior area. Exterior pro-
storage areas) or located above ceilings (such as emergency tected areas are typically arranged as zones or exclusion areas
roof exits). At water and wastewater facilities, hatches are placed so that the intruder is detected early in the intrusion
typically used to provide access to underground vaults con- attempt before the intruder can gain access to more valuable
taining pumps, valves, or piping, or to the interior of water assets (e.g., into a building located within the protected area).
tanks or covered reservoirs. Securing a hatch by locking it or Early detection creates additional time for security forces to
upgrading materials to give the hatch added strength can help respond to the alarm.
to delay unauthorized access to any asset behind the hatch.
Like all doors, a hatch consists of a frame anchored to the Buried Exterior Intrusion Sensors
horizontal structure, a door or doors, hinges connecting the Buried sensors are electronic devices that are designed to
door(s) to the frame, and a latching or locking mechanism that detect potential intruders. The sensors are buried along the
keeps the hatch door(s) closed. perimeters of sensitive assets and are able to detect intruder
It should be noted that improving hatch security is straight- activity both aboveground and belowground. Some of these
forward, and that hatches with upgraded security features can systems are composed of individual, stand-alone sensor units,
be installed new, or they can be retrofit for existing applica- while other sensors consist of buried cables.
tions. Many municipalities already have specifications for
Ladder Access Control
hatch security at their water and wastewater utility assets.
Depending on the application, the primary security- Water and wastewater utilities have a number of assets that
related attributes of a hatch are the strength of the door and are raised above ground level, including raised water tanks,
frame, its resistance to the elements and corrosion, its ability raised chemical tanks, raised piping systems, and roof access
to be sealed against water or gas, and its locking features. points into buildings. In addition, communications equip-
Hatches must be both strong and lightweight so that they ment, antennae, or other electronic devices may be located
can withstand typical static loads (such as people or vehicles on the top of these raised assets. Typically, these assets are
walking or driving over them) while still being easy to open. reached by ladders that are permanently anchored to the asset.
In addition, because hatches are typically installed at outdoor For example, raised water tanks typically are accessed by lad-
locations, they are usually designed from corrosion-resistant ders that are bolted to one of the legs of the tank. Controlling
metal that can withstand the elements. Therefore, hatches are access to these raised assets by controlling access to the lad-
typically constructed from high gauge steel or lightweight der can increase security at a water or wastewater utility.
aluminum. A typical ladder access control system consists of some
The hatch locking mechanism is perhaps the most impor- type of cover that is locked or secured over the ladder. The
tant part of hatch security. There are a number of locks that cover can be a casing that surrounds most of the ladder,
can be implemented for hatches, including: or a door or shield that covers only part of the ladder. In
either case, several rungs of the ladder (the number of rungs
• Slam locks (internal locks that are located within the depends on the size of the cover) are made inaccessible by
hatch frame) the cover, and these rungs can only be accessed by opening
• Recessed cylinder locks or removing the cover. The cover is locked so that only autho-
• Bolt locks rized personnel can open or remove it and use the ladder.
• Padlocks Ladder access controls are usually installed at several feet
above ground level, and they usually extend several feet up
Intrusion Sensors the ladder so that they cannot be circumvented by someone
An exterior intrusion sensor is a detection device that is used accessing the ladder above the control system. The important
in an outdoor environment to detect intrusions into a pro- features of ladder access control are the size and strength of
tected area. These devices are designed to detect an intruder, the cover and its ability to lock or otherwise be secured from
and then communicate an alarm signal to an alarm system. unauthorized access.
The alarm system can respond to the intrusion in many dif- The covers are constructed from aluminum or some type
ferent ways, such as by triggering an audible or a visual alarm of steel. This should provide adequate protection from being
signal, or by sending an electronic signal to a central moni- pierced or cut through. The metals are corrosion resistant so
toring location that notifies security personnel of the intru- that they will not corrode or become fragile from extreme
sion. Intrusion sensors can be used to protect many kinds of weather conditions in outdoor applications. The bolts used to
assets. Intrusion sensors that protect physical space are clas- install each of these systems are galvanized steel. In addition,
sified according to whether they protect indoor, or “interior” the bolts for each cover are installed on the inside of the unit
space (i.e., an entire building or room within a building), or so they cannot be removed from the outside.
Plant Security 37
Locks security device designed to detect unauthorized access to the

A lock is a type of physical security device that can be used to utility through a manhole. Monitoring a manhole that pro-
delay or prevent a door, a window, a manhole, a filing cabinet vides access to a water or wastewater system can mitigate
drawer, or some other physical feature from being opened, two distinct types of threats. First, monitoring a manhole may
moved, or operated. Locks typically operate by connect- detect access of unauthorized personnel to water or wastewa-
ing two pieces together—such as by connecting a door to a ter systems or assets through the manhole. Second, monitor-
door jamb or a manhole to its casement. Every lock has two ing manholes may also allow the detection of the introduction
modes—engaged (or “locked”) and disengaged (or “opened”). of hazardous substances into the water system.
When a lock is disengaged, the asset on which the lock is Several different technologies have been used to develop
installed can be accessed by anyone, but when the lock is manhole intrusion sensors, including mechanical systems,
engaged, the locked asset can be accessed by only those who magnetic systems, and fiber optic and infrared sensors. Some
have the access key. of these intrusion sensors have been specifically designed
Locks are excellent security features because they have for manholes, while others consist of standard, off-the-shelf
been designed to function in many ways and to work on many intrusion sensors that have been implemented in a system spe-
different types of assets. Locks can also provide different cifically designed for application in a manhole.
levels of security depending on how they are designed and
implemented. The security provided by a lock is dependent Manhole Locks
on several factors, including its ability to withstand physical A manhole lock is a physical security device designed to delay
damage (i.e., its resistance to being cut off, broken, or oth- unauthorized access to the utility through a manhole. Locking
erwise physically disabled) as well as its requirements for a manhole that provides access to a water or wastewater sys-
supervision or operation (i.e., combinations may need to be tem can mitigate two distinct types of threats. First, locking a
changed frequently so that they are not compromised and the manhole may delay access of unauthorized personnel to water
locks remain secure). While there is no single definition of the or wastewater systems through the manhole. Second, locking
“security” of a lock, locks are often described as minimum, manholes may also prevent the introduction of hazardous sub-
medium, or maximum security. Minimum security locks are stances into the wastewater or stormwater system.
those that can be easily disengaged (or “picked”) without the
Radiation Detection Equipment for
correct key or code, or those that can be disabled easily (such
Monitoring Personnel and Packages
as small padlocks that can be cut with bolt cutters). Higher
security locks are more complex and thus are more difficult A major potential threat facing water and wastewater facili-
to pick, or are sturdier and more resistant to physical damage. ties is contamination by radioactive substances. Radioactive
Many locks, such as many door locks, only need to be substances brought on-site at a facility could be used to con-
unlocked from one side. For example, most door locks need a taminate the facility, thereby preventing workers from safely
key to be unlocked only from the outside. A person opens such entering the facility to perform necessary water treatment
devices, called single-cylinder locks, from the inside by push- tasks. In addition, radioactive substances brought on-site at
ing a button or by turning a knob or handle. Double-cylinder a water treatment plant could be discharged into the water
locks require a key to be locked or unlocked from both sides. source or the distribution system, contaminating the down-
stream water supply. Therefore, detection of radioactive sub-
Manhole Intrusion Sensors stances being brought on-site can be an important security
Manholes are located at strategic locations throughout most enhancement.
municipal water, wastewater, and other underground util- Various radionuclides have unique properties, and differ-
ity systems. Manholes are designed to provide access to the ent pieces of equipment are required to detect different types
underground utilities, and therefore they are potential entry of radiation. However, it is impractical and potentially unnec-
points to a system. For example, manholes in water or waste- essary to monitor for specific radionuclides being brought
water systems may provide access to sewer lines or vaults on-site. Instead, for security purposes, it may be more use-
containing on/off or pressure reducing water valves. Because ful to monitor for gross radiation as an indicator of unsafe
many utilities run under other infrastructure (roads and build- substances.
ings), manholes also provide potential access points to criti- In order to protect against these radioactive materials being
cal infrastructure as well as water and wastewater assets. In brought on-site, a facility may set up monitoring sites outfitted
addition, because the portion of the system to which man- with radiation detection instrumentation at entrances to the
holes provide entry is primarily located underground, access facility. Depending on the specific types of equipment chosen,
to a system through a manhole increases the chance that an this detection equipment would detect radiation emitted from
intruder will not be seen. Therefore protecting manholes can people, packages, or other objects being brought through an
be a critical component of guarding an entire community. entrance.
The various methods for protecting manholes are designed One of the primary differences between the different types
to prevent unauthorized personnel from physically accessing of detection equipment is the means by which the equip-
the manhole, and to detect attempts at unauthorized access ment reads the radiation. Radiation may be detected either
to the manhole. A manhole intrusion sensor is a physical by direct measurement or through sampling. Direct radiation
measurement involves measuring radiation through an exter- on drinking water reservoir covers, where and how they are
nal probe on the detection instrumentation. Some direct mea- typically implemented, and how they can be used to reduce
surement equipment detects radiation emitted into the air the threat of contamination of the stored water. While covers
around the monitored object. Because this equipment detects can enhance the reservoir’s security, it should be noted that
radiation in the air, it does not require that the monitoring covering a reservoir typically changes the reservoir’s opera-
equipment make physical contact with the monitored object. tional requirements. For example, vents must be installed in
Direct means for detecting radiation include using a walk- the cover to ensure gas exchange between the stored water and
through portal-type monitor that would detect elevated radia- the atmosphere.
tion levels on a person or in a package, or by using a handheld A reservoir cover is a structure installed on or over the sur-
detector, which would be moved or swept over individual face of the reservoir to minimize water quality degradation.
objects to locate a radioactive source. The three basic design types for reservoir covers are:
Some types of radiation, such as alpha or low energy beta
radiation, have a short range and are easily shielded by vari- • Floating
ous materials. These types of radiation cannot be measured • Fixed
through direct measurement. Instead, they must be measured • Air-supported
through sampling. Sampling involves wiping the surface to
be tested with a special filter cloth, and then reading the cloth A variety of materials are used when manufacturing a cover,
in a special counter. For example, specialized smear counters including reinforced concrete, steel, aluminum, polypropyl-
measure alpha and low energy beta radiation. ene, chlorosulfonated polyethylene, or ethylene interpolymer
alloys. There are several factors that affect a reservoir cover’s
Reservoir Covers effectiveness, and thus its ability to protect the stored water.
Reservoirs are used to store raw or untreated water. They These factors include:
can be located underground (buried), at ground level, or
on an elevated surface. Reservoirs can vary significantly • The location, size, and shape of the reservoir
in size; small reservoirs can hold as little as 1,000 gallons, • The ability to lay and/or support a foundation (for
while larger reservoirs may hold many millions of gallons. example, footing, soil, and geotechnical support
Reservoirs can be either natural or man-made. Natural res- conditions)
ervoirs can include lakes or other contained water bodies, • The length of time reservoir can be removed from
while man-made reservoirs usually consist of some sort of service for cover installation or maintenance
engineered structure, such as a tank or other impoundment • Aesthetic considerations
structure. In addition to the water containment structure • Economic factors, such as capital and maintenance
itself, reservoir systems may also include associated water costs
treatment and distribution equipment, including intakes,
pumps, pump houses, piping systems, and chemical treat- It may not be practical, for example, to install a fixed cover
ment and chemical storage areas. over a reservoir if the reservoir is too large or if the local soil
Drinking water reservoirs are of particular concern because conditions cannot support a foundation. A floating or air-
they are potentially vulnerable to contamination of the stored supported cover may be more appropriate for these types of
water, either through direct contamination of the storage area applications.
or through infiltration of the equipment, piping, or chemicals In addition to the practical considerations for installation
associated with the reservoir. For example, because many of these types of covers, there are a number of operations
drinking water reservoirs are designed as aboveground, open- and maintenance (O&M) concerns that affect the utility of
air structures, they are potentially vulnerable to airborne a cover for specific applications, including how different
deposition, bird and animal wastes, human activities, and discover materials will withstand local climatic conditions,
sipation of chlorine or other treatment chemicals. However, what types of cleaning and maintenance will be required
one of the most serious potential threats to the system is for each particular type of cover, and how these factors will
direct contamination of the stored water through dumping affect the covers lifespan and its ability to be repaired when
contaminants into the reservoir. Utilities have taken various it is damaged.
measures to mitigate this type of threat, including fencing The primary feature affecting the security of a reservoir
off the reservoir, installing cameras to monitor for intruders, cover is its ability to maintain its integrity. Any type of cover,
and monitoring for changes in water quality. Another option no matter what its construction material, will provide good
for enhancing security is covering the reservoir using some protection from contamination by rainwater or atmospheric
type of manufactured cover to prevent intruders from gaining deposition, as well as from intruders attempting to access the
physical access to the stored water. Implementing a reservoir stored water with the intent of causing intentional contami-
cover may or may not be practical depending on the size of the nation. The covers are large and heavy, and it is difficult to
reservoir (for example, covers are not typically used on natu- circumvent them to get into the reservoir. At the very least, it
ral reservoirs because they are too large for the cover to be would take a determined intruder, as opposed to a vandal, to
technically feasible and cost effective). This section will focus defeat the cover.
Plant Security 39
Side-Hinged Door Security removed from its frame, thereby defeating the increased secu-
Doorways are the main access points to a facility or to rooms rity of the door lock.
within a building. They are used on the exterior or in the The primary attribute for the security of a door is its
interior of buildings to provide privacy and security for the strength. Many security doors are 4–20 gauge hollow metal
areas behind them. Different types of doorway security sys- doors consisting of steel plates over a hollow cavity rein-
tems may be installed in different doorways depending on the forced with steel stiffeners to give the door extra stiffness and
needs or requirements of the buildings or rooms. For example, rigidity. This increases resistance to blunt force used to try
exterior doorways tend to have heavier doors to withstand the to penetrate through the door. The space between the stiffen-
elements and to provide some security to the entrance of the ers may be filled with specialized materials to provide fire-,
building. Interior doorways in office areas may have lighter blast-, or bullet resistance to the door. The Window and Door
doors that may be primarily designed to provide privacy Manufacturers Association has developed a series of perfor-
rather than security. Therefore, these doors may be made of mance attributes for doors. These include:
glass or lightweight wood. Doorways in industrial areas may
have sturdier doors than do other interior doorways and may • Structural resistance
be designed to provide protection or security for areas behind • Forced entry resistance
the doorway. For example, fireproof doors may be installed • Hinge style screw resistance
in chemical storage areas or in other areas where there is a • Split resistance
danger of fire. Because they are the main entries into a facility • Hinge resistance
or a room, doorways are often prime targets for unauthorized • Security rating
entry into a facility or an asset. Therefore, securing doorways • Fire resistance
may be a major step in providing security at a facility. A door- • Bullet resistance
way includes four main components: • Blast resistance
• The door, which blocks the entrance. The primary The first five bullet points provide information on a door’s
threat to the actual door is breaking or piercing resistance to standard physical breaking and prying attacks.
through the door. Therefore, the primary security These tests are used to evaluate the strength of the door and the
features of doors are their strength and resistance to resistance of the hinges and the frame in a standardized way.
various physical threats, such as fire or explosions. For example, the Rack Load Test simulates a prying attack on
• The door frame, which connects the door to the wall. a corner of the door. A test panel is restrained at one end, and
The primary threat to a door frame is that the door a third corner is supported. Loads are applied and measured at
can be pried away from the frame. Therefore, the the fourth corner. The Door Impact Test simulates a battering
primary security feature of a door frame is its resis- attack on a door and frame using impacts of 200 foot pounds
tance to prying. by a steel pendulum. The door must remain fully operable
• The hinges, which connect the door to the door after the test. It should be noted that door glazing is also rated
frame. The primary threat to door hinges is that for resistance to shattering, etc. Manufacturers will be able to
they can be removed or broken, which will allow provide security ratings for these features of a door as well.
intruders to remove the entire door. Therefore, secu- Door frames are an integral part of doorway security
rity hinges are designed to be resistant to breaking. because they anchor the door to the wall. Door frames are typ-
They may also be designed to minimize the threat of ically constructed from wood or steel, and they are installed
removal from the door. such that they extend for several inches over the doorway that
• The lock, which connects the door to the door frame. has been cut into the wall. For added security, frames can be
Use of the lock is controlled through various security designed to have varying degrees of overlap with, or wrapping
features, such as keys, combinations, etc., such that over, the underlying wall. This can make prying the frame
only authorized personnel can open the lock and go from the wall more difficult. A frame formed from a continu-
through the door. Locks may also incorporate other ous piece of metal (as opposed to a frame constructed from
security features, such as software or other systems individual metal pieces) will prevent prying between pieces
to track overall use of the door or to track individuals of the frame.
using the door, etc. Many security doors can be retrofit into existing frames;
however, many security door installations include replacing
Each of these components is integral to providing security for the door frame as well as the door itself. For example, bul-
a doorway, and upgrading the security of only one of these let resistance per Underwriter’s Laboratory (UL) 752 requires
components while leaving the other components unprotected resistance of the door and frame assembly, and thus replacing
may not increase the overall security of the doorway. For the door only would not meet UL 752 requirements.
example, many facilities upgrade door locks as a basic step for
increasing the security of a facility. However, if the facilities Valve Lockout Devices
do not also focus on increasing security for the door hinges Valves are utilized as control elements in water and wastewa-
or the door frame, the door may remain vulnerable to being ter process piping networks. They regulate the flow of both
liquids and gases by opening, closing, or obstructing a flow security by making the vents tamper-resistant or by adding
passageway. Valves are typically located where flow control is other security features, such as security screens or security
necessary. They can be located in-line or at the pipeline, tank covers, can enhance the security of the entire water system.
entrance, and exit points. They can serve multiple purposes in Many municipalities already have specifications for vent
a process pipe network, including: security at their water assets. These specifications typically
include the following requirements:
• Redirecting and throttling flow
• Preventing backflow • Vent openings are to be angled down or shielded to
• Shutting off flow to a pipeline or tank (for isolation minimize the entrance of surface and/or rainwater
purposes) into the vent through the opening.
• Releasing pressure • Vent designs are to include features to exclude
• Draining extraneous liquid from pipelines or tanks insects, birds, animals, and dust.
• Introducing chemicals into the process network • Corrosion-resistant materials are to be used to con-
• Providing access points for sampling process water struct the vents.
Valves are located at critical junctures throughout water and Some states have adopted more specific requirements for
wastewater systems, both on-site at treatment facilities and added vent security at their water utility assets. For example,
off-site within water distribution and wastewater collection the State of Utah’s Department of Environmental Quality,
systems. They may be located either aboveground or below Division of Drinking Water, Division of Administrative Rules
ground. Because many valves are located within the commu- (DAR), provides specific requirements for public drinking
nity, it is crucial that protection against valve tampering be water storage tanks. The rules for drinking water storage tanks
provided. For example, tampering with a pressure relief valve as they apply to venting are set forth in Utah-R309-545-15:
could result in a pressure buildup and potential explosion in “Venting,” and include the following requirements:
the piping network. On a larger scale, addition of a patho-
gen or chemical to the water distribution system through an • Drinking water storage tank vents must have an open
unprotected valve could result in the release of that contami- discharge on buried structures.
nant to the general population. • The vents must be located 24–36 inches above the
Various security products are available for protecting earthen covering.
aboveground vs. belowground valves. For example, valve • The vents must be located and sized to avoid block-
lockout devices can be purchased to protect valves and valve age during winter conditions.
controls located aboveground. Vaults containing underground
valves can be locked to prevent access to these valves. Valve- In a second example, Washington State’s “Drinking Water
specific lockout devices are available in a variety of colors, Tech Tips: Sanitary Protection of Reservoirs” document
which can be useful in distinguishing different valves. For states that vents must be protected to prevent the water sup-
example, different-colored lockouts can be used to distinguish ply from being contaminated. The document indicates that
the type of liquid passing through the valve (i.e., treated, non-corrodible No. 4 mesh may be used to screen vents on
untreated, potable, chemical), or to identify the party respon- elevated tanks. The document continues to state that the
sible for maintaining the lockout. Implementing a system of vent opening for storage facilities located underground or at
different-colored locks on operating valves can increase sys- ground level should be 24–36 inches above the roof or ground
tem security by reducing the likelihood of an operator inad- and that it must be protected with a No. 24 inch mesh non-cor-
vertently opening the wrong valve and causing a problem in rodible screen. New Mexico’s administrative code also speci-
the system. fies that vents must be covered with No. 24 mesh (NMAC
Title 20, Chapter 7, Subpart I, 208.E). Washington and New
Vent Security Mexico, as well as many other municipalities, require vents
Vents are installed in aboveground, covered water reservoirs, to be screened using a non-corrodible mesh to minimize the
and underground reservoirs to allow ventilation of the stored entry of insects, other animals, and rain-borne contaminants
water. Specifically, vents permit the passage of air that is into the vents. When selecting the appropriate mesh size, it is
being displaced from, or drawn into, the reservoir as the water important to identify the smallest mesh size that meets both
level in the reservoir rises and falls due to system demands. the strength and durability requirements for that application.
Small reservoirs may require only one vent, whereas larger
reservoirs may have multiple vents throughout the system. Visual Surveillance Monitoring
The specific vent design for any given application will vary Visual surveillance is used to detect threats through continu-
depending on the design of the reservoir, but every vent con- ous observation of important or vulnerable areas of an asset.
sists of an open-air connection between the reservoir and the The observations can also be recorded for later review or
outside environment. Although these air exchange vents are use (for example, in court proceedings). Visual surveillance
an integral part of covered or underground reservoirs, they systems can be used to monitor various parts of collection,
also represent a potential security threat. Improving vent distribution, or treatment systems, including the perimeter
Plant Security 41
of a facility, outlying pumping stations, or entry or access parameters that may indicate problems in the system but do not
points into specific buildings. These systems are also useful identify sources of contamination directly. In addition, sen-
in recording individuals who enter or leave a facility, thereby sors can provide more accurate control of critical components
helping to identify unauthorized access. Images can be trans- in water and wastewater systems and may provide a means of
mitted live to a monitoring station, where they can be moni- early warning so that the potential effects of certain types of
tored in real time, or they can be recorded and reviewed later. attacks can be mitigated. One advantage of using chemical
Many facilities have found that a combination of electronic and biological sensors to monitor for potential threats to water
surveillance and security guards provides an effective means and wastewater systems is that many utilities already employ
of facility security. Visual surveillance is provided through a sensors to monitor potable water (raw or finished) or influent/
closed circuit television (CCTV) system, in which the capture, effluent for Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) or Clean Water
transmission, and reception of an image is localized within a Act (CWA) water quality compliance or process control.
closed “circuit.” This is different than other broadcast images, Chemical sensors that can be used to identify potential
such as over-the-air television, which is broadcast over the air threats to water and wastewater systems include inorganic
to any receiver within range. At a minimum, a CCTV system monitors (e.g., chlorine analyzer), organic monitors (e.g., total
consists of: organic carbon analyzer), and toxicity meters. Radiological
meters can be used to measure concentrations of several dif-
• One or more cameras ferent radioactive species. Monitors that use biological species
• A monitor for viewing the images can be used as sentinels for the presence of contaminants of
• A system for transmitting the images from the cam- concern, such as toxins. At the present time, biological moni-
era to the monitor tors are not in widespread use and very few bio-monitors are
used by drinking water utilities in the United States.
Monitoring can be conducted using either portable or fixed-
Water Monitoring Devices
location sensors. Fixed-location sensors are usually used as
Note: Adapted from Spellman, F.R., Water Infrastructure part of a continuous, on-line monitoring system. Continuous
Protection and Homeland Security, Government Institutes monitoring has the advantage of enabling immediate notifi-
Press, Lanham, Md, 2007. cation when there is an upset. However, the sampling points
Proper security preparation really comes down to a three- are fixed and only certain points in the system can be moni-
legged approach: Detect, Delay, Respond. The third leg of tored. In addition, the number of monitoring locations needed
security, to detect, is discussed in this section. Specifically, to capture the physical, chemical, and biological complexity
this section deals with the monitoring of water samples to of a system can be prohibitive. The use of portable sensors
detect toxicity and/or contamination. Many of the major mon- can overcome this problem of monitoring many points in the
itoring tools that can be used to identify anomalies in process system. Portable sensors can be used to analyze grab samples
streams or finished water that may represent potential threats at any point in the system, but have the disadvantage that they
are discussed, including: provide measurements only at one point in time.
• Sensors for monitoring chemical, biological, and Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological,
radiological contamination and Radiological Contamination
• Chemical sensor—Arsenic measurement system Toxicity tests measure water toxicity by monitoring adverse
• Chemical sensor for toxicity (adapted BOD analyzer) biological effects on test organisms. Toxicity tests have tradi-
• Chemical sensor—total organic carbon analyzer tionally been used to monitor wastewater effluent streams for
• Chemical sensor—Chlorine measurement system National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
• Chemical sensor—portable cyanide analyzer permit compliance or to test water samples for toxicity.
• Portable field monitors to measure volatile organic However, this technology can also be used to monitor drink-
compounds (VOCs) ing water distribution systems or other water/wastewater
• Radiation detection equipment streams for toxicity. Currently, several types of bio-sensors
• Radiation detection equipment for monitoring water and toxicity tests are being adapted for use in the water/
assets wastewater security field. The keys to using bio-monitoring
• Toxicity monitoring/toxicity meters or bio-sensors for drinking water or other water/wastewater
asset security are rapid response and the ability to use the
Water quality monitoring sensor equipment may be used to monitor at critical locations in the system, such as in water
monitor key elements of water or wastewater treatment pro- distribution systems downstream of pump stations, or prior to
cesses (such as influent water quality, treatment processes, or the biological process in a wastewater treatment plant. While
effluent water quality) to identify anomalies that may indi- there are several different organisms that can be used to mon-
cate threats to the system. Some sensors, such as sensors for itor for toxicity (including bacteria, invertebrates, and fish),
biological organisms or radiological contaminants, measure bacteria-based bio-sensors are ideal for use as early warning
potential contamination directly, while others, particularly screening tools for drinking water security because bacteria
some chemical monitoring systems, measure “surrogate” usually respond to toxics in a matter of minutes. In contrast to
methods using bacteria, toxicity screening methods that use may be useful for spot-checking different parts of a drinking
higher-level organisms such as fish may take several days to water system (for example, reservoirs and isolated areas of
produce a measurable result. Bacteria-based bio-sensors have distribution systems) to ensure that the water is not contami-
recently been incorporated into portable instruments, mak- nated with arsenic.
ing rapid response and field-testing practical. These portable
meters detect decreases in biological activity (e.g., decreases Chemical Sensors—Adapted BOD Analyzer
in bacterial luminescence), which are highly correlated with One manufacturer has adapted a BOD analyzer to measure
increased levels of toxicity. oxygen consumption as a surrogate for general toxicity. The
At the present time, few utilities are using biologically critical element in the analyzer is the bioreactor, which is used
based toxicity monitors to monitor water/wastewater assets to continuously measure the respiration of the biomass under
for toxicity, and very few products are now commercially stable conditions. As the toxicity of the sample increases,
available. Several new approaches to the rapid monitoring of the oxygen consumption in the sample decreases. An alarm
microorganisms for security purposes (e.g., microbial source can be programmed to sound if oxygen reaches a minimum
tracking) have been identified. However, most of these meth- concentration (i.e., if the sample is strongly toxic). The opera-
ods are still in the research and development phase. tor must then interpret the results into a measure of toxicity.
Note that, at the current time, it is difficult to directly define
Chemical Sensors—Arsenic Measurement System the sensitivity and/or the detection limit of toxicity measure-
Arsenic is an inorganic toxin that occurs naturally in soils. It ment devices because limited data is available regarding the
can enter water supplies from many sources, including ero- specific correlation of decreased oxygen consumption and
sion of natural deposits; runoff from orchards and runoff increased toxicity of the sample.
from glass and electronics production wastes; or leaching
from products treated with arsenic, such as wood. Synthetic Chemical Sensors—Total Organic Carbon Analyzer
organic arsenic is also used in fertilizer. Arsenic toxicity pri- Total organic carbon (TOC) analysis is a well-defined and
marily associated with inorganic arsenic ingestion has been commonly used methodology that measures the carbon con-
linked to cancerous health effects, including cancer of the tent of dissolved and particulate organic matter present in
bladder, lungs, skin, kidney, nasal passages, liver, and pros- water. Many water utilities monitor TOC to determine raw
tate. Arsenic ingestion has also been linked to noncancerous water quality or to evaluate the effectiveness of processes
cardiovascular, pulmonary, immunological, and neurological, designed to remove organic carbon. Some wastewater utilities
endocrine problems. According to USEPA’s Safe Drinking also employ TOC analysis to monitor the efficiency of the treat-
Water Act (SDWA) Arsenic Rule, inorganic arsenic can exert ment process. In addition to these uses for TOC monitoring,
toxic effects after acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term) measuring changes in TOC concentrations can be an effective
exposure. Toxicological data for acute exposure, which is typi- “surrogate” for detecting contamination from organic com-
cally given as an LD50 value (the dose that would be lethal pounds (e.g., petrochemicals, solvents, and pesticides). Thus,
to 50% of the test subjects in a given test), suggests that the while TOC analysis does not give specific information about
LD50 of arsenic ranges 1–4 mg/kg of body weight. This dose the nature of the threat, identifying changes in TOC can be a
would correspond to a lethal dose range of 70–280 mg for 50% good indicator of potential threats to a system. TOC analysis
of adults weighing 70 kg. At nonlethal, but high, acute doses, includes inorganic carbon removal oxidation of the organic
inorganic arsenic can cause gastroenterological effects, shock, carbon into CO2, and quantification of the CO2. The primary
neuritis (continuous pain), and vascular effects in humans. differences between different on-line TOC analyzers are in
USEPA has set a maximum contaminant level goal of 0 for the methods used for oxidation and CO2 quantification.
arsenic in drinking water; the current enforceable maximum The oxidation step can be high or low temperature. The
contaminant level (MCL) is 0.050 mg/L. As of January 23, determination of the appropriate analytical method (and thus
2006, the enforceable MCL for arsenic will be 0.010 mg/L. the appropriate analyzer) is based on the expected character-
The SDWA requires arsenic monitoring for public water istics of the wastewater sample (TOC concentrations and the
systems. The Arsenic Rule indicates that surface water sys- individual components making up the TOC fraction). In gen-
tems must collect one sample annually; groundwater systems eral, high temperature (combustion) analyzers achieve more
must collect one sample in each compliance period (once complete oxidation of the carbon fraction than do low temper-
every three years). Samples are collected at entry points to the ature (wet chemistry/UV) analyzers. This can be important
distribution system, and analysis is done in the lab using one both in distinguishing different fractions of the organics in a
of several USEPA-approved methods, including Inductively sample and in achieving a precise measurement of the organic
Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy (ICP-MS, USEPA 200.8) content of the sample. Three different methods are also avail-
and several atomic absorption (AA) methods. However, sev- able for detection and quantification of carbon dioxide pro-
eral different technologies, including colorimetric test kits duced in the oxidation step of a TOC analyzer. These are:
and portable chemical sensors, are currently available for
monitoring inorganic arsenic concentrations in the field. • Nondispersive infrared (NDIR) detector
These technologies can provide a quick estimate of arsenic • Colorimetric methods
concentrations in a water sample. Thus, these technologies • Aqueous conductivity methods
Plant Security 43
The most common detector that on-line TOC analyzers use limit the circulation of any contaminants present in
for source water and drinking water analysis is the nondisper- these areas of the system.
sive infrared detector. • Monitoring point and monitoring procedures for
Although the differences in analytical methods employed SDWA compliance vs. system security purposes
by different TOC analyzers may be important in compliance may be different, and utilities must determine the
or process monitoring, high levels of precision and the abil- best use of on-line, fixed monitoring systems vs. por-
ity to distinguish specific organic fractions from a sample table sensors/test kits to balance their SDWA com-
may not be required for detection of a potential chemical pliance and security needs.
threat. Instead, gross deviations from normal TOC concen-
trations may be the best indicator of a chemical threat to Various portable and on-line chlorine monitors are com-
the system. mercially available. These range from sophisticated on-line
The detection limit for organic carbon depends on the chlorine monitoring systems to portable electrode sensors to
measurement technique used (high or low temperature) and colorimetric test kits. On-line systems can be equipped with
the type of analyzer. Because TOC concentrations are simply control, signal, and alarm systems that notify the operator
surrogates that can indicate potential problems in a system, of low chlorine concentrations, and some may be tied into
gross changes in these concentrations are the best indicators feedback loops that automatically adjust chlorine concentra-
of potential threats. Therefore, high-sensitivity probes may tions in the system. In contrast, the use of portable sensors
not be required for security purposes. However, the following or colorimetric test kits requires technicians to take a sample
detection limits can be expected: and read the results. The technician then initiates the required
actions based on the results of the test.
• High temperature method (between 680°C and Several measurement methods are currently available to
950°C or higher in a few special cases, best possible measure chlorine in water samples, including:
oxidation): = 1 mg/L carbon
• Low temperature method (below 100°C, limited oxi- • N,N-Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) colorimet-
dation potential): = 0.2 mg/L carbon ric method
• Iodometric method
The response time of a TOC analyzer may vary depending on • Amperometric electrodes
the manufacturer’s specifications, but it usually takes from 5 • Polarographic membrane sensors
minutes to 15 minutes to get a stable, accurate reading.
It should be noted that there can be differences in the specific
Chemical Sensors—Chlorine Measurement System type of analyte, the range, and the accuracy of these different
Residual chlorine is one of the most sensitive and useful indi- measurement methods. In addition, these different methods
cator parameters in water distribution system monitoring. All have different operations and maintenance requirements. For
water distribution systems monitor for residual chlorine con- example, DPD systems require periodic replenishment of buf-
centrations as part of their Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) fers, whereas polarographic systems do not. Users may want
requirements, and procedures for monitoring chlorine con- to consider these requirements when choosing the appropriate
centrations are well established and accurate. Chlorine moni- sensor for their system.
toring assures proper residual at all points in the system, helps
pace rechlorination when needed, and quickly and reliably Chemical Sensors—Portable Cyanide Analyzer
signals any unexpected increase in disinfectant demand. Portable cyanide detection systems are designed to be used
A significant decline or loss of residual chlorine could be in the field to evaluate potential cyanide contamination of a
an indication of potential threats to the system. Several key water asset. These detection systems use one of two distinct
points regarding residual chlorine monitoring for security analytical methods—either a colorimetric method or an
purposes are provided below: ion selective method—to provide a quick, accurate cyanide
measurement that does not require laboratory evaluation.
• Chlorine residuals can be measured using continu- Aqueous cyanide chemistry can be complex. Various fac-
ous on-line monitors at fixed points in the system, tors, including the water asset’s pH and redox potential, can
or by taking grab samples at any point in the system affect the toxicity of cyanide in that asset. While personnel
and using chlorine test kits or portable sensors to using these cyanide detection devices do not need to have
determine chlorine concentrations. advanced knowledge of cyanide chemistry to successfully
• Correct placement of residual chlorine monitoring screen a water asset for cyanide, understanding aqueous
points within a system is crucial to early detection of cyanide chemistry can help users to interpret whether the
potential threats. For example, while dead ends and asset’s cyanide concentration represent a potential threat.
low-pressure zones are common trouble spots that Therefore, a short summary of aqueous cyanide chemistry,
can show low residual chlorine concentrations, these including a discussion of cyanide toxicity, is provided below.
zones are generally not of great concern for water For more information, the reader is referred to Greenberg et
security purposes because system hydraulics will al. (1999).
Cyanide (CN−) is a toxic carbon-nitrogen organic com- metal-complexed cyanide that could become free cyanide at
pound that is the functional portion of the lethal gas hydro- high pH. Personnel using these kits should therefore be aware
gen cyanide (HCN). The toxicity of aqueous cyanide varies of the potential differences in actual cyanide toxicity versus
depending on its form. At near-neutral pH, “free cyanide” the cyanide measured in the sample under different environ-
(which is commonly designated as “CN−,”although it is actu- mental conditions.
ally defined as the total of HCN and CN−) is the predomi- Ingestion of aqueous cyanide can result in numerous
nant cyanide form in water. Free cyanide is potentially toxic adverse health effects and may be lethal. USEPA’s Maximum
in its aqueous form, although the primary concern regarding Contamination Level (MCL) for cyanide in drinking water is
aqueous cyanide is that it could volatilize. Free cyanide is not 0.2 μg/L (0.2 parts per million, or ppm). This MCL is based
highly volatile (it is less volatile than most VOCs, but its vola- on free cyanide analysis per the “Amenable Cyanide” method
tility increases as the pH decreases below 8). However, when described above (USEPA has recognized that very stable
free cyanide does volatilize, it volatilizes in its highly toxic metal-cyanide complexes such as iron-cyanide complex are
gaseous form (gaseous HCN). As a general rule, metal-cya- non-toxic, unless exposed to significant UV radiation, and
nide complexes are much less toxic than free cyanide because these fractions are therefore not considered when defining
they do not volatilize unless the pH is low. cyanide toxicity). Ingestion of free cyanide at concentrations
Analyses for cyanide in public water systems are often in excess of this MCL causes both acute effects (e.g., rapid
conducted in certified labs using various USEPA-approved breathing, tremors, and neurological symptoms) and chronic
methods, such as the preliminary distillation procedure with effects (e.g., weight loss, thyroid effects, and nerve damage).
subsequent analysis by a colorimetric, ion selective electrode, Under the current primary drinking water standards, public
or flow injection methods. Lab analyses using these methods water systems are required to monitor their systems to mini-
require careful sample preservation and pretreatment proce- mize public exposure to cyanide levels in excess of the MCL.
dures and are generally expensive and time consuming. Using Hydrogen cyanide gas is also toxic, and the Office of
these methods, several cyanide fractions are typically defined: Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a permis-
sible exposure limit (PEL) of 10 ppmv for HCN inhalation.
• Total cyanide—This includes free cyanide HCN also has a strong, bitter, almond-like smell and an odor
(CN− + HCN) and all metal-complexed cyanide. threshold of approximately 1 ppmv. Considering the fact that
• Weak acid dissociable (WAD) cyanide—This HCN is relatively non-volatile (see above), a slight cyanide
includes free cyanide (CN− + HCN) and weak cya- odor emanating from a water sample suggests very high aque-
nide complexes that could be potentially toxic by ous cyanide concentrations—greater than 10–50 mg/L, which
hydrolysis to free cyanide in the pH range 4.5–6.0. is in the range of a lethal or near lethal dose with the ingestion
• Amenable cyanide—This includes free cyanide of one pint of water.
(CN− + HCN) and weak cyanide complexes that can
release free cyanide at high pH (11–12) (this fraction Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs
gets its name because it includes measurement of cya- Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are a group of highly uti-
nide from complexes that are “amenable” to oxida- lized chemicals that have widespread applications, including
tion by chlorine at high pH). To measure “Amenable use as fuel components, as solvents, and as cleaning and liq-
Cyanide,” the sample is split into two fractions. One uefying agents in degreasers, polishes, and dry cleaning solu-
of the fractions is analyzed for “Total Cyanide” as tions. VOCs are also used in herbicides and insecticides for
above. The other fraction is treated with high levels agricultural applications. Laboratory-based methods for ana-
of chlorine for approximately one hour, dechlori- lyzing VOCs are well established; however, analyzing VOCs
nated, and distilled per the above “Total Cyanide” in the lab is time consuming—obtaining a result may require
method. “Amenable Cyanide” is determined by the several hours to several weeks depending on the specific
difference in the cyanide concentrations in these two method. Faster, commercially available methods for analyzing
fractions. VOCs in the field include use of portable gas chromatographs
• Soluble cyanide—This is measured by using the pre- (GC), mass spectrometer (MS), or gas chromatographs/mass
liminary filtration step, followed by “Total Cyanide” spectrometers (GC/MS), all of which can be used to obtain
analysis described above. VOC concentration results within minutes. These instruments
can be useful in rapid confirmation of the presence of VOCs
As discussed above, these different methods yield vari- in an asset, or for monitoring an asset on a regular basis. In
ous different cyanide measurements which may or may not addition, portable VOC analyzers can analyze a wide range
give a complete picture of that sample’s potential toxicity. of VOCs, such as toxic industrial chemicals (TICs), chemi-
For example, the “Total Cyanide” method includes cyanide cal warfare agents (CWAs), drugs, explosives, and aromatic
complexed with metals, some of which will not contribute compounds. There are several easy-to-use, portable VOC ana-
to cyanide toxicity unless the pH is out of the normal range. lyzers currently on the market that are effective in evaluating
In contrast, the “WAD Cyanide” measurement includes VOC concentrations in the field. These instruments utilize gas
metal-complexed cyanide that could become free cyanide at chromatography, mass spectroscopy, or a combination of both
low pH, and “Amendable Cyanide” measurements include methods, to provide near laboratory-quality analysis for VOCs.
Plant Security 45
Radiation Detection Equipment Ideally, measuring radioactivity in water assets in the field
Radioactive substances (radionuclides) are known health would involve minimal sampling and sample preparation.
hazards that emit energetic waves and/or particles that can However, the physical properties of specific types of radia-
cause both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health effects. tion combined with the physical properties of water make
Radionuclides pose unique threats to source water supplies evaluating radioactivity in water assets in the field somewhat
and water treatment, storage, or distribution systems because difficult. For example, alpha particles can only travel short
radiation emitted from radionuclides in water systems can distances and they cannot penetrate through most physical
affect individuals through several pathways—by direct con- objects. Therefore, instruments designed to evaluate alpha
tact with, ingestion or inhalation of, or external exposure to emissions must be specially designed to capture emissions
the contaminated water. While radiation can occur naturally at a short distance from the source, and they must not block
in some cases due to the decay of some minerals, intentional alpha emissions from entering the detector. Gamma radiation
and non-intentional releases of man-made radionuclides into does not have the same types of physical properties, and thus
water systems are also a realistic threat. it can be measured using different detectors.
Threats to water and wastewater facilities from radioactive Measuring different types of radiation is further compli-
contamination could involve two major scenarios. First, the cated by the relationship between the radiation’s intrinsic
facility or its assets could be contaminated, preventing work- properties and the medium in which the radiation is being
ers from accessing and operating the facility/assets. Second, measured. For example, gas-flow proportional counters are
at drinking water facilities, the water supply could be con- typically used to evaluate gross alpha and beta radiation
taminated, and tainted water could be distributed to users from smooth, solid surfaces, but due to the fact that water is
downstream. These two scenarios require different threat not a smooth surface, and because alpha and beta emissions
reduction strategies. The first scenario requires that facilities are relatively short range and can be attenuated within the
monitor for radioactive substances being brought on-site; the water, these types of counters are not appropriate for measur-
second requires that water assets be monitored for radioactive ing alpha and beta activity in water. An appropriate method
contamination. While the effects of radioactive contamina- for measuring alpha and beta radiation in water is by using
tion are basically the same under both threat types, each of a liquid scintillation counter. However, this requires mixing
these threats requires different types of radiation monitoring an aliquot of water with a liquid scintillation “cocktail.” The
and different types of equipment. liquid scintillation counter is a large, sensitive piece of equip-
ment, so it is not appropriate for field use. Therefore, measure-
Radiation Detection Equipment for ments for alpha and beta radiation from water assets are not
Monitoring Water Assets typically made in the field.
Most water systems are required to monitor for radioac- Unlike the problems associated with measuring alpha and
tivity and certain radionuclides, and to meet Maximum beta activity in water in the field, the properties of gamma
Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for these contaminants, to com- radiation allow it to be measured relatively well in water
ply with the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Currently, samples in the field. The standard instrumentation used to
USEPA requires drinking water to meet MCLs for beta/ measure gamma radiation from water samples in the field is a
photon emitters (including gamma radiation), alpha parti- sodium iodide (Nal) scintillator.
cles, combined radium 226/228, and uranium. However, this Although the devices outlined above are the most com-
monitoring is required only at entry points into the system. monly used for evaluating total alpha, beta, and gamma radi-
In addition, after the initial sampling requirements, only one ation, other methods and devices can be used. In addition,
sample is required every 3–9 years, depending on the con- local conditions (i.e., temperature, humidity) or the proper-
taminant type and the initial concentrations. While this is ties of the specific radionuclides emitting the radiation may
adequate to monitor for long-term protection from overall make other types of devices or other methods more optimal to
radioactivity and specific radionuclides in drinking water, it achieve the goals of the survey than the devices noted above.
may not be adequate to identify short-term spikes in radioac- There, experts or individual vendors should be consulted to
tivity, such as from spills, accidents, or intentional releases. determine the appropriate measurement device for any spe-
In addition, compliance with the SDWA requires analyzing cific application.
water samples in a laboratory, which results in a delay in An additional factor to consider when developing a pro-
receiving results. In contrast, security monitoring is more gram to monitor for radioactive contamination in water assets
effective when results can be obtained quickly in the field. is whether to take regular grab samples or sample continu-
In addition, monitoring for security purposes does not nec- ously. For example, portable sensors can be used to analyze
essarily require that the specific radionuclides causing the grab samples at any point in the system, but have the disadvan-
contamination be identified. Thus, for security purposes, it tage that they provide measurements only at one point in time.
may be more appropriate to monitor for non-radionuclide- On the other hand, fixed-location sensors are usually used as
specific radiation using either portable field meters, which part of a continuous, on-line monitoring system. These sys-
can be used as necessary to evaluate grab samples, or online tems continuously monitor a water asset, and could be outfit-
systems, which can provide continuous monitoring of a ted with some type of alarm system that would alert operators
system. if radiation increased above a certain threshold. However, the
sampling points are fixed and only certain points in the sys- being physically linked together via wires or cables. In water
tem can be monitored. In addition, the number of monitoring and wastewater utilities, these devices are often used to link
locations needed to capture the physical and radioactive com- remote monitoring stations (i.e., SCADA components) or por-
plexity of a system can be prohibitive. table computers (i.e., laptops) to computer networks without
using physical wiring connections.
Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters
Toxicity measurement devices measure general toxicity to Electronic Controllers
biological organisms, and detection of toxicity in any water/ An electronic controller is a piece of electronic equipment that
wastewater asset can indicate a potential threat to the treat- receives incoming electric signals and uses preprogrammed
ment process (in the case of influent toxicity), to human health logic to generate electronic output signals based on the
(in the case of drinking water toxicity), or to the environ- incoming signals. While electronic controllers can be imple-
ment (in the case of effluent toxicity). Currently, whole efflu- mented for any application that involves inputs and outputs
ent toxicity tests (WET tests), in which effluent samples are (for example, control of a piece of machinery in a factor), in
tested against test organisms, are required of many National a security application, these controllers essentially act as the
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) discharge system’s “brain,” and can respond to specific security-related
permits. The WET tests are used as a complement to the efflu- inputs with preprogrammed output response. These systems
ent limits on physical and chemical parameters to assess the combine the control of electronic circuitry with a logic func-
overall effects of the discharge on living organisms or aquatic tion such that circuits are opened and closed (and thus equip-
biota. Toxicity tests may also be used to monitor wastewater ment is turned on and off) through some preprogrammed
influent streams for potential hazardous contamination, such logic. The basic principle behind the operation of an electrical
as organic heavy metals (arsenic, mercury, lead, chromium, controller is that it receives electronic inputs from sensors or
and copper) that might upset the treatment process. any device generating an electrical signal (for example, elec-
The ability to get feedback on sample toxicity from short- trical signals from motion sensors), and then uses it prepro-
term toxicity tests or toxicity “meters” can be valuable in grammed logic to produce electrical outputs (for example,
estimating the overall toxicity of a sample. On-line real-time these outputs could turn on power to a surveillance camera or
toxicity monitoring is still under active research and develop- to an audible alarm). Thus, these systems automatically gen-
ment. However, there are several portable toxicity measure- erate a preprogrammed, logical response to a preprogrammed
ment devices commercially available. They can generally be input scenario.
divided into categories based on the different ways they mea- The three major types of electronic controllers are timers,
sure toxicity: electromechanical relays, and programmable logic controllers
(PLCs), which are often called “digital relays.” Each of these
• Meters measuring direct biological activity (e.g., types of controller is discussed in more detail below. Timers
luminescent bacteria) and correlating decreases in use internal signal/inputs (in contrast to externally generated
this direct biological activity with increased toxicity inputs) and generate electronic output signals at certain times.
• Meters measuring oxygen consumption and correlat- More specifically, timers control electric current flow to any
ing decrease in oxygen consumption with increased application to which they are connected, and can turn the cur-
toxicity. rent on or off on a schedule pre-specified by the user. Typical
timer range (amount of time that can be programmed to elapse
before the timer activates linked equipment) is from 0.2 sec-
Communication and Integration
onds to 10 hours, although some of the more advanced tim-
This section discusses those devices necessary for com- ers have ranges of up to 60 hours. Timers are useful in fixed
munication and integration of water and wastewater system applications that don’t require frequent schedule changes. For
operations, such as electronic controllers, two-way radios, example, a timer can be used to turn on the lights in a room or
and wireless data communications. Electronic controllers building at a certain time every day. Timers are usually con-
are used to automatically activate equipment (such as lights, nected to their own power supply (usually 120–240V).
surveillance cameras, audible alarms, or locks) when they In contrast to timers, which have internal triggers based on
are triggered. Triggering could be in response to a variety a regular schedule, electromechanical relays and PLCs have
of scenarios, including tripping of an alarm or a motion sen- both external inputs and external outputs. However, PLCs are
sor; breaking of a window or a glass door; variation in vibra- more flexible and more powerful than are electromechanical
tion sensor readings; or simply through input from a timer. relays, and thus this section focuses primarily on PLCs as the
Two-way wireless radios allow two or more users that have predominant technology for security-related electronic con-
their radios tuned to the same frequency to communicate trol applications. Electromechanical relays are simple devices
instantaneously with each other without the radios being that use a magnetic field to control a switch. Voltage applied
physically lined together with wires or cables. Wireless data to the relay’s input coil creates a magnetic field, which attracts
communications devices are used to enable transmission of an internal metal switch. This causes the relay’s contacts to
data between computer systems and/or between a SCADA touch, closing the switch and completing the electrical circuit.
server and its sensing devices, without individual components This activates any linked equipment. These types of systems
Plant Security 47
are often used for high voltage applications, such as in some individual components are in a direct line of sight with each
automotive and other manufacturing processes. other, since radio waves are affected by interference from
physical obstructions. However, in some cases, repeater units
Two-Way Radios can be used to amplify and retransmit wireless signals to cir-
Two-way radios, as discussed here, are limited to a direct unit- cumvent these problems. The two components of wireless
to-unit radio communication, either via single unit-to-unit devices are discussed in more detail below.
transmission and reception, or via multiple handheld units to a The wireless access point provides the wireless data com-
base station radio contact and distribution system. Radio fre- munication service. It usually consists of a housing (which
quency spectrum limitations apply to all handheld units, and is constructed from plastic or metal depending on the envi-
directed by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). ronment it will be used in) containing a circuit board; flash
This also distinguishes a handheld unit from a base station memory that holds software; one of two external ports to con-
or base station unit (such as those used by an amateur (ham) nect to existing wired networks; a wireless radio transmitter/
radio operator), which operate under different wave length receiver; and one or more antenna connections. Typically,
parameters. the WAP requires a one-time user configuration to allow the
Two-way radios allow a user to contact another user or device to interact with the local area network (LAN). This
group of users instantly on the same frequency, and to trans- configuration is usually done via a web-driven software appli-
mit voice or data without the need for wires. They use “half- cation which is accessed via a computer.
duplex” communications, or communication that can be only A wireless network interface card or client is a piece
transmitted or received; it cannot transmit and receive simul- of hardware that is plugged in to a computer and enables
taneously. In other words, only one person may talk, while that computer to make a wireless network connection.
other personnel with radio(s) can only listen. To talk, the user The card consists of a transmitter, functional circuitry,
depresses the talk button and speaks into the radio. The audio and a receiver for the wireless signal, all of which work
then transmits the voice wirelessly to the receiving radios. together to enable communication between the computer,
When the speaker has finished speaking and the channel has its wireless transmitter/receiver, and its antenna connec-
cleared, users on any of the receiving radios can transmit, tion. Wireless cards are installed in a computer through a
either to answer the first transmission or to begin a new con- variety of connections, including USB Adapters, or Laptop
versation. In addition to carrying voice data, many types of CardBus (PCMCIA) or Desktop Peripheral (PCI) cards. As
wireless radios also allow the transmission of digital data, and with the WAP, software is loaded onto the user’s computer,
these radios may be interfaced with computer networks that allowing configuration of the card so that it may operate
can use or track these data. For example, some two-way radios over the wireless network.
can send information such as global positioning system (GPS) Two of the primary applications for wireless data commu-
data, or the ID of the radio. Some two-way radios can also nications systems are to enable mobile or remote connections
send data through a SCADA system. to a LAN, and to establish wireless communications links
Wireless radios broadcast these voice or data communica- between SCADA remote telemetry units (RTUs) and sen-
tions over the airwaves from the transmitter to the receiver. sors in the field. Wireless car connections are usually used
While this can be an advantage in that the signal emanates in for LAN access from mobile computers. Wireless cards can
all directions and does not need a direct physical connection also be incorporated into RTUs to allow them to communi-
to be received at the receiver, it can also make the communicate with sensing devices that are located remotely.
cations vulnerable to being blocked, intercepted, or otherwise
altered. However, security features are available to ensure that
Cyber Protection Devices
the communications are not tampered with.
Various cyber protection devices are currently available for
Wireless Data Communications use in protecting utility computer systems. These protection
A wireless data communication system consists of two com- devices include anti-virus and pest eradication software, fire-
ponents: a “Wireless Access Point” (WAP) and a “Wireless walls, and network intrusion hardware/software. These prod-
Network Interface Card” (sometimes also referred to as a ucts are discussed in this section.
“Client”), which work together to complete the communica-
tions link. These wireless systems can link electronic devices, Anti-Virus and Pest Eradication Software
computers, and computer systems together using radio waves, Anti-virus programs are designed to detect, delay, and respond
thus eliminating the need for these individual components to to programs or pieces of code that are specifically designed to
be directly connected together through physical wires. While harm computers. These programs are known as “malware.”
wireless data communications have widespread applications Malware can include computer viruses, worms, and Trojan
in water and wastewater systems, they also have limitations. horse programs (programs that appear to be benign but
First, wireless data connections are limited by the distance which have hidden harmful effects). Pest eradication tools are
between components (radio waves scatter over a long distance designed to detect, delay, and respond to “spyware” (strate-
and cannot be received efficiently, unless special directional gies that websites use to track user behavior, such as by send-
antenna are used). Second, these devices only function if the ing “cookies” to the user’s computer), and hacker tools that
track keystrokes (keystroke loggers) or passwords (password which network layer it operates at and how it is configured.
crackers). Firewalls may be a piece of hardware, a software program, or
Viruses and pests can enter a computer system through an appliance card that contains both.
the Internet or through infected floppy disks or CDs. They Advanced features that can be incorporated into firewalls
can also be placed onto a system by insiders. Some of these allow for the tracking of attempts to log-on to the local area
programs, such as viruses and worms, then move within network system. For example, a report of successful and
a computer’s drives and files, or between computers if the unsuccessful long-in attempts may be generated for the com-
computers are networked to each other. This malware can puter specialist to analyze. For systems with mobile users, fire-
deliberately damage files, utilize memory and network walls allow remote access into the private network by the use
capacity, crash application programs, and initiate transmis- of secure log-on procedures and authentication certificates.
sions of sensitive information from a PC. While the spe- Most firewalls have a graphical user interface for managing
cific mechanisms of these programs differ, they can infect the firewall. In addition, new Ethernet firewall cards that fit in
files, and even the basic operating program of the computer the slot of an individual computer bundle provide additional
firmware/hardware. layers of defense (like encryption and permit/deny) for indi-
The most important features of an anti-virus program are vidual computer transmissions to the network interface func-
its abilities to identify potential malware and to alert a user tion. The cost of these new cards is only slightly higher than
before infection occurs, as well as its ability to respond to a that of traditional network interface cards.
virus already resident on a system. Most of these programs
provide a log so that the user can see what viruses have been Network Intrusion Hardware and Software
detected and where they were detected. After detecting a virus, Network intrusion detection and prevention systems are
the anti-virus software may delete the virus automatically, or software- and hardware-based programs designed to detect
it may prompt the user to delete the virus. Some programs will unauthorized attacks on a computer network system. Whereas
also fix files or programs damaged by the virus. other applications such as firewalls and anti-virus software
Various sources of information are available to inform share similar objectives with network intrusion systems, net-
the general public and computer system operators about new work intrusion systems provide a deeper layer of protection
viruses being detected. Since anti-virus programs use signa- beyond the capabilities of these other systems because they
tures (or snippets of code or data) to detect the presence of a evaluate patterns of computer activity rather than specific
virus, periodic updates are required to identify new threats. files. It is worth noting that attacks may come from either out-
Many anti-virus software providers offer free upgrades that side or within the system (i.e., from an insider), and that net-
are able to detect and respond to the latest viruses. work intrusion detection systems may be more applicable to
detecting patterns of suspicious activity from inside a facility
Firewalls (i.e., accessing sensitive data, etc.) than are other information
A firewall is an electronic barrier designed to keep computer technology solutions. Network intrusion detection systems
hackers, intruders, or insiders from accessing specific data employ a variety of mechanisms to evaluate potential threats.
files and information on a utility’s computer network or other The types of search and detection mechanisms are dependent
electronic/computer systems. Firewalls operate by evaluating upon the level of sophistication of the system. Some of the
and then filtering information coming through a public net- available detection methods include:
work (such as the Internet) into the utility’s computer or other
electronic system. This evaluation can include identifying the • Protocol analysis—It is the process of capturing,
source or destination addresses and ports, and allowing or decoding, and interpreting electronic traffic. The
denying access based on this identification. Two methods are protocol analysis method of network intrusion detec-
used by firewalls to limit access to the utility’s computers or tion involves the analysis of data captured during
other electronic systems from the public network: transactions between two or more systems or devices,
and the evaluation of these data to identify unusual
• The firewall may deny all traffic unless it meets cer- activity and potential problems. Once a problem is
tain criteria. isolated and recorded, problems or potential threats
• The firewall may allow all traffic through unless it can be linked to pieces of hardware or software.
meets certain criteria. Sophisticated protocol analysis will also provide sta-
tistics and trend information on the captured traffic.
A simple example of the first method is to screen requests • Traffic anomaly detection—It identifies potential
to ensure that they come from an acceptable (i.e., previ- threatening activity by comparing incoming traffic
ously identified) domain name and Internet protocol address. to “normal” traffic patterns, and identifying devia-
Firewalls may also use more complex rules that analyze the tions. It does this by comparing user characteris-
application data to determine if the traffic should be allowed tics against thresholds and triggers defined by the
through. For example, the firewall may require user authen- network administrator. This method is designed to
tication (i.e., use of a password) to access the system. How detect attacks that span a number of connections,
a firewall determines what traffic to let through depends on rather than a single session.
Plant Security 49
• Network honeypot—This method establishes non- The bottom line: As serious as the former employee’s intru-
existent services in order to identify potential hack- sions were they pale in comparison with what he could have
ers. A network honeypot impersonates services that done to the fresh water system—he could have done anything
don’t exist by sending fake information to people he liked.
scanning the network. It identifies the attacker when In 2000, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) identi-
they attempt to connect to the service. There is no fied and listed threats to critical infrastructure. These threats
reason for legitimate traffic to access these resources are listed and described in Table 3.1. In the past few years,
because they don’t exist; therefore any attempt to especially since 9/11, it has been somewhat routine for us to
access them constitutes an attack. pick up a newspaper or magazine or view a television news
• Anti-intrusion detection system evasion tech- program where a major topic of discussion is cyber security
niques—These methods are designed to identify or the lack thereof. Many of the cyber intrusion incidents we
attackers who may be trying to evade intrusion read or hear about have added new terms or new uses for
detection system scanning. They include methods old terms to our vocabulary. For example, old terms such as
called IP defragmentation, TCP streams reassembly, Trojan Horse, worms, and viruses have taken on new connota-
and deobfuscation. tions in regard to cyber security issues. Relatively new terms
These detection systems are automated, but they can only TABLE 3.1
indicate patterns of activity, and a computer administer or Threats to Critical Infrastructure Observed by the FBI
other experienced individual must interpret activities to deter-
Threat Description
mine whether or not they are potentially harmful. Monitoring
the logs generated by these systems can be time consuming, Criminal There is an increased use of cyber intrusions by criminal
and there may be a learning curve to determine a baseline of groups groups who attack systems for the purpose of monetary
gain.
“normal” traffic patterns from which to distinguish potential
suspicious activity. Foreign Foreign intelligence services use cyber tools as part of their
intelligence information gathering and espionage activities.
services
Hackers Hackers sometimes crack into networks for the thrill of the
SCADA challenge or for bragging rights in the hacker community.
In Queensland, Australia, on April 23, 2000, police While remote cracking once required a fair amount of skill
stopped a car on the road and found a stolen computer or computer knowledge, hackers can now download attack
scripts and protocols from the Internet and launch them
and radio inside. Using commercially available tech-
against victim sites. Thus, while attack tools have become
nology, a disgruntled former employee had turned his
more sophisticated, they have also become easier to use.
vehicle into a pirate command center of sewage treat-
Hacktivists Hacktivism refers to politically motivated attacks on
ment along Australia’s Sunshine Coast. publicly accessible Web pages or e-mail servers. These
The former employee’s arrest solved a mystery that had groups and individuals overload e-mail servers and hack
troubled the Maroochy Shire wastewater system for two into Web sites to send a political message.
Information Several nations are aggressively working to develop
months. Somehow the system was leaking hundreds of
warfare information warfare doctrine, programs, and capabilities.
thousands of gallons of putrid sewage into parks, rivers
Such capabilities enable a single entity to have a
and the manicured grounds of a Hyatt Regency hotel— significant and serious impact by disrupting the supply,
marine life died, the creek water turned black and the communications, and economic infrastructures that
stench was unbearable for residents. Until the former support military power—impacts that, according to the
employee’s capture—during his 46th successful intru- Director of Central Intelligence, can affect the daily lives
sion—the utility’s managers did not know why. of Americans across the country.
Inside threat The disgruntled organization insider is a principal source of
Specialists study this case of cyber-terrorism because it
computer crimes. Insiders may not need a great deal of
is the only one known in which someone used a digital knowledge about computer intrusions because their
control system deliberately to cause harm. The former knowledge of a victim system often allows them to gain
employee’s intrusion shows how easy it is to break in— unrestricted access to cause damage to the system or to
and how restrained he was with his power. steal system data. The insider threat also includes
outsourcing vendors.
To sabotage the system, the former employee set the
Virus writers Virus writers are posing an increasingly serious threat.
software on his laptop to identify itself as a pumping
Several destructive computer viruses and “worms” have
station, and then suppressed all alarms. The former harmed files and hard drives, including the Melissa Macro
employee was the “central control station” during his Virus, the Explore.Zip worm, the CIH (Chernobyl) Virus,
intrusions, with unlimited command of 300 SCADA Nimda, and Code Red.
nodes governing sewage and drinking water alike.
Source: FBI, 2000.
—Gellman (2002)
such as scanners, Windows NT hacking tools, ICQ hacking valuable statistics, such as water usage. When utilities later
tools, mail bombs, sniffer, logic bomb, nukers, dots, backdoor connected their systems to the Internet, they were able to pro-
Trojan, key loggers, hackers’ Swiss knife, password crackers, vide stakeholders with water/wastewater statistics on the util-
and BIOS crackers are now commonly encountered. ity’s web pages.
Not all relatively new and universally recognizable cyber
terms have sinister connotations or meanings, of course.
SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater System
Consider, for example, the following digital terms: backup,
binary, bit byte, CD-ROM, CPU, database, e-mail, HTML, As stated above, SCADA systems can be designed to measure
icon, memory, cyberspace, modem, monitor, network, RAM, a variety of equipment operating conditions and parameters
Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity), record, software, World Wide Web— or volumes and flow rates or water quality parameters, and
none of these terms normally generate thoughts of terrorism in to respond to change in those parameters either by alerting
most of us. There is, however, one digital term that most peo- operators or by modifying system operation through a feed-
ple have not heard of: SCADA. This is not the case, however, back loop system without having personnel physically visit
with those who work with the nation’s critical infrastructure, each process or piece of equipment on a daily basis to check it
including water/wastewater. SCADA, or Supervisory Control and/or ensure that it is functioning properly. SCADA systems
And Data Acquisition System (also sometimes referred to as can also be used to automate certain functions, so that they
Digital Control Systems or Process Control Systems), plays can be performed without the need to be initiated by an opera-
an important role in computer-based control systems. Many tor (e.g., injecting chlorine in response to periodic low chlo-
water/wastewater systems use computer-based systems to rine levels in a distribution system, or turning on a pump in
remotely control sensitive processes and system equipment response to low water levels in a storage tank). As described
previously controlled manually. These systems (commonly above, in addition to process equipment, SCADA systems can
known as SCADA) allow a water/wastewater utility to collect also integrate specific security alarms and equipment, such as
data from sensors and control equipment located at remote cameras, motion sensors, lights, and data from card reading
sites. Common water/wastewater system sensors measure ele- systems, thereby providing a clear picture of what is happen-
ments such as fluid level, temperature, pressure, water purity, ing at areas throughout a facility. Finally, SCADA systems
water clarity, and pipeline flow rates. Common water/waste- also provide constant, real-time data on processes, equipment,
water system equipment includes valves, pumps, and mixers location access, etc., for the necessary response to be made
for mixing chemicals in the water supply. quickly. This can be extremely useful during emergency con-
ditions, such as when distribution mains break or when poten-
tially disruptive BOD spikes appear in wastewater influent.
What Is SCADA?
Because these systems can monitor multiple processes,
Simply, SCADA is a computer-based system that remotely equipment, and infrastructure and then provide quick noti-
controls processes previously controlled manually. SCADA fication of, or response to, problems or upsets. SCADA sys-
allows an operator using a central computer to supervise (con- tems typically provide the first line of detection for atypical
trol and monitor) multiple networked computers at remote or abnormal conditions. For example, a SCADA system con-
locations. Each remote computer can control mechanical nected to sensors that measure specific water quality param-
processes (pumps, valves, etc.) and collect data from sensors eters is measured outside of a specific range. A real-time
at its remote location. Thus the phrase: Supervisory Control customized operator interface screen could display and con-
and Data Acquisition, or SCADA. The central computer is trol critical systems monitoring parameters.
called the Master Terminal Unit, or MTU. The operator inter- The system could transmit warning signals back to the
faces with the MTU using software called Human Machine operators, such as by initiating a call to a personal pager.
Interface, or HMI. The remote computer is called Program This might allow the operators to initiate actions to prevent
Logic Controller (PLC) or Remote Terminal Unit (RTU). The contamination and disruption of the water supply. Further
RTU activates a relay (or switch) that turns mechanical equip- automation of the system could ensure that the system initi-
ment “on” and “off.” The RTU also collects data from sensors. ated measures to rectify the problem. Preprogrammed control
Initially, stages utilities ran wires, also known as hardwire functions (e.g. shutting a valve, controlling flow, increasing
or land lines, from the central computer (MTU) to the remote chlorination, or adding other chemicals) can be triggered and
computers (RTUs). Because remote locations can be located operated based on SCADA utility.
hundreds of miles from the central location, utilities have
begun to use public phone lines and modems and to lease tele-
SCADA Vulnerabilities
phone company lines, and radio and microwave communica-
tion. More recently, they have also begun to use satellite links, According to USEPA (2005), SCADA networks were devel-
the Internet, and newly developed wireless technologies. oped with little attention paid to security, making the security
Because the SCADA systems’ sensors provided valu- of these systems often weak. Studies have found that, while
able information, many utilities established “connections” technological advancements introduced vulnerabilities, many
between their SCADA systems and their business system. water/wastewater utilities have spent little time securing their
This allowed utility management and other staff access to SCADA networks. As a result, many SCADA networks may
Plant Security 51
be susceptible to attacks and misuse. Remote monitoring and not believe that their organization invested enough in secu-
supervisory control of processes had begun to develop in the rity awareness. Utilities as a group reported a lower average
early 1960s, and they adopted many technological advance- computer security expenditure/investment per employee than
ments. The advent of minicomputers made it possible to many other sectors such as transportation, telecommunica-
automate a vast number of once manually operated switches. tions, and finance.
Advancements in radio technology reduced the communica- Sandia National Laboratories’ Common Vulnerabilities in
tion costs associated with installing and maintaining buried Critical Infrastructure Control Systems described some of
cable in remote areas. SCADA systems continued to adopt the common problems it has identified in the following five
new communication methods including satellite and cellular. categories (Stamp et al., 2003):
As the price of computers and communications dropped, it
became economically feasible to distribute operations and to 1.
System data—Important data attributes for security
expand SCADA networks to include even smaller facilities. include availability, authenticity, integrity, and con-
Advances in information technology and the necessity of fidentiality. Data should be categorized according to
improved efficiency have resulted in increasingly automated its sensitivity, and ownership and responsibility must
and interlinked infrastructures, and have created new vul- be assigned. However, SCADA data is often not
nerabilities due to equipment failure, human error, weather classified at all, making it difficult to identify where
and other natural causes, and physical and cyber attacks. security precautions are appropriate.
Some areas and examples of possible SCADA vulnerabilities 2.
Security administration—Vulnerabilities emerge
include: because many systems lack a properly structured
security policy, equipment, and system implemen-
• Human—People can be tricked or corrupted, and tation guides, configuration management, training,
may commit errors. and enforcement and compliance auditing.
• Communications—Messages can be fabricated, 3.
Architecture—Many common practices negatively
intercepted, changed, deleted, or blocked. affect SCADA security. For example, while it is con-
• Hardware—Security features are not easily adapted venient to use SCADA capabilities for other purposes
to small self-contained units with limited power such as fire and security systems, these practices cre-
supplies. ate single points of failure. Also, the connection of
• Physical—Intruders can break into a facility to steal SCADA networks to other automation systems and
or damage SCADA equipment. business networks introduces multiple entry points
• Natural—Tornadoes, floods, earthquakes, and for potential adversaries.
other natural disasters can damage equipment and 4.
Network (including communication links)—Legacy
connections. systems’ hardware and software have very limited
• Software—Programs can be poorly written. security capabilities, and the vulnerabilities of con-
temporary systems (based on modern information
A survey found that many water utilities were doing little to technology) are publicized. Wireless and shared
secure their SCADA network vulnerabilities (Ezell, 1998); links are susceptible to eavesdropping and data
for example, many respondents reported that they had remote manipulation.
access, which can allow an unauthorized person to access the 5.
Platforms—Many platform vulnerabilities exist,
system without being physically present. More than 60% of including retention of default configurations, poor
the respondents believed that their systems were not safe from password practices, shared accounts, inadequate
unauthorized access and use. Twenty percent of the respon- protection for hardware, and non-existent security
dents even reported known attempts, successful unauthor- monitoring controls. In most cases, important secu-
ized access, or use of their system. Yet 22 of 43 respondents rity patches are not installed, often due to concern
reported that they do not spend any time ensuring their net- about negatively impacting system operation; in
work is safe and 18 of 43 respondents reported that they spend some cases, technicians are contractually forbidden
less than 10% of their time ensuring network safety. from updating systems by their vendor agreements.
SCADA system computers and their connections are sus-
ceptible to different types of information system attacks and The following incident helps to illustrate some of the risks
misuse such as system penetration and unauthorized access associated with SCADA vulnerabilities.
to information. The Computer Security Institute and Federal
Bureau of Investigation conduct an annual Computer Crime • During the course of conducting a vulnerability
and Security Survey (FBI, 2004). The survey reported on assessment, a contractor stated that personnel from
ten types of attacks or misuse, and reported that viruses and his company penetrated the information system of
denial of service had the greatest negative economic impact. a utility within minutes. Contractor personnel drove
The same study also found that 15% of the respondents to a remote substation and noticed a wireless net-
reported abuse of wireless networks, which can be a SCADA work antenna. Without leaving their vehicle, they
component. On average, respondents from all sectors did plugged in their wireless radios and connected to the
network within 5 minutes. Within 20 minutes they networks are often connected to the networks of strategic
had mapped the network, including SCADA equip- partners and to the Internet. Further, control systems are
ment, and accessed the business network and data. increasingly using wide area networks and the Internet to
transmit data to their remote or local stations and individual
This illustrates what a cyber security advisor from Sandia devices. This convergence of control networks with public and
National Laboratories specialized in SCADA stated—that enterprise networks potentially exposes the control systems to
utilities are moving to wireless communication without additional security vulnerabilities. Unless appropriate secu-
understanding the added risks. rity controls are deployed in the enterprise network and the
control system network, breaches in enterprise security can
affect the operation of control systems. According to industry
The Increasing Risk
experts, the use of existing security technologies, as well as
According to GAO (2003), historically, security concerns strong user authentication and patch management practices, is
about control systems (SCADA included) were related primar- generally not implemented in control systems because control
ily to protecting against physical attack and misuse of refin- systems operate in real time, typically are not designed with
ing and processing sites or distribution and holding facilities. cybersecurity in mind, and usually have limited processing
However, more recently there has been a growing recognition capabilities.
that control systems are now vulnerable to cyber attacks from Existing security technologies such as authorization,
numerous sources, including hotel governments, terrorist authentication, encryption, intrusion detection, and filtering of
groups, disgruntled employees, and other malicious intruders. network traffic and communications require more bandwidth,
In addition, to control system vulnerabilities mentioned ear- processing power, and memory than control system compo-
lier, several factors have contributed to the escalation of risk nents typically have. Because controller stations are generally
to control systems, including (1) the adoption of standardized designed to do specific tasks, they use low-cost, resource-con-
technologies with known vulnerabilities, (2) the connectivity strained microprocessors. In fact, some devices in the electri-
of control systems to other networks, (3) constraints on the cal industry still use the Intel 8088 processor, introduced in
implementation of existing security technologies and prac- 1978. Consequently, it is difficult to install existing security
tices, (4) insecure remote connections, and (5) the widespread technologies without seriously degrading the performance of
availability of technical information about control systems. the control system.
Further, complex passwords and other strong password
practices are not always used to prevent unauthorized access
Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities
to control systems, in part because this could hinder a rapid
When a technology is not well known, widely used, under- response to safety procedures during an emergency. As a
stood, or publicized, it is difficult to penetrate it and thus result, according to experts weak passwords that are easy to
disable it. Historically, proprietary hardware, software, and guess, shared, and infrequently changed are reportedly com-
network protocols made it difficult to understand how con- mon in control systems, including the use of default passwords
trol systems operated—and therefore how to hack into them. or even no password at all.
Today, however, to reduce costs and improve performance, In addition, although modern control systems are based on
organizations have been transitioning from proprietary sys- standard operating systems, they are typically customized to
tems to less expensive, standardized technologies such as support control system applications. Consequently, vendor-
Microsoft’s Windows and Unix-like operating systems and provided software patches are generally either incompatible
the common networking protocols used by the Internet. or cannot be implemented without compromising service
These widely used standardized technologies have commonly shutting down “always-on” systems or affecting interdepen-
known vulnerabilities, and sophisticated and effective exploi- dent operations.
tation tools are widely available and relatively easy to use. As Potential vulnerabilities in control systems are exacer-
a consequence, both the number of people with the knowledge bated by insecure connections. Organizations often leave
to wage attacks and the number of systems subject to attack access links—such as dial-up modems to equipment and
have increased. Also, common communication protocols and control information—open for remote diagnostics, mainte-
the emerging use of Extensible Markup Language (commonly nance, and examination of system status. Such links may
referred to as XML) can make it easier for a hacker to inter- not be protected with authentication of encryption, which
pret the content of communications among the components of increases the risk of hackers using these insecure connec-
a control system. tions to break into remotely controlled systems. Also, control
Control systems are often connected to other networks— systems often use wireless communications systems, which
enterprises often integrate their control system with their are especially vulnerable to attack, or leased lines that pass
enterprise networks. This increased connectivity has signifi- through commercial telecommunications facilities. Without
cant advantages, including providing decision makers with encryption to protect data as it flows through these insecure
access to real-time information and allowing engineers to connections or authentication mechanisms to limit access,
monitor and control the process control system from differ- there is limited protection for the integrity of the informa-
ent points on the enterprise network. In addition, enterprise tion being transmitted.
Plant Security 53
Public information about infrastructures and control complicating the response to a physical attack. For instance,
systems is available to potential hackers and intruders. The a cyber attack that disabled the water supply or the electrical
availability of this infrastructure and vulnerability data was system in conjunction with a physical attack could deny emer-
demonstrated by a university graduate student, whose disser- gency services the necessary resources to manage the conse-
tation reportedly mapped every business and industrial sector quences—such as controlling fires, coordinating actions, and
in the American economy to the fiberoptic network that con- generating light.
nects them—using material that was available publicly on the Control systems, such as SCADA, can be vulnerable to
Internet, none of which was classified. Many of the electric cyber attacks. Entities or individuals with malicious intent
utility officials who were interviewed for the National Security might take one or more of the following actions to success-
Telecommunications Advisory Committee’s Information fully attack control systems:
Assurance Task Force’s Electric Power Risk Assessment
expressed concern over the amount of information about their • Disrupting the operation of control systems by delay-
infrastructure that is readily available to the public. ing or blocking the flow of information through con-
In the electric power industry, open sources of informa- trol networks, thereby denying the availability of the
tion—such as product data and educational videotapes from networks to control system operations
engineering associations can be used to understand the • Making unauthorized changes to programmed
basics of the electrical grid. Other publicly available infor- instructions in PLCs, RTUs, or DCS controllers,
mation—including filings of the Federal Energy Regulatory change alarm thresholds, or issue unauthorized com-
Commission (FERC), industry publications, maps, and mate- mands to control equipment, which could potentially
rial available on the Internet—is sufficient to allow someone result in damage to equipment (if tolerances are
to identify the most heavily loaded transmission lines and the exceeded), premature shutdown of processes (such
most critical substations in the power grid. as prematurely shutting down transmission lines), or
In addition, significant information on control systems is even disabling of control equipment
publicly available—including design and maintenance docu- • Sending false information to control system opera-
ments, technical standards for the interconnection of control tors either to disguise unauthorized changes or to ini-
systems and RTUs, and standards for communication among tiate inappropriate actions by system operators
control devices—all of which could assist hackers in under- • Modifying the control system software and produc-
standing the systems and how to attack them. Moreover, there ing unpredictable results
are numerous former employees, vendors, support contrac- • Interfering with the operation of safety systems
tors, and other end users of the same equipment worldwide
with inside knowledge of the operation of control systems. In addition, in control systems that cover a wide geographic
area, remote sites are often unstaffed and may not be physi-
cally monitored. If such remote systems are physically
Cyber Threats to Control Systems
breached, the attackers could establish a cyber connection to
There is a general consensus—and increasing concern— the control network.
among government officials and experts on control systems
about potential cyber threats to the control systems that
Securing Control Systems
govern our critical infrastructures. As components of con-
trol systems increasingly make critical decisions that were Several challenges must be addressed to effectively secure
once made by humans, the potential effect of a cyber threat control systems against cyber threats. These challenges
becomes more devastating. Such cyber threats could come include: (1) the limitations of current security technologies
from numerous sources, ranging from hostile governments in securing control systems; (2) the perception that secur-
and terrorist groups to disgruntled employees and other mali- ing control systems may not be economically justifiable; and
cious intruders. Based on interviews and discussions with (3) the conflicting priorities within organizations regarding
representatives throughout the electric power industry, the the security of control systems. A significant challenge in
Information Assurance Task Force of the National Security effectively securing control systems is the lack of special-
Telecommunications Advisory Committee concluded that ized security technologies for these systems. The comput-
an organization with sufficient resources, such as a foreign ing resources in control systems that are needed to perform
intelligence service or a well-supported terrorist group, could security functions tend to be quite limited, making it very
conduct a structured attack on the electric power grid elec- difficult to use security technologies within control system
tronically, with a high degree of anonymity and without hav- networks without severely hindering performance. Securing
ing to set foot in the target nation. control systems may not be perceived as economically jus-
In July 2002, National Infrastructure Protection Center tifiable. Experts and industry representatives have indicated
(NIPC) reported that the potential for compound cyber and that organizations may be reluctant to spend more money
physical attacks, referred to as “swarming attacks,” is an to secure control systems. Hardening the security of control
emerging threat to the U.S. critical infrastructure. As NIPC systems would require industries to expend more resources,
reports, the effects of a swarming attack include slowing or including acquiring more personnel, providing training for
personnel, and potentially prematurely replacing current sys- must be a primary goal to provide needed protec-
tems that typically have a lifespan of about 20 years. Finally, tion. Strategies such as utilization of “demilitarized
several experts and industry representatives indicated that the zones” (DMZs) and data warehousing can facili-
responsibility for securing control systems typically includes tate the secure transfer of data from the SCADA
two separate groups: IT security personnel and control sys- network to business networks. However, they must
tem engineers and operators. IT security personnel tend to be designed and implemented properly to avoid
focus on securing enterprise systems, while control system introduction of additional risk through improper
engineers and operators tend to be more concerned with the configuration.
reliable performance of their control systems. Further, they 3.
Evaluate and strengthen the security of any remain-
indicate that, as a result, those two groups do not always ing connections to the SCADA networks
fully understand each other’s requirements and collaborate to Conduct penetration testing or vulnerability anal-
implement secure control systems. ysis of any remaining connections to the SCADA
network to evaluate the protection posture associ-
ated with these pathways. Use this information in
Steps to Improve SCADA Security
conjunction with risk management processes to
The President’s Critical Infrastructure Protection Board and develop a robust protection strategy for any pathways
the Department of Energy (DOE) have developed the steps to the SCADA network. Since the SCADA network
outlined below to help organizations improve the security of is only as secure as its weakest connecting point, it
their SCADA networks. DOE (2001) points out that these steps is essential to implement firewalls, intrusion detec-
are not meant to be prescriptive or all-inclusive. However, tion systems (IDSs), and other appropriate security
they do address essential actions to be taken to improve the measures at each point of entry. Configure firewall
protection of SCADA networks. The steps are divided into rules to prohibit access from and to the SCADA net-
two categories: specific actions to improve implementation, work, and be as specific as possible when permitting
and actions to establish essential underlying management pro- approved connections. For example, an Independent
cesses and policies (DOE, 2001). System Operator (ISO) should not be granted
“blanket” network access simply because there is a
Twenty-One Steps to Increase SCADA Security need for a connection to certain components of the
The following steps focus on specific actions to be taken to SCADA system. Strategically place IDSs at each
increase the security of SCADA networks: entry point to alert security personnel of potential
breaches of network security. Organization manage-
1.
Identify all connections to SCADA networks ment must understand and accept responsibility or
Conduct a thorough risk analysis to assess the risk risks associated with any connection to the SCADA
and necessity of each connection to the SCADA net- network.
work. Develop a comprehensive understanding of all 4.
Harden SCADA networks by removing or disabling
connections to the SCADA network, and how well unnecessary services
those connections are protected. Identify and evalu- SCADA control servers built on commercial
ate the following types of connections: or open-source operating systems can be exposed
• Internal local area and wide area networks, to attack default network services. To the great-
including business networks est degree possible, remove or disable unused ser-
• The Internet vices and network demons to reduce the risk of
• Wireless network devices, including satellite direct attack. This is particularly important when
uplinks SCADA networks are interconnected with other
• Modem or dial-up connections networks. Do not permit a service or feature on a
• Connections to business partners, vendors, or SCADA network unless a thorough risk assessment
regulatory agencies of the consequences of allowing the service/feature
2.
Disconnect unnecessary connections to the SCADA shows that the benefits of the service/feature far
network outweigh the potential for vulnerability exploita-
To ensure the highest degree of security of tion. Examples of services to remove from SCADA
SCADA systems, isolate the SCADA network from networks include automated meter reading/remote
other network connections to as great a degree as billing systems, e-mail services, and Internet
possible. Any connection to another network intro- access. An example of a feature to disable is remote
duces security risks, particularly if the connection maintenance. Numerous secure configurations such
creates a pathway from or to the Internet. Although as the National Security Agency’s series of security
direct connections with other networks may allow guides. Additionally, work closely with SCADA
important information to be passed efficiently and vendors to identify secure configurations and coor-
conveniently, insecure connections are simply not dinate any and all changes to operational systems to
worth the risk; isolation of the SCADA network ensure that removing or disabling services does not
Plant Security 55
cause downtime, interruption of service, or loss of effective response to any attack. To complement net-
support. work monitoring, enable logging on all systems and
5.
Do not rely on proprietary protocols to protect your audit system logs daily to detect suspicious activity
system as soon as possible.
Some SCADA systems are unique, proprietary 9. Perform technical audits of SCADA devices and net-
protocols for communications between field devices works, and any other connected networks, to iden-
and servers. Often the security of SCADA systems tify security concerns
is based solely on the secrecy of these protocols. Technical audits of SCADA devices and net-
Unfortunately, obscure protocols provide very little works are critical to ongoing security effectiveness.
“real” security. Do not rely on proprietary protocols Many commercial and open-source security tools
or factory default configuration settings to protect are available that allow system administrators to
your system. Additionally, demand that vendors conduct audits of their systems/networks to identify
disclose any backdoors or vendor interfaces to your active services, patch level, and common vulner-
SCADA systems, and expect them to provide sys- abilities. The use of these tools will not solve sys-
tems that are capable of being secured. temic problems, but will eliminate the “paths of least
6.
Implement the security features provided by device resistance” that an attacker could exploit. Analyze
and system vendors identified vulnerabilities to determine their signifi-
Older SCADA systems (most systems in use) cance, and take corrective actions as appropriate.
have no security features whatsoever, SCADA sys- Track corrective actions and analyze this informa-
tem owners must insist that their system vendor tion to identify trends. Additionally, retest systems
implement security features in the form of product after corrective actions have been taken to ensure
patches or upgrades. Some newer SCADA devices that vulnerabilities were actually eliminated. Scan
are shipped with basic security features, but these non-production environments actively to identify
are usually disabled to ensure ease of installation. and address potential problems.
Analyze each SCADA device to determine 10.
Conduct physical security surveys and assess all
whether security features are present. Additionally, remote sites connected to the SCADA network to
factory default security settings (such as in computer evaluate their security
network firewalls) are often set to provide maximum Any location that has a connection to the
usability, but minimal security. Set all security fea- SCADA network is a target, especially unmanned
tures to provide the maximum security only after or unguarded remote sites. Conduct a physical
a thorough risk assessment of the consequences of security survey and inventory access points at each
reducing the security level. facility that has a connection to the SCADA sys-
7.
Establish strong controls over any medium that is tem. Identify and assess any source of information
used as a backdoor into the SCADA network including remote telephone/computer network/
Where backdoors or vendor connections do exist fiber optic cables that could be tapped; radio and
in SCADA systems, strong authentication must be microwave links that are exploitable computer
implemented to ensure secure communications. terminals and that could be accessed; and wire-
Modems, wireless, and wired networks used for less local area network access points. Identify and
communications and maintenance represent a sig- eliminate single points of failure. The security
nificant vulnerability to the SCADA network and of the site must be adequate to detect or prevent
remote sites. Successful “war dialing” or “war driv- unauthorized access. Do not allow “live” network
ing” attacks could allow an attacker to bypass all access points at remote, unguarded sites simply for
of the other controls and have direct access to the convenience.
SCADA network or resources. To minimize the risk 11.
Establish SCADA “Red Teams” to identify and eval-
of such attacks, disable inbound access and replace it uate possible attack scenarios
with some type of callback system. Establish a “Red Team” to identify potential
8.
Implement internal and external intrusion detec- attack scenarios and evaluate potential system vul-
tion systems and establish 24-hour-a-day incident nerabilities. Use a variety of people who can provide
monitoring insight into the weaknesses of the overall network,
To be able to effectively respond to cyber attacks, SCADA system, physical systems, and security con-
establish an intrusion detection strategy that includes trols. People who work on the system every day have
alerting network administrators of malicious net- great insight into the vulnerabilities of your SCADA
work activity originating from internal or external network and should be consulted when identifying
sources. Intrusion detection system monitoring is potential attack scenarios and possible consequences.
essential 24 hours a day; this capability can be eas- Also, ensure that the risk from a malicious insider is
ily set up through a pager. Additionally, incident fully evaluated, given that this represents one of the
response procedures must be in place to allow an greatest threats to an organization. Feed information
resulting from the “Red Team” evaluation into risk also needed so that routine changes can be made to
management processes to assess the information and the protection strategy to ensure it remains effective.
establish appropriate protection strategies. Fundamental to risk management is the identification
of residual risks with a network protection strategy
The following steps focus on management actions to establish in place and acceptance of that risk by management.
an effective cyber security program: 15. Establish a network protection strategy based on the
principle of defense-in-depth
12. Clearly define cyber security roles, responsibilities, A fundamental principle that must be part of any
and authorities for managers, system administra- network protection strategy is defense-in-depth.
tors, and users Defense-in-depth must be considered early in the
Organization personnel need to understand the design phase of the development process, and must
specific expectations associated with protecting be an integral consideration in all technical decision-
information technology resources through the defi- making associated with the network. Utilize techni-
nition of clear and logical roles and responsibilities. cal and administrative controls to mitigate threats
In addition, key personnel need to be given sufficient from identified risks to as great a degree as possible
authority to carry out their assigned responsibili- at all levels of the network. Single points of failure
ties. Too often, good cyber security is left up to the must be avoided, and cyber security defense must be
initiative of the individual, which usually leads to layered to limit and contain the impact of any secu-
inconsistent implementations and ineffective security incidents. Additionally, each layer must be pro-
rity. Establish a cyber security organizational struc- tected against other systems at the same layer. For
ture that defines roles and responsibilities and clearly example, to protect against the inside threat, restrict
identifies how cyber security issues are escalated and users to access only those resources necessary to
who is notified in an emergency. perform their job functions.
13. Document network architecture and identify sys- 16. Clearly identify cyber security requirements
tems that serve critical functions or contain sensi- Organizations and companies need structured
tive information that require additional levels of security programs with mandated requirements to
protection establish expectations and allow personnel to be held
Develop and document robust information secu- accountable. Formalized policies and procedures
rity architecture as part of a process to establish an are typically used to establish and institutionalize a
effective protection strategy. It is essential that orga- cyber security program. A formal program is essen-
nizations design their network with security in mind tial for establishing a consistent, standards-based
and continue to have a strong understanding of their approach to cyber security through an organization
network architecture throughout its lifecycle. Of and eliminates sole dependence on individual initia-
particular importance, an in-depth understanding of tive. Policies and procedures also inform employees
the functions that the systems perform and the sensi- of their specific cyber security responsibilities and
tivity of the stored information is required. Without the consequences of failing to meet those respon-
this understanding, risk cannot be properly assessed sibilities. They also provide guidance regarding
and protection strategies may not be sufficient. actions to be taken during a cyber security incident
Documenting the information security architecture and promote efficient and effective actions during a
and its components is critical to understanding the time of crisis. As part of identifying cyber security
overall protection strategy, and identifying single requirements, include user agreements and notifica-
points of failure. tion and warning banners. Establish requirements to
14. Establish a rigorous, ongoing risk management minimize the threat from malicious insiders, includ-
process ing the need for conducting background checks
A thorough understanding of the risks to network and limiting network privileges to those absolutely
computing resources from denial-of-service attacks necessary.
and the vulnerability of sensitive information to 17. Establish effective configuration management
compromise is essential to an effective cyber secu- processes
rity program. Risk assessments form the technical A fundamental management process needed to
basis of this understanding are critical to formulat- maintain a secure network is configuration manage-
ing effective strategies to mitigate vulnerabilities ment. Configuration management needs to cover
and to preserve the integrity of computing resources. both hardware configurations and software configu-
Initially, perform a baseline risk analysis based on rations. Changes to hardware or software can eas-
current threat assessment to use for developing a ily introduce vulnerabilities that undermine network
network protection strategy. Due to rapidly chang- security. Processes are required to evaluate and con-
ing technology and the emergence of new threats on trol any change to ensure that the network remains
a daily basis, an ongoing risk assessment process is secure. Configuration management begins with
Plant Security 57
well-tested and documented security baselines for the more vulnerable the computer/network is. Never
your various systems. divulge data revealed to a SCADA network, includ-
18. Conduct routine self-assessments ing the names and contact information about the
Robust performance evaluation processes are system operators/administrators, computer operat-
needed to provide organizations with feedback on ing systems, and/or physical and logical locations of
the effectiveness of cyber security policy and techni- computers and network systems over telephones or
cal implementation. A sign of a mature organization to personnel unless they are explicitly authorized to
is one that is able to self-identify issues, conduct root receive such information. Any requests for informa-
cause analyses, and implement effective corrective tion by unknown persons need to be sent to a cen-
actions that address individual and systemic prob- tral network security location for verification and
lems. Self-assessment processes that are normally fulfillment. People can be a weak link in an other-
part of an effective cyber security program include wise secure network. Conduct training and informa-
routine scanning for vulnerabilities, automated tion awareness campaigns to ensure that personnel
auditing of the network, and self-assessments of remain diligent in guarding sensitive network infor-
organizational and individual performance. mation, particularly their passwords.
19. Establish system backups and disaster recovery
plans THE BOTTOM LINE ON SECURITY
Establish a disaster recovery plan that allows for
rapid recovery from any emergency (including a Again, when it comes to the security of our nation and even
cyber attack). System backups are an essential part of water/wastewater treatment facilities, few have summed it
of any plan and allow rapid reconstruction of the net- better than Governor Ridge (Henry, 2002).
work. Routinely exercise disaster recovery plans to
ensure that they work and that personnel are famil- Now, obviously, the further removed we get from September
iar with them. Make appropriate changes to disas- 11, I think the natural tendency is to let down our guard.
Unfortunately, we cannot do that. The government will con-
ter recovery plans based on lessons learned from
tinue to do everything we can to find and stop those who seek
exercises. to harm us. And I believe we owe it to the American people to
20. Senior organizational leadership should establish remind them that they must be vigilant, as well.
expectations for cyber security performance and
hold individuals accountable for their performance
Effective cyber security performance requires CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS
commitment and leadership from senior managers Thought-Provoking Questions (Answers Will Vary):
in the organization. It is essential that senior man-
agement establish an expectation for strong cyber 3.1 Do you feel that water and/or wastewater facilities
security and communicate this to their subordinate are realistic targets for terrorism? Why?
managers throughout the organization. It is also 3.2 Are we more vulnerable to homegrown terrorists
essential that senior organizational leadership estab- than foreign terrorists? Explain.
lish a structure for implementation of a cyber secu-
rity program. This structure will promote consistent
implementation and the ability to sustain a strong REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING
cyber security program. It is then important for indi- DOE, 2001. 21 Steps to Improve Cyber Security of SCADA Networks.
viduals to be held accountable for their performance Washington, DC: Department of Energy.
as it relates to cyber security. This includes manag- Ezell, B.C., 1998. Risks of Cyber Attack to Supervisory Control and
ers, system administrators, technicians, and users/ Data Acquisition. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia.
operators. FBI, 2000. Threat to Critical Infrastructure. Washington, DC:
Federal Bureau of Investigation.
21. Establish policies and conduct training to minimize
FBI, 2004. Ninth Annual Computer Crime and Security Survey.
the likelihood that organizational personnel will Washington, DC: FBI: Computer Crime Institute and Federal
inadvertently disclose sensitive information regard- Bureau of Investigation.
ing SCADA system design, operations, or security GAO, 2003. Critical Infrastructure Protection: Challenges in
controls Securing Control System. Washington, DC: United States
Release data related to the SCADA network only General Accounting Office.
on a strict, need-to-know basis, and only to persons Gellman, B., 2002. Cyber-Attacks by Al Qaeda Feared: Terrorists
at Threshold of Using Internet as Tool of Bloodshed, Experts
explicitly authorized to receive such information.
Say. Washington Post, June 27, p. A01.
“Social engineering,” the gathering of information Greenberg, J.M., Mendoza-Gomez, E.X., & Parronell, V., 1999.
about a computer or computer network via questions The Chemistry of Life Origins. Dordrecht, Netherlands and
to naïve users, is often the first step in a malicious London, UK: Kluwer Publishers, pp. 190–194.
attack on computer networks. The more informa- Henry, K., 2002. New Face of Security. Government Security. April,
tion revealed about a computer or computer network, pp. 30–31.
IBWA, 2004. Bottled Water Safety and Security. Alexandria, VA: USEPA, 2004. Water Security: Basic Information. Accessed
International Bottled Water Association. 09/30/07 @ http://cfpub.epa.gov/safewater/watersecur ity/
NIPC, 2002. National Infrastructure Protection Center Report. basicinformation.cfm.
Washington, DC: National Infrastructure Protection Center. USEPA, 2005. EPA Needs to Determine What Barriers Prevent
Stamp, J. et al., 2003. Common Vulnerabilities in Critical Water Systems from Securing Known SCADA Vulnerabilities.
Infrastructure Control Systems, 2nd ed. Sandia National In: Harris, J.(Ed.) Final Briefing Report. Washington, DC:
Laboratories. USEPA.
4 Water/Wastewater References,
Models, and Terminology
Living things depend on water but water does not The purpose of the models shown in Figures 4.1 and 4.2 is
depend on living things. It has a life of its own. to allow readers to visually follow the water and wastewater
treatment process step-by-step as they are presented in this
—Pielou, E. C.
text. The figures help the reader understand how all the vari-
ous unit processes sequentially follow and tie into each other.
This format simply provides a pictorial presentation along
DID YOU KNOW? with pertinent written information, enhancing the learning
process.
It takes between 250 and 650 gallons of water to grow a
pound of rice. That is more water than many households
use in a week. For just a bag of rice (Pearce, 2006). Additional Wastewater Treatment Models
In order to demonstrate that there are more wastewater treat-
ment models available and actually being used in the indus-
try than just the so-called conventional unit processes shown
SETTING THE STAGE
in Figure 4.2, seven different models are described and dis-
This handbook is a compilation or summary of information cussed in this section.
available in many expert sources. While I have attempted to
cover all aspects of water and wastewater treatment system Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District
operation, let me point out that no one single handbook has all The Green Bay (Wisconsin) Metropolitan Sewerage District’s
the information or all the answers. Moreover, because of the (GBMSD) De Pere Wastewater treatment plant is an 8.0 MGD
physical limits of any written text, some topics are only given (average daily flow) two-stage activated sludge plant with bio-
cursory exposure and limited coverage. For those individuals logical phosphorus removal and tertiary effluent filtration.
seeking a more in depth treatment of specific topics germane The Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District’s (GBMSD)
to water and wastewater treatment system operations, we rec- De Pere Wastewater Treatment Facility (WWTF) serves the
ommend consulting one or more of the references listed in City of De Pere, portions of the village of Ashwaubenon and
Table 4.1, and any of the many other outstanding references portions of the towns of Lawrence, Belleview, and Hobart.
referred to throughout this text. GBMSD acquired ownership of the De Pere WWTF from the
Note: Technomic Publishing Company originally pub- City of De Pere on January 1, 2008.
lished many of the texts listed in Table 4.1. Technomic is now The original circa mid-1930s’ plant (a primary treatment
a part of CRC/Lewis Publishers; the listed Technomic texts facility with biosolids digestion) was upgraded in 1964 to an
are available from CRC Press. activated biosolids process, with chlorination for disinfec-
tion. In the later 1970s, there was a major upgrade to the
facility (which represents the current operational scheme),
TREATMENT PROCESS MODELS
including a two-stage activated biosolids process with bio-
Figure 4.1 shows a basic schematic of the water treatment logical phosphorus removal, tertiary filtration (gravity sand
process. Other unit processes used in the treatment of water filters), solids dewatering with incineration, and liquid chlo-
(fluoridation, for example) are not represented in Figure 4.1; rine disinfection. Influent data for the De Pere WWTF are
however, we discuss many of the other unit processes in detail presented in Table 4.2.
within the handbook. Figure 4.2 shows a basic schematic or In 1997, additional upgrades to the facility were initiated,
model of a wastewater treatment process that provides primary beginning with UV disinfection replacing the liquid chlorine
and secondary treatment using the activated sludge process. system. The chlorine disinfection system is currently main-
In secondary treatment (which provides BOD removal beyond tained as a back-up system. Several other major upgrades
what is achievable by simple sedimentation), three approaches were included: replacement of the coarse influent screen with
are commonly used: trickling filter, activated sludge, and oxi- fine screens (1998–1999), renovation of the multi-media ter-
dation ponds. We discuss these systems in detail later in the tiary filtration system to a signal media U.S. Filter Multiwash
text. We also discuss BNR (biological nutrient removal), and air scour system (1999–2000), and a solids handling upgrade
standard tertiary or advanced wastewater treatment. which included installation of two gravity belt thickeners
59
(replacing dissolved air flotation) and the addition of two filter

TABLE 4.1 presses (2001–2002).
Recommended Reference Material Figure 4.3 presents the process flow diagram for the
1 Small Water System O and M, Kerri, K.et al. California State GBMSD—De Pere WWTF, a two-stage activated biosolids
University, Sacramento, CA. treatment plant (online 1978–present) with tertiary filtration
2 Water Distribution System O and M, Kerri, K. et al. California State and design flows as follows:
University, Sacramento, CA.
3 Water Treatment Plant Operation, Volumes 1 and 2. Kerri, K. et al. Average Dry—8.5 MGD
California State University, Sacramento, CA. Design Flow—14.2 MGD
4 Basic Mathematics, #3014-g. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control. Maximum Hourly Dry—23.8 MGD
5 Waterborne Disease Control. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control. Maximum Hourly Wet—30.0 MGD
6 Water Fluoridation, #3017-G. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control.
7 Introduction to Water Sources and Transmission—Volume 1. Denver: Influent to the plant undergoes fine screening and is subse-
American Water Works Association.
quently pumped to preliminary treatment (grit removal fol-
8 Introduction to Water Treatment—Volume 2. Denver: American Water
lowed by grease removal, utilizing two 50 ft × 50 ft clarifiers
Works Association.
with grease/scum collection). The influent pump station con-
9 Introduction to Water Distribution—Volume 3. Denver: American
Water Works Association.
sists of four 150 hp, 10 MGD pumps. Screenings are disposed
10 Introduction to Water Quality Analysis—Volume 4. Denver: American
of in a landfill. Grit, oil and grease removed in preliminary
Water Works Association. treatment units are also disposed of in a landfill.
11 Reference Handbook: Basic Science Concepts and Applications. Biological treatment is conducted in two serial states, each
Denver: American Water Works Association. with a 1.1 MGD anaerobic zone (for phosphorus removal)
12 Handbook of Water Analysis, 2nd ed., HACH Chemical Company, followed by a 2.2 MGD aeration zone. Approximately 100%
P.O. Box 389, Loveland, CO, 1992. of the mixed liquor suspended solids from the aeration zone
13 Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, U.S. are recycled to the anoxic zone. Aeration is provided by six
Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring (each), 6,000 standard cubic feet per minute (scfm), 330 hp
Systems Laboratory-Cincinnati (ESSL-CL), EPA-6000/4-79-020, turbo blowers for the first stage aeration process and by three
Revised March 1983 and 1979 (where applicable). (each), 4,000 scfm, 250 hp multi-stage centrifugal blowers for
14 Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st
the second state aeration process.
ed., Washington, D.C.: American Public Health Association.
The first stage biological treatment is followed by clarifica-
15 Basic Math Concepts: For Water and Wastewater Plant Operators. J.
tion (two each, 100 ft diameter, 13.7 ft side water depth clari-
K. Price. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, 1991.
16 Spellman’s Standard Handbook for Wastewater Operators, Volumes 1,
fiers—one on line for each aeration basin). Clarifier effluent
2, and 3. Spellman, F.R., Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing from the first stage biological treatment process can be fur-
Company, 199-2000. ther treated in the second stage treatment process. However,
17 The Handbook for Waterworks Operator Certification, Volumes 1, 2, all wastewater is currently treated only in the first stage bio-
and 3. Spellman, F.R., & Drinan, J. Lancaster, PA: Technomic logical process. The second stage of biological treatment is
Publishing Company, 2001. not currently utilized since it is not required to achieve dis-
18 Fundamentals for the Water & Wastewater Maintenance Operator charge compliance. Biological treatment is followed by their
Series: Electricity, Electronics, Pumping, Water Hydraulics, Piping 125 ft diameter, 10.9 ft side water depth clarifiers. Clarifier
and Valves, & Blueprint Reading. Spellman, F.R., & Drinan, effluent is polished by tertiary sand filtration and disinfected
J.Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company (Distributed by using UV prior to discharge. During periods of high flow,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL), 2000–2002.
UV disinfection is supplemented by disinfection with liquid
19 Wastewater Treatment Plants: Planning, Design, and Operation, 2nd
chlorine.
ed. Qasim, S.R. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company,
Clarifier underflow (WAS—waste activated sludge) from
Inc., 1999.
20 Simplified Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations. Haller, E.
biological treatment undergoes one of two dewatering pro-
Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, 1999. cesses. Approximately 75% of the WAS undergoes thickening
21 Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, A Field Study Program, (two each, 2 m gravity belt thickeners), chemical condition
Volume 1, 4th ed., Kerri, K., et al. California State University, (lime and ferric chloride), dewater (two each, 1.5 m × 2 m
Sacramento, CA. plate and frame filter press) and incineration (18.75 ft diam-
22 Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, A Field Study Program, eter, 7 hearth, 7,500 lb/hr multiple hearth incinerator). The
Volume 2, 4th ed., Kerri, K., et al. Sacramento, CA: California State incinerator ash is disposed of in a landfill. The balance of the
University. WAS is chemically conditioned with polymer and dewatered
in two each, 2 m belt filter presses. The dewatered sludge is
References, Models, and Terminology 61
Cl2
Intake Screening Mixing Coagulation Sedimentation Filtration Chlorination Distribution

Flocculation
Sludge removal
FIGURE 4.1 Unit processes water treatment.
FIGURE 4.2 Schematic of an example wastewater treatment facility providing primary and secondary treatment using the activated
sludge process.
disposed of in a landfill. Filtrate from sludge thickening and

TABLE 4.2 dewatering operations is returned to the first stage biological
Profile of De Pere WWTF Influent Data (Y2009) treatment.
Parameter Daily Average The most recent upgrade (2003–2004) replaced the facil-
Flow (MGD) 8
ity’s first stage treatment centrifugal blowers with high-
speed, magnetic turbo blowers, the first installation of this
BOD (lbs/day) 29,070
TSS (lbs/day) 18,587
new, energy efficient technology in the country. Because the
Ammonia-N (lbs/day) Not Monitored
second stage aeration process is currently not utilized, only
Phosphorus (lbs/day) 307.5
the first stage process blowers were replaced under the ECM
project.
(RAS)
nd
(RAS) 2 Stage Aeration Basin Final Clarification
Raw Sewage Influent
Flow
st
Fine Screening Pump Station Preliminary Treatment 1 Stage Aeration Intermediate Clarification Tertiary Sand Filter UV Disinfection
Grit to Landfill Grease to Landfill (WAS) (WAS)
Waste Activated Biosolids
Ash to Landfill
Gravity Belt Thickeners Thickened Biosolids Conditioning Plate & Frame Filter Press Incineration
Biosolids to Landfill
Belt Filter Press
FIGURE 4.3 De Pere WWT process flow diagram (biological treatment).Source: EPA 832-R-10-00 (2010). Evaluation of Energy
Conservation Measures. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Shumaker, G., 2007. High Speed Technology Brings Low
TABLE 4.3
Costs.Water and Wastes Digest. August.
Profile of Sheboygan WWTP Influent Data (Y2009)
Sheboygan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant Parameter Daily Average
The Sheboygan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant in Flow (MGD) 11.78
Sheboygan, Michigan, is an 11.8 MGD (average daily flow) acti- BOD (mg/L) 175
vated biosolids plant with biological phosphorus removal. The TSS (mg/L) 203
Sheboygan Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP) Ammonia-N (mg/L) Not Monitored
serves approximately 68,000 residential customers in the cities of Phosphorus (mg/L) 5.7
Sheboygan and Sheboygan Falls, the Village of Kohler, and the
Town(s) of Sheboygan, Sheboygan Falls, and Wilson. The plant
was originally constructed in 1982 as a conventional activated biological treatment is conducted in six basins. The first two
biosolids plant using turbine aerators with sparger rings. In 1990, basins are anaerobic to provide phosphorus removal. They are
the plant was upgraded to include a fine bubble diffused air sys- configured with baffles in an “N” pattern. The remaining four
tem with positive displacement blowers. From 1997 through 1999, basins are currently aerated using two Turblex blowers. Following
additional improvements were made to the facility to implement aeration, secondary clarification is provided by four clarifiers.
biological nutrient removal and to the bar screens, grit removal Return activated sludge (RAS) from the clarifiers is sent to the
facilities, biosolids storage tanks, and the primary and secondary anaerobic zone. A portion of the RAS is conveyed upstream of
clarifiers. The plant currently operates as an 18.4 MGD biological the primary clarifier. Plant effluent is disinfected with chlorine
nutrient removal plant with fine screens, grit removal, primary and is then dechlorinated before discharge into Lake Michigan.
clarification, biological nutrient removal, activated biosolids The combined primary and secondary biosolids under-
thickening, and liquid (6% solids) biosolids storage. Table 4.3 pro- flow from the primary clarifier (waste sludge—biosolids) is
vides average daily influent data for the plant. Figure 4.4 provides sent to three primary anaerobic digesters. From the primary
a process flow diagram of the plant treatment scheme. digesters, the biosolids flow to a single secondary anaerobic
Influent to the plant goes through two automatic self-cleaning digester. Methane from the digesters is used to provide heat to
fine screens. A 20 ft diameter cyclone separator removes grit the digesters as well as fuel for ten 30 kW microturbines that
before the wastewater enters primary clarification. The primary provide electricity to the plant. Two belt thickeners (one at 2
clarification is provided by four primary clarifiers. Secondary m, and one at 3 m) increase the solids content of the digested
Influent Flow MGD 11.775 Biological Effluent Flow MGD 11.775

BOD mg/L 175 Primary Nutrient Secondary Disinfection CBOD mg/L 3.10
TSS mg/L 203 Clarifier Aeration
Removal Clarifier Unit TSS mg/L 4.4
Phosphorus mg/L 5.87 Phosphorus mg/L 0.61
NH3-N mg/L 2.86
WAS RAS
High Strength Waste (HSW) GPD 30.000

BOD mg/L ~40,000 Primary Secondary
WAS & High Strength Waste Gravity Belt Thickener Liquid (6% Solids)
TSS mg/L ~10,000 Anaerobic Anaerobic
Biosolids Storage
Phosphorus mg/L ~2,000 Digester Digester
FIGURE 4.4 Sheboygan Wastewater Treatment Plant Process Flow Diagram. Source: EPA (2010). Adapted from Evaluation of Energy
Conservation Measures. EPA 832-R-10-005. Washington, D.C.: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
biosolids from 2.5% to 6% solids. Digested, thickened biosol- aeration system in both ditches was upgraded with fine bubble
ids are held in two storage tanks before being land applied. diffusers and automatically controlled turbo blowers. Influent
data for the Big Gulch WWTP are presented in Table 4.4.
Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant Figure 4.5 presents the process flow diagram for the Big
The Big Gulch WWTP, owned and operated by the Mukilteo Gulch WWTP, an activated biosolids treatment plant with UV
Water and Wastewater District,Washington, is a 1.5 MGD disinfection.
(average daily flow) oxidation ditch plant operating two paral- Influent to the plant passes through a perforated-plate
lel oxidation ditches. Ditch A treats approximately 40% of the mechanical fine screen (rate capacity of 6.5 MGD) into a
plant flow and Ditch B treats approximately 60% of the flow. gravity grit channel. Effluent from the grit removal system is
The Big Gulch WWTP provides wastewater treatment returned to the headworks and grit is sent to the dumpsters.
service for 22,455 people residing in portions of the City of Degritted influent, combined with return active sludge (RAS)
Mukilteo and Snohomish County, Washington. Originally from the secondary clarifiers and filtrate from the sludge dewa-
constructed in 1970, the WWTP consisted of a coarse bar tering belt filter press, is lifted to the selector mixing basin
screen and single oxidation ditch using brush rotor aerators, using the two influent screw lift pumps (3.83 MGD capacity
followed by a secondary clarifier and chlorine disinfection. each). Selector mixing basin effluent is conveyed to the oxida-
Between 1989 and 1991, the Big Gulch WWTP underwent tion ditches via overflow channels equipped with adjustable weir
significant upgrades including the following: gates to distribute the flow to the ditches (40% to Oxidation Ditch
A and 60% to Oxidation Ditch B). The two oxidation ditches,
• New headworks with a grit removal channel operating in parallel and providing a combined 18-hour hydrau-
• Influent screw pumps lic residence time, are followed by three secondary clarifiers.
• Selector tank Effluent from the secondary clarifiers is conveyed to the UV
• Second oxidation ditch disinfection system. The UV system consists of 96 lamps and
• Third secondary clarifier provides 35 mJ/cm2 (energy) at a peak flow of 8.7 MGD (based
• Aerobic biosolids holding tanks within a rotary on 60% UV transmittance). The UV disinfection system pro-
drum thickener duces an effluent with fecal coliform counts below the facil-
• Biosolids return piping ity’s permit limit of 200 colonies/100 ml (monthly average).
• Scum and waste active biosolids pumps Waste activated biosolids and scum from the secondary clar-
• Biosolids pumps ifiers are transferred via a rotary lobe pump to a pair of two-cell
• Biosolids dewatering belt filter press aerobic biosolids holding tanks for aerobic digestion, produc-
• Chlorine contact chamber ing Class B biosolids. In 2006 the aerobic biosolids digestion
Subsequent to the 1991 facility upgrade, the following
upgrades to the treatment plant were implemented: TABLE 4.4
Profile of Big Gulch WWTP Influent Data (Y2004–Y2010)
• Influent screening (perforated-plate fine screens)
• Submersible mixers (in the oxidation ditches) Parameter Average Minimum Maximum
• UV disinfection (replacing chlorine disinfection) Flow (MGD) 1.68 1.21 2.40
CBOD (mg/L) 217 116 462
To address a need for additional oxidation ditch aeration TSS (mg/L) 255 131 398
capacity to handle intermittent increases in BOD loading, the
Screw Lift Selector Basin Oxidation Ditches A &B Bar Screen Secondary Clarifier UV Disinfection
Outfall
Screening &
Influent Grit Non-Potable Water
Removal
To Biosolids Handling Unit Processes
Biosolids Storage
FIGURE 4.5 Simplified schematic flow diagram of Big Gulch WWTP.
system was upgraded with fine bubble air diffusers and positive (WWTP) #1, located in West Tennessee near Memphis,
displacement blowers. Biosolids are thickened through either serves approximately 24,000 residential customers and one
settling in the aerobic biosolids holding tanks or through rotary school. One hundred percent of the plant influent is domes-
drum thickening. In 2007, the rotary drum biosolids thickener tic wastewater. The facility was originally commissioned in
was installed to increase digestion capacity. Digested biosol- 1994 as a 0.5 MGD aerated lagoon and has undergone three
ids are dewatered using a gravity belt dewatering press and the major expansions (in 1999, 2003 and 2005) to meet the city’s
dewatered biosolids are transported for land application. growing population. In 1993, the facility was upgraded to a
secondary treatment facility (one oxidation ditch and second-
ary clarification). In 2003, the facility was upgraded with sol-
BIBLIOGRAPHY ids handling (aerobic digester and belt filter press). In 2005, a
Bridges, T.G., 2010. Phone Conversation—Plant Manager, Big
Gulch WWTP. Mukilteo, WA. As reported In: EPA (2010) TABLE 4.5
Evaluation of Energy Conservation Measures, EPA 832-R- Profile of the City of Bartlett WWTP #1 Influent Data
10–005. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency.
Gray & Osborne, Inc.,2008. Wastewater Treatment Plant Capacity (Y2009)
Study and Engineering Report. Seattle, WA: CHM Publisher. Parameter Daily Average
Flow (mg/L) 1.0
City of Bartlett Wastewater Treatment Plant
BOD (mg/L) 130
The City of Bartlett, Tennessee, WWTP is a 1.0 MGD (aver- TSS (mg/L) 180
age daily flow) secondary facility utilizing two mechanically Ammonia-N (mg/L) Not Monitored
aerated oxidation ditches to provide secondary treatment. TKN (mg/L) 41
Each of the aeration basins is equipped with three rotor Phosphorus (mg/L) 6
aerators. The City of Bartlett’s Wastewater treatment plant
Clarifier
Influent Oxidation Ditch Effluent
#1
Mechanical
Screening UV
Disinfection
Oxidation Ditch
#2 Clarifier
Waste Biosolids
Digested Biosolids
Belt Filer Aerobic
Press Digester
Dewatered Digested Biosolids
FIGURE 4.6 City of Bartlett WWTP #1 process flow diagram.

second oxidation ditch was added. Influent data for the City Unger, M.A., & Smith, C.L., 1994. Seabees Monitoring Project
of Bartlett WWTP #1 is presented in Table 4.5. Figure 4.6 is James River Estuary, Virginia. An Evaluation of the Long
a process flow diagram depicting the current configuration of Term. Gloucester, VA: Chesapeake Bay Foundation.
USEPA, 1978. Operations Manual: Sludge Handling &
the treatment plant.
Conditioning. Washington, DC.
Plant influent undergoes mechanical screening followed USEPA, 1979. Common Environmental Terms: A Glossary.
by biological treatment in two mechanically aerated oxida- Washington, DC.
tion ditches. Each oxidation ditch is equipped with three USEPA, 1982a. Dewatering Municipal Wastewater Sludges.
60 hp rotor aerators. Oxidation ditch effluent undergoes Cincinnati, OH: Center for Environment Research
secondary clarification followed by UV disinfection prior Information. EPA-625/1.82-014.
to discharge into the Loosahatchie River. Waste biosolids USEPA, 1982b. Resource Conservation & Recovery Act.
Washington, DC.
from the secondary clarifiers undergo aerobic digestion.
USEPA, 1990. National Sewage Sludge Survey. Washington, DC.
Digested biosolids are dewatered in a belt filter press and USEPA, 1993a. 40 CFR Part 503 Regulation. Washington, DC.
are then land applied as an agricultural soil amendment and USEPA, 1993b. Standards for Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge,
fertilizer. pp. 9248–9415. Washington, DC.
Vesilind, P.A., 1980. Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater
Sludges. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brown, C., March 11, 1983. Seabees in Service. Proceedings,
Conference on Coastal Structures ’83, American Society of KEY TERMS, ACRONYMS, ABBREVIATIONS
Civil Engineers, Arlington, VA. IN WATER/WASTEWATER OPERATIONS
Brunner, C.R., 1980. Design of Sewage Incinerator Systems. Park
Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corporation. To learn water/wastewater treatment operations (or any other
Brunner, C.R., 1984. Incinerator Systems: Selection and Design. technology for that matter), you must master the language
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Inc. associated with the technology. Each technology has its own
Coker, C.S., Walden, R., Shea, T.G., & Brinker, M., 1991. terms and acronyms and abbreviations with their own accom-
Dewatering Municipal Wastewater Sludges for Incineration. panying definitions. Many of the terms and acronyms used in
Water Environment & Technology. March, pp. 63–67.
water/wastewater treatment are unique; others combine words
Ekster, A., 2009. Optimization of Pump Station Operation Saves
Energy and Reduces Carbon Footprint. Proceedings of 82nd from many different technologies and professions. One thing
WEFTEC, Conference and Exposition, Orlando. is certain: Water/wastewater operators without a clear under-
Haller, E.J., 1995. Simplified Wastewater Treatment Plant standing of the terms and acronyms related to their profes-
Operations. Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishers, Inc. sion are ill-equipped to perform their duties in the manner
Hardaway, C.S., Thomas, G.R., Unger, M.A., Greaves, J., & Rice, required.
G., 1991. Seabees Monitoring Project James River Estuary, Usually, a handbook or text like this one includes a glos-
Virginia. Contract Report to Center of Innovative Technology,
sary of terms at the end of the work. In the Handbook a
Herndon, Virginia & HRSD, Virginia Beach, VA.
Hardaway, C.S., Thomas, G.R., Unger, M.A., & Smith, C.L., 1994. glossary is included; however, definitions of many of the
Seabee Monitoring Project James River Estuary, Virginia. frequently used terms are defined right up front. Experience
Contract Update Report for Center for Innovative Technology, shows that an early introduction to keywords is a benefit to
Herndon, Virginia & HRSD, Virginia Beach, VA. readers. An up-front introduction to key terms, acronyms and
Lemma, I.T., Colby, S., & Herrington, T., 2009. Pulse Aeration of abbreviations facilitates a more orderly, logical, systematic
Secondary Aeration Tanks Holds EnergySsaving Potential learning activity. Those terms not defined in this section are
without Compromising Effluent Quality. Proceedings of 82nd defined as they appear in the text and in the glossary. A short
WEFTEC, Conference and Exposition, Orlando.
Lester, F.N., 1992. Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment. In: R.
quiz on many of the following terms follows the end of this
Harrison (Ed.) Pollution: Causes, Effects, & Control. London: chapter.
Royal Society of Chemistry, pp. 33–62.
Lewis, F.M., Haug, R.T., & Lundberg, L.A., 1988. Control of
Organics, Particulates and Acid Gas Emissions from Multiple DEFINITIONS
Hearth and Fluidized Bed Sludge Incinerators. Paper pre-
sented at 61st Annual Conference and Exposition, WPCF, Absorb to take in. Many things absorb water.
Dallas, TX. Acid Rain the acidic rainfall that results when rain com-
Metcalf & Eddy, 2002. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, bines with sulfur oxides emissions from combustion
Disposal & Reuse, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. of fossil fuels (coal, for example).
Outwater, A.B., 1994. Reuse of Sludge and Minor Wastewater Acre-feet (acre-foot) an expression of water quantity. One
Residuals. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc. acre-foot will cover one acre of ground one foot
Peavy, S., Rowe, D.R., & Tchobanglous, G., 1985. Environmental
deep. An acre-foot contains 43,560 cubic feet, 1,233
Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Sinaki, M., Yerrapotu, B., Colby, S., & Lemma, I., 2009. Permit cubic meters, or 325,829 gallons (U.S.). Also abbre-
Safe, Energy Smart—Greening Wastewater Treatment Plant viated as ac-ft.
Operations. Proceedings of 82 WEFTEC, Conference and Activated carbon derived from vegetable or animal materi-
Exposition, Orlando. als by roasting in a vacuum furnace. Its porous nature
gives it a very high surface area per unit mass—as Artesian water a well tapping a confined or artesian aquifer
much as 1,000 square meters per gram, which is 10 in which the static water level stands above the top
million times the surface area of 1 g of water in an of the aquifer. The term is sometimes used to include
open container. Used in adsorption (see definition), all wells tapping confined water. Wells with water
activated carbon adsorbs substances that are not or level above the water table are said to have positive
are only slightly adsorbed by other methods. artesian head (pressure) and those with water level
Activated sludge the solids formed when microorganisms below the water table, negative artesian head.
are used to treat wastewater using the activated Average monthly discharge limitation the highest allowable
sludge treatment process. It includes organisms, discharge over a calendar month.
accumulated food materials, and waste products Average weekly discharge limitation the highest allowable
from the aerobic decomposition process. discharge over a calendar week.
Adsorption the adhesion of a substance to the surface Backflow reversal of flow when pressure in a service con-
of a solid or liquid. Adsorption is often used to nection exceeds the pressure in the distribution main.
extract pollutants by causing them to attach to Backwash fluidizing filter media with water, air, or a com-
such adsorbents as activated carbon or silica gel. bination of the two so that individual grains can be
Hydrophobic (water-repulsing) adsorbents are cleaned of the material that has accumulated during
used to extract oil from waterways in oil spills. the filter run.
Advanced wastewater treatment treatment technology to Bacteria any of a number of one-celled organisms, some of
produce an extremely high-quality discharge. which cause disease.
Aeration the process of bubbling air through a solution, Bar screen a series of bars formed into a grid used to screen
sometimes cleaning water of impurities by exposure out large debris from influent flow.
to air. Base a substance that has a pH value between 7 and 14.
Aerobic conditions in which free, elemental oxygen is Basin a groundwater reservoir defined by the overlying land
present. Also used to describe organisms, biologi- surface and underlying aquifers that contain water
cal activity, or treatment processes that require free stored in the reservoir.
oxygen. Beneficial use of water the use of water for any beneficial
Agglomeration floc particles colliding and gathering into a purpose. Such uses include domestic use, irrigation,
larger settleable mass. recreation, fish and wildlife, fire protection, naviga-
Air gap the air space between the free-flowing discharge tion, power, industrial use, etc. The benefit varies
end of a supply pipe and an unpressurized receiving from one location to another and by custom. What
vessel. constitutes beneficial use is often defined by statute
Algae bloom a phenomenon whereby excessive nutrients or court decisions.
within a river, stream, or lake cause an explosion of Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) the oxygen used in
plant life that results in the depletion of the oxygen in meeting the metabolic needs of aerobic microorgan-
the water needed by fish and other aquatic life. Algae isms in water rich in organic matter.
bloom is usually the result of urban runoff (of lawn Biosolids from Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary,
fertilizers, etc.). The potential tragedy is that of a “fish Tenth Ed. (1998): biosolids n (1977) solid organic
kill,” where the stream life dies in one mass execution. matter recovered from a sewage treatment process
Alum aluminum sulfate; a standard coagulant used in water and used especially as fertilizer [or soil amend-
treatment. ment]—usually used in plural.
Ambient the expected natural conditions that occur in water • Note: In this text, biosolids is used in many places
unaffected or uninfluenced by human activities. (activated sludge being the exception) to replace the
Anaerobic conditions in which no oxygen (free or com- standard term sludge. The authors view the term
bined) is available. Also used to describe organisms, sludge as an ugly four-letter word inappropriate to
biological activity, or treatment processes that func- use to describe biosolids. Biosolids is a product that
tion in the absence of oxygen. can be reused; it has some value. Because biosolids
Anoxic conditions in which no free, elemental oxygen is have value, it certainly should not be classified as a
present. The only source of oxygen is combined oxy- “waste” product—and when biosolids for beneficial
gen, such as that found in nitrate compounds. Also reuse is addressed, it is made clear that it is not.
used to describe biological activity of treatment Biota all the species of plants and animals indigenous to a
processes that function only in the presence of com- certain area.
bined oxygen. Boiling point the temperature at which a liquid boils. The
Aquifer a water-bearing stratum of permeable rock, sand, temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid
or gravel. equals the pressure on its surface. If the pressure of
Aquifer system a heterogeneous body of introduced perme- the liquid varies, the actual boiling point varies. The
able and less permeable material that acts as a water- boiling point of water is 212° Fahrenheit or 100°
yielding hydraulic unit of regional extent. Celsius.
Breakpoint point at which chlorine dosage satisfies chlorine sampling. Limitations expressed as weight are total
demand. mass (weight) discharged over the day. Limitations
Breakthrough in filtering, when unwanted materials start to expressed in other units are average measurement of
pass through the filter. the day.
Buffer a substance or solution that resists changes in pH. Daily maximum discharge the highest allowable values for
Calcium carbonate compound principally responsible for a daily discharge.
hardness. Darcy’s Law an equation for the computation of the quan-
Calcium hardness portion of total hardness caused by cal- tity of water flowing through porous media. Darcy’s
cium compounds. Law assumes that the flow is laminar and that iner-
Carbonaceous biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD5) tia can be neglected. The law states that the rate of
the amount of biochemical oxygen demand that can viscous flow of homogenous fluids through isotropic
be attributed to carbonaceous material. porous media is proportional to, and in the direction
Carbonate hardness caused primarily by compounds con- of, the hydraulic gradient.
taining carbonate. Detention time the theoretical time water remains in a tank
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) the amount of chemically at a given flow rate.
oxidizable materials present in the wastewater. Dewatering the removal or separation of a portion of water
Chlorination disinfection of water using chlorine as the oxi- present in a sludge or slurry.
dizing agent. Diffusion the process by which both ionic and molecular
Clarifier a device designed to permit solids to settle or rise species dissolved in water move from areas of higher
and be separated from the flow. Also known as a set- concentration to areas of lower concentration.
tling tank or sedimentation basin. Discharge monitoring report (DMR) the monthly report
Coagulation the neutralization of the charges of colloidal required by the treatment plant’s National Pollutant
matter. Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) discharge
Coliform a type of bacteria used to indicate possible human permit.
or animal contamination of water. Disinfection water treatment process that kills pathogenic
Combined sewer a collection system that carries both waste- organisms.
water and stormwater flows. Disinfection by-products (DBPs) chemical compounds
Comminution a process to shred solids into smaller, less formed by the reaction of disinfectant with organic
harmful particles. compounds in water.
Composite sample a combination of individual samples Dissolved Oxygen (DO) the amount of oxygen dissolved
taken in proportion to flow. in water or sewage. Concentrations of less than
Connate water pressurized water trapped in the pore spaces five parts per million (ppm) can limit aquatic life
of sedimentary rock at the time it was deposited. It is or cause offensive odors. Excessive organic matter
usually highly mineralized. present in water because of inadequate waste treat-
Consumptive use (1) the quantity of water absorbed by ment and runoff from agricultural or urban land gen-
crops and transpired or used directly in the building erally causes low DO.
of plant tissue, together with the water evaporated Dissolved solids the total amount of dissolved inorganic
from the cropped area; (2) the quantity of water material contained in water or wastes. Excessive dis-
transpired and evaporated from a cropped area or solved solids make water unsuitable for drinking or
the normal loss of water from the soil by evapora- industrial uses.
tion and plant transpiration; or (3) the quantity of Domestic Consumption (Use) water used for household pur-
water discharged to the atmosphere or incorporated poses such as washing, food preparation, and show-
in the products of the process in connection with ers. The quantity (or quantity per capita) of water
vegetative growth, food processing, or an industrial consumed in a municipality or district for domestic
process. uses or purposes during a given period; it sometimes
Contamination (water) damage to the quality of water encompasses all uses, including the quantity wasted,
sources by sewage, industrial waste, or other lost, or otherwise unaccounted for.
material. Drawdown lowering the water level by pumping. It is mea-
Cross-connection a connection between a storm drain sys- sured in feet for a given quantity of water pumped
tem and a sanitary collection system; a connection during a specified period, or after the pumping level
between two sections of a collection system to han- has become constant.
dle anticipated overloads of one system; or a connec- Drinking water standards established by state agencies,
tion between drinking (potable) water and an unsafe U.S. Public Health Service, and Environmental
water supply or sanitary collection system. Protection Agency (EPA) for drinking water in the
Daily discharge the discharge of a pollutant measured dur- United States.
ing a calendar day or any 24-hour period that reason- Effluent something that flows out, usually a polluting gas or
ably represents a calendar day for the purposes of liquid discharge.
Effluent limitation any restriction imposed by the regula- Groundwater the supply of fresh water found beneath the
tory agency on quantities, discharge rates, or concen- earth’s surface (usually in aquifers) often used for
trations of pollutants discharged from point sources supplying wells and springs. Because groundwa-
into state waters. ter is a major source of drinking water, concern is
Energy in scientific terms, the ability or capacity to do growing over areas where leaching agricultural or
work. Various forms of energy include kinetic, industrial pollutants or substances from leaking
potential, thermal, nuclear, rotational, and elec- underground storage tanks (USTs) are contaminat-
tromagnetic. One form of energy may be changed ing groundwater.
to another, as when coal is burned to produce Groundwater hydrology the branch of hydrology that deals
steam to drive a turbine, which produces electric with groundwater, its occurrence and movements, its
energy. replenishment and depletion, the properties of rocks
Erosion the wearing away of the land surface by wind, that control groundwater movement and storage, and
water, ice or other geologic agents. Erosion occurs the methods of investigation and use of groundwater.
naturally from weather or runoff, but is often intensi- Groundwater recharge the inflow to a groundwater
fied by human land use practices. reservoir.
Eutrophication the process of enrichment of water bodies Groundwater runoff a portion of runoff that has passed into
by nutrients. Eutrophication of a lake normally con- the ground, has become groundwater, and has been
tributes to its slow evolution into a bog or marsh and discharged into a stream channel as spring or seep-
ultimately to dry land. Eutrophication may be accel- age water.
erated by human activities, thereby speeding up the Hardness the concentration of calcium and magnesium salts
aging process. in water.
Evaporation the process by which water becomes a vapor at Headloss amount of energy used by water in moving from
a temperature below the boiling point. one point to another.
Facultative organisms that can survive and function in the Heavy metals metallic elements with high atomic
presence or absence of free, elemental oxygen. weights, e.g., mercury, chromium, cadmium, arse-
Fecal coliform the portion of the coliform bacteria group nic, and lead. They can damage living things at
that is present in the intestinal tracts and feces of low concentrations and tend to accumulate in the
warm-blooded animals. food chain.
Field capacity the capacity of soil to hold water. It is mea- Holding pond a small basin or pond designed to hold sedi-
sured as the ratio of the weight of water retained by ment laden or contaminated water until it can be
the soil to the weight of the dry soil. treated to meet water quality standards or used in
Filtration the mechanical process that removes particulate some other way.
matter by separating water from solid material, usu- Hydraulic cleaning cleaning a pipe with water under enough
ally by passing it through sand. pressure to produce high water velocities.
Floc solids that join to form larger particles that will settle Hydraulic gradient a measure of the change in groundwater
better. head over a given distance.
Flocculation slow mixing process in which particles are Hydraulic head the height above a specific datum (gener-
brought into contact, with the intent of promoting ally sea level) that water will rise in a well.
their agglomeration. Hydrologic cycle (water cycle) the cycle of water move-
Flume a flow rate measurement device. ment from the atmosphere to the earth and back to
Fluoridation chemical addition to water to reduce incidence the atmosphere through various processes. These
of dental caries in children. processes include precipitation, infiltration, per-
Food-to-microorganisms ratio (F/M) an activated sludge colation, storage, evaporation, transpiration, and
process control calculation based upon the amount of condensation.
food (BOD5 or COD) available per pound of mixed Hydrology the science dealing with the properties, distribu-
liquor volatile suspended solids. tion, and circulation of water.
Force main a pipe that carries wastewater under pressure Impoundment a body of water such as a pond, confined by
from the discharge side of a pump to a point of grav- a dam, dike, floodgate, or other barrier, and used to
ity flow downstream. collect and store water for future use.
Grab sample an individual sample collected at a randomly Industrial wastewater wastes associated with industrial
selected time. manufacturing processes.
Graywater water that has been used for showering, clothes Infiltration the gradual downward flow of water from the
washing, and faucet uses. Kitchen sink and toilet surface into soil material.
water is excluded. This water has excellent potential Infiltration/inflow extraneous flows in sewers; simply,
for reuse as irrigation for yards. inflow is water discharged into sewer pipes or ser-
Grit heavy inorganic solids, such as sand, gravel, eggshells, vice connections from such sources as foundation
or metal filings. drains, roof leaders, cellar and yard area drains,
cooling water form air conditioners, and other Mechanical cleaning cleaning a pipe by using equipment
clean-water discharges from commercial and indus- (bucket machines, power rodders, or hand rods) that
trial establishments. Defined by Metcalf & Eddy as scrapes, cuts, pulls, or pushes the material out of the
follows:Infiltration—Water entering the collection pipe.
system through cracks, joints, or breaks. Membrane process a process that draws a measured vol-
Steady inflow—Water discharged from cellar and founda- ume of water through a filter membrane with small
tion drains, cooling water discharges, and drains enough openings to take out contaminants.
from springs and swampy areas. This type of inflow Metering pump a chemical solution feed pump that adds
is steady and is identified and measured along with a measured amount of solution with each stroke or
infiltration. rotation of the pump.
Direct flow—Those types of inflow that have a direct storm- Milligrams/liter (mg/L) a measure of concentration equiva-
water runoff connection to the sanitary sewer and lent to parts per million (ppm).
cause an almost immediate increase in wastewater Mixed liquor the suspended solids concentration of the
flows. Possible sources are roof leaders, yard and mixed liquor.
areaway drains, manhole covers, cross-connections Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) the con-
from storm drains and catch basins, and combined centration of organic matter in the mixed liquor sus-
sewers. pended solids.
Total inflow—The sum of the direct inflow at any point in Nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) indicates amount of
the system plus any flow discharged from the sys- turbidity in a water sample.
tem upstream through overflows, pumping station Nitrogenous oxygen demand (NOD) a measure of the
bypasses, and the like. amount of oxygen required to biologically oxidize
Delayed inflow—Stormwater that may require several days nitrogen compounds under specified conditions of
or more to drain through the sewer system. This cat- time and temperature.
egory can include the discharge of sump pumps from Nonpoint Source (NPS) Pollution forms of pollution caused
cellar drainage as well as the slowed entry of surface by sediment, nutrients, organic, and toxic substances
water through manholes in ponded areas. originating from land use activities that are carried
Influent wastewater entering a tank, channel, or treatment to lakes and streams by surface runoff. Nonpoint
process. source pollution occurs when the rate of materials
Inorganic chemical/compounds chemical substances entering these waterbodies exceeds natural levels.
of mineral origin, not of carbon structure. These NPDES permit National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
include metals such as lead, iron (ferric chloride), System permit, which authorizes the discharge of
and cadmium. treated wastes and specifies the conditions that must
Ion exchange process used to remove hardness from water. be met for discharge.
Jar Test laboratory procedure used to estimate proper coag- Nutrients substances required to support living organisms.
ulant dosage. Usually refers to nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and
Langelier saturation index (L.I.) a numerical index that other trace metals.
indicates whether calcium carbonate will be depos- Organic chemicals/compounds animal or plant-produced
ited or dissolved in a distribution system. substances containing mainly carbon, hydrogen, and
Leaching the process by which soluble materials in the soil oxygen, such as benzene and toluene.
such as nutrients, pesticide chemicals, or contami- Parts per million (ppm) the number of parts by weight of a
nants are washed into a lower layer of soil or are dis- substance per million parts of water. This unit is com-
solved and carried away by water. monly used to represent pollutant concentrations.
License a certificate issued by the State Board of Large concentrations are expressed in percentages.
Waterworks/Wastewater Works Operators authoriz- Pathogenic disease-causing. A pathogenic organism is
ing the holder to perform the duties of a wastewater capable of causing illness.
treatment plant operator. Percolation the movement of water through the subsur-
Lift station a wastewater pumping station designed to “lift” face soil layers, usually continuing downward to the
the wastewater to a higher elevation. A lift sta- groundwater or water table reservoirs.
tion normally employs pumps or other mechanical pH a way of expressing both acidity and alkalinity on a
devices to pump the wastewater and discharges into scale of 0–14, with 7 representing neutrality; num-
a pressure pipe called a force main. bers less than 7 indicate increasing acidity and num-
Maximum contaminant level (MCL) an enforceable stan- bers greater than 7 indicate increasing alkalinity.
dard for protection of human health. Photosynthesis a process in green plants in which water,
Mean cell residence time (MCRT) the average length of time carbon dioxide, and sunlight combine to form sugar.
a mixed liquor suspended solids particle remains in Piezometric surface an imaginary surface that coincides
the activated sludge process. May also be known as with the hydrostatic pressure level of water in an
sludge retention time. aquifer.
Point source pollution a type of water pollution resulting Scum the mixture of floatable solids and water removed
from discharges into receiving waters from easily from the surface of the settling tank.
identifiable points. Common point sources of pol- Sediment transported and deposited particles derived from
lution are discharges from factories and municipal rocks, soil, or biological material.
sewage treatment plants. Sedimentation a process that reduces the velocity of water
Pollution the alteration of the physical, thermal, chemical, in basins so that suspended material can settle out
or biological quality of, or the contamination of, any by gravity.
water in the state that renders the water harmful, det- Seepage the appearance and disappearance of water at the
rimental, or injurious to humans, animal life, vegeta- ground surface. Seepage designates movement of
tion, property, or public health, safety, or welfare, or water in saturated material. It differs from percola-
impairs the usefulness or the public enjoyment of the tion, which is predominantly the movement of water
water for any lawful or reasonable purpose. in unsaturated material.
Porosity that part of a rock that contains pore spaces with- Septic tanks used to hold domestic wastes when a sewer line
out regard to size, shape, interconnection, or arrange- is not available to carry them to a treatment plant.
ment of openings. It is expressed as a percentage of The wastes are piped to underground tanks directly
total volume occupied by spaces. from a home or homes. Bacteria in the wastes decom-
Potable water water satisfactorily safe for drinking purpose some of the organic matter, the sludge settles on
poses from the standpoint of its chemical, physical, the bottom of the tank, and the effluent flows out of
and biological characteristics. the tank into the ground through drains.
Precipitate a deposit on the earth of hail, rain, mist, sleet, Settleability a process control test used to evaluate the set-
or snow. The common process by which atmospheric tling characteristics of the activated sludge. Readings
water becomes surface or subsurface water; the term taken at 30–60 minutes are used to calculate the
precipitation is also commonly used to designate the settled sludge volume (SSV) and the sludge volume
quantity of water precipitated. index (SVI).
Preventive maintenance (PM) regularly scheduled servic- Settled sludge volume (SSV) the volume (in percent) occu-
ing of machinery or other equipment using appro- pied by an activated sludge sample after 30–60
priate tools, tests, and lubricants. This type of minutes of settling. Normally written as SSV with a
maintenance can prolong the useful life of equip- subscript to indicate the time of the reading used for
ment and machinery and increase its efficiency by calculation (SSV60 or SSV30).
detecting and correcting problems before they cause Sludge the mixture of settleable solids and water removed
a breakdown of the equipment. from the bottom of the settling tank.
Purveyor an agency or a person that supplies potable water. Sludge retention time (SRT) see mean cell residence time.
Radon a radioactive, colorless, odorless gas that occurs nat- Sludge volume index (SVI) a process control calculation
urally in the earth. When trapped in buildings, con- used to evaluate the settling quality of the activated
centrations build up, and can cause health hazards sludge. Requires the SSV30 and mixed liquor sus-
such as lung cancer. pended solids test results to calculate.
Recharge the addition of water into a groundwater system. Soil moisture (soil water) water diffused in the soil. It is
Reservoir a pond, lake, tank, or basin (natural or human found in the upper part of the zone of aeration from
made) where water is collected and used for storage. which water is discharged by transpiration from
Large bodies of groundwater are called groundwater plants or by soil evaporation.
reservoirs; water behind a dam is also called a res- Specific heat the heat capacity of a material per unit mass.
ervoir of water. The amount of heat (in calories) required to raise the
Return activated sludge solids (RASS) the concentration of temperature of one gram of a substance by 1°C; the
suspended solids in the sludge flow being returned specific heat of water is 1 calorie.
from the settling tank to the head of the aeration Storm sewer a collection system designed to carry only
tank. stormwater runoff.
Reverse osmosis process in which almost pure water is Stormwater runoff resulting from rainfall and snowmelt.
passed through a semipermeable membrane. Stream a general term for a body of flowing water. In
River basin a term used to designate the area drained by a hydrology, the term is generally applied to the water
river and its tributaries. flowing in a natural channel as distinct from a canal.
Sanitary wastewater wastes discharged from residences and More generally, it is applied to the water flowing
from commercial, institutional, and similar facilities in any channel, natural or artificial. Some types
that include both sewage and industrial wastes. of streams (1) Ephemeral a stream that flows
Schmutzdecke a layer of solids and biological growth that only in direct response to precipitation, and whose
forms on top of a slow sand filter, allowing the fil- channel is at all times above the water table. (2)
ter to remove turbidity effectively without chemical Intermittent or Seasonal a stream that flows only at
coagulation. certain times of the year when it receives water from
springs, rainfall, or surface sources such as melting exposure to toxic materials. Adverse effects caused
snow. (3) Perennial a stream that flows continu- by conditions of temperature, dissolved oxygen, or
ously. (4) Gaining a stream or reach of a stream nontoxic dissolved substances are excluded from the
that receives water from the zone of saturation. An definition of toxicity.
effluent stream. (5) Insulated a stream or reach of Transpiration the process by which water vapor escapes
a stream that neither contributes water to the zone of from the living plant—principally the leaves—and
saturation nor receives water from it. It is separated enters the atmosphere.
from the zones of saturation by an impermeable Vaporization the change of a substance from a liquid or
bed. (6) Losing a stream or reach of a stream that solid state to a gaseous state.
contributes water to the zone of saturation. An influ- VOC (Volatile Organic Compound) any organic compound
ent stream. (7) Perched a perched stream is either that participates in atmospheric photochemical reac-
a losing stream or an insulated stream that is sepa- tions except for those designated by the USEPA
rated from the underlying groundwater by a zone of Administrator as having negligible photochemical
aeration. reactivity.
Supernatant the liquid standing above a sediment or Waste activated sludge solids (WASS) the concentration of
precipitate. suspended solids in the sludge being removed from
Surface water lakes, bays, ponds, impounding reservoirs, the activated sludge process.
springs, rivers, streams, creeks, estuaries, wetlands, Wastewater the water supply of a community after it has
marshes, inlets, canals, gulfs inside the territorial been soiled by use.
limits of the state, and all other bodies of surface Water cycle the process by which water travels in a sequence
water, natural or artificial, inland or coastal, fresh from the air (condensation) to the earth (precipita-
or salt, navigable or non-navigable, and including tion) and returns to the atmosphere (evaporation). It
the beds and banks of all watercourses and bodies is also referred to as the hydrologic cycle.
of surface water, that are wholly or partially inside Water quality standard a plan for water quality manage-
or bordering the state or subject to the jurisdiction ment containing four major elements water use,
of the state—except that waters in treatment sys- criteria to protect uses, implementation plans and
tems which are authorized by state or federal law, enforcement plans. An anti-degradation statement is
regulation, or permit, and which are created for the sometimes prepared to protect existing high-quality
purpose of water treatment, are not considered to be waters.
waters in the state. Water quality a term used to describe the chemical, physi-
Surface tension the free energy produced in a liquid surface cal, and biological characteristics of water with
by the unbalanced inward pull exerted by molecules respect to its suitability for a particular use.
underlying the layer of surface molecules. Water supply any quantity of available water.
Thermal pollution the degradation of water quality by the Waterborne disease a disease caused by a microorganism
introduction of a heated effluent. Primarily the result that is carried from one person or animal to another
of the discharge of cooling waters from industrial by water.
processes (particularly from electrical power gen- Watershed the area of land that contributes surface runoff to
eration); waste heat eventually results from virtually a given point in a drainage system.
every energy conversion. Weir a device used to measure wastewater flow.
Titrant a solution of known strength of concentration; used Zone of aeration a region in the earth above the water table.
in titration. Water in the zone of aeration is under atmospheric
Titration a process whereby a solution of known strength pressure and would not flow into a well.
(titrant) is added to a certain volume of a treated Zoogleal slime the biological slime that forms on fixed
sample containing an indicator. A color change film treatment devices. It contains a wide variety of
shows when the reaction is complete. organisms essential to the treatment process.
Titrator an instrument (usually a calibrated cylinder (tube-
form)) used in titration to measure the amount of
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
titrant being added to the sample.
Total dissolved solids the amount of material (inorganic °C Degrees Centigrade or Celsius
salts and small amounts of organic material) dis- °F Degrees Fahrenheit
solved in water and commonly expressed as a con- μ Micron
centration in terms of milligrams per liter. μg Microgram
Total suspended solids (TSS) total suspended solids in μm Micrometer
water, commonly expressed as a concentration in A-C Alternating Current
terms of milligrams per liter. ACEE American Council for an Energy Efficient
Toxicity the occurrence of lethal or sublethal adverse Economy
effects on representative sensitive organisms due to Al2(SO4)3 Aluminum Sulfate (or Alum)
Amp Amperes FFS Fixed Film System

ANAMMOX Anaerobic Ammonia Oxidation GAO Glycogen Accumulating Organism
APPA American Public Power Association GBMSD Green Bay (Wisconsin) Metropolitan Sewerage
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers District
A/O Anoxic/Oxic GPD Gallons per Day
A2/O Anaerobic/Anaerobic/Oxic GPM Gallons per Minute
AS Activated Sludge HCO3 − Bicarbonate
atm Atmosphere H2CO3 Carbonic Acid
AT 3 Aeration Tank 3 process HDWK Headworks
ASE Alliance to Save Energy HP Horsepower
AWWA American Water Works Association HRT Hydraulic Retention Time
BABE Bio-Augmentation Batch Enhanced Hz Hertz
BAF Biological Aerated Filter I&I Inflow and Infiltration
BAR Bio-Augmentation Reaeration IFAS Integrated Fixed Film Activated Sludge
BASIN Biofilm Activated Sludge Innovative I&C Instrumentation and Control
Nitrification IOA International Ozone Association
BEP Best Efficiency Point IUVA International Ultraviolet Association
bhp Brake Horsepower kW Kilowatt Hour
BNR Biological Nutrient Removal kWh/year Kilowatt-Hours per Year
BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand LPHO Low Pressure High Output
BOD-to-TKN
Biochemical Oxygen Demand-to-Total MBR Membrane Bioreactor
Kjeldahl Nitrogen Ratio M Mega or Million
BOD-to-TP Biochemical Oxygen Demand-to-Total MG Million Gallons
Phosphorus Ratio MGD Million Gallons per Day
BPR Biological Phosphorus Removal Mg/L Milligrams per Liter (equivalent to parts per
CANON Completely Autotrophic Nitrogen Removal million)
over Nitrate MLE Modified Ludzack-Ettinger process
CAS Cyclic Activated Sludge MLSS Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
CBOD Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand MPN Most Probable Number
CCCSD Central Contra Costa Sanitary District MW Molecular Weight
CEC California Energy Commission N Nitrogen
CEE Consortium for Energy Efficiency NAESCO National Association of Energy Service
CFO Cost Flow Opportunity Companies
CFM Cubic Feet per Minute NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
CFS Cubic Feet per Second NH4 Ammonium
CHP Combined Heat and Power NH4 -N Ammonia Nitrogen
Ci Curie NL No Limit
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
COV Coefficient of Variation System
CP Central Plant NYSERDA New York State Energy Research and
CWSRF Clean Water State Revolving Fund Development Authority
DAF DissolvedAir Flotation Unit ORP Oxidation-Reduction Potential
DCS Distributed Control System O&M Operation and Maintenance
DO Dissolved Oxygen Pa Pascal
DOE Department of Energy PAO Phosphate Accumulating Organisms
DON Dissolved Organic Nitrogen PG&E Pacific Gas and Electric
DSIRE Database of State Incentives for Renewables PID Phased Isolation Ditch
and Efficiency PLC Programmable Logic Controller
EBPR Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal PO43− Phosphate
ECM Energy Conservation Measure POTWs Publicly Owned Treatment Works
ENR Engineering News-Record PSAT Pump System Assessment Tool
EPA Environmental Protection Agency psi Pounds per Square Inch
EPACT Energy Policy Act psig Pounds per Square Inch Gauge
EPC Energy Performance Contracting RAS Return Activated Sludge
EPRI Electric Power Research Institute rpm Revolutions per Minute
ESCO Energy Services Company SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
FeCl3 Ferric Chloride SCFM Standard Cubic Feet per Minute
SBR Sequencing Batch Reactor 15. Enrichment of water bodies by nutrients. _______
SRT Solids Retention Time 16. A solution of known strength of concentration.
TDH Total Dynamic Head _______
TKL Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen 17. The process by which water is lost by foliage.
TMDL Total Maximum Daily Load _______
TN Total Nitrogen 18. Another name for a wastewater pumping station.
TP Total Phosphorus _______
TSS Total Suspended Solids 19. Plants and animals indigenous to an area. _______
TVA Tennessee Valley Authority 20. The amount of oxygen dissolved in water. _______
UV Ultraviolet Light 21. A stream that flows continuously. _______
UVT UV Transmittance 22. A result of excessive nutrients within a water body.
VFD Variable Frequency Drive _______
VSS Volatile Suspended Solids 23. Change in groundwater head over a given distance.
W Watt _______
WAS Waste Activated Sludge 24. Water trapped in sedimentary rocks. _______
WEF Water Environment Federation 25. Heat capacity of a material per unit mass. _______
WEFTEC Water Environment Federation Technical 26. A compound derived from material that once lived.
Exhibition & Conference ______
WERF Water Environment Research Foundation
WMARSS Waco Metropolitan Area Regional Sewer Part B:
System a. pH
WPCP Water Pollution Control Plant b. algae bloom
WRF Water Research Foundation c. zone of aeration
WSU Washington State University d. hydrological cycle
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant e. point source pollution
f. perennial
g. organic
h. connate water
4.1 Matching Exercise: Match the definitions listed in i. fecal coliform
part A with the terms listed in Part B by placing the j. BOD
correct letter in the blank. k. field capacity
Note: After completing this exercise, check your l. transpiration
answers with those provided in Appendix A. m. biota
Part A: n. specific heat
1. A nonchemical turbidity removal layer in a slow o. Schmutzdecke
sand filter. _______ p. recharge
2. Region in earth (soil) above the water table. _______ q. Zoogleal slime
3. Compound associated with photochemical reaction. r. eutrophication
_______ s. gaining
4. Oxygen used in water rich inorganic matter. _______ t. VOC
5. A stream that receives water from the zone of satura- u. potable
tion. _______ v. acid rain
6. The addition of water into a groundwater system. w. titrant
_______ x. lift station
7. The natural water cycle. _______ y. DO
8. Present in intestinal tracts and feces of animals and z. hydraulic gradient
humans. _______
9. Discharge from a factory or municipal sewage treat-
ment plant. _______
10. Common to fixed film treatment devices. _______ Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 2003. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,
11. Identified water that is safe to drink. _______ Disposal, Reuse, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
12. The capacity of soil to hold water. _______ Pearce, F., 2006. When the Rivers Run Dry. Boston, MA: Beacon
Press.
13. Used to measure acidity and alkalinity. _______ Pielou, E.C., 1998. Fresh Water. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.
14. Rain mixed with sulfur oxides. _______
Part II
Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects
5 Water/Wastewater Math Operations
To operate a waterworks and/or a wastewater treatment 4. If the calculation calls for an equation, write it down.
plant, and to pass the examination for an operator’s 5. Fill in the data in the equation; look to see what is
license, you must know how to perform certain math- missing.
ematical operations. However, do not panic, as Price 6. Rearrange or transpose the equation, if necessary.
points out “Those who have difficulty in math often do 7. Use a calculator when necessary.
not lack the ability for mathematical calculation, they 8. Always write down the answer.
merely have not learned, or have been taught, the ‘lan- 9. Check any solution obtained.
guage of math’”.
—Price (1991) EQUIVALENTS, FORMULAE, AND SYMBOLS
To work mathematical operations to solve problems (for prac-
INTRODUCTION tical application or for taking licensure examinations), it is
essential to understand the language, equivalents, symbols, and
Without the ability to perform mathematical calculations, it
terminology used. Because this handbook is designed for use
would be difficult for operators to properly operate water/
in practical on-the-job applications, equivalents, formulae, and
wastewater treatment systems. In reality, most of the calcula-
symbols are included as a ready reference in Table 5.1.
tions operators need to perform are not difficult. Generally,
math ability through basic algebra is all that is needed.
Experience has shown that skill with math operations used in BASIC WATER/WASTEWATER MATH OPERATIONS
water/wastewater treatment system operations is an acquired
skill that is enhanced and strengthened with practice. In this Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median
chapter, we assume the reader is well grounded in basic math During the day-to-day operation of a wastewater treatment
principles; thus, we do not cover basic operations such as addi- plant, considerable mathematical data is collected. The data,
tion, subtraction, multiplying, and dividing. However, based if properly evaluated, can provide useful information for
on recommendations provided by a large number of previous trend analysis and indicate how well the plant or unit process
users, we have included more than 400 additional, real-world is operating. However, because there may be much variation
practice problems and solutions in this new edition. in the data, it is often difficult to determine trends in perfor-
Note: Keep in mind that mathematics is a language—a uni- mance. Arithmetic average refers to a statistical calculation
versal language. Mathematical symbols have the same mean- used to describe a series of numbers such as test results. By
ing to people speaking many different languages throughout calculating an average, a group of data is represented by a
the globe. The key to learning mathematics is to learn the single number. This number may be considered typical of the
language—the symbols, definitions, and terms of mathemat- group. The arithmetic mean is the most commonly used mea-
ics, which allow you to understand the concepts necessary to surement of average value.
perform the operations. Note: When evaluating information based on averages,
remember that the “average” reflects the general nature of the
CALCULATION STEPS group and does not necessarily reflect any one element of that
group.
As with all math operations, many methods can be success- Arithmetic average is calculated by dividing the sum of
fully used to solve water/wastewater system problems. We all of the available data points (test results) by the number of
provide one of the standard methods of problem solving in test results.
the following:
Test 1 + Test 2 + Test 3 +¼+ Test N
1. If appropriate, make a drawing of the information in (5.1)
Number of Tests Performed (N)
the problem.
2 . Place the given data on the drawing.
3. Answer “What is the question?” This is the first thing Example 5.1
you should ask as you begin to solve the problem, as
well as asking yourself “What are they really look- Problem: Effluent BOD test results for the treatment plant
ing for?” Writing down exactly what is being looked during the month of September are shown below:
for is always smart. Sometimes the answer has more
than one unknown. For instance, you may need to Test 1 20 mg/L
find x, and then find y. Test 2 31 mg/L
77
TABLE 5.1
Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols
Equivalents
12 inches =1 foot
36 inches =1 yard
144 inches2 =1 foot2
9 feet2 =1 yard2
43,560 feet2 =1 acre
1 foot3 =1,728 inch3
1 foot3 of water =7.48 gallons
1 foot3 of water weighs =62.4 lbs
1 gallon of water weighs =8.34 lb
1 liter =1.000 milliliters
1 gram =1.000 milligrams
1 million gal/day =694 gal/min
=1.545 ft3/sec
average BOD/capita/day =0.17 lbs
average SS/capita/day =0.20
average daily flow =assume 100 gal/capita/day
Symbols
A =Area
V =Velocity
t =time
SVI =Sludge Volume Index
Vol =Volume
# =pounds (lbs)
eff =effluent
W =width
D =depth
L =length
Q =flow
r =radius
π =pi (3.14)
WAS =Waste Activated Sludge
RAS =Return Activated Sludge
MLSS =Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids
MLVSS =Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended. Solids
Formulae
volume
SVI = ´100
concentration
Q = A´V
volume
Detention time =
Q
Volume = L ´ W ´ D
Area = W ´ L
Circular area = p ´ D2 (= .785 ´ D2 )

Circumference = pD
Q
Hydraulic loading rate =
A
# MLSS in Aeration Tank
Sludge age =
# SS in primary eff/day
# SS in secondary system (aeration tank + sec. clarifier))
MCRT =
# WAS/day + SS in eff/day
# BOD/day
Organic loading rate =
volume
Water/Wastewater Math Operations 79
Test 3 22 mg/L
Test 4 15 mg/L TABLE 5.2
Daily Chlorine Residual Results
What is the average effluent BOD for the month of
Day Chlorine Residual (mg/L)
September?
Monday 0.9
SOLUTION: Tuesday 1.0
Wednesday 1.2
20 mg/L + 31mg/L + 22 mg/L + 15 mg/L
Average = Thursday 1.3
4 Friday 1.4
= 22 mg /L Saturday 1.1
Sunday 0.9
Example 5.2
Problem: For the primary influent flow, the following com-

Example 5.4
posite-sampled solids concentrations were recorded for
the week:
Problem: In our chlorine residual example, what is the
median?
Monday 300 mg/L SS SOLUTION:

Tuesday 312 mg/L SS
Arrange the values in ascending order:
Wednesday 315 mg/L SS
Thursday 320 mg/L SS
0.9 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
Friday 311 mg/L SS
Saturday 320 mg/L SS
The middle value is the fourth one (1.1); therefore, the
Sunday 310 mg/L SS
median chlorine residual is 1.1 mg/L. (Usually, the median
Total 2,188 mg/L SS will be a different value than the mean). If the data con-
tains an even number of values, you must add one more
step, since no middle value is present. You must find the
two values in the middle, and then find the mean of those
SOLUTION: two values.
Sum of All Measurements
Average SS = -
Number of Measurements Used Example 5.5
2188 mg/LSS
=
7 Problem: A water system has four wells with the follow-
ing capacities: 115 gpm, 100 gpm, 125 gpm, and 90 gpm.
= 312.6 mg/LSS
What are the mean and the median pumping capacities?
Example 5.3
SOLUTION:
Problem: A waterworks operator takes a chlorine residual The mean is:
measurement every day. We show part of the operating
log in Table 5.2. Find the mean. 115 gpm + 100 gpm + 125 gpm + 90 gpm
4
SOLUTION:
= 107.5 gpm
Add up the seven chlorine residual readings:
To find the median, arrange the values in order:
0.9 + 1.0 + 1.2 + 1.3 + 1.4 + 1.1+ 0.9 = 7.8.
90 gpm 100 gpm 115 gpm 125 gpm
Next, divide by the number of measurements (in this
case 7): With four values, there is no single middle value, so we
must take the mean of the two middle values:
7.8 ¸ 7 = 1.11.
100 gpm + 115 gpm
= 107.5 gpm
The mean chlorine residual for the week was 1.11 mg/L. 2
Definition: The median is defined as the value of the cen-
tral item when the data are arrayed by size. First, arrange Note: At times, determining what the original numbers
all of the readings in either ascending or descending order, were like is difficult (if not impossible) when dealing only
then find the middle value. with averages.
Example 5.6
TABLE 5.3
Problem: A water system has four storage tanks. Three Common Conversions
of them have a capacity of 100,000 gal each, while the
Linear Measurements Weight
fourth has a capacity of 1 million gallons. What is the
mean capacity of the storage tanks? 1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 ft3 of water = 62.4 lbs
1 foot = 30.5 cm 1 gal = 8.34 lbs
SOLUTION: 1 meter = 100 cm 3.281 ft = 39.4 in. 1 lb = 453.6 grams
1 acre = 43,560 ft2 1 kg = 1,000 g = 2.2 lbs
The mean capacity of the storage tanks is:
1 yard = 3 ft 1% = 10,000 mg/L
VOLUME PRESSURE
100,000 + 100,000 + 100,000 + 1000
, ,000
1 gal = 3.78 liters 1 ft of head = 0.433 psi
4 1 ft3 = 7.48 gal 1 psi = 2.31 ft of head
= 325,000 gal 1 L = 1,000 mL FLOW
1 acre-foot = 43,560 ft3 1 cfs = 448 gpm
Note: Notice that no tank in Example 5.6 has a capac-
1 gal = 32 cups 1 gpm = 1,440 gpd
ity anywhere close to the mean. The median capacity
1 pound = 16 oz dry wt.
requires us to take the mean of the two middle values;
since they are both 100,000 gal, the median is 100,000
gal. Although three of the tanks have the same capacity as
the median, this data offers no indication that one of these
Most operators memorize some standard conversions. This
tanks holds a million gallons—information that could be
important for the operator to know. happens because of using the conversions, not because of
attempting to memorize them.
Units and Conversions Temperature Conversions

Most of the calculations made in the water/wastewater opera- An example of a type of conversion typical in water and
tions involve using units. While the number tells us how wastewater operations is provided in this section on tempera-
many, the units tell us what we have. Examples of units ture conversions.
include inches, feet, square feet, cubic feet, gallons, pounds, Note: Operators should keep in mind that temperature con-
milliliters, milligrams per liter, pounds per square inch, miles versions are only a small part of the many conversions that
per hour, and so on. Conversions are a process of changing must be made in real world systems operations.
the units of a number to make the number usable in a spe- Most water and wastewater operators are familiar with
cific instance. Multiplying or dividing into another number the formulas used for Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature
to change the units of the number accomplishes conversions. conversions:
Common conversions in water/wastewater operations are:
°C = 5/ 9 ( °F - 32° ) (5.2)
• Gallons per minute (gpm) to cubic feet second (cfs)
• Million gallons to acre-feet °F = 5/ 9 ( °C + 32° ) (5.3)
• Cubic feet to acre-feet
• Cubic feet of water to weight These conversions are not difficult to perform. The difficulty
• Cubic feet of water to gallons arises when we must recall these formulas from memory.
• Gallons of water to weight Probably the easiest way to recall these important formulas is
• Gallons per minute (gpm) to million gallons per day to remember three basic steps for both Fahrenheit and Celsius
(MGD) conversions:
• Pounds per square inch (psi) to feet of head (the mea-
sure of the pressure of water expressed as the height (1) Add 40°
of water in feet)(1 psi = 2.31 ft of head) (2) Multiply by the appropriate fraction (5/9 or 9/5)
(3) Subtract 40°
In many instances, the conversion factor cannot be derived—
it must be known. Therefore, we use tables such as the one Obviously, the only variable in this method is the choice of 5/9
below (Table 5.3) to determine the common conversions. or 9/5 in the multiplication step. To make the proper choice,
Note: Conversion factors are used to change measurements you must be familiar with two scales. On the Fahrenheit scale
or calculated values from one unit of measure to another. In the freezing point of water is 32°, and 0° on the Celsius scale.
making the conversion from one unit to another, you must The boiling point of water is 212° on the Fahrenheit scale and
know two things: 100° on the Celsius scale.
Why is it important? Note, for example, that at the
( 1) The exact number that relates the two units same temperature, higher numbers are associated with the
(2) Whether to multiply or divide by that number Fahrenheit scale and lower numbers with the Celsius scale.
This important relationship helps you decide whether to mul- Obviously, knowing how to make these temperature con-
tiply by 5/9 or 9/5 Let us look at a few conversion problems to version calculations is useful. However, in practical (real
see how the three-step process works. world) operations, you may wish to use a temperature
conversion table.
Example 5.7
Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million)
Problem: Convert 220°F to Celsius. Using the three-step One of the most common terms for concentration is milligrams
process, we proceed as follows: per liter (mg/L). If a mass of 15 mg of oxygen is dissolved
in a volume of 1 L of water, the concentration of that solu-
SOLUTION: tion is expressed simply as 15 mg/L. Very dilute solutions are
(1) Step 1: add 40°F. more conveniently expressed in terms of micrograms per liter
(µg/L). For example, a concentration of 0.005 mg/L is prefer-
220°
ably written as its equivalent 5 µg/L. Since 1,000 µg = 1 mg,
+ 40° simply move the decimal point three places to the right when
260° converting from mg/L to µl. Move the decimal three places to
the left when converting from µg/L to mg/L. For example, a
(2) Step 2: 260°F must be multiplied by either 5/9 or
concentration of 1,250 µg/L is equivalent to 1.25 mg/L.
9/5. Since the conversion is to the Celsius scale,
you will be moving to a number smaller than
A liter of water has a mass of 1 kg. But 1 kg is equivalent
260. Through reason and observation, obviously to 1,000 g or 1,000,000 mg. Therefore, if we dissolve 1 mg of
we see that multiplying 260 by 9/5 would almost a substance in 1 L of water, we can say that there is 1 mg of
be the same as multiplying by 2, which would solute per 1 million mg of water—or in other words, one part
double 260, rather than make it smaller. On the per million (ppm).
other hand, multiplying by 5/9 is about the same Note: For comparative purposes, we like to say that 1 ppm
as multiplying by 1/2, which would cut 260 in is analogous to a full shot glass of water sitting at the bottom
half. Since in this problem you wish to move to a of a full standard swimming pool.
smaller number, you should multiply by 5/9.
Neglecting the small change in the density of water as
(5/ 9) ( 260°) = 144.4°C substances are dissolved in it, we can say that, in general, a
concentration of 1 m/L is equivalent to one part per million:
(3) Step 3: Now subtract 40°. 1 mg/L = 1 ppm. Conversions are very simple; for example,
144.4°C a concentration of 18.5 mg/L is identical to 18.5 ppm. The
- 40.0°C
expression mg/L is preferred over ppm, just as the expres-
sion µg/L is preferred over its equivalent of ppb. However,
104.4°C
both types of units are still used, and the waterworks operator
Thus, 220°F = 104.4°C. should be familiar with both of them.
Example 5.8
Area and Volume
Problem: Convert 22°C to Fahrenheit. Water and wastewater operators are often required to cal-
culate surface areas and volumes. Area is a calculation of
(1) Step 1: add 40° the surface of an object. For example, the length and the
22°F width of a water tank can be measured, but the surface
+ 40° area of the water in the tank must be calculated. An area
62°F
is found by multiplying two length measurements, so the
result is a square measurement. For example, when mul-
1. Because we are converting from Celsius to tiplying feet by feet, we get square feet, which is abbre-
Fahrenheit, you are moving from a smaller to a larger viated ft 2. Volume is the calculation of the space inside a
number and should use 9/5 in the multiplication. three-dimensional object, and is calculated by multiplying
(2) Step 2:
three length measurements, or an area by a length measure-
ment. The result is a cubic measurement, such as cubic feet
(9 / 5) (62°) = 112°
(abbreviated ft 3).
(3) Step 3: Subtract 40°.
Force, Pressure, and Head
112°
-40°
Force, pressure, and head are important parameters in water
and wastewater operations. Before we study calculations
72°
involving the relationship between force, pressure, and head,
Thus, 22°C = 72°F we must first define these terms:
• Force—It is the push exerted by water on any con-

fining surface. Force can be expressed in pounds, 1 lb of water
tons, grams, or kilograms.
• Pressure—It is the force per unit area. The most
common way of expressing pressure is in pounds per
square inch (psi). 2.31 ft
• Head—It is the vertical distance or height of water 1 ft 0.433 lb of water
above a reference point. Head is usually expressed in
feet. In the case of water, head and pressure are related.
Figure 5.1 illustrates these terms. A cubical container measur-

ing one foot on each side can hold one cubic foot of water. A
1 sq in AREA
basic fact of science states that one cubic foot of water weighs
62.4 pounds. The force acting on the bottom of the container 1 ft water = 0.433 psi
would be 62.4 pounds. The pressure acting on the bottom of 1 sq in AREA
the container would be 62.4 pounds per square foot. The area 1 psi = 2.31 ft water
of the bottom in square inches is:
FIGURE 5.2 The relationship between pressure and head.
1 ft = 12 in ´ 12 in = 144 in (5.4)
2 2
Again, the key points:

Therefore the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) is:
1 ft = 0.433 psi
62.4-lb /ft2
62.4 lb/ft 2 1 psi = 2.31 ft
= = 0.433 lb/in 2 (psi) (5.5)
1 ft 2 144 in 2 /ft 2
Having two conversions methods for the same thing is often
If we use the bottom of the container as our reference point, confusing. Thus, memorizing one and staying with it is best.
the head would be one foot. From this, we can see that one The most accurate conversion is: 1 ft = 0.433 psi—the stan-
foot of head is equal to 0.433 psi. Figure 5.2 illustrates some dard conversion used throughout this handbook.
other important relationships between pressure and head.
Note: In water/wastewater operations, 0.433 psi is an
important parameter. Example 5.9
Note: Force acts in a particular direction. Water in a tank
exerts force down on the bottom and out of the sides. Pressure, Problem: Convert 50 psi to feet of head.
however, acts in all directions. A marble at a water depth of one
foot would have 0.433 psi of pressure acting inward on all sides. SOLUTION:
Key Point: 1 ft of head = 0.433 psi. psi ft
This is a valuable parameter that should be committed to 50 ´ = 115.5 ft
1 0.43 psi
memory. You should also know the relationship between pres-
sure and feet of head; in other words, how many feet of head Problem: Convert 50 ft to psi.
1-psi represents. This is determined by dividing 1 by 0.433.
SOLUTION:
1 ft
Feet of head = = 2.31 ft/psi 50
psi 0.433 psi
´ = 21.7 psi
0.433 psi 1 ft
What we are saying here is that if a pressure gauge were read-
ing 12 psi, the height of the water necessary to represent this As the above examples demonstrate, when attempting to
pressure would be 12 psi × 2.31 ft/psi = 27.7 ft. convert psi to feet, we divide by 0.433; when attempting
to convert feet to psi, we multiply by 0.433. The above
process can be most helpful in clearing up the confusion
on whether to multiply or divide. Another way, however,
may be more beneficial and easier for many operators
to use. Notice that the relationship between psi and feet
62.4 lbs is almost two to one. It takes slightly more than two feet
1 ft of water to make one psi. Therefore, when looking at a problem
1 ft where the data is in pressure and the result should be in
feet, the answer will be at least twice as large as the start-
1 ft ing number. For example, if the pressure were 25 psi, we
intuitively know that the head is over 50 ft. Therefore, we
FIGURE 5.1 One cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 lb. must divide by 0.433 to obtain the correct answer.
Example 5.10 5, 380 ft /mile ´ 4 = 21120

, ft
Problem: Convert a pressure of 55 psi to feet of head. 21120

, ft
= 9,143 psi (rounded)
2.31 ft/psi
SOLUTION:
psi 1 ft Example 5.16
55 ´ = 127 ft
1 0.433 psi
Problem: A 150 ft diameter cylindrical tank contains 2.0
Example 5.11 MG water. What is the water depth? At what pressure
would a gauge at the bottom read in psi?
Problem: Convert 14 psi to feet.
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
• Step 1: Change MG to cu ft.
psi 1 ft
14 ´ = 32.3 ft
1 0.433 psi 2,000,000 gal
= 267, 380 cu ft
7.48
Example 5.12
• Step 2: Using volume, solve for depth.
Problem: Between the top of a reservoir and the watering
point, the elevation is 115 ft. What will the static pressure Volume = .785 ´ D2 ´ depth
be at the watering point?
267, 380 cu ft = .785 ´ (150 ) ´ depth
2

SOLUTION: Depth = 15.1 ft
ft 0.433 psi
115 ´ = 49.8 psi Example 5.17
1 1 ft
Using the preceding information, we can develop Problem: The pressure in a pipe is 70 psi. What is the pres-
Equations 5.6 and 5.7 for calculating pressure and head. sure in feet of water? What is the pressure in psf?
Pressure (psi) = 0.433 ´ Head (ft ) (5.6) SOLUTION:
Head (ft ) = 2.31´ Pressure (psi) (5.7) • Step 1: Convert pressure to feet of water.
70 psi ´ 2.31 ft /psi = 161.7 ft of water

Example 5.13
• Step 2: Convert psi to psf.
Problem: Find the pressure (psi) in a 12-ft deep tank at a
point 15 ft below the water surface. 70 psi ´ 144 sq in /sq ft = 10, 080 psf
SOLUTION:
Example 5.18
Pressure (psi) = 0.433 ´ 5 ft = 2.17 psi (rounded)
Problem: The pressure in a pipeline is 6,476 psf. What is
Example 5.14 the head on the pipe?
Problem: A pressure gauge at the bottom of a tank reads SOLUTION:

12.2 psi. How deep is the water in the tank? Head on pipe = ft of pressure
SOLUTION: Pressure = Weight ´ Height

Head (ft ) = 2.31´ 12.2 psi = 28.2 ft (rounded) 6, 476 psf = 62.4 lbs /cu ft ´ Height
Height = 104 ft (rounded)

Example 5.15
Flow
Problem: What is the pressure (static pressure) 4 miles Flow is expressed in many different terms (English System of
beneath the ocean surface? measurements). The most common flow terms are:
SOLUTION:
• Gallons per minute (gpm)
Change miles to ft, then to psi. • Cubic feet per second (cfs)
• Gallons per day (gpd) A = p ( 0.33 ft )

2
• Million gallons per day (MGD)

A = p ´ 0.109 ft 2
In converting flow rates, the most common flow conver-
sions are: 1 cfs = 448 gpm and 1 gpm—1,440 gpd. To convert A = 0.342 ft 2
gallons per day to MGD, divide the gpd by 1,000,000. For
instance, Step 4: Q = VA.
convert 150,000 gpd to MGD:
Q = 3 ft /sec ´ 0.342 ft 2
150,000 gpd
= 0.150 MGD Q = 1.03 cfs
1,000,000
In some instances, flow is given in MGD, but needed in gpm.
To make the conversion (MGD to gpm) requires two steps. Example 5.21
Problem: Find the flow in gpm when the total flow for the
Step 1: Convert the gpd by multiplying by 1,000,000.
day is 75,000 gpd.
Step 2: Convert to gpm by dividing by the number of
minutes in a day (1,440 min/day). SOLUTION:
75, 000 gpd
Example 5.19 = 52 gpm
1, 440 min/day
Problem: Convert 0.135 MGD to gpm.

Example 5.22
SOLUTION:
Problem: Find the flow in gpm when the flow is 0.45 cfs.
Convert the flow in MGD to gpd:
SOLUTION:
0.135 MGD ´ 1000
, ,000 = 135,000 gpd
cfs 448 gpd
0.45 ´ = 202 gpm
Convert to gpm by dividing by the number of minutes in a 1 1 cfs
day (24 h/day × 60 min/h) = 1,440 min/day.
Flow Calculations
135,000 gpd
= 93.8 or 94 gpm
1440 min/day In water and wastewater treatment, one of the major con-
To determine flow through a pipeline, channel, or stream, cerns of the operator is not only to maintain flow but also to
we use the following equation: measure it. Normally, flow measurements are determined by
metering devices. These devices measure water flow at a par-
Q = VA (5.8) ticular moment (instantaneous flow) or over a specified time
(total flow). Instantaneous flow can also be determined math-
where: ematically. In this section, we discuss how to mathematically
Q = cubic feet per second (cfs) determine instantaneous and average flow rates and how to
V = velocity in feet per second (ft/sec) make flow conversions.
A = area in square feet (ft 2)
Instantaneous Flow Rates
Example 5.20 In determining instantaneous flow rates through channels,
tanks, and pipelines, we can use Q = AV (Equation 5.8).
Problem: Find the flow in cfs in an 8-inch line, if the veloc- Note: It is important to remember that when using an equa-
ity is 3 feet per second. tion such as Q = AV the units on the left side of the equation
must match those units on the right side of the equation (A
SOLUTION: and V) with respect to volume (cubic feet or gallons) and time
Step 1: Determine the cross-sectional area of the
(seconds, minutes, hours, or days).
line in square feet. Start by converting the diam-
eter of the pipe to inches. Example 5.23
Step 2: The diameter is 8 in.; therefore, the radius is
4 in. Four inches is 4/12 of a foot or 0.33 ft.
Problem: A channel 4 ft wide has water flowing to a depth
Step 3: Find the area in square feet.
of 2 ft. If the velocity through the channel is 2 ft/sec (fps),
what is the cubic feet per second (cfs) flow rate through
A = pr 2 (5.9) the channel?
SOLUTION: Convert cfm flow rate to gpm flow rate:

Q, cfs = ( A ) ( V , fps )
(124 cfm) (7.48 gal/cu ft ) = 928 gpm
= ( 4 ft ) ( 2 ft ) ( 2 fps )
= 16 cfs Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank

Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank We can use the same basic method to determine the flow rate
when the tank is cylindrical in shape, as shown in Example 5.26.
One of the primary flow measurements water/wastewater
operators are commonly required to calculate is the flow
through a tank. This measurement can be determined using Example 5.26
the Q = AV equation. For example, if the discharge valve to a
tank were closed, the water level would begin to rise. If you Problem: The discharge valve to a 25-ft diameter cylindri-
time how fast the water rises, this would give you an indica- cal tank is closed. If the water rises at a rate of 12 in. in 4
tion of the velocity of flow into the tank. This information can min, what is the gpm flow into the tank?
be “plugged” into Q = VA (Equation 5.8) to determine the flow
rate through the tank. Let us look at an example. SOLUTION:
Rise = 12 in. = 1 ft
Example 5.24 = 1 ft / 4 min
Problem: A tank is 8 ft wide and 12 ft long. With the discharge = 0.25 ft /min
valve closed, the influent to the tank causes the water level to First, calculate the cfm flow into the tank:
rise 1.5 ft in 1 min. What is the gpm flow into the tank?
Q, cfm = ( A ) ( V , fpm)
SOLUTION:
Calculate the cfm flow rate: = ( 0.785) ( 25 ft ) ( 25 ft ) ( 0.25 ft /min)
= 123 cfm
Q, cfm = ( A ) ( V , fpm)
= ( 8 ft )(12 ft ) (1.5 fpm) Then convert cfm flow rate to gpm flow rate:
= 144 cfm (123 cfm) (7.48 gal/cu ft ) = 920 gpm

Then convert cfm flow rate to gpm flow rate:
Flow through a Full Pipeline

(144 cfm) (7.48 gal/cu ft ) = 1, 077 gpm
Flow through pipelines is of considerable interest to water
How do we compute flow rate from a tank when the influ- distribution operators and wastewater collection workers. The
ent valve is closed and the discharge pump remains on, flow rate can be calculated using the Q = AV (Equation 5.8).
lowering the wastewater level in the tank? First, we time The cross-sectional area of a round pipe is a circle, so the area
the rate of this drop in wastewater level so that the velocity (A) is represented by (0.785) × (Diameter)2.
of flow from the tank can be calculated. Then we use the Note: To avoid errors in terms, it is prudent to express pipe
Q = AV equation to determine the flow rate out of the tank, diameters as feet.
as illustrated in Example 5.25.
Example 5.27
Example 5.25
Problem: The flow through an 8-in. diameter pipeline is
Problem: A tank is 9 ft wide and 11 ft long. The influent moving at a velocity of 4 ft/sec. What is the cfs flow rate
valve to the tank is closed and the water level drops 2.5 ft through the full pipeline?
in 2 min. What is the gpm flow from the tank? Convert 8 in. to feet:
SOLUTION: 8 in/12 in = 0.67 ft

Drop rate = 2.5 ft/2 min = 1.25 ft/min
First, calculate the cfm flow rate: Calculate the cfs flow rate:
Q, cfm = ( A ) ( V , fpm) Q, cfs = ( A ) ( V , fps )
= ( 9 ft ) (11 ft ) (1.25 fpm) = ( 0.785) ( 0.67 ft ) ( 0.67 ft ) ( 4 fps )
= 124 cfm = 1.4 cfs

Velocity Calculations Example 5.30

To determine the velocity of flow in a channel or pipeline we
use the Q = AV equation. However, to use the equation cor- Problem: The following flows were recorded for the week:
rectly we must transpose it. We simply write into the equation
the information given and then transpose for the unknown (V
in this case), as illustrated in Example 5.28 for channels and Monday 8.2 MGD
6.29 for pipelines. Tuesday 8.0 MGD
Wednesday 7.3 MGD
Thursday 7.6 MGD
Example 5.28 Friday 8.2 MGD
Saturday 8.9 MGD
Problem: A channel has a rectangular cross-section.
Sunday 7.7 MGD
The channel is 5 ft wide with wastewater flowing to a
depth of 2 ft. If the flow rate through the channel is 8,500
gpm, what is the velocity of the wastewater in the channel What was the average daily flow rate for the week?
(ft/sec)?
Total of all Sample Flows
SOLUTION: Average Daily Flow =
Number of Days
8, 500 gpm (5.10)
Convert gpm to cfs: = 18.9 cfs 55..9 MGD
( 7 . 48 gal) (60 sec ) = = 8.0 MGD
7 Days
Calculate the velocity:
Flow Conversion Calculations
Q, cfs = ( A ) ( V, fps ) One of the tasks involving calculations that the wastewater
operator is typically called on to perform involves convert-
18.9 cfs = ( 5 ft ) ( 2 ft ) (unknown, fps ) ing one expression of flow to another. The ability to do this
is also a necessity for those preparing for licensure examina-
18.9 tions. Probably the easiest way in which to accomplish flow
Velocity ( the unknown, fps ) = = 1.89 fps
(5) ( 2) conversions is to employ the box method illustrated in Figure
5.3. When using the box method it is important to remember
that when moving from a smaller box to a larger box requires
Example 5.29 multiplication by the factor indicated. Moving from a larger
box to a smaller box requires division by the factor indicated.
Problem: A full 8-inch diameter pipe delivers 250 gpm. From Figure 5.3 it should be obvious that memorizing the nine
What is the velocity of flow in the pipeline (ft/sec)?
boxes and the units in each box is not that difficult. The values
of 60, 1,440, 7.48, and 8.34 are not that difficult to remember
SOLUTION:
either; it is a matter of remembering the exact placement of
Convert 8 in./12 in. to feet = 0.67 ft. the units and the values. Once this is accomplished, you have
Convert gpm to cfs flow: obtained a powerful tool that will enable you to make flow
conversions in a relatively easy manner.
250 gpm
= 0.56 cfs
(7.48 gal/cu ft )(60 sec/min)
Detention Time
Calculate the velocity: Detention time is the length of time water is retained in a ves-
sel or basin, or the period from the time the water enters a
Q = AV
settling basin until it flows out the other end. To calculate the
0.56 cfs = ( 0.785) ( 0.67 ft ) ( 0.67 ft ) (unknown, Vel, fps ) detention period of a basin, the volume of the basin must be
first obtained. Using a basin 70 ft long, 25 ft wide, and 12 ft
0.56 cfs deep, the volume would be:
Velocity = = 1.6 fps
( 0 . 785 ) ( 0.67 ) ( 0.67 )
V = L´W´D
Average Flow Rate Calculations V = 70 ft ´ 25 ft ´ 12 ft
Flow rates in water/wastewater systems vary considerably
during the course of a day, week, month, or year. Therefore, V = 21, 000 ft 3
when computing flow rates for trend analysis or for other pur- Gallons = V ´ 7.48 gal /ft 3
poses, an average flow rate is used to determine the typical
flow rate. Gallons = 21, 000 ´ 7.48 = 157, 080 gallons
FLOW CONVERSIONS USING THE BOX METHOD* units will be in whatever units are used to express the flow.
For example, if the flow is in gpm, the detention time will be
60 1440
cfs cfm cfd in days. If in the result the detention time is in the wrong time
units, simply convert to the appropriate units.
7.48 7.48 7.48
Example 5.31
60 1440
Problem: The reservoir for the community is 110,000 gal.

The well will produce 60 gpm. What is the detention time
in the reservoir in hours?
FLOW CONVERSIONS USING THE BOX METHOD*
60 1440 SOLUTION:
cfs cfm cfd 110, 000 gal
DT = = 1, 834 min
60 gal/min
7.48 7.48 7.48
1, 834 min
60 1440
or = 30.6 hrs
60 min/hr
gps gpm gpd
Example 5.32
8.34 8.34 8.34
60 1440
Problem: Find the detention time in a 55,000-gallon reser-
lbs/sec lbs/min lbs/day voir if the flow rate is 75 gpm.
SOLUTION:
55, 000 gal
cfs = cubic feet per second gps = gallons per second
DT = = 734 min
75 gal/min
cfm = cubic feet per minute gpm = gallons per minute
cfd = cubic feet per day gpd = gallons per day
634 min
or = 10.6 hrs
*The factors shown in the diagram have the following units associated with them: 60 min/hr
60 sec/min, 1440 min/day, 7.48 gal/cu ft, and 8.34 lbs/gal.
FIGURE 5.3 Flow conversions using the box method. Adapted

Example 5.33
from Applied Math for Wastewater Plant Operators, by J. K. Price,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL: 1991, p. 32. Problem: If the fuel consumption to the boiler is 30 gpd,
how many days will the 1,000-gallon tank last?
SOLUTION:
If we assume that the plant filters 300 gpm, 157,080 ÷ 300 = 524
1000 gal
min (rounded), or roughly 9 h of detention time. Stated another Days = = 33.3 days
30 gal/days
way, the detention time is the length of time theoretically
required for the coagulated water to flow through the basin.
Hydraulic Detention Time
If chlorine were added to the water as it entered the basin, the
chlorine contact time would be 9 h. To determine the CT used The term detention time or hydraulic detention time (HDT)
to determine the effectiveness of chlorine, we must calculate refers to the average length of time (theoretical time) a drop
detention time. of water, wastewater, or suspended particles remains in a tank
Key point: True detention time is the “T” portion of the or channel. It is calculated by dividing the water/wastewater
CT value. in the tank by the flow rate through the tank. The units of
Note: Detention time is also important when evaluating flow rate used in the calculation are dependent on whether
the sedimentation and flocculation basins of a water treatment the detention time is to be calculated in seconds, minutes,
plant. hours, or days. Detention time is used in conjunction with
Detention time is expressed in units of time (obviously). various treatment processes, including sedimentation and
The most common are seconds, minutes, hours, and days. The coagulation-flocculation. Generally, in practice, detention
simplest way to calculate detention time is to divide the vol- time is associated with the amount of time required for a tank
ume of the container by the flow rate into the container. The to empty. The range of detention time varies with the process.
theoretical detention time of a container is the same as the For example, in a tank used for sedimentation, detention time
amount of time it would take to fill the container if it were is commonly measured in minutes. The calculation methods
empty. For volume, the most common units used are gallons. used to determine detention time are illustrated in the follow-
However, on occasion, cubic feet may also be used. Time ing sections.
Hydraulic Detention Time in Days Note: The tank volume and the flow rate must be in the
Note: The general hydraulic detention time calculation is: same dimensions before calculating the hydraulic deten-
tion time.
Tank Volume
Hydraulic Detention Time = (5.11)
Flow Rate
Chemical Dosage Calculations
This general formula is then modified based upon the infor-
Chemicals are used extensively in wastewater treatment plant
mation provided or available and the “normal” range of deten-
operations. Wastewater treatment plant operators add chemi-
tion times for the unit being evaluated.
cals to various unit processes for slime-growth control, cor-
Tank Volume, ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 rosion control, odor control, grease removal, BOD reduction,
HDT, Days = (5.12) pH control, sludge-bulking control, ammonia oxidation, bac-
Flow, gallons/day
terial reduction, and for other reasons. In order to apply any
Example 5.34 chemical dose correctly, it is important to be able to make
certain dosage calculations. One of the most frequently used
Problem: An anaerobic digester has a volume of 2,200,000 calculations in wastewater mathematics is the conversion of
gal. What is the detention time in days when the influent milligrams per liter (mg/L) concentration to pounds per day
flow rate is 0.06 MGD? (lbs/day) or pounds (lbs) dosage or loading. The general types
of mg/L to lbs/day or lb calculations are for chemical dosage,
SOLUTION:
BOD, COD, or SS loading/removal, pounds of solids under
2, 200, 000 gallons aeration and WAS pumping rate. These calculations are usu-
D.T., Days =
0.06 MGD ´ 1, 000, 000 gallon/MG ally made using either of the following equations:
= 37 days
( mg /L ) ( MGD flow ) (8.34 lbs /gal ) = lbs /day (5.15)
Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours
HDT ( hr )
( mg /L ) ( MG volume ) (8.34 lbs /gal ) = lbs (5.16)
Tank Volume, ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 24 hours/day
(5.13) Note: If mg/L concentration represents a concentration in a
= flow, then million gallons per day (MGD) flow is used as the
Flow, gallons/day
second factor. However, if the concentration pertains to a tank
Example 5.35 or pipeline volume, then million gallons (MG) volume is used
as the second factor.
Problem: A settling tank has a volume of 40,000 ft3. What
is the detention time in hours when the flow is 4.35 MGD? Dosage Formula Pie Chart
In converting pounds (lbs) or mg/L, Million Gallons (MG) and
SOLUTION: 8.34 are key parameters. The pie chart shown in Figure 5.4
and the steps listed below can be helpful in finding lb or mg/L.
40,000 ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 24 hr/day
HDT (hr ) =
4.35 MGD ´ 1, 000, 000 gal/MG
Step 1: Determine what unit the question is asking you
HDT (hr ) = 1.7 hours to find (lb or mg/L).
Step 2: Physically cover or hide the area of the chart
continuing the desired unit. Write the desired unit
Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes
down along on one side of the “equals sign” to begin
HDT, min. the necessary equation (Ex: lb =).
Tank Volume, ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 1, 440 minutes/day (5.14) Step 3: Look at the remaining uncovered areas of the
=
Flow, gallons/day circle. These exactly represent the other side of the
“equals sign” in the necessary equation. If the unit
Example 5.36
Problem: A grit channel has a volume of 1,240 ft3. What is the

detention time in minutes, when the flow rate is 4.1 MGD?
lbs
SOLUTION:
mg/l 8.34
D.T., Minutes
1240
, ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 1440 min/day MG
=
4,100,000 gallons/day
= 3.26 minutes FIGURE 5.4 Dosage formula pie chart.

above the center line is not covered, your equa- since 1 mg/L = 1 ppm. However, current practice is to use
tion will have a top (or numerator) and a bottom mg/L as the preferred expression of concentration.
(or denominator), just like the pie chart. Everything
above the center line goes in the numerator, or the
Example 5.37
top of the equation and everything below the center
line goes in the denominator, or on the bottom of the Problem: Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day)
equation. Remember that all units below the line are needed to treat a flow of 8 MGD with a chlorine dose of
always multiplied together; for example, if you are 6 mg/L.
asked to find the dosage in mg/L, you would cover
mg/L in the pie chart and write it down on one side SOLUTION:
of the “equals sign” to start your equation, like this:
(mg /l) ( MGD) ( 8.34) = lbs /day
mg /l = (6 mg /l) ( 8 MGD) ( 8.34 lbs /gal) = lbs /day
The remaining portions of the pie chart are lbs = 400 lbs /day
on top, divided by MGD × 8.34 on the bottom and
would be written like this: Example 5.38
lbs Problem: What should the chlorinator setting be (lbs/day)

mg /l = to treat a flow of 3 MGD if the chlorine demand is 12 mg/L
MGD ´8.34 and a chlorine residual of 2 mg/L is desired?
Note: The chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine
If the area above the center line is covered, the used in reacting with various components of the wastewa-
right side of your equation will be made up of only ter such as harmful organisms and other organic and inor-
the units below the center line. Remember that all ganic substances. When the chlorine demand has been
units below the line are always multiplied together. satisfied, these reactions stop.
If you are asked to find the number of pounds
needed, you would cover lb in the pie chart and write (mg /L ) ´ ( MGD) ´ ( 8.34 ) = lbs /day
it down on one side of the “equals sign” to start your
equation, like this: To find the unknown value (lbs/day), we must first deter-
mine chlorine dose. To do this we must use Equation 5.18.
lb =
Chlorine Dose, mg /L = Chlorine Demand, mg /L
All of the remaining areas of the pie chart are + Chlorine Residual, mg /L
together on one line (below the center line of the (5.18)
circle), multiplied together on the other side of the = 12 mg /L + 2 mg /L
“equals sign” and written like this: = 14 mg /L
lb = mg /l ´ MGD ´ 8.34 Then we can make the mg/L to lbs/day calculation:
Chlorine Dosage (12 mg /L ) ´ ( 3 MGD) ´ ( 8.34 lb /gal) = 300 lb /day

Chlorine is a powerful oxidizer commonly used in water
treatment for purification and in wastewater treatment for
disinfection, odor control, bulking control, and other appli- Hypochlorite Dosage
cations. When chlorine is added to a unit process, we want At many wastewater facilities, sodium hypochlorite or cal-
to ensure that a measured amount is added. The amount of cium hypochlorite is used instead of chlorine. The reasons
chemical added or required two ways are used: for substituting hypochlorite for chlorine vary. However, with
the passage of stricter hazardous chemicals regulations under
• Milligrams per liter (mg/L) OSHA and the USEPA, many facilities are deciding to sub-
• Pounds per day (lbs/day) stitute the hazardous chemical chlorine with non-hazardous
hypochlorite. Obviously, the potential liability involved with
To convert from mg/L (or ppm) concentration to lbs/day, we using deadly chlorine is also a factor involved in the decision
use Equation 5.17. to substitute it with a less toxic chemical substance.
For whatever reason the wastewater treatment plant decides
( mg /L ) ´ ( MGD ) ´ (8.34 ) = lb /day (5.17) to substitute chlorine for hypochlorite, there are differences
between the two chemicals that the wastewater operator needs
Note: In previous years it was normal practice to use the expres- to be aware of. Chlorine is a hazardous material. Chlorine gas
sion parts per million (ppm) as an expression of concentration, is used in wastewater treatment applications at 100% available
chlorine. This is an important consideration to keep in mind sodium hypochlorite is required? How many gal/day of
when making or setting chlorine feed rates. For example, if sodium hypochlorite is this?
the chlorine demand and residual require 100-lbs/day chlo-
rine, the chlorinator setting would be just that—100-lbs/24 SOLUTION:
h. Hypochlorite is less hazardous than chlorine; it is similar Step 1: Calculate the lbs/day chlorine required:
to strong bleach and comes in two forms: dry calcium hypo-
chlorite (often referred to as HTH) and liquid sodium hypo- (mg /l) ´ ( MGD) ´ ( 8.34 ) = lb /day
chlorite. Calcium hypochlorite contains about 65% available ( 20 mg /l) ´ ( 0.84 MGD) ´ ( 8.34 lb /gal)
chlorine; sodium hypochlorite contains about 12–15% avail-
able chlorine (in industrial strengths). = 140 lb /day Chlorine
Note: Because either type of hypochlorite is not 100% Step 2: Calculate the lbs/day sodium hypochlorite:
pure chlorine, more lbs/day must be fed into the system to
obtain the same amount of chlorine for disinfection. This is an 140 lb /day chlorine
´ 100 = 933 lb/day Hypochlorite
important economical consideration for those facilities think- 15 Avail. Chlorine
ing about substituting hypochlorite for chlorine. Some studies
Step 3: Calculate the gal/day sodium hypochlorite:
indicate that such a switch can increase operating costs, over-
all, by up to three times the cost of using chlorine. 933 lb/day
= 112 gal/day Sodium Hypochlorite
To calculate the lbs/day hypochlorite required, a two-step 8.34 lb/gal
calculation is followed:
Step (1) mg /l MGD ( 8.34 ) = lb /day (5.19) Example 5.41
Problem: How many pounds of chlorine gas is necessary

Chlorine, lb/day to 5,000,000 gal of wastewater at a dosage of 2 mg/L?
Step (2) ´ 100 = Hypochlorite, lb/day
% Available
SOLUTION:
(5.20)
Step (1) Calculate the pounds of chlorine required.
Example 5.39

( V ´ 10
6
)
gal = Chlorine conc. (mg /l) ´ 8.34

Problem: A total chlorine dosage of 10 mg/L is required to = lb chlorine
treat a particular wastewater. If the flow is 1.4 MGD and
Step (2) Substitute (5 × 106 gal) × 2 mg/L × 8.34 = 83
the hypochlorite has 65% available chlorine how many
lb chlorine
lbs/day of hypochlorite will be required?
SOLUTION: Percent Removal

Step 1: Calculate the lbs/day chlorine required using Percent Removal is used throughout the wastewater treatment
the mg/L to lbs/day equation: process to express or evaluate the performance of the plant
and individual treatment unit processes. The results can be
(mg /L ) ´ ( MGD) ´ ( 8.34 ) = lb /day used to determine if the plant is performing as expected or
in troubleshooting unit operations by comparing the results
(10 mg /L ) ´ (1.4 MGD) ´ ( 8.34 lbs /gal) with those listed in the plant’s O & M manual (Operations and

= 117 lb /day Maintenance Manual). It can be used with either concentra-
tion or quantities:
Step 2: Calculate the lbs/day hypochlorite required.
Since only 65% of the hypochlorite is chlorine,
For concentrations use:
more than 117 lbs/day will be required:
% Removal
117 lb/day Chlorine
´ 100
65 Avail. Chlorine
é Influent Conc. - Effluent Conc.ùû ´ 100 (5.21)
=ë
= 180 lb/day Hypochlorite Influent Conc.
For quantities use:
Example 5.40
% Removal
Problem: A wastewater flow of 840,000 gpd requires a
é Inf . Quantity - Eff . Quantity ùû ´ 100 (5.22)
chlorine dose of 20 mg/L. If sodium hypochlorite (15% =ë
available chlorine) is to be used, how many lbs/day of Influent Quantity
Note: The calculation used for determining the performance for liquids and solids, it is water. Specific gravity can be used
(percent removal) for a digester is different from that used to calculate the weight of a gallon of liquid chemical:
for performance (percent removal) for other processes such
as some process residuals or biosolids treatment processes. Chemical, lb /gal.
Ensure the right formula is selected. (5.24)
= Water, lb /gal. ´ specific gravity
Example 5.42
Example 5.44
Problem: The plant influent contains 259 mg/L BOD5 and
the plant effluent contains 17 mg/L BOD5. What is the per- Problem: The label states of the chemical that the contents
cent BOD5 Removal? of the bottle have a specific gravity of 1.4515. What is the
weight of 1 gal of solution?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
é( 259 mg/L - 17 mg/L ) ´ 100 ùû
% Removal = ë Weight (lb /gal) = 1.4515 ´ 8.34 lb /gal
259 mg/L
= 12.1lb /gal
= 93.4%
Population Equivalent (PE) or Unit Loading Factor Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge
When it is impossible to conduct a wastewater characteriza- The calculation used to determine percent volatile matter
tion study and other data are unavailable, population equiva- reduction is complicated because of the changes occurring
lent or unit per capita loading factors are used to estimate the during sludge digestion.
total waste loadings to be treated. If the BOD contribution of a
discharger is known, the loading placed upon the wastewater % V.M. Reduction
treatment system in terms of the equivalent number of people
can be determined. The BOD contribution of a person is nor-
=
(%VMin - %VMout ) ´ 100 (5.25)
mally assumed to be 0.17 lb BOD/day. é%VM in - ( %V.Mc, in ´ %V.Mout ) ù
ë û
BOD5 Contribution, lb/day where VM = Volatile Matter

P.E., people = (5.23)
0.17 lb BOD5 /Day/person
Example 5.45
Example 5.43
Problem: Determine the percent Volatile Matter Reduction
Problem: A new industry wishes to connect to the city’s for the digester using the digester data provided below.
collection system. The industrial discharge will contain
an average BOD concentration of 349 mg/L and the aver- Raw Sludge Volatile Matter 72%
age daily flow will be50,000 gpd. What is the population Digested Sludge Volatile Matter 51%
equivalent of the industrial discharge?
% Volatile Matter Reduction
SOLUTION:
First, convert flow rate to million gallons per day:

=
( 0.72 - 0.51) ´ 100 = 59%

éë0.72 - ( 0.72 ´ 0.51) ùû
50,000 gpd
Flow = = 0.050 MGD
1000
, ,000 gal/MG
Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation
Next, calculate the population equivalent: Chemical coagulation consists of treating the water with cer-
tain chemicals to bring nonsettleable particles together into
P. E., people
larger heavier masses of solid material (called floc), which are
349 mg/L ´ 0.050 MGD ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG then relatively easy to remove.
=
0.17 lb BOD/person/day
Calculating Feed Rate
= 856 people /day The following equation is used to calculate the feed rate of
chemicals used in coagulation:
Specific Gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to that Chemical Feed Rate ( lb /day )
of a standard material under standard conditions of tempera- (5.26)
ture and pressure. The standard material for gases is air, and = Dose ( mg /L ) ´ Flow ( MGD ) ´8.34
Example 5.46 Filtration
Problem: A water treatment plant operates at a rate of 5 In waterworks operation (and to an increasing degree in waste-
MGD. The dosage of alum is 40 ppm (or mg/L); how many water treatment), the rate of flow through filters is an important
pounds of alum are used a day? operational parameter. While flow rate can be controlled by
various means or may proceed at a variable declining rate, the
SOLUTION: important point is that with flow suspended matter continuously
builds up within the filter bed, affecting the rate of filtration.
Chemical Feed Rate
= Dose (mg /L ) ´ Flow ( MGD ) ´ ( 8.34 ) Calculating the Rate of Filtration

= ( 40 mg /L ) ´ ( 5 MGD ) ´ ( 8.34 ) Example 5.50
= 1, 668 lb /day of alum
Problem: A filter box is 20 ft × 30 ft (including the sand
Calculating Solution Strength area). If the influent value is shut, the water drops 3.0 in./
min. What is the rate of filtration in MGD?
Use the following procedure to calculate solution strength.
SOLUTION:
Example: 5.47 Given:
Problem: Eight pounds of alum are added to 115 lb of Filter box = 20 ft × 30 ft
water. What is the solution strength? Water drops = 3.0 in./min
SOLUTION: Find the volume of water passing through the filter:

8
70% = ´ 100 = 6.5% Solution Volume = Area × Height
(8 + 115)
Area = Width × Length
We use this same concept in determining other solution
strengths. Note: The best way to perform calculations of this type is
systematic, breaking down the problem into what is given
and what is to be found.
Example 5.48
• Step 1: Determine the area:
Problem: Twenty-five pounds of alum are added to 90 lb
of water. What is the solution strength? Area = 20 ft ´ 30 ft = 600 ft 2
SOLUTION: Convert 3.0 in. into feet:

25
´ 100 = 22% Solution
( 25 + 90 ) ( 3 in.) ¸ (12 in./ft ) = 0.25 ft
Determine the volume of water passing
In the previous examples, we added pounds of chemicals
through the filter in 1 min.
to pounds of water. Recall that 1 gal of water = 8.34 lb. By
multiplying the number of gallons by the 8.34 factor, we
can find pounds. Volume = 600 ft 2 ´ 0.25 ft = 150 ft 3
• Step 2: Convert cubic feet to gallons:

Example 5.49
150 ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 = 1122 gpm
Problem: 40 pounds of soda ash is added to 65 gal of
water. What is the solution strength?
• Step 3: The problem asks for the rate of filtration in
MGD. To find MGD, multiply the number of gal-
SOLUTION: lons per minute by the number of minutes per day:
Units must be consistent, so convert gallons of water to
pounds of water. 1122 gal/min ´ 1440 min/day = 1.62 MGD
65 gal ´ 8.34 lb /gal = 542.7 lb water

Filter Backwash
40 lb In filter backwashing, one of the most important operational
´ 100 = 6.9% Solution
542.7 lb + 40 lb parameters to be determined is the amount of water in gallons
required for each backwash. This amount depends on the accumulate inside. The flow at any given point is the same
design of the filter and the quality of the water being filtered. flow at any other given point in the pipeline; therefore, a given
The actual washing typically lasts 5–10 min and uses amounts flow volume may not change (it shouldn’t), but the velocity of
to 1–5% of the flow produced. the water may change. At any given flow, velocity is depen-
dent upon the cross-sectional area of the pipe or conduit.
Velocity (the speed at which the flow is traveling) is an impor-
Example 5.51
tant parameter. Recall that when dealing with velocity of flow,
Problem: A filter has the following dimensions:
again the most basic hydraulic equation is:
Q = AV
Length = 30 ft
Width = 20 ft
where:
Depth of filter media = 24 in.
Q = flow
A = area (cross-sectional area of conduit—(0.785)
Assuming a backwash rate of 15 gal/ft 2/min is recom-
mended, and 10 min of backwash is required, calculate the × (diameter)2)
amount of water in gallons required for each backwash. V = velocity
SOLUTION:
Example 5.52
Given:
Problem: A flow of 2 MGD occurs in a 10-in. diameter
Length = 30 ft conduit. What is the water velocity?
Width = 20 ft
Depth of filter media = 24 in. SOLUTION:
Rate = 15 gal/ft 2/min Change MGD to cfs, inches to ft.
Backwash time = 10 min
Q = AV
Find the amount of water in gallons required:
2 ´ 1.55 = 0.785 ´ 0.832 V
• Step 1: Area of filter = 30 ft × 20 ft = 600 ft
2
• Step 2: Gallons of water used per square foot of 3.1 = 0.785 ´ 0.69 V
filter = 15 gal/ft 2/min × 10 min = 15 gal/ft 2 V = 5.7 ft /sec
• Step: Gallons required = 150 gal/ft 2 × 600
ft 2 = 90,000 gal required for backwash Example 5.53
Problem: A 24-in. diameter pipe carries water at a velocity

Water Distribution System Calculations of 140 ft/min. What is the flow rate (gpm)?
After water is adequately treated, it must be conveyed or dis-
SOLUTION:
tributed to the customer for domestic, commercial, industrial,
and fire-fighting applications. Water distribution systems Change ft/min to ft/sec and inches to ft, then solve for flow.
should be capable of meeting the demands placed on them
at all times and at satisfactory pressures. Waterworks opera- Q = AV
tors responsible for water distribution must be able to perform Q = 0.785 × 22 × 2.3
basic calculations for both practical and licensure purposes; Q = 7.2 cfs
Q = 7.2 cfs × 7.48 ft3 × 60 min
such calculations deal with water velocity, rate of water flow,
Q = 3,231 gpm
water storage tanks, and water disinfection.
Water Flow Velocity Example 5.54

The velocity of a particle (any particle) is the speed at which
it is moving. Velocity is expressed by indicating the length of Problem: If water travels 700 ft in 5 min, what is the
travel and how long it takes to cover the distance. Velocity can velocity?
be expressed in almost any distance and time units.
SOLUTION:
Distance Traveled Distance Traveled

Velocity = (5.27) Velocity =
Time Time
700 ft
Note that water flow that enters the pipe (any pipe) is the =
5 min
same flow that exits the pipe (under steady flow conditions).
Water flow is continuous. Water is incompressible; it cannot = 140 ft /min
Example 5.55 • Step 2:
Problem: Flow in a 6-in. pipe is 400 gpm. What is the Area = ( Width) ´ (Depth)
average velocity?
= 2.0 ft ´ 1.2 ft
SOLUTION: A = 2.4 sq ft
• Step 1: • Step 3:
Area = ( 0.785) ( diameter )

2

Convert 6” to feet by dividing by 12: Velocity ( ft/sec ) =

(
Flow ft 3 /sec )
Area ft 2 ( )
6 /12 = 0.5 or 0.5 ft
= 0.785 ( 0.5)
2
11.0 ft 3 /sec
Velocity ( V ) =
2.4 sq ft
= 0.785 ( 0.25)
= 4.6 ft /sec (rounded )
= 0.196 ft 2 (rounded )
• Step 2:
Flow ( cfs ) = Flow ( gal/min) ´ ft 3 /7.48 gal Storage Tank Calculations

Water is stored at a waterworks to provide an allowance for
´ 1 min /60 sec differences in water production rates and high-lift pump dis-
Flow ( cfs ) = 400 gal/min ´ ft 3 /7.48 gal charge to the distribution system. Water within the distri-
bution system may be stored in elevated tanks, standpipes,
´ 1 min/60 sec covered reservoirs, and/or underground basins. The water-
works operator should be familiar with the basic storage tank
Flow ( cfs ) = 400 ft 3 / 448.3 sec
calculation illustrated in the following example.
Q = 0.89 cfs
• Step 3: Example 5.57
Velocity ( ft /sec ) =
(
Flow ft 3 /sec ) Problem: A cylindrical tank is 120 ft high and 25 ft in
Area ft( )2 diameter. How many gallons of water will it contain?
0.89 ft 3 /sec SOLUTION:

=
0.196 ft 2 Given:
V = 4.5 ft /sec
Height = 120 ft
Example 5.56 Diameter = 25 ft
Cylindrical Shape
Problem: Flow in a 2.0-ft wide rectangular channel is 1.2 ft
deep and measures 11.0 cfs. What is the average velocity? Find: Total gallons of water contained in the tank
SOLUTION: • Step 1: Find the volume in cubic feet

• Step 1: Volume = 0.785 ´ (Diameter ) ´ (Height )
2
Transpose Q = VA to V = Q /A = 0.785 ( 25 ft ) (120 ft )

2

Given: = 0.785 (625 ft 2 ) (120 ft )
Q = Rate of flow = 11.0 cfs = 58, 875 ft 3
A = Area in square feet • Step 2: Find the number of gallons of water the
cylindrical tank will contain.
2.0 feet wide
1.2
2 feet deep = 58, 875 ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3

Find: Average Velocity = 440, 385 gallons
Distribution System Disinfection Calculations always need more pounds of hypochlorite as

Delivering a clean, pathogen-free product to the customer compared to elemental chlorine.
• Step 4:
is what water treatment operation is all about. Before being
placed in service, all facilities and appurtenances associated
Available Chlorine
with the treatment and distribution of water must be disin- Hypochlorite =
Chlorine Fraction
fected, because water may become tainted anywhere in the
system. In the examples that follow, we demonstrate how to
perform the necessary calculations for this procedure. 153 lb
Hypochlorite =
0 .7
Example 5.58 = 218.6 lb HTH required (rounded )
Problem: A waterworks has a tank containing water that Example 5.59

needs to be disinfected using HTH 70% available chlorine.
The tank is 100 ft high and 25 ft in diameter. The dose to Problem: When treating 4,000 ft of 8-in. water line by
use is 50 ppm. How many pounds of HTH are needed? applying enough chlorine for 80-ppm dosage, how many
pounds of hypochlorite of 70% available chlorine are
SOLUTION: required?
Given:
SOLUTION:
Height = 100 ft
Given:
Diameter = 25 ft
Chlorine dose = 50 ppm
Available chlorine = 70% Length = 4,000 ft
Available chlorine = 70%
Diameter = 8”
Find pounds of HTH:
Chlorine Dose = 80 ppm
• Step 1: Find the volume of the tank.
Find: the amount of hypochlorite required
( )
Volume = ( 3.14 ) ´ r 2 ´ (H) • Step 1: Find the volume of the pipe
Change 8 in. to ft by dividing by 12.
Diameter 25 ft
r= = = 12.5 ft 8 in.
2 2 Diameter = = 0.66 ft = 0.70 ft (rounded )
12 in/ft
Volume = 3.14 (12.5) (100 )
2
Diameter 0.70 ft
To get the radius: r = - = 0.35 ft
Volume = 3.14 (156.25) (100 ) 2 2

Volume = 3.14 (15, 625) To determine the volume:
Volume = 49,062.5 ft 3
( )
Volume = ( 3.14 ) ´ r 2 ´ (H)
• Step 2: Convert cubic feet to million gallons

Volume = 3.14 ´ ( 0.35) ´ 4000 ft
2
(MG).
Volume = 3.14 ´ ( 0.1225) ´ 4000 ft
7.48 gal MG
49,062.5 ft 3 ´ =
ft 3 1000
, ,000 gal Volume = 1538.6 ft 3
= 0.367 MG • Step 2: Convert cubic ft to million gallons (MG)
Chemical Wt (lbs ) = Chem. Dose (mg /L ) 7.48 gal/ft 3 MG

1, 538.6 ft 3 ´ ´
ft 3 1000
, ,000 gal
´ Water Vol. ( MG) ´ 8.34
= 0.0115 MG
• Step 3: Chlorine = 50 mg/L × 0.367 MG × 8.34.
Chlorine = 153 lb (available) • Step 3: Determine available chlorine:
Note: The fundamental concept to keep in
mind when computing hypochlorite calculations Chlorine = 80 mg /L ´ 0.0115 MG ´ 8.34
is that once we determine how many pounds of
chlorine will be required for disinfection, we will Chlorine = 7.67 lbs ( available )
• Step 4: Determine the hypochlorite (HTH) SOLUTION:

required:
Pounds /Day = 23 mg /l ´ 4.85 MGD
7.67 lb Chlorine ´ 8.34 lb /MG/mg /l
0 .7 = 930 lb /day
= 11lb of hypochlorite (rounded ) Concentration (milligrams/liter) to kilograms/day
Complex Conversions Kilograms /Day = Concentration, mg /l

Water and wastewater operators use complex conversions, for ´ Flow, MGD (5.30)
example, in converting laboratory test results to other units ´ 3.785 lb /MG /mg /l
of measure which can be used to adjust or control the treat-
ment process. Conversions such as these require the use of
Example 5.62
several measurements (i.e., concentration, flow rate, tank
volume, etc.) and an appropriate conversion factor. The most Problem:
widely used of these conversions are discussed in the follow- Given:
ing sections.
Effluent TSS = 29 mg/L
Concentration to Quantity Effluent Flow = 11.5 MGD
Concentration (milligrams/Liter) to pounds
What is the concentration in kilograms per day?
Pounds = Concentration ( mg /L )
SOLUTION:
´ tank volume ( MG ) (5.28) Kilograms /Day = 29 mg /l ´ 11.5 MGD
´ 8.34 lb /MG /mg /L ´ 3.785 lb /MG/mg /l
= 1263
, KG/day
Example 5.60
Concentration (milligrams/kilogram) to pounds/ton
Problem:
Given: Pounds /ton = Concentration, mg /KG
(5.31)
MLSS = 2,580 mg/L ´ 0.002 lb /ton /mg /KG
Aeration Tank Volume = 0.90 MG
Example 5.63
What is the concentration in pounds?
Problem: Given that biosolids contain 0.97 mg/kg of lead.
SOLUTION: How many pounds of lead is being applied per acre if the
Pounds = 2, 580 mg /L ´ 0.90 MG current application rate is 5 dry tons of solids per acre?
´ 8.34 lbs /MG/mg /L SOLUTION:

= 19, 366 lbs
Pounds /acre = 0.97 mg /KG ´ 5 tons /acre
Concentration (milligrams/liter) to pounds/day
´ 0.002 lb /ton /mg /kg
Pounds /Day = Concentration, mg /L = 0.0097 lb /acre
´ Flow, MGD (5.29) Quantity to Concentration

´ 8.34 lb /MG /mg /l Pounds to concentration (milligrams/liter)
Example 5.61 Concentration, mg /l

Quantity, lb (5.32)
Problem: =
Given: Volume, MG ´8.34 lb /mg /l /MG
Effluent BOD5 = 23 mg/L Example 5.64

Effluent Flow = 4.85 MGD
Problem: The aeration tank contains 73,529 lb of
What is the concentration in pounds per day? solids. The volume of the tank is 3.20 MG. What is the
concentration of solids in the aeration tank in milligrams/ SOLUTION:

liter?
8485 lb/day
Flow, MGD =
SOLUTION: 5636 mg/L ´ 8.34 lb/MG/mg/L
Concentration, mg/L Flow, MGD = 0.181 MGD

73,529 lb Kilograms/day to flow (million gallons/day)
=
3.20 MG ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG
Flow, MGD
Concentration, mg /L = 2755.1 ( 2755) mg /L
Quantity, KG/Day (5.37)
=
Concentration, mg/L ´ 3.785 KG/MG/mg/L
Pounds/day to concentration (milligrams/liter)
APPLIED MATH OPERATIONS
Concentration, mg /L
(5.33)
Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance
Quantity, lb/day
=
Flow, MGD ´8.34 lb/mg/I/MG The simplest way to express the fundamental engineering prin-
ciple of mass balance is to say, “Everything has to go some-
where.” More precisely, the law of conservation of mass says
Example 5.65
that when chemical reactions take place, matter is neither cre-
Problem: What is the chlorine dose in milligrams/liter ated nor destroyed. What this important concept allows us to do
when 490 lbs/day of chlorine is added to an effluent flow is track materials, that is, pollutants, microorganisms, chemi-
of 11.0 MGD? cals, and other materials from one place to another. The con-
cept of mass balance plays an important role in treatment plant
SOLUTION: operations (especially wastewater treatment) where we assume
a balance exists between the material entering and leaving the
490 lb /day
Dose, mg /L = treatment plant or a treatment process: “what comes in must
11.0 MGD ´ 8.34 lb /mg/L/MG
equal what goes out.” The concept is very helpful in evaluat-
Dose, mg /L = 5.34 mg /L ing biological systems, sampling and testing procedures, and
many other unit processes within the treatment system. In the
Kilograms/day to concentration (milligrams/liter) following sections, we illustrate how the mass balance concept
is used to determine the quantity of solids entering and leaving
Concentration, mg /L settling tanks and mass balance using BOD removal.
Quantity, KG/Day (5.34)
=
Flow, MGD ´ 3.785 KG/mg/L/MG Mass Balance for Settling Tanks
The mass balance for the settling tank calculates the quantity
Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate of solids entering and leaving the unit.
Pounds to tank volume (million gallons) Key Point: The two numbers (in—influent and out—efflu-
ent) must be within 10–15% of each other to be considered
Volume, MG acceptable. Larger discrepancies may indicate sampling
errors or increasing solids levels in the unit or undetected sol-
Quantity, lb (5.35)
= ids discharge in the tank effluent.
Concentration, mg/L ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG To get a better feel for how the mass balance for settling
tanks procedure is formatted for actual use, consider the steps
Pounds/day to flow (million gallons/day) below that are used in example 5.67 computation below.
Flow, MGD Step 1: Solids in = Pounds of Influent Suspended Solids

Quantity, lb/day (5.36) Step 2: Pounds of Effluent Suspended Solids
= Step 3: Biosolids Solids Out = Pounds of Biosolids
Concentration, mg/L ´ 8.34 lb /mg /L /MG
Solids Pumped Per Day
Step 4: Solids In—(Solids Out + Biosolids Solids Pumped)
Example 5.66
Problem: You must remove 8,485 pounds of solids from Example 5.67
the activated sludge process. The waste activated sludge
solids concentration is 5,636 mg/L. How many million gal- Problem: The settling tank receives a daily flow of 4.20
lons must be removed? MGD. The influent contains 252 mg/L suspended solids,
and the unit effluent contains 140 mg/L suspended solids. Step 5: Solids Removed = Sludge Pumped, gpd × %
The biosolids pump operates 10 min/h and removes bio- Solids × 8.34
solids at the rate of 40 gpm. The biosolids is 4.2% solids. Step 6: Effluent Solids, mg/L × Flow, MGD × 8.34
Determine if the mass balance for solids removal is within
the acceptable 10–15% range.
Example 5.68
SOLUTION:
Problem: A conventional activated biosolids system with
Step 1: Solids In
= 252 × 4.20
mg/L
primary treatment is operating at the levels listed below.
MGD × 8.34 = 8,827 lbs/day
Does the mass balance for the activated biosolids system
Step 2: Solids Out: 140 × 4.20
mg/L
indicate a problem exists?
MGD × 8.34 = 4,904 lbs/day
min hr
Biosolids Solids = 10 ´ 24 ´ 40 gpm
hr day Plant Influent BOD 250 mg/L
Step 3: ´ 8.34 ´ 0.042 Primary Effluent BOD 166 mg/L
Activated Biosolids System Effluent BOD 25 mg/L
= 3, 363 lb /daay Activated Biosolids System Effluent TSS 19 mg/L
Plant Flow 11.40 MGD
Balance = 8, 827 lb /day - ( 4,904 lb /day + 3,363 lb /day )
Step 4: Waste Concentration 6,795 mg/L
= 560 lb or 6.3% Waste Flow 0.15 MGD
Mass Balance Using BOD Removal

The amount of BOD removed by a treatment process is SOLUTION:
directly related to the quantity of solids the process will gen-
erate. Because the actual amount of solids generated will vary BODin = 166 mg/L × 11.40 MGD × 8.34 = 15,783 lbs/
day
with operational conditions and design, exact figures must be
BODout = 25 mg/L × 11.40 MGD × 8.34 = 2,377 lbs/
determined on a case-by-case basis. However, research has day
produced general conversion rates for many of the common BOD Removed = 15,783 lbs/day—2,377 lbs/
treatment processes. These values are given in Table 5.4 and day = 13,406 lbs/day
can be used if plant-specific information is unavailable. Using Solids Produced = 13,406 lbs/day × 0.7 lb Solids/lb
these factors, the mass balance procedure determines the BOD = 9,384 lb Solids/day
amount of solids the process is anticipated to produce. This Solids Removed = 6,795 mg/L × 0.15
is compared with the actual biosolids production to determine MGD × 8.34 = 8,501 lbs/day
the accuracy of the sampling and/or the potential for solids Difference = 9,384 lbs/day—8,501 lbs/day = 883 lbs/
day or 9.4%
buildup in the system or unrecorded solids discharges.
These results are within the acceptable range.
Step 1: BODin = Influent BOD × Flow × 8.34
Key Point: We have demonstrated two ways in which mass
Step 2: BODout = Effluent BOD × Flow × 8.34.
balance can be used. However, it is important to note that the
Step 3: BOD Pound Removed = BODin − BODout
mass balance concept can be used for all aspects of wastewa-
Step 4: Solids Generated, lb = BOD Removed, lb × Factor
ter and solids treatment. In each case, the calculations must
take into account all of the sources of material entering the
process and all of the methods available for the removal of
TABLE 5.4 solids.
General Conversion Rates
Measuring Plant Performance
Conversion Factor (lb solids/lb
Process Type BOD Removal) To evaluate how well a plant or unit process is performing,
Primary treatment 1.7
performance efficiency or percent removal is used. The
results obtained can be compared with those listed in the
Trickling filters 1.0
Rotating biological contactors 1.0
plant’s operation and maintenance (O & M) manual to deter-
Activated biosolids with primary 0.7
mine if the facility is performing as expected. In this section,
Activated Biosolids without primary sample calculations often used to measure plant performance/
Conventional 0.85 efficiency are presented. The efficiency of a unit process is
Extended air 0.65 its effectiveness in removing various constituents from the
Contact stabilization 1.0 wastewater or water. Suspended solids and BOD removal are
Step feed 0.85 therefore the most common calculations of unit process effi-
Oxidation ditch 0.65 ciency. In wastewater treatment, the efficiency of a sedimen-
tation basin may be affected by such factors as the types of
solids in the wastewater, the temperature of the wastewater, Example 5.71

and the age of the solids. Typical removal efficiencies for a
primary sedimentation basin are as follows: Problem: Using the digester data provided below, deter-
mine the percent Volatile Matter Reduction for the digester.
• Settleable Solids 90–99% Data:
• Suspended Solids 40–60%
• Total Solids 10–15% Raw Biosolids Volatile Matter 74%
Digested Biosolids Volatile Matter 54%
• BOD 20–50%
Plant Performance/Efficiency % Volatile Matter Resolution

Key Point: The calculation used for determining the perfor- (0.74 - 0.54) ´ 100
= = 59%
mance (percent removal) for a digester is different from that éë0.74 - ( 0.74 ´ 0.54 ) ùû
used for performance (percent removal) for other processes.
Care must be taken to select the right formula.
WATER MATH CONCEPTS
% Removal
Water Sources and Storage Calculations
é Influent Concentration - Effluent Concentration ùû ´100 (5.38)
=ë Approximately 40 million cubic miles of water cover or reside
Influent Concentration
within the earth. The oceans contain about 97% of all water
on earth. The other 3% is freshwater: (1) snow and ice on the
Example 5.69
surface of the earth contain about 2.25% of the water; (2)
usable groundwater is approximately 0.3%; and (3) surface
Problem: The influent BOD5 is 247 mg/L, and the plant
effluent BOD is 17 mg/L. What is the percent removal? freshwater is less than 0.5%. In the United States, for example,
the average rainfall is approximately 2.6 ft (a volume of 5,900
km3). Of this amount, approximately 71% evaporates (about
% Removal =
( 247 mg/L - 17 mg/L ) ´ 100 = 93%
4,200 km3), and 29% goes to stream flow (about 1,700 km3).
247 mg/L
Beneficial freshwater uses include manufacturing, food
production, domestic and public needs, recreation, hydro-
Unit Process Performance/Efficiency electric power production, and flood control. Stream flow
The concentration entering the unit and the concentration withdrawn annually is about 7.5% (440 km3). Irrigation and
leaving the unit (i.e., primary, secondary, etc.) are used to industry use almost half of this amount (3.4% or 200 km3/
determine the unit performance. year). Municipalities use only about 0.6% (35 km3/year) of
this amount. Historically, in the United States, water usage
% Removal is increasing (as might be expected). For example, in 1900,
éInfluent Concentration - Effluent Concentrationûù ´ 100 (5.39) 40 billion gallons of freshwater was used. In 1975, the total
= ë
Influent Concentration increased to 455 billion gallons. Projected use in 2000 is
about 720 billion gallons.
Example 5.70 The primary sources of freshwater include the following:
Problem: The primary influent BOD is 235 mg/L, and the • Captured and stored rainfall in cisterns and water
primary effluent BOD is 169 mg/L. What is the percent jars
removal? • Groundwater from springs, artesian wells, and
drilled or dug wells
SOLUTION: • Surface water from lakes, rivers, and streams
• Desalinized seawater or brackish groundwater
% Removal =
( 235 mg/L - 169 mg/L ) ´ 100 = 28% • Reclaimed wastewater
235 mg/L
Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge Water Source Calculations

The calculation used to determine percent volatile matter Water source calculations covered in this section apply to wells
reduction is more complicated because of the changes occur- and pond/lake storage capacity. Specific well calculations dis-
ring during biosolids digestion. cussed include well drawdown, well yield, specific yield, well
casing disinfection, and deep-well turbine pump capacity.
% VM Reduction
Well Drawdown

=
( %VMin - %VMout ) ´ 100 (5.40) Drawdown is the drop in the level of water in a well when water is
éë%VMin - ( %VMin ´ %VMout ) ùû being pumped. Drawdown is usually measured in feet or meters.
One of the most important reasons for measuring drawdown is Example 5.74
to make sure that the source water is adequate and not being
depleted. The data that is collected to calculate drawdown can Problem: Once the drawdown level of a well stabilized, it
indicate if the water supply is slowly declining. Early detection was determined that the well produced 400 gal during a
can give the system time to explore alternative sources, establish 5-min test.
conservation measures, or obtain any special funding that may be
needed to get a new water source. Well drawdown is the differ- SOLUTION:
ence between the pumping water level and the static water level. Gallons Produced
Well Yield, gpm =
Duration of Test, min
Drawdown, ft = Pumping Water Level, ft
(5.41) 400 gallons
- Static Water Level, ft =
5 minutes
Example 5.72 = 80 gpm
Problem: The static water level for a well is 70 ft. If the

pumping water level is 90 ft, what is the drawdown? Example 5.75
SOLUTION: Problem: During a 5-min test for well yield, a total of 780
gal are removed from the well. What is the well yield in
Drawdown, ft = Pumping Water Level, ft gpm and in gph?
- Static Water Level, ft

SOLUTION:

= 90
0 ft – 70 ft Gallons Removed
Well Yield, gpm =
= 20 ft Duration of Test, min
Example 5.73 780 gallons

=
5-minutes
Problem: The static water level of a well is 122 ft. The = 156 gpm
pumping water level is determined using the sounding
line. The air pressure applied to the sounding line is 4.0 Then convert gpm flow to gph flow:
psi and the length of the sounding line is 180 ft. What is
the drawdown? (156 gal/min) (60 /hr ) = 9360 gph
SOLUTION:
First calculate the water depth in the sounding line and the Specific Yield
pumping water level: Specific yield is the discharge capacity of the well per foot
of drawdown. The specific yield may range from 1 gpm/ft
Water depth in sounding line drawdown to more than 100-gpm/ft drawdown for a prop-
1) erly developed well. Specific yield is calculated using the
= ( 4.0 psi) ( 2.31 ft /psi) = 9.2 ft
Equation 5.43.
Pumping water level = 180 ft – 9.2 ft = 170.8 ft
2)
Well Yield, gpm
Then calculate drawdown as usual: Specific Yield, gpm/ft = (5.43)
Drawdown, ft
Drawdown, ft = Pumping Water Level, ft
- Static Water Level, ft Example 5.76

= 170..8 ft - 122 ft
Problem: A well produces 260 gpm. If the drawdown for
= 48.8 ft the well is 22 ft, what is the specific yield in gpm/ft, what
is the specific yield in gpm/ft of drawdown?
Well Yield
Well yield is the volume of water per unit of time that is pro-
duced from the well pumping. Usually, well yield is measured SOLUTION:
in terms of gallons per minute (gpm) or gallons per hour (gph). Well Yield, gpm
Specific Yield, gpm/ft =
Sometimes, large flows are measured in cubic feet per second Drawdown, ft
(cfs). Well yield is determined by using the following equation.
260 gpm
=
Gallons Produced 22 ft
Well Yield, gpm = (5.42)
Duration of Test, min = 11.8 gpm/ft
Example 5.77 from the surface through a shaft running inside the pump col-
umn. The water is discharged from the pump up through the
Problem: The yield for a particular well is 310 gpm. If the pump column to the surface. The pump may be driven by a
drawdown for this well is 30 ft, what is the specific yield in vertical shaft, electric motor at the top of the well or by some
gpm/ft of drawdown? other power source, usually through a right-angle gear drive
located at the top of the well. A modern version of the deep
SOLUTION: well turbine pump is the submersible type pump in which the
pump, along with a close-coupled electric motor built as a
Well Yield, gpm single unit, is located below the water level in the well. The
Specific Yield, gpm/ft =
Drawdown, ft motor is built to operate submerged in water.
310 gpm Vertical Turbine Pump Calculations
=
30
0 ft
The calculations pertaining to well pumps include head,
= 10.3 gpm/ft horsepower, and efficiency calculations. Discharge head is
measured to the pressure gage located close to the pump dis-
Well Casing Disinfection charge flange. The pressure (psi) can be converted to feet of
head using the equation:
A new, cleaned, or repaired well normally contains contamina-
tion which may remain for weeks unless the well is thoroughly
disinfected. This may be accomplished by ordinary bleach in Discharge Head, ft = ( press, psi ) ( 2.31 ft /psi ) (5.45)
a concentration of 100 parts per million (ppm) of chlorine.
The amount of disinfectant required is determined by the Total pumping head (field head) is a measure of the lift below
amount of water in the well. The following equation is used the discharge head pumping water level (discharge head).
to calculate the pounds of chlorine required for disinfection: Total pumping head is calculated as follows:
Pumping Head, ft = Pumping Water Level, ft

Chlorine, lb = ( Chlorine, mg /l ) ´ ( Casing Vol., MG ) (5.46)
(5.44) + Discharge Head, ft
´ ( 8.34 lb /gal )
Example 5.79
Example 5.78 Problem: The pressure gage reading at a pump discharge
head is 4.1 psi. What is this discharge head expressed in feet?
Problem: A new well is to be disinfected with chlorine at a
dosage of 50 mg/L. If the well casing diameter is 8 in. and SOLUTION:
the length of the water-filled casing is 110 ft, how many
pounds of chlorine will be required? ( 4.1 psi) ( 2.31 ft /psi) = 9.5 ft
SOLUTION:
Example 5.80
First calculate the volume of the water-filled casing:
Problem: The static water level of a pump is 100 ft. The
( 0.785) (.67 ) (67 ) (110 ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft ) well drawdown is 26 ft. If the gauge reading at the pump
discharge head is 3.7 psi, what is the total pumping head?
= 290 gallons
Then determine the pounds of chlorine required using the SOLUTION:
mg/L to lb equation:
Total pumping head, ft
Chlorine, lb = Pumping water level, ft
+ discharge head, ft
= ( chlorine, mg /L ) ( Volume, MG) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
= (100 ft + 26 ft ) + ( 3.7 psi) ( 2.31 ft /psi)
( 50 mg /L )( 0.000290 MG)( 8.34 lb /gal) = 126 ft + 8.5 ft

= 0.12 lb Chlorine = 134.5 ft
Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations Water Storage Calculations

The deep well turbine pump is used for high capacity deep Water storage facilities for water distribution systems are
wells. The pump, consisting usually of more than one stage required primarily to provide for fluctuating demands of
of centrifugal pump, is fastened to a pipe called the pump water usage (to provide a sufficient amount of water to aver-
column; the pump is located in the water. The pump is driven age or equalize daily demands on the water supply system).
In addition, other functions of water storage facilities include Copper Sulfate Dosing
increasing operating convenience, leveling pumping require-
ments (to keep pumps from running 24 h a day), decreas- Algal control is perhaps the most common in situ treatment
ing power costs, providing water during power source or of lakes, ponds, and reservoirs by application of copper sul-
pump failure, providing large quantities of water to meet fire fate—the copper ions in the water kill the algae. Copper sul-
demands, providing surge relief (to reduce the surge associ- fate application methods and dosages will vary depending on
ated with stopping and starting pumps), increasing detention the specific surface water body being treated. The desired
time (to provide chlorine contact time and satisfy the desired copper sulfate dosage may be expressed in mg/L copper sul-
CT (contact time) value requirements), and blending water fate, lb copper sulfate per ac-ft, or lb copper sulfate acre. For
sources. The storage capacity, in gallons, of a reservoir, pond, a dose expressed as mg/L copper, the following equation is
or small lake can be estimated using Equation 5.47. used to calculate lb copper sulfate required:
Copper Sulfate, lb
Capacity, gal = ( Ave. Length, ft ) ´ ( Ave. Width, ft )
(5.47) Copper (mg/L)(Volume, MG) (8.34 lb/al) (5.48)
´ ( Ave. Depth, ft ) ´ ( 7.48 gal /cu ft ) =
% Available copper
100
Example 5.81 Example 5.83
Problem: A pond has an average length of 250 ft, an aver- Problem: For algae control in a small pond, a dosage of
age width of 110 ft, and an estimated average depth of 15 0.5-mg/L copper is desired. The pond has a volume of 15
ft. What is the estimated volume of the pond in gallons? MG. How many pounds of copper sulfate will be required?
(Note that copper sulfate contains 25% available copper.)
SOLUTION:
Volume ( gal) = ( Ave. Length, ft ) ´ ( Ave. Width, ft ) SOLUTION:
´ ( Ave. Depth, ft ) ´ (7.48 gal/cu ft ) Copper Sulfate, lbs

= ( 250 ft ) (110 ft ) (15 ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
=
(mg/L Copper ) ( Volume MG) ( 8.34lb/gal)
% Available Copper
= 3, 085, 500 gal
100

Example 5.82 ( 0.5 mg/L ) (15 MG) ( 8.34 lb/gal)
=
25
Problem: A small lake has an average length of 300 ft 100
and an average width of 95 ft. If the maximum depth of
= 250 lb Co
opper Sulfate
the lake is 22 ft, what is the estimated gallons volume of
the lake? For calculating lb copper sulfate/acre-ft, use the following
Note: For small ponds and lakes, the average depth is equation (assume the desired copper sulfate dosage is 0.9
generally about 0.4 times the greatest depth. Therefore, to lbs/ac-ft):
estimate the average depth, measure the greatest depth,
then we multiply that number by 0.4. Copper Sulfate, lb
SOLUTION:

=
( 0.9 lb Copper Sulfate ) ( ac-ft ) (5.49)
1 ac-ft
First, the average depth of the lake must be estimated:
Example 5.84
Estimated Aver. Depth, ft
= (Greatest Depth, ft ) ´ ( 0.4 Depth, ft ) Problem: A pond has a volume of 35 ac-ft. If the desired
copper sulfate dose is 0.9 lb per ac-ft, how many lbs of
= ( 22 ft ) ´ ( 0.4 ft ) copper sulfate will be required?
= 8.8 ft SOLUTION:
Then, the lake volume can be determined:
Copper Sulfate, lb =
( 0.9 lb Copper Sulfate ) ( ac-ft )
1 ac-ft
Volume, gal
0.9 lb Copper Sulfate x lb Copper Sulfate
= ( Aver. Length, ft ) ´ ( Aver. Width, ft ) 1 ac-ft
=
35 ac-ft
´ ( Aver. Depth, ft ) ´ (7.48 gal/cu ft ) Then solve for x:
= ( 300 ft ) ´ ( 95 ft ) ´ ( 8.8 ft ) ´ (7.48 cu ft )
( 0.9 ) ( 35) = x
= 1, 875, 984 gal
31.5 lb copper sulfate filter runs and higher quality finished water. The goal of floc-
culation is to form a uniform, feather-like material similar to
The desired copper sulfate dosage may also be expressed snowflakes—a dense, tenacious floc that entraps the fine, sus-
in terms of lb copper sulfate per acre. The following equa- pended, and colloidal particles and carries them down rapidly
tion is used to determine lb copper sulfate (assume the in the settling basin. To increase the speed of floc formation and
desired dose of 5.2 lbs/ac):
the strength and weight of the floc, polymers are often added.
5.2 lb copper sulfate ´ acres Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations
Copper Sulfate, lbs = (5.50)
1 ac
Proper operation of the coagulation and flocculation unit pro-
cesses requires calculations to determine chamber or basin
Example 5.85
volume, chemical feed calibration, chemical feeder settings,
Problem: A small lake has a surface area of 6.0 acres. If
and detention time.
the desired copper sulfate dose is 5.2 lbs/ac, how many
pounds of copper sulfate are required?
Chamber and Basin Volume Calculations
To determine the volume of a square or rectangular chamber
SOLUTION: or basin, we use Equation 5.51 or Equation 5.52.
5.2 lb copper sulfate ´ 6 ac
Copper sulfate, lb = Volume, cu ft = length ( ft ) ´ width ( ft )
1 ac (5.51)
= 31.2 lb copper sulfate ´ depth ( ft )
Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations

Volume, gal = length ( ft ) ´ width ( ft )
Coagulation (5.52)
Following screening and the other pretreatment processes, the ´ depth ( ft ) ´ 7.48 ( gal /cu ft )
next unit process in a conventional water treatment system is
a mixer where the first chemicals are added in what is known Example 5.86
as coagulation. The exception to this situation occurs in small
systems using groundwater, when chlorine or other taste and Problem: A flash mix chamber is 4 ft square with water to
odor control measures are introduced at the intake and are a depth of 3 ft. What is the volume of water (in gallons) in
the chamber?
the extent of treatment. The term coagulation refers to the
series of chemical and mechanical operations by which coag-
SOLUTION:
ulants are applied and made effective. These operations are
comprised of two distinct phases: (1) rapid mixing to disperse Volume, gal = (length, ft )( width, ft )
coagulant chemicals by violent agitation into the water being
treated and (2) flocculation to agglomerate small particles into ( depth, ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft )

well-defined floc by gentle agitation for a much longer time. = ( 4 ft ) ( 4 ft ) ( 3 ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
The coagulant must be added to the raw water and perfectly
distributed into the liquid; such uniformity of chemical treat- = 359 gal
ment is reached through rapid agitation or mixing. Example 5.87
Coagulation results from adding salts of iron or aluminum to
the water. Common coagulants (salts) are as follows (Coagulation Problem: A flocculation basin is 40 ft long and 12 ft wide,
is the reaction between one of these salts and water): with water to a depth of 9 ft. What is the volume of water
(in gallons) in the basin?
• Alum—aluminum sulfate
• Sodium aluminate SOLUTION:
• Ferric sulfate Volume, gal = (length, ft )( width, ft )
• Ferrous sulfate
• Ferric chloride ( depth, ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft )
• Polymers
= ( 40 ft )(12 ft )( 9 ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft )
Flocculation
= 32,314 gal
Flocculation follows coagulation in the conventional water
treatment process. Flocculation is the physical process of Example 5.88
slowly mixing the coagulated water to increase the probability
of particle collision. Through experience, we see that effective Problem: A flocculation basin is 50 ft long and 22 ft wide,
mixing reduces the required amount of chemicals and greatly and contains water to a depth of 11 ft, 6 in. How many
improves the sedimentation process, which results in longer gallons of water are in the tank?
SOLUTION: Then calculate detention time:

First, convert the 6-in. portion of the depth measurement
Detention Time, sec
to feet:
Volume of Tank, gal
=
6 in. Flow Rate, gps
= 0.5 ft
12 in./ft
=
(6 ft ) ( 4 ft )( 3 ft )(7.48 gal/cuft ) = 7.8 sec
Then calculate basin volume:
69 gps
Volume, ft = (length, ft )( width, ft ) Determining Dry Chemical Feeder Setting, lbs/day
When adding (dosing) chemicals to the water flow, a mea-
( depth, ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft )
sured amount of chemical is called for. The amount of chemi-
= ( 50 ft )( 22 ft )(11.5 ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft ) cal required depends on such factors as the type of chemical
= 94, 622 gal used, the reason for dosing, and the flow rate being treated. To
convert from mg/L to lbs/day, the following equation is used:
Detention Time
Because coagulation reactions are rapid, detention time for Chemical added, lb/ day
flash mixers is measured in seconds, whereas the detention (5.54)
= ( Chemical, mg /l ) ( Flow, MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal )
time for flocculation basins is generally between 5 min and 30
min. The equation used to calculate detention time is shown
below. Example 5.91
Volume of Tank, gal Problem: Jar tests indicate that the best alum dose for
Detention Time, min = (5.53)
Flow Rate, gpm water is 8 mg/L. If the flow to be treated is 2,100,000 gpd,
what should the lbs/day settling be on the dry alum feeder?
Example 5.89 SOLUTION:

Setting lb /day
Problem: The flow to a flocculation basin 50 ft long, 12 ft
wide, and 10 ft deep is 2,100 gpm. What is the detention = ( Chemical, mg /L )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
time in the tank, in minutes?
= ( 8 mg /L ) ( 2.10 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
SOLUTION: = 140 lb /day
Tank Volume, gal

Example 5.92
= ( 50 ft )(12 ft )(10 ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft )
Problem: Determine the desired lbs/day setting on a dry
= 44, 880 gal chemical feeder if jar tests indicate an optimum polymer
dose of 12 mg/L and the flow to be treated is 4.15 MGD.
Volume of Tank, gal
Detention Time, min =
Flow Rate, gpm SOLUTION:
44, 880 gal Setting, lb /day
=
2100 gpm
= (12 mg /L )( 4.15 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
= 21.4 min
= 415 lb /day
Example 5.90
Determining Chemical Solution Feeder Setting, gpd
Problem: A flash mix chamber is 6 ft long, 4 ft, with water When solution concentration is expressed as pound chemical
to a depth of 3 ft. If the flow to the flash mix chamber is per gallon solution, the required feed rate can be determined
6 MGD, what is the chamber detention time in seconds using the following equations:
(assuming that the flow is steady and continuous)?
Chemical, lb /day
SOLUTION: (5.55)
= ( Chemical, mg /L )( Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal )
First, convert the flow rate from gpd to gps so that time
units will match: Then convert the lbs/day dry chemical to gpd solution:
6,000,000 Chemical, lb/day

= 69 gps Solution, gpd = (5.56)
(1440 min/day )(60 sec/min) lb Chemical/gal Solution
Example 5.93 Sometimes we will need to know the mL/min solution

feed rate, but we will not know the gpd solution feed rate.
Problem: Jar tests indicate that the best alum dose for water In such cases, calculate the gpd solution feed rate first,
is 7 mg/L. The flow to be treated is 1.52 MGD. Determine using the following equation:
the gpd setting for the alum solution feeder if the liquid
alum contains 5.36 lb of alum per gallon of solution.
gpd =
( Chemical, mg/L ) (Flow, MGD) ( 8.34 lb/gal) (5.58)
Chemical, lb/Solution, gal
SOLUTION:
First calculate the lbs/day of dry alum required, using the Determining Percent of Solutions
mg/L to lbs/day equation: The strength of a solution is a measure of the amount of chem-
ical solute dissolved in the solution. We use the following
Dry alum, lb /day
equation to determine the percent strength of solution using
= (mg /L )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) the following equation:

= (7 mg /L ) (1.52 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) Chemical, lb
% Strength = ´ 100 (5.59)
= 89 lb /day Water, lb + Chemical, lb
Then calculate the gpd solution required.
Example 5.96
89 lb/day
Alum Solution, gpd =
5.36 lb alum/gal solution Problem: If a total of 10 oz. of dry polymer is added to 15
gal of water, what is the percent strength (by weight) of the
= 16.6 gpd
d
polymer solution?
Determining Chemical Solution Feeder Setting, mL/min
Some solution chemical feeders dispense chemicals as milli- SOLUTION:
liters per minute (mL/min). To calculate the mL/min solution
Before calculating percent strength, the ounces chemical
required, use the following procedure:
must be converted to lbs chemical:
Solution, mL/min =
( gpd ) ( 3785 mL/gal ) (5.57) 10 oz.
= 0.625 lb chemical
1440 min/day 16 oz./lb
Example 5.94 Now calculate percent strength:
Problem: The desired solution feed rate was calculated to % Strength

be 9 gpd. What is this feed rate expressed as mL/min?
Chemical, lb
= ´ 100
Water, lb + Chemical, lb
SOLUTION:
0.625 lb chemical
( gpd ) ( 3785 mL/gal) = ´ 100
Solution (ml/min) =
1440 min/day
(15 gal) ( 8.34 lb/gal) + 0.625 lb
0.625 lb Chemical
=
( 9 gpd) ´ ( 37855 mL/gal) =
125.7 lb Solution
´ 100
1440 min/day
= 0 .5 %
= 24 mL /min feed rate
Example 5.95
Example 5.97
Problem: The desired solution feed rate has been calculated
to be 25 gpd. What is this feed rate expressed as mL/min? Problem: If 90 g (1 g = 0.0022 lb) of dry polymer is dis-
solved in 6 gal of water, what percent strength is the
SOLUTION: solution?
mL/min =
( gpd ) ( 3785 mL/gal)
1440 min/day SOLUTION:
First, convert grams chemical to pounds: 90 g poly-
=
( 25 gpd) ( 3785 mL/gal) mer × 0.0022 lb:
144
40 min/day
= 65.7 mL /min Feed Rate ( 90 g polymer ) ( 0.0022 lb /g ) = 0.198 lb Polymer

Now calculate percent strength of the solution: SOLUTION:

% Strength of Mix.
lb Polymer
% Strength = ´ 100 é ( Sol 1, 1b ) ( % Strength, Sol 1)
lb Water + lb Polymer ê
êë 100
0.198 lb Polymer
= ´ 100 ( Sol 2, lb ) ( % Strength, Sol 2) ù
( 6 gal) ( 8.34 lb/gal) + 0.198 lb + ú
100 úû
= 4% = ´ 100
lb solution 1 + lb Solution 2
=
(12 lb ) ( 0.1) + ( 40 lb ) ( 0.01) ´ 100
Determining Percent Strength of Liquid Solutions 121b + 401b
When using liquid chemicals to make up solutions (e.g., liq- =
1.2 lb + 0.40
´ 100
uid polymer), a different calculation is required, as shown 52 lb
below: = 3 .1 %
Liquid Poly ( % Strength) Dry Chemical Feeder Calibration

Liq. Poly., lb
100 Occasionally we need to perform a calibration calculation
(5.60)
Poly. Sol. ( % Strength) to compare the actual chemical feed rate with the feed rate
= Poly. Sol., lb indicated by the instrumentation. To calculate the actual feed
100
rate for a dry chemical feeder, place a container under the
Example 5.98 feeder, weigh the container when empty, then weigh the con-
tainer again after a specified length of time (e.g., 30 min). The
Problem: A 12% liquid polymer is to be used in making actual chemical feed rate can be calculated using the follow-
up a polymer solution. How many lbs of liquid polymer ing equation:
should be mixed with water to produce 120 lb of a 0.5%
polymer solution? Chemical Feed Rate, lb/min
Chemical Applied, lb (5.62)
SOLUTION: =
Length of Application, min
(Liq. Poly., lb )(Liq. Poly. % Strength)
If desired, the chemical feed rate can be converted to lbs/day:
100
=
(Poly Sol., lb ) (Poly. Soll. % Strength) Feed Rate, lb /day = Feed Rate, lb /min
100 (5.63)
´1440 min /day

( x lb ) (12) = (120 lb ) ( 0.5)
100 100
Example 5.100
x=
(120 ) ( 0.005)
0.12 Problem: Calculate the actual chemical feed rate, lbs/day,
x = 5 lb if a container is placed under a chemical feeder and a total
of 2 lb is collected during a 30-min period.
Determining Percent Strength of Mixed Solutions SOLUTION:

The percent strength of solution mixture is determined using
First calculate the lb/min feed rate:
the following equation:
Chemical Feed Rate, lb/min
% Strength of Mix.
é ( Sol. 1, lb )( % Strength of Sol.1) Chemical Applied, lb
ê =
êë 100 Length of Application (min)
(5.61)
( Sol. 2, lb ) (% Strength of Sol. 2 ) ù 2 lb
+ ú =
100 úû
30 min
= ´ 100
lb Solution 1 + lb Soluttion 2 = 0.06 lb /min Feed Rate
Example 5.99 Then calculate the lbs/day feed rate:
Problem: If 12 lb of a 10% strength solution is mixed Feed Rate, lb /day = ( 0.06 lb /min) (1440 min /day )
with 40 lb of a 1% strength solution, what is the percent
strength of the solution mixture? = 86.4 lb /day Feed Rate
Example 5.101 Next convert the mL/min flow rate to gpd flow rate:
Problem: Calculate the actual chemical feed rate, lbs/day,

(188 mL/min)(1440 min/day ) = 72 gpd flow rate
if a container is placed under a chemical feeder and a total 3785 mL/gal
of 1.6 lb is collected during a 20-min period.
SOLUTION: Then calculate the lbs/day polymer feed rate:
First calculate the lbs/min feed rate:

(12,000 mg /L ) ( 0.000072 MGD) ( 8.34 lb /day )

Chemical Feed Rate, lb/min = 7.2 lb /day Polymer
Chemical Applied, Ib
=
Length of Application, min Example 5.103

1.6 lb
= Problem: A calibration test is conducted for a solution
20 min
chemical feeder. During a 24-h period, the solution feeder
= 0.08 lb /min feed rate delivers a total of 100 gal of solution. The polymer solution
is a 1.2% solution. What is the lbs/day feed rate? (Assume
the polymer solution weighs 8.34 lbs/gal.)
Then calculate the lbs/day feed rate:
SOLUTION:
Feed Rate, lb /day = ( 0.08 lb /min) (1440 min /day )
The solution feed rate is 100 gal per day or 100 gpd.
= 115 lb /day Feed Rate Expressed as MGD, this is 0.000100 MGD. Use the mg/L
to lbs/day equation to calculate actual feed rate, lb day:
Chemical Solution Feeder Calibration
As with other calibration calculations, the actual solution lb /day Chemical
chemical feed rate is determined and then compared with the = ( Chemical, mg /L ) (Flow, MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /day )
feed rate indicated by the instrumentation. To calculate the
actual solution chemical feed rate, first express the solution = (12, 00
00 mg /L ) ( 0.000100 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /day )
feed rate in MGD. Once the MGD solution flow rate has been = 10 lb /day Polymer
calculated, use the mg/L equation to determine chemical dos-
The actual pumping rates can be determined by calcu-
age in lbs/day. If solution feed is expressed as mL/min, first
lating the volume pumped during a specified time frame.
convert mL/min flow rate to gpd flow rate. For example, if 60 gal are pumped during a 10-min test,
the average pumping rate during the test is 6 gpm. Actual
gpd =
( ml /min ) (1440 min/day ) (5.64) volume pumped is indicated by a drop in tank level. By
3785 ml/gal using the following equation, we can determine the flow
rate in gpm.
Then calculate chemical dosage, lbs/day.
Flow Rate, gpm
Chemical, lb /day
(5.65) ( 0.785) (D2 ) (Drop in Level, ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft ) (5.66)
= ( mg /L Chemical ) ( MGD Flow ) ( 8.34 lb /day ) =
Problem: A calibration test is conducted for a solution Problem: A pumping rate calibration test is conducted for
chemical feeder. During a 5-min test, the pump delivered a 15-min period. The liquid level in the 4-ft diameter solu-
940 mg/L of the 1.20% polymer solution. (Assume the tion tank is measured before and after the test. If the level
polymer solution weighs 8.34 lbs/gal.) What is the poly- drops 0.5 ft during the 15-min test, what is the pumping
mer dosage rate in lbs/day? rate in gpm?
Flow Rate, gpm

SOLUTION:
The flow rate must be expressed as MGD. Therefore, the ( 0.785) (D2 ) (Drop, ft )(7.48 gal/cuft )
=
mL/min solution flow rate must first be converted to gpd Duration of Test, min
and then MGD. The mL/min flow rate is calculated as:
=
( 0.785) ( 4 ft )( 4 ft )( 0.5 ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft )
15 min
940 ml
= 188 mL/min
5 min = 3.1 gpm Pumping Rate
Determining Chemical Usage SOLUTION:
One of the primary functions performed by water operators Days’ Supply in Inventory
is the recording of data. The lbs/day or gpd chemical use is Total Chemical in Inventory, lb
part of this data. From this data, the average daily use of =
Average Use, lb/day
chemicals and solutions can be determined. This informa-
tion is important in forecasting expected chemical use, com- 2800 lb in Inventory
=
paring it with chemicals in inventory, and determining when 77 lb/day Average Use
additional chemicals will be required. To determine average = 36
6.4 days’ Supply in Inventory
chemical use, we use Equation 6.66 (lbs/day) or Equation
6.67 (gpd):
Sedimentation Calculations
Total Chemical Used, lb
Average Use, lb/day = (5.67) Sedimentation, the solid-liquid separation by gravity, is one of
Number of days
the most basic processes of water and wastewater treatment. In
water treatment, plain sedimentation, such as the use of a pre-
or
sedimentation basin for grit removal and sedimentation basin
following coagulation-flocculation is the most commonly
Total Chemical Used, gal
Average Use, gpd = (5.68) used approach. The two common tank shapes of sedimenta-
Number of Days tion tanks are rectangular and cylindrical. The equations for
calculating the volume of each type of tank are shown below.
Then we can calculate days’ supply in inventory:
Calculating Tank Volume
Days’Supply in Inventory For rectangular sedimentation basins, we use Equation 5.71.
Total Chemical in Inventory, lb (5.69)
= Volume, gal = ( length, ft ) ( width, ft )
Average Use, lb/day
(5.71)
or ( depth, ft ) ( 7.48 gal /cu ft )
Days’ Supply in Inventory
For circular clarifiers, we use Equation 5.72.
Total Chemical in Inventory, gal (5.70)
=
Average Use, gpd

( )
Volume, gal = ( 0.785 ) D2 ( depth, ft )
(5.72)
Example 5.105 ( 7.48 gal /cu ft )
Problem: The chemical used for each day during a week is Example 5.107
given below. Based on this data, what was the average lbs/
day chemical use during the week? Problem: A sedimentation basin is 25 ft wide by 80 ft long
and contains water to a depth of 14 ft. What is the volume
Monday—88 lbs/day Friday—96 lbs/day of water in the basin, in gallons?
Tuesday—93 lbs/day Saturday—92 lbs/day
Wednesday—91 lbs/day Sunday—86 lbs/day SOLUTION:
Thursday—88 lbs/day
SOLUTION: Volume, gal
Average Use, lb/day =

Total Chemical Used, lb = (length, ft ) ( width, ft )
Number of Days
( depth, ft ) (7.48 gal/cal ft )
634 lb
=
7 days = ( 80 ft ) ( 25 ft ) (14 ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
= 90.6 lb /day Average Use = 209,440 gal
Problem: The average chemical use at a plant is 77 lbs/ Problem: A sedimentation basin is 24 ft wide and 75 ft
day. If the chemical inventory is 2,800 lb, how many days’ long. When the basin contains 140,000 gal, what would
supply is this? the water depth be?
SOLUTION: Detention Time, hrs

Volume, gal = (length, ft ) ( width, ft ) Volume of Tank, gal
=
( depth, ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft ) Flow Rate, gph

140,000 gal = (75 ft ) ( 24 ft ) ( x ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
=
(60 ft ) ( 222 ft ) (10 ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
62, 500 gph
140, 000
x ft =
(75) ( 24 ) (7.48 ) = 1.6 hours
x ft = 10.4 ft
Surface Overflow Rate

Detention Time
Detention time for clarifiers varies from one to three hours. Surface loading rate—similar to hydraulic loading rate (flow
The equations used to calculate detention time are shown per unit area)—is used to determine loading on sedimentation
below. basins and circular clarifiers. Hydraulic loading rate, however,
measures the total water entering the process, whereas sur-
Basic detention time equation: face overflow rate measures only the water overflowing the
process (plant flow only).
Volume of Tank, gal Note: Surface overflow rate calculations do not include
Detention Time, hrs = (5.73) recirculated flows. Other terms used synonymously with
Flow Rate, gph
surface overflow rate are Surface Loading Rate and Surface
Rectangular sedimentation basin equation: Settling Rate.
Surface overflow rate is determined using the following
Detention Time, hrs
equation:

=
( Length, ft )( Width, ft ) ( Depth, ft ) ( 7.48 gal/cu ft ) (5.74)
Flow Rate, gph Flow, gpm
Surface Overflow Rate = (5.76)
Circular basin equation: Area, sq ft
Detention Time, hrs

Example 5.111
( 0.785) ( D ) ( Depth, ft ) ( 7.48 gal/cu ft ) (5.75)
2
Problem: A circular clarifier has a diameter of 80 ft. If the
=
Flow Rate, gph flow to the clarifier is 1,800 gpm, what is the surface over-
flow rate in gpm/sq ft?
Example 5.109
SOLUTION:
Problem: A sedimentation tank has a volume of 137,000
Flow, gpm
gal. If the flow to the tank is 121,000 gph, what is the Surface Overflow Rate =
detention time in the tank, in hours? Area, sq ft
1800 gpm
SOLUTION: =
80ft ) (80ft )
(0.785) (8
Volume of Tank, gal
Detention Time, hrs = = 0.36 gpm/sq ft
Flow Rate, gph
137,0000 gal
=
121, 000 gph
Example 5.112
= 1.1hours
Problem: A sedimentation basin 70-ft by 25 ft receives a
Example 5.110 flow of 1,000 gpm. What is the surface overflow rate in
gpm/sq ft?
Problem: A sedimentation basin is 60 ft long and 22 ft
wide, and has water to a depth of 10 ft. If the flow to the SOLUTION:
basin is 1,500,000 gpd, what is the sedimentation basin
detention time? Flow, gpm
Surface Overflow Rate =
Area, sq ft
SOLUTION:
1, 000 gpm
First, convert the flow rate from gpd to gph so that times =
25 ft )
(70 ft )(2
units will match. (1,500,000 gpd ÷ 24 h/day = 62,500 gph).
Then calculate detention time: = 0.6 gpm/sq ft
Mean Flow Velocity Weir Loading Rate (Weir Overflow Rate)

The measure of average velocity of the water as it travels Weir loading rate (weir overflow rate) is the amount of water
through a rectangular sedimentation basin is known as mean leaving the settling tank per linear foot of weir. The result
flow velocity. Mean flow velocity is calculated using Equation of this calculation can be compared with design. Normally,
5.76. weir overflow rates of 10,000–20,000 gal/day/ft are used in
the design of a settling tank. Typically, weir-loading rate is a
Q ( Flow ) , cu ft /min measure of the gallons per minute (gpm) flow over each foot
(ft) of weir. Weir loading rate is determined using the follow-
= A ( Cross-Sectional Area ) , ft 2 (5.77) ing equation:
´ V ( Volume ) ft /min Flow, gpm

Weir Loading Rate, gpm/ft =
Weir Length, ft
( Q = A ´ V )
Problem: A sedimentation basin 60 ft long and 18 ft wide Problem: A rectangular sedimentation basin has a total of
has water to a depth of 12 ft. When the flow through the 115 ft of weir. What is the weir loading rate in gpm/ft when
basin is 900,000 gpd, what is the mean flow velocity in the flow of 1,110,000 gpd?
the basin, in ft/min?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
1110
, ,000 gpd
= 771 gpm
Because velocity is desired in ft/min, the flow rate in the 1440 min/day
Q = AV equation must be expressed in cu ft/min (cfm):
Flow, gpm
Weir Loading Rate =
900,000 gpd Weir Length, ft
= 84 cfm
(1440 min/day) (7.48 gal/cu ft) 771 gpm
=
Then use the Q = AV equation to calculate velocity: 115 ft
Q = AV = 6.7 gpm/ft
84 cfm = (18 ft ) (12 ft ) ( xfpm) Example 5.116

84
x= Problem: A circular clarifier receives a flow of 3.55 MGD.
(18) (12) If the diameter of the weir is 90 ft, what is the weir-loading
rate in gpm/ft?
= 0.4 fpm
3,550,000 gpd
Problem: A rectangular sedimentation basin 50 ft long and = 2465 gpm
1440 min/day
20 ft wide has a water depth of 9 ft. If the flow to the basin
is 1,880,000 gpd, what is the mean flow velocity in ft/min?
Feet of weir = (3.14) (90 ft )

SOLUTION: =283 ft
Because velocity is desired in ft/min, the flow rate in the Flow, gpm
Q = AV equation must be expressed in cu ft/min (cfm): Weir Loading Rate =
Weir Length, ft
1, 880, 000 gpd 2465 gpm
= 175 cfm =
(1440 min/day) (7.48 gal cu ft ) 283 ft
The use the Q = AV equation to calculate velocity: = 8.7 gpm/ft
Q = AV
Percent Settled Biosolids
175 cfm = ( 20 ft ) ( 9 ft ) ( x fpm) The percent settled biosolids test (volume over volume test,
or V/V test) is conducted by collecting a 100-mL slurry sam-
175 cfm
x= ple from the solids contact unit and allowing it to settle for
( 20) (9)
10 min. After 10 min, the volume of settled biosolids at the
x = 0.97 fpm bottom of the 100-mL graduated cylinder is measured and
recorded. The equation used to calculate percent settled bio- Example 5.119
solids is shown below.
Problem: Raw water requires an alum dose of 45 mg/L, as
% Settled Biosolids determined by jar testing. If a residual 30-mg/L alkalinity
must be present in the water to ensure complete precipitation
Settled Biosolids Volume, mL (5.78) of alum added, what is the total alkalinity required, in mg/L?
= ´100
Total Sample Volume, mL
SOLUTION:
Example 5.117 First, calculate the alkalinity that will react with 45 mg/L
alum:
Problem: A 100-mL sample of slurry from a solids contact
unit is placed in a graduated cylinder and allowed to set 0.45 mg/L Alk. x mg/L Alk
for 10 min. The settled biosolids at the bottom of the grad- =
1mg/L Alum 45 mg/L Alum
uated cylinder after 10 min is 22 mL. What is the percent
of settled biosolids of the sample? (0.45) ( 45) = x
= 20.25 mg / L Alk.
SOLUTION:
Then calculate the total alkalinity required:
% Settled Biosolids
Settled Biosolids, mL Total Alkalinity Req., mg /l

= ´10
00
Total Sample, mL = Alk to React w /Alum, mg /l

22 mL + Residual Alk, mg /l
= ´ 100
100 mL
= 20.25 mg /l + 30 mg /l
= 19 % Settled Biosolids
= 50.25 mg / l
Problem: A 100-mL sample of slurry from a solids contact Problem: Jar tests indicate that 36-mg/L alum is optimum
unit is placed in a graduated cylinder. After 10 min, a total for a particular raw water. If a residual 30-mg/L alkalinity
of 21 mL of biosolids settled to the bottom of the cylinder. must be present to promote complete precipitation of the
What is the percent settled biosolids of the sample? alum added, what is the total alkalinity required, in mg/L?
% Settled Biosolids SOLUTION:

Settled Biosolids, mL First, calculate the alkalinity that will react with 36-mg/L
= ´1
100
Total Sample, mL alum:

21mL
= ´ 100 0.45 mg/L Alk. x mg/LAlk
100 mL =
= 21% Settled Biosolids
(0.45) (36) = x
= 16.2
Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L)
Then, calculate the total alkalinity required:
During the alum dosage process, lime is sometimes added to
provide adequate alkalinity (HCO3-) in the solids contact clar- Total Alk. Required, mg /L
ification process for the coagulation and precipitation of the
solids. To determine the lime dose required, in mg/L, three = 16.2 mg /L + 30 mg /L
steps are required. = 46.2 mg /L
In Step 1, the total alkalinity required is calculated. Total
In Step 2, we make a comparison between required alka-
alkalinity required to react with the alum to be added and to
linity and alkalinity already in the raw water to determine
provide proper precipitation is determined using the following how many mg/L alkalinity should be added to the water?
equation: The equation used to make this calculation is shown below:
Total Alk. Required, mg /L

Added Alkalinity
= Alk. Reacting with Alum, mg /L
+ Alk. in the Water, mg /L (5.79) = Tot. Alk. Req’d, mg /L (5.80)
-
- Alk. Present in Water, mg /L
(1 mg /L alum reacts w / 0.45 mg /L Alk.)

To calculate the total alkalinity required, you must first
Problem: A total of 44-mg/L alkalinity is required to react calculate the alkalinity that will react with 52 mg/L alum:
with alum and ensure proper precipitation. If the raw
water has an alkalinity of 30 mg/L as bicarbonate, how
0.45 mg/L Alk. x mg/L Alk
many mg/L alkalinity should be added to the water? =
SOLUTION: ( 0.45) ( 52) = x
Alk. to be added, mg /L
23.4 mg//L Alk. = x
= Total Alk. Req’d, mg /L
The total alkalinity requirement can now be determined:
- Alk. Present in the Water, mg /L
= 44 mg /L - 30 mg /L Total Alk. Required, mg /L
= 14 mg /L Alkalinity to be added = Alk. to React w /Alum, mg /L
+ Residual Alk, mg /L
In Step 3, after determining the amount of alkalinity to be
added to the water, we determine how much lime (the = 23.4 mg /L + 30 mg /L
source of alkalinity) needs to be added. We accomplish
this by using the ratio shown in Example 5.119. = 53.4 mg /L Total Alkalinity Required
Next calculate how much alkalinity must be added to the

Example 5.122 water:
Alk. to be Added, mg /L
Problem: It has been calculated that 16 mg/L alkalinity
must be added to a raw water. How much mg/L lime will = Total Alk Required, mg /L
be required to provide this amount of alkalinity? (1 mg/L
- Alk. Present , mg /L
alum reacts with 0.45 mg/L and 1 mg/L alum reacts with
0.35 mg/L lime.) = 53.4 mg /L - 36 mg /L
SOLUTION: = 17.4 mg /L Alk to be added to the Water
First, determine the mg/L lime required by using a propor- Finally, calculate the lime required to provide this addi-
tion that relates bicarbonate alkalinity to lime: tional alkalinity:
0.45 mg/l Alk. 16 mg/l Alk 0.45 mg/L Alk. 17.4 mg/L Alk
= =
0.35 mg/l Lime x mg/l Lime 0.35 mg/L Lime x mg/L Lime
Then cross-multiply: 0.45x = (17.4) (0.35)

(17.4) (0.35)
0.45x = (16) (0.35) x=
0.45
(16) (0.35) x = 13.5 mg /L Lime
x=
0.45
x = 12.4 mg /l Lime Determining Lime Dosage (lbs/day)
In Example 5.123, we use all three steps to determine lime
After the lime dose has been determined in terms of mg/L, it
dosage (mg/L) required. is a fairly simple matter to calculate the lime dose in lbs/day,
which is one of the most common calculations in water and
wastewater treatment. To convert from mg/L to lbs/day lime
Example 5.123 dose, we use the following equation:
Problem: Given the following data, calculate the lime dose Lime, lb /day
required, in mg/L: (5.81)
= Lime (mg /L )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
Alum dose required (determined by jar tests)—52
mg/L
Residual alkalinity required for precipitation—30 Example 5.124
mg/L
1 mg/L alum reacts with 0.35 mg/L lime Problem: The lime dose for a raw water has been calcu-
1 mg/L alum reacts with 0.45 mg/L alkalinity lated to be 15.2 mg/L. If the flow to be treated is 2.4 MGD,
Raw water alkalinity—36 mg/L how many lbs/day lime will be required?
SOLUTION: Filtration Calculations

Lime, lb /day Water filtration is a physical process of separating suspended
= (Lime, mg /L ) (Flow, MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) and colloidal particles from waste by passing the water
through a granular material. The process of filtration involves
= (15.2 mg /L ) ( 2.4 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) straining, settling, and adsorption. As floc passes into the
filter, the spaces between the filter grains become clogged,
= 304 lb /day Lime
reducing this opening and increasing removal. Some mate-
rial is removed merely because it settles on a media grain.
Example 5.125 One of the most important processes is adsorption of the
floc onto the surface of individual filter grains. In addition to
Problem: The flow to a solids contact clarifier is 2,650,000 removing silt and sediment, flock, algae, insect larvae, and
gpd. If the lime dose required is determined to be 12.6
any other large elements, filtration also contributes to the
mg/L, how many lbs/day of lime will be required?
removal of bacteria and protozoans such as Giardia lamblia
SOLUTION:
and Cryptosporidium. Some filtration processes are also used
for iron and manganese removal.
Lime, lbs /day The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) specifies four fil-
= (Lime, mg /l)(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) tration technologies, although SWTR also allows the use of alter-
nate filtration technologies, e.g., cartridge filters. These include
= (12.6 mg /l) ( 2..65 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) slow sand filtration/rapid sand filtration, pressure filtration, dia-
tomaceous earth filtration, and direct filtration. Of these, all but
= 278 lb /day Lime
rapid sand filtration is commonly employed in small water sys-
Determining Lime Dosage (g/min) tems that use filtration. Each type of filtration system has advan-
In converting from mg/L lime to grams/min (g/min) lime, use tages and disadvantages. Regardless of the type of filter, however,
Equation 5.81. filtration involves the processes of straining (where particles are
Key Point: 1 lb = 453.6 g. captured in the small spaces between filter media grains), sedi-
mentation (where the particles land on top of the grains and
(Lime, lb/day) ( 453.6 g/lb) stay there), and adsorption (where a chemical attraction occurs
Lime, g/min = (5.82)
1440 min/day between the particles and the surface of the media grains).
Example 5.126 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm)

Flow rate in gpm through a filter can be determined by simply
Problem: A total of 275-lbs/day lime will be required to converting the gpd flow rate, as indicated on the flow meter.
raise the alkalinity of the water passing through a solids- The flow rate (gpm) can be calculated by taking the meter
contact clarification process. How much g/min lime does flow rate (gpd) and dividing by 1,440 min/day as shown in
this represent?
Equation 5.83.
SOLUTION:
Flow Rate, gpd
Flow Rate, gpm = (5.83)
(lb /day)( 453.6 g/lb) 1440 minday
Lime, g / min =
1440 min/day
Example 5.128
( 275 lb/day) ( 453.6 g/lb)
=
1440 min/day Problem: The flow rate through a filter is 4.25 MGD. What
is this flow rate expressed as gpm?
= 86.6 g /min Lime
4.25 MGD
Problem: A lime dose of 150 lbs/day is required for a sol- Flow Rate, gpm =
1440 min/day
ids-contact clarification process. How much g/min lime
does this represent? 4,250,000 gpd
=
1440 min/day
SOLUTION:
= 2951gpm
(lb/day) ( 453.6 g/lb)
Lime, g/min =
1440 min/day Example 5.129
(150 lb/day) ( 453.6 g/lb)
= Problem: During a 70-h filter run, a total of 22.4 million
1440 min/day
gallons of water are filtered. What is the average flow rate
= 47.3 g /min Lime through the filter in gpm during this filter run?
SOLUTION: Step 2
Convert cubic feet to gallons:
Total Gallons Produced
Flow Rate, gpm = 150 ft3 × 7.48 gal/ft3 = 1,122 gal/min
Filter Run, min Step 3
22,400,,000 gal The problem asks for the rate of filtration in MGD.
= To find MGD, multiply the number of gallons per
(70 hrs) (60 min/hr)
minute by the number of minutes per day.
= 5333 gpm
1122
, gal/min ´ 1440
, min /day = 1.62 MGD
Example 5.130
Problem: At an average flow rate of 4,000 gpm, how long Example 5.132
a filter run (in hours) would be required to produce 25 MG
of filtered water. Problem: The influent valve to a filter is closed for 5 min.
During this time the water level in the filter drops 0.8 ft (10
SOLUTION: in.). If the filter is 45 ft long and 15 ft wide, what is the gpm
flow rate through the filter? Water drop equals 0.16 ft/min.
Write the equation as usual, filling in known data:
Total Gallons Produced SOLUTION:
Flow Rate (gpm) =
Filter Run, min
First calculate cfm flow rate using the Q = AV equation:
25,000,000 gal
4000 gpm =
( x hrs) (60 min/hr) Q, cfm = (Length, ft )( Width, ft )
Then solve for x:

(Drop Velocity, ft /min)
25,000,000 gal = ( 45 ft ) (15
5 ft ) ( 0.16 ft /min)
=
( 4000) (60)
= 108 cfm
= 104 hrs
Then convert cfm flow rate to gpm flow rate:
Example 5.131
(108 cfm) (7.48 gal/cu ft ) = 808 gpm
Problem: A filter box is 20 ft × 30 ft (including the sand
area). If the influent valve is shut, the water drops 3.0 in./
min. What is the rate of filtration in MGD?
Filtration Rate
SOLUTION: One measure of filter production is filtration rate (generally
range from 2–10 gpm/sq ft). Along with filter run time, it
Given: provides valuable information for the operation of filters.
It is the gallons per minute of water filtered through each
Filter Box = 20 ft × 30 ft
square foot of filter area. Filtration rate is determined using
Water drops = 3.0 in./min
Equation 5.84.
Find the volume of water passing through the filter.
Filtration Rate, gpm/sq ft
Volume = Area ´ Height (5.84)
Flow Rate, gpm
=
Area = Width ´ Length Filter Surface Area, sq ft
Note: The best way to perform calculations for this type of Example 5.133
problem is step by step, breaking down the problem into
what is given and what is to be found. Problem: A filter 18-ft by 22 ft receives a flow of 1,750
gpm. What is the filtration rate in gpm/sq ft?
Step 1
Area = 20 ft × 30 ft = 600 ft 2 SOLUTION:
Convert 3.0 in. into feet:
Divide 3.0 by 12 to find feet.
Flow Rate, gpm
Filtration Rate =
3.0 /12 = 0.25 feet Filter Surface Area, sq ft
Volume = 600 ft 2 ´ 0.25 ft 17

750 gpm
=
(18 ft )( 22 ft )
3
= 150 ft of water passsing
through the filter in one minute = 4.4 gpm/sq ft
Example 5.134 Then calculate filtration rate:
Problem: A filter 28 ft long and 18 ft wide treats a flow of Flow Rate, gpm
Filtration Rate =
3.5 MGD. What is the filtration rate in gpm/sq ft? Filter Area, sq ft
SOLUTION: 1316 gpm

=
( 40 ft ) ( 20 ft )
3,500,000 gpd
Flow Rate = = 2431 gpm = 1.6 gpm/sq ft
1440 min/day
Filtration Rate, gpm/sq ft Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV)

Flow Rate, gpm The unit filter run volume (UFRV) calculation indicates the
= total gallons passing through each square foot of filter surface
Filter Surface Area, sq ft
area during an entire filter run. This calculation is used to
2431 gpm compare and evaluate filter runs. UFRVs are usually at least
=
( 28 ft ) (18 ft ) 5,000 gal/sq ft and generally in the range of 10,000 gpd/sq
= 4.8 gpm/sq ft
ft. The UFRV value will begin to decline as the performance
of the filter begins to deteriorate. The equation to be used in
Example 5.135 these calculations is shown below.
Problem: A filter 45 ft long and 20 ft wide produces a total Total Gallons Filtered
of 18 MG during a 76-h filter run. What is the average UFRV = (5.85)
filtration rate in gpm/sq ft for this filter run? Filter Surface Area, sq ft
SOLUTION: Example 5.137

First calculate the gpm flow rate through the filter:
Problem: The total water filtered during a filter run
Total Gallons Produced (between backwashes) is 2,220,000 gal. If the filter is 18 ft
Flow Rate, gpm =
Filter Run, min by 18 ft, what is the unit filter run volume (UFRV) in gal/
sq ft?
18,000 0,000 gal
=
(76 hrs) (60 min/hr) SOLUTION:
= 3947 gpm Total Gallons Filtered
UFRV =
Then calculate filtration rate: Filter Surface Area, sq ft
Flow Rate, gpm 2,2200,000 gal

Filtration Rate = =
Filter Area, sq ft (18 ft ) (18 ft )
3947 gpm = 6852 gal/sq ft

=
( 45 ft ) ( 20 ft )
Example 5.138
= 4.4 gpm/sq ft
Example 5.136 Problem: The total water filtered during a filter run is
4,850,000 gal. If the filter is 28 ft by 18 ft, what is the unit
Problem: A filter is 40 ft long and 20 ft wide. During a test filter run volume in gal/sq ft?
of flow rate, the influent valve to the filter is closed for 6
min. The water level drop during this period is 16in. What SOLUTION:
is the filtration rate for the filter in gpm/sq ft?
Total Gallons Filtered
UFRV =
SOLUTION: Filter Surface Area, sq ft
First calculate gpm flow rate, using the Q = AV equation: 4,850 0,000 gal
=
( 28 ft ) (18 ft )
Q, gpm = (Length, ft )( Width, ft ) = 9623 gal/sq ft
´ (Drop Velocity, ft /min) Equation 5.85 can be modified as shown in Equation 5.86
to calculate the unit filter run volume given filtration rate
´ (7.48 gal/cu ft )
and filter run data.
=
( 40 ft ) ( 20 ft ) (1.33 ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
6 min UFRV = (Filtration Rate, gpm, sq ft )
(5.86)
= 1316 gpm ´ (Filter Run Time, min)

Find the amount of water in gallons required:
Problem: The average filtration rate for a filter was deter-
mined to be 2.0-gpm/sq ft. If the filter run time was 4,250
Step 1: Area of filter = 30 ft × 20 ft = 600 ft 2
min, what was the unit filter run volume in gal/sq ft?
Step 2: Gallons of water used per square foot of fil-
ter = 15 gal/ft 2/min × 10 min = 150 gal/ft 2
SOLUTION: Step 3: Gallons required = 150 gal/ft 2 × 600
UFRV = (Filtration Rate, gpm/sq ft ) ft = 90,000 gal required for backwash
2
´ (Filter Run Time, min) Typically, backwash rates will range from 10–25-gpm/sq ft.
The backwash rate is determined by using Equation 5.87.
= 8500
0 gal/sq ft
The problem indicates that, at an average filtration rate of Flow Rate, gpm
Backwash = (5.87)
2 gal entering each square foot of filter each minute, the Filter Area, sq ft
total gallons entering during the total filter run are 4,250
times that amount.
Example 5.142
Example 5.140
Problem: A filter 30-ft by 10 ft has a backwash rate of
Problem: The average filtration rate during a particular filter 3,120 gpm. What is the backwash rate in gpm/sq ft?
run was determined to be 3.2-gpm/sq ft. If the filter run time
was 61.0 h, what was the UFRV in gal/sq ft for the filter run? SOLUTION:
SOLUTION: Flow Rate, gpm

Backwash Rate, gpm/sq ft =
Filter Area, sq ft
UFRV = (Filtration Rate, gpm/sq ft )
3120 gpm
=
´ (Filter Run, hrs ) (60 min /hr ) (30 ft ) (10 ft )

= ( 3.2 gpm/sq ft ) (61.0 hrs ) (60 min /hr ) = 10.4 gpm/sq ft
= 11, 712 gal/sq ft

Example 5.143
Backwash Rate
In filter backwashing, one of the most important operational Problem: A filter 20 ft long and 20 ft wide has a backwash
parameters to be determined is the amount of water in gal- flow rate of 4.85 MGD. What is the filter backwash rate
lons required for each backwash. This amount depends on in gpm/sq ft?
the design of the filter and the quality of the water being fil-
tered. The actual washing typically lasts 5–10 min and uses SOLUTION:
amounts of 1–5% of the flow produced. Flow Rate, gpm
Backwash Rate =
Filter Area, sq ft
Example 5.141
4,850,000 gpd
=
Problem: A filter has the following dimensions: 1440 min/day
Length = 30 ft = 3368 gpm
Width = 20 ft 3368 gpm

=
( 20 ft ) ( 20 ft )
Depth of filter media = 24 inches
= 8.42 gpm/sq ft
Assuming a backwash rate of 15 gal per square foot per
minute is recommended, and 10 min of backwash is Backwash Rise Rate
required, calculate the amount of water in gallons required
for each backwash. Backwash rate is occasionally measured as the upward veloc-
Given: ity of the water during backwashing, expressed as in./min
rise. To convert from gpm/sq ft backwash rate to in./min rise
Length = 30 ft rate, use either Equation 5.88 or Equation 5.89.
Width = 20 ft Backwash Rate, in./min

Depth of filter media = 24 inches (Backwash Rate, gpm /sq ft ) (12in./ft ) (5.88)
=
2
Rate = 15 gal/ft /min 7..48 gal/cu ft
Backwash Rate, in./min SOLUTION:

(5.89) Backwash Water Vol., gal
= ( Backwash Rate, gpm /sq ft ) (1.6)
= (Backwash, gpm)
Example 5.144 ´ (Duration of Backwash, min)
Problem: A filter has a backwash rate of 16-gpm/sq ft. = ( 9,000 gpm) ( 8 min)
What is this backwash rate expressed as in./min rise rate?
= 72,000 gal
SOLUTION:
Backwash Rate, in./min Example 5.147
(Backwash Rate, gpm/sq ft )(12 in./ft )
= Problem: How many gallons of water would be required
7.48 gal/cu ft
to provide a backwash flow rate of 4,850 gpm for a total
(16 gpm/sq ft )(12in./ft ) of 5 min?
=
7.48 gal/cu ft
Backwash Water Vol., gal
= 25.7 in./min
= (Backwash, gpm)
Example 5.145 ´ (Duration of Backwash, min)
Problem: A filter 22 ft long and 12 ft wide has a backwash = ( 4,850 gpm) (7 min)
rate of 3,260 gpm. What is this backwash rate expressed
as in./min rise? = 33,950 gal
SOLUTION:
First calculate the backwash rate as gpm/sq ft: Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft)
The required depth of water in the backwash water tank is
Flow Rate, gpm
Backwash Rate = determined from the volume of water required for backwash-
Filter Area, sq ft
ing. To make this calculation, simply use Equation 5.91.
3260 gpm
=
( 22 ft )(12 ft )

Volume, gal = ( 0.785 ) D2 ( ) ( Depth, ft ) (5.91)
= 12.3 gpm/sq ft
´ ( 7.48 gal /cu ft )
Then convert gpm/sq ft to in./min rise rate:

Example 5.148
(12.3 gpm/sq ft )(12 in/ft )
= Problem: The volume of water required for backwashing
7.48 gal/cu ft
has been calculated to be 85,000 gal. What is the required
= 19.7 in./min depth of water in the backwash water tank to provide this
amount of water if the diameter of the tank is 60 ft?
Volume of Backwash Water Required, gal
To determine the volume of water required for backwashing, SOLUTION:
we must know both the desired backwash flow rate (gpm) and Use the volume equation for a cylindrical tank, filling in
the duration of backwash (min): known data, then solve for x:
Backwash Water Vol., gal Volume, gal = (0.785)(D2 ) (Depth, ft)

= (Backwash, gpm) (5.90) ´ (7.48 gal/cu ft)
´ (Duration of Backwash, min) 85,000 gal = (0.785)(60 ft )(60 ft )( x ft )
´ (7.48 gal/cu ft )
Example 5.146
85,000
Problem: For a backwash flow rate of 9,000 gpm and a =
(0.785)(60)(60)(7.48)
total backwash time of 8 min, how many gallons of water
will be required for backwashing? x = 4 ft

Backwash Pumping Rate, gpm
Problem: A total of 66,000 gal of water will be required
for backwashing a filter at a rate of 8,000 gpm for a 9-min = (Desired Backwash Rate, sq ft )
period. What depth of water is required if the backwash
tank has a diameter of 50 ft? ´ (Filter Area, sq ft )
SOLUTION: = (12 gpm/sq ft ) ( 20 ft ) ( 20 ft )
Use the volume equation for cylindrical tanks: = 4,800 gpm
( )
Volume, gal = ( 0.785) D2 (Depth, ft )
Percent Product Water Used for Backwatering
Along with measuring filtration rate and filter run time,
´ (7.48 gal/cu ft ) another aspect of filter operation that is monitored for filter
performance is the percent of product water used for back-
66,000 gal = ( 0.785) ( 50 ft )( 50 ft )( x ft ) washing. The equation for percent of product water used for
backwashing calculations used is shown below.
´ (7.48 gal/cu ft )
66,000 Backwash Water, %

x=
(0.785)(50)(50)(7.48)
Backwash Water, gal (5.93)
x = 4.5 ft = ´ 100
Water Fittered, gal
Backwash Pumping Rate, gpm Example 5.152

The desired backwash-pumping rate (gpm) for a filter depends
on the desired backwash rate in gpm/sq ft, and the sq ft area Problem: A total of 18,100,000 gal of water was filtered
of the filter. The backwash pumping rate, gpm, can be deter- during a filter run. If 74,000 gal of this product water were
mined by using Equation 5.92. used for backwashing, what percent of the product water
was used for backwashing?
Backwash Pumping Rate, gpm
SOLUTION:
= ( Desired Backwash Rate, gpm /sq ft ) (5.92)
Backwash Water, %
´ ( FilterArea, sq ft ) Backwash Water, gal
= ´100
Water Filtered, gal
Example 5.150
74,000 gal
=
Problem: A filter is 25 ft long and 20 ft wide. If the desired 18,100,000 gal
backwash rate is 22 gpm/sq ft, what backwash pumping
rate (gpm) will be required? = 0 .4 %
Example 5.153
SOLUTION:
The desired backwash flow through each square foot of Problem: A total of 11,400,000 gal of water is filtered dur-
filter area is 20 gpm. The total gpm flow through the filter ing a filter run. If 48,500 gal of product water is used for
is therefore 20 gpm times the entire square foot area of backwashing, what percent of the product water is used
the filter: for backwashing?
Backwash Pump. Rate, gpm SOLUTION:

Backwash Water, %
= (Desired Backwash Rate, gpm/sq ft )
Backwash Water, gal
´ (Filter Area, sq ft ) = ´100
0
Water Filtered, gal

= ( 20 gpm/sq ft ) ( 25 ft ) ( 20 ft ) 48,500gal
= ´ 100
= 10,000 gpm ,
11400 ,000 gal
= 0.43% Backwash Water

Example 5.151
Problem: The desired backwash-pumping rate for a filter is Percent Mud Ball Volume
12 gpm/sq ft. If the filter is 20 ft long and 20 ft wide, what Mud balls are heavier deposits of solids near the top surface of
backwash pumping rate (gpm) will be required? the medium that break into pieces during backwash, resulting
in spherical accretions (usually less than 12 in. in diameter) of filter wash operation depends on the expansion of the sand bed.
floc and sand. The presence of mud balls in the filter media is Bed expansion is determined by measuring the distance from the
checked periodically. The principal objection to mudballs is top of the unexpanded media to a reference point (e.g., top of the
that they diminish the effective filter area. filter wall) and from the top of the expanded media to the same
reference point. A proper backwash rate should expand the fil-
ter 20–25%. Percent bed expansion is given by dividing the bed
Example 5.154
expansion by the total depth of expandable media (i.e., media
Problem: A 3,350-mL sample of filter media was taken for
depth less support gravels) and multiplied by 100 as follows:
mud ball evaluation. The volume of water in the graduated Expanded Measurement = Depth to top of media during
cylinder rose from 500 mL to 525 mL when mud balls backwash (inches)
were placed in the cylinder. What is the percent mud ball
Unexpanded Measurement = Depth to top of media
volume of the sample?
before backwash (inches)
SOLUTION:
Bed Exp. = Unexpanded measurement
(inches) − Expanded measurement (inches)
First, determine the volume of mud balls in the sample:
Bed Expansion, %
525 mL – 500 mL = 25 mL (5.94)
Bed expansion measurement (inches)
= ´100
Then calculate the percent mud ball volume: Total depth of expandable media (inches)
% Mud Ball Volume Example 5.156

Mud Ball Volume, mL Problem: The backwashing practices for a filter with 30 in.
= ´ 100
Total Sample, Volume, mL of anthracite and sand are being evaluated. While at rest,

the distance from the top of the media to the concrete
25 mL
= ´ 100 floor surrounding the top of the filter is measured to be 41
3350 mL
in. After the backwash has been started and the maximum
= 0.75% backwash rate is achieved, a probe containing a white
disk is slowly lowered into the filter bed until anthracite
Example 5.155 is observed on the disk. The distance from the expanded
media to the concrete floor is measured to be 34 in. What
Problem: A filter is tested for the presence of mud balls. is the percent bed expansion?
The mud ball sample has a total sample volume of 680
mL. Five samples were taken from the filter. When the SOLUTION:
mud balls were placed in 500-mL of water the water level
rose to 565 mL. What is the percent mud ball volume of Given:
the sample?
Unexpanded measurement = 41 in.
SOLUTION: Expanded measurement = 34.5 in.
Bed expansion = 6.5
% Mud Ball Volume
Mud Ball Volume, mL Bed expansion (percent)
= ´ 100
Total Sample Vol., mL = (6.5 inches/ 30 inches) ´ 100 = 22%
The mud ball volume is the volume the water rose:
Water Chlorination Calculations
565 mL – 500 mL = 65 mL
Chlorine is the most commonly used substance for disin-
Because five samples of media were taken, the total sam- fection of water in the United States. The addition of chlo-
ple volume is five times the sample volume: rine or chlorine compounds to water is called chlorination.
Chlorination is considered to be the single most important
(5) ´ (680 mL) = 3400 mL process for preventing the spread of waterborne disease.
65 mL Chlorine Disinfection
% Mud Ball Volume = ´ 100
3400 mL Chlorine deactivates microorganisms through several mecha-
= 1 .9 %
nisms, assuring that it can destroy most biological contaminants:
Filter Bed Expansion • It causes damage to the cell wall.

In addition to backwash rate, it is also important to expand the • It alters the permeability of the cell (the ability to
filter media during the wash to maximize the removal of parti- pass water in and out through the cell wall).
cles held in the filter or by the media; that is, the efficiency of the • It alters the cell protoplasm.
• It inhibits the enzyme activity of the cell so it is Now calculate the lbs chlorine required
unable to use its food to produce energy. lbs Chlorine
• It inhibits cell reproduction.
= ( Chlorine, mg /L ) ( MG Volume ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)

Chlorine is available in a number of different forms: (1) as pure = ( 48 mg /L ) ( 0.008221 MG) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
elemental gaseous chlorine (a greenish-yellow gas possessing a
pungent and irritating odor that is heavier than air, nonflamma- = 3.3 lb
ble, and nonexplosive), when released to the atmosphere, this Example 5.159
form is toxic and corrosive; (2) as solid calcium hypochlorite (in
tablets or granules); or (3) as a liquid sodium hypochlorite solu- Problem: A chlorinator setting is 30 lbs per 24 h. If the flow
tion (in various strengths). The strengths of one form of chlorine being chlorinated is 1.25 MGD, what is the chlorine dos-
over the others for a given water system depends on the amount age expressed as mg/L?
of water to be treated, configuration of the water system, the SOLUTION:
local availability of the chemicals, and the skill of the operator.
One of the major advantages of using chlorine is the effective Chlorine, lb /day = ( Chlorine, mg /L ) ( MGD flow )
residual that it produces. A residual indicates that disinfection ´ ( 8.34 lb /gal)
is completed, and the system has an acceptable bacteriological
quality. Maintaining a residual in the distribution system helps 30 lb /day = ( x mg /L )( flow, MGD )
to prevent regrowth of those microorganisms that were injured
´ ( 8.34 lb /gal)
but not killed during the initial disinfection stage.
30
x=
Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) (1.25)(8.34)
The expressions, milligrams per liter (mg/L) and pounds per x = 2.9 mg /L
day (lbs/day), are most often used to describe the amount of Example 5.160
chlorine added or required. Equation 5.95 can be used to cal-
culate either mg/L or lbs/day chlorine dosage. Problem: A flow of 1,600 gpm is to be chlorinated. At a
chlorinator setting of 48 lb per 24 h, what would be the
Chlorine Feed Rate, lb /day chlorine dosage in mg/L?
(5.95)
= ( Chlorine, mg /l )( flow, MGD ) ( 8.34, lb /gal ) SOLUTION:
Example 5.157 Convert the gpm flow rate to MGD flow rate:
(1600 gpm) (1440 min/day ) = 2,304,000 gpd
Problem: Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) needed
to treat a flow of 4 MGD with a chlorine dose of 5 mg/L. = 2.304 MGD
Now calculate the chlorine dosage in mg/L:
SOLUTION:
Chlorine, lb /day
Chlorine, lb /day
= ( Chlorine, mg /l) (Flow, MGD ) ´ 8.34 lb /gal
= ( Chlorine, mg /l)(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
( x mg /l) ( 2.304 MGD)( 8.34 lb /gal) = 48 lb /day
= ( 5 mg /l) ( 4 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) 48
x=
= 167 lb /day ( 2.304)(8.34)
x = 2.5 mg /ll
Example 5.158
Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual
Problem: A pipeline 12 in. in diameter and 1,400 ft long is Common terms used in chlorination include the following:
to be treated with a chlorine dose of 48 mg/L. How many
lbs of chlorine will this require? • Chlorine dose—It is the amount of chlorine added
to the system. It can be determined by adding the
SOLUTION: desired residual for the finished water to the chlorine
First determine the gallon volume of the pipeline: demand of the untreated water. Dosage can be either
milligrams per liter (mg/) or pounds per day (lbs/
Volume, gal
day). The most common is mg/L.
( ) (Length, ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
= ( 0.785) D2
Chlorine Dose, mg /l
= ( 0.785) (1 ft ) (1 ft ) (1400 ft ) (7.48 gal/cu ft )
= 8221 gal
= Chlorine Demand, mg /l + Chlorine, mg /l
• Chlorine demand—It is the amount of chlorine SOLUTION:

used by iron, manganese, turbidity, algae, and Chlorine dose, mg /l = Chlorine demand, mg /l
microorganisms in the water. Because the reaction
between chlorine and microorganisms is not instan- + Chlorine residual, mg /l
taneous, demand is relative to time. For instance, the 2.7 mg /l = x mg /l + 0.6 mg /l
demand 5 min after applying chlorine will be less
than the demand after 20 min. Demand, like dos- 2.7 mg /l - 0.7 mg /l = x mg /l
age, is expressed in mg/L. The chlorine demand is x Chlorine Demand, mg /l = 2.0 mg /l
as follows:
Chlorine Demand Example 5.163

= Chlorine dose – Chlorine Residual Problem: What should the chlorinator setting be (lbs/day)
• Chlorine residual—It is the amount of chlorine to treat a flow of 2.35 MGD if the chlorine demand is 3.2
mg/L and a chlorine residual of 0.9 mg/L is desired?
(determined by testing) remaining after the demand
is satisfied. Residual, like demand, is based on
SOLUTION:
time. The longer the time after dosage, the lower
the residual will be, until all of the demand has Determine the chlorine dosage in mg/L:
been satisfied. Residual, like dosage and demand,
is expressed in mg/L. The presence of a free resid- Chlorine dose, mg /l
ual of at least 0.2–0.4 ppm usually provides a high = Chlorine demand, mg /l
degree of assurance that the disinfection of the
water is complete. Combined residual is the result + Chlorine residual, mg /l
of combining free chlorine with nitrogen com- = 3.2 mg /l + 0.9 mg /l
pounds. Combined residuals are also called chlora-
mines. Total chlorine residual is the mathematical = 4.1mg /l
combination of free and combined residuals. Total
residual can be determined directly with standard Calculate the chlorine dosage (feed rate) in lbs/day:
chlorine residual test kits.
Chlorine, lb /day
The following examples illustrate the calculation of chlorine
dose, demand, and residual using Equation 5.96. = ( Chlorine, mg /l) (Flow, MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)

Chlorine dose, mg /l = ( 4.1mg /l) ( 2.35 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
= Chlorine demand, mg /l (5.96) = 80.4 lb /day Chlorine
+ Chlorine Residual, mg /l
To calculate the actual increase in chlorine residual that
would result from an increase in chlorine dose, we use the
Example 5.161 mg/L to lbs/day equation as shown below.
Problem: A water sample is tested and found to have a Increase in Chl., lb /day
chlorine demand of 1.7 mg/L. If the desired chlorine resid-
ual is 0.9 mg/L, what is the desired chlorine dose in mg/L? = (Expected Increase, mg /l) (5.97)
´ (Flow, MGD ) ( 8..34 lb /gal)

SOLUTION:
Chlorine dose, mg /l
Key Point: The actual increase in residual is simply a com-
= Chlorine demand, mg /l parison of new and old residual data.
+ Chlorine residual, mg /l
= 1.7 mg /l + 0.9 mg /l Example 5.164
= 2.6 mg /l Chlorine dose
Problem: A chlorinator setting is increased by 2 lbs/day.
Example 5.162 The chlorine residual before the increased dosage was
0.2 mg/L. After the increased chlorine dose, the chlorine
Problem: The chlorine dosage for water is 2.7 mg/L. If the residual was 0.5 mg/L. The average flow rate being chlori-
chlorine residual after 30 min contact time is found to be nated is 1.25 MGD. Is the water being chlorinated beyond
0.7 mg/L, what is the chlorine demand expressed in mg/L? the breakpoint?
SOLUTION: to be used contains 65% available chlorine, how many lbs/

day hypochlorite will be required for disinfection?
Calculate the expected increase in chlorine residual. Use
the mg/L to lbs/day equation: SOLUTION:
Lbs /day Increase Because only 65% of the hypochlorite is chlorine, more
than 110 lbs of hypochlorite will be required:
= (mg /l Increase )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) lb /day Chlorine
Hypochlorite, lbs/day =
% Available Chlorine
2 lb /day = ( x mg / l)(1.25 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
100
2 110 lb/day
x= =
(1.25)(8.34) 65

x = 0.19 mg /l 100
The actual increase in residual chlorine is: 110

=
0.65
0.5 mg /l - 0.19 mg /l = 0.31mg /l = 169 lb /day Hypochlorite
Example 5.167
Example 5.165
Problem: A water flow of 900,000 gpd requires a chlorine
Problem: A chlorinator setting of 18 lb chlorine per 24 h dose of 3.1 mg/L. If calcium hypochlorite (65% available
results in a chlorine residual of 0.3 mg/L. The chlorinator chlorine) is to be used, how many lbs/day of hypochlorite
setting is increased to 22 lb per 24 h. The chlorine residual are required?
increased to 0.4 mg/L at this new dosage rate. The average
SOLUTION:
flow being treated is 1.4 MGD. On the basis of this data, is
the water being chlorinated past the breakpoint? Calculate the lbs/day chlorine required:
Chlorine, lb /day
SOLUTION:
= ( Chlorine, mg /l)(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
Calculate the expected increase in chlorine residual:
= ( 3.1mg /l) ( 0.90 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
Lbs /day Increase
= 23 lb /day
= (mg /l Increase )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) Calculate the lbs/day hypochlorite:
4 lbs /day = ( x mg /l)(1.4 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) Hypochlorite, lb/day
4 Chlorine, lb/day
x= =
(1.4 MGD)(8.34) % Available Chlorine
100
x = 0.34 mg /l
23 lb/day Chlorine
The actual increase in residual: =
0.65 Available Chlorine
0.4 mg /L - 0.3 mg /L = 0.1mg /L = 35 lb /Available dayy Hypochlorite
Example 5.168
Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate
The most commonly used dry hypochlorite, calcium hypochlo- Problem: A tank contains 550,000 gal of water and is to
rite, contains about 65–70% available chlorine, depending on the receive a chlorine dose of 2.0 mg/L. How many pounds of cal-
brand. Because hypochlorites are not 100% pure chlorine, more cium hypochlorite (65% available chlorine) will be required?
lbs/day must be fed into the system to obtain the same amount SOLUTION:
of chlorine for disinfection. The equation used to calculate the
lbs/day hypochlorite needed can be found using Equation 5.98. Hypochlorite, lbs
(mg/L Chlorine)(MG Volume) (8.34 lbs gal)

=
lb/day Chlorine % Available Chlorine
Hypochlorite, lb/day = (5.98)
% Available Chlorine 100
100 =
( 2.0 mg/L)(0.550 MG)(8.34 lbs/gal)

65
Example 5.166 100
9.2 lb
=
Problem: A chlorine dosage of 110 lbs/day is required to dis- 0.65
infect a flow of 1,550,000 gpd. If the calcium hypochlorite = 14.2 lb Hypochlorite
Example 5.169 Hypochlorite, lb/day

Hypochlorite, gpd = (5.99)
8.34 lb/gal
Problem: A total of 40 lb of calcium hypochlorite (65%
available chlorine) is used in a day. If the flow rate treated
Example 5.171
is 1,100,000 gpd, what is the chlorine dosage in mg/L?
Problem: A total of 50-lbs/day-sodium hypochlorite is
SOLUTION:
required for disinfection of a 1.5-MGD flow. How many
Calculate the lbs/day chlorine dosage: gallons per day of hypochlorite is this?
Chlorine, lb/day
Hypochlorite, lb /day = SOLUTION:
100 Because lbs/day hypochlorite has already been calculated,
we simply convert lbs/day to gpd of hypochlorite required:
x lb/day Chlorine
40 lb/day Hypochlorite =
0.65
Hypochlorite, lb/day
(0.65)(40) = x Hypochlorite, gpd =
8.34 lb/gal
26 lb /day Chlorine = x
50 lb/day
=
Then calculate mg/L chlorine, using the mg/L to lbs/day 34 lb/gal
8.3
equation and filling in the known information:
= 6.0 gpd Hypochlorite
26 lb /day Chlorine
= ( x mg /l Chlorine ) (1.10 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) Example 5.172

26 lb/day Problem: A hypochlorinator is used to disinfect the water
x=
(1.10 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal pumped from a well. The hypochlorite solution contains
3% available chlorine. A chlorine dose of 1.3 mg/L is
= 2.8 mg /l Chlorine required for adequate disinfection throughout the system.
If the flow being treated is 0.5 MGD, how many gpd of the
Example 5.170 hypochlorite solution will be required?
Problem: A flow of 2,550,000 gpd is disinfected with cal- SOLUTION:

cium hypochlorite (65% available chlorine). If 50 lbs of
hypochlorite are used in a 24-h period, what is the mg/L Calculate the lbs/day chlorine required:
chlorine dosage?
(1.3 mg /L ) ( 0.5 MGD) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
SOLUTION:
= 5.4 lb /day Chlorine
Calculate the lbs/day chlorine dosage:
Calculate the lbs/day hypochlorite solution required:
x lb/day Chlorine
50 lb/day Hypochlorite =
0.65 5.4 lb/day Chlorine
Hypochlorite, lb/day =
x = 32.5 Chlorine 0.03
= 180 lb /day Hypoch
hlorite
Calculate mg/L chlorine:
Calculate the gpd hypochlorite solution required:
( x mg/Chlorine)( 2.55 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
= 32.5 lb/day 180 lb/day

=
8.34 lb/gal
x = 1.5 mg /L Chlorine
= 21.6 gpd Hypochlorite
Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate
Liquid hypochlorite (i.e., sodium hypochlorite) is supplied as Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions
a clear, greenish-yellow liquid in strengths from 5.25% to 16% If a teaspoon of salt is dropped into a glass of water the
available chlorine. Often referred to as “bleach,” it is, in fact, salt gradually disappears. The salt dissolves in the water. A
used for bleaching—common household bleach is a solution microscopic examination of the water would not show the
of sodium hypochlorite containing 5.25% available chlorine. salt. Only examination at the molecular level, which is not
When calculating gallons per day (gpd) liquid hypochlorite easily done, would show salt and water molecules intimately
the lbs/day hypochlorite required must be converted to gpd mixed. If we taste the liquid, of course, we would know that
hypochlorite required. This conversion is accomplished using the salt is there. And we could recover the salt by evaporating
Equation 5.99. the water. In a solution, the molecules of the salt, the solute,
are homogeneously dispersed among the molecules of water, Total Chemicals Used, gal
the solvent. This mixture of salt and water is homogenous Average Use, gpd = (5.102)
Number of Days
on a molecular level. Such a homogenous mixture is called a
solution. The composition of a solution can be varied within To calculate the day’s supply in inventory in, we use Equation
certain limits. The three common states of matter are gas, 5.103 or Equation 5.104.
liquid, and solid. In this discussion, of course, we are only
concerned, at the moment, with solids (calcium hypochlorite) Day’s Supply in Inventory
and liquid (sodium hypochlorite) states. Total Chemical in Inventory, lb (5.103)
=
Calculating Percent Strength using Dry Hypochlorite Average Use, lb/day
To calculate the percent strength of a chlorine solution, we use
Equation 5.100. Day’s Supply in Inventory
Total Chemical in Inventory, gal (5.104)
% Chlorine Strength =
Average Use, gpd
( Hypochlorite, lb )(% Available Chlorine )
1000
(5.100)
= ´ 100 Example 5.174
Water, lb + ( Hypochlorite, lb )( % Available Chlorine )
100
Problem: The pounds (lb) calcium hypochlorite used for
each day during a week is given below. Based on this data,
Example 5.173 what was the average lbs/day hypochlorite chemical use
during the week?
Problem: If a total of 72 oz. of calcium hypochlorite (65%
available chlorine) is added to 15 gal of water, what is the Monday—50 lbs/day Friday—56 lbs/day
percent chlorine strength (by weight) of the solution? Tuesday—55 lbs/day Saturday—51 lbs/day
Wednesday—51 lbs/day Sunday—48 lbs/day
SOLUTION: Thursday—46 lbs/day
Convert the ounces of hypochlorite to lb hypochlorite:

SOLUTION:
72 oz. Average Use, lb/day

= 4.5 lb chemical
16 oz./lb Total Chemical Used, lb
=
Number of Days
% Chlorine Strength
357
(Hypochlorite, lb ) ( % Available Chlorine ) = = 51lb /day Average Use
7
= 1000 ´ 100
Water, lb + (Hypochlorite, lb ) ( % Available Chlorine )
100 Example 5.175
( 4.5 lb)(0.65)
= ´ 100
(15 gal)(8.34 lb/gal) + ( 4 lb)(0.65) Problem: The average calcium hypochlorite used at a plant
2.9 lb
is 40 lbs/day. If the chemical inventory in stock is 1,100 lb,
= ´ 100 how many days’ supply is this?
125.1lb + 2.9 lb
( 2.9)(100)
= Days’ Supply in Inventory
126
= 2.3 Chlorine Strength Total Chemical in Inventory, lb
=
Average Use, lb/day
Chemical Use Calculations Days’ Supply in Inventory
In typical plant operations, chemical use is recorded each day. 1100 lb in Inventory
=
Such data provide a record of daily use from which the aver- 40 lb/day Average Use
age daily use of the chemical or solution can be calculated.
To calculate average use in pounds per day (lbs/day), we use = 27.5 days’ Supply in Inventory
Equation 5.101. To calculate average use in gallons per day Fluoridation
(gpd), we use Equation 5.102.
Note: The key terms used in this chapter are defined as
Trerage Use, lb/day follows:
Total Chemical Used, lb (5.101) • Fluoride—It is found in many waters. It is also
=
Number of Days added to many water systems to reduce tooth decay.
• Dental caries—It is commonly known as tooth into use, but sodium fluoride is still widely used, because of
decay. its unique physical characteristics. Sodium fluoride (NaF) is a
• Dental Fluorosis—It is the result of excessive flu- white, odorless material available either as a powder or in the
oride content in drinking water, causing mottled form of crystals of various sizes. It is a salt that in the past was
patches in discolored teeth. manufactured by adding sulfuric acid to fluorspar and then
neutralizing the mixture with sodium carbonate. Neutralizing
Water Fluoridation fluorosilicic acid with caustic soda (NaOH) now produces it.
As of 1989, fluoridation in the United States was being prac- Approximately 19 pounds of sodium fluoride will add 1 ppm
ticed in approximately 8,000+ communities serving more of fluoride to 1 million gallons of water. Sodium fluoride’s
than 126 million people. Residents of over 1,800 additional solubility is practically constant at 4.0 g/100 mL in water at
communities, serving more than 9 million people, were con- temperatures generally encountered in water treatment prac-
suming water that contains at least 0.7-mg/L fluoride from tice (see Table 5.5).
natural sources. Some key facts about fluoride:
Sodium Fluorosilicate
• Fluoride is seldom found in appreciable quantities in Fluorosilicic acid can readily be converted into various salts,
surface waters and appears in groundwater in only a and one of these, sodium fluorosilicate (Na2SiF6), also known
few geographical regions. as sodium silicofluoride is widely used as a chemical for
• Fluoride is sometimes found in a few types of igne- water fluoridation. As with most fluorosilicates, it is gener-
ous or sedimentary rocks. ally obtained as a by-product of the manufacture of phosphate
• Fluoride is toxic to humans in large quantities; it is fertilizers. Phosphate rock is ground up and treated with sul-
also toxic to some animals. furic acid, thus forming a gas by-product. This gas reacts with
• Based on human experience, fluoride, used in small water and forms fluorosilicic acid. When neutralized with
concentrations (about 1.0 mg/L in drinking water), sodium carbonate, sodium fluorosilicate will precipitate out.
can be beneficial. The conversion of fluorosilicic acid to a dry material contain-
ing a high percentage of available fluoride results in a com-
Fluoride Compounds pound, which has most of the advantages of the acid, with few
Theoretically, any compound that forms fluoride ions in water of its disadvantages. Once it was shown that fluorosilicates
solution can be used for adjusting the fluoride content of a form fluoride ions in water solution as readily as do simple
water supply. However, there are several practical consider- fluoride compounds, and that there is no difference in the
ations involved in selecting compounds: physiological effect, fluorosilicates were rapidly accepted for
water fluoridation, and in many cases, have displaced the use
• The compound must have sufficient solubility to per- of sodium fluoride, except in saturators. Sodium fluorosilicate
mit its use in routine water plant practice. is a white, odorless crystalline powder. Its solubility varies,
• The cation to which the fluoride ion is attached must see Table 6.5. Approximately 14 pounds of sodium fluorosili-
not have any undesirable characteristics. cate will add 1 ppm of fluoride to 1 million gallons of water.
• The material should be relatively inexpensive and
readily available in grades of size and purity suitable Fluorosilicic Acid
for their intended use. Fluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6), also known as hydrofluorosilicic
or silicofluoric acid, is a 20–35% aqueous solution with a
Caution: Fluoride chemicals, like chlorine, caustic soda, and formula weight of 144.08. It is a straw-colored, transparent,
many other chemicals used in water treatment can constitute fuming, corrosive liquid having a pungent odor and an irri-
a safety hazard for the water plant operator unless proper han- tating action on the skin. Solutions of 20–35% fluorosilicic
dling precautions are observed. It is essential that the opera- acid exhibit a low pH (1.2), and at a concentration of 1 ppm
tor be aware of the hazards associated with each individual can slightly depress the pH of poorly buffered potable waters.
chemical prior to its use. It must be handled with great care because it will cause a
The three commonly used fluoride chemicals should meet “delayed burn” on skin tissue. The specific gravity and den-
the American Water Works Associations (AWWA) stan- sity of fluorosilicic acid are given in Table 5.6. Approximately
dards for use in water fluoridation: sodium fluoride (B701- 46 pounds (4.4 gal) of 23% acid are required to add 1 ppm of
90), sodium fluorosilicate (B702-90), and fluorosilicic acid fluoride to 1 million gallons of water. Two different processes,
(B703-90). resulting in products with differing characteristics manufac-
ture fluorosilicic acid. The largest production of the acid is
Sodium Fluoride a by-product of phosphate fertilizer manufacture. Phosphate
The first fluoride compound used in water fluoridation was rock is ground up and treated with sulfuric acid, forming a
sodium fluoride. It was selected based on the above criteria and gas by-product. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is an extremely corro-
also because its toxicity and physiological effects had been so sive material. Its presence in fluorosilicic acid, whether from
thoroughly studied. It has become the reference standard used intentional addition, i.e., and “fortified” acid or from normal
in measuring fluoride concentration. Other compounds came production processes demands careful handling.
Optimal Fluoride Levels Example 5.176

The recommended optimal fluoride concentrations for fluo-
ridated water supply systems are given in Table 5.7. These Problem: Given the following data, calculate the percent
levels are based on the annual average of the maximum daily fluoride in sodium fluoride (NaF).
Given:
air temperature in the area of the involved school or com-
munity. In areas where the mean temperature is not shown in
Table 5.7, the optimal fluoride level can be determined by the
following formula. Element No. of Atoms Atomic Weight Molecular Weight
Na 1 22.997 22.997
0.34 F 1 19.00 19.00
ppm fluoride = (5.105)
E Molecular Weight 41.997
of NaF
where
E = the estimated average daily water consumption for
children through 10 years of age in ounces of water SOLUTION:
per pound of body weight. E is obtained from the Calculate the percent fluoride in NaF.
formula:
Molecular Weight of F
E = 0.038 + 0.0062 aver. max. dailyair temp.(°F ) (5.106) % Fin NaF =
Molecular Weight of NaF
In Table 5.7, the recommended control range is shifted to the 19.00

= ´ 100
high side of the optimal fluoride level for two reasons. 41.997
= 45.2%
(1) It has become obvious that many water plant opera-
Key Point: The molecular weight of hydrofluosilicic acid
tors try to maintain the fluoride level in their com-
(H2SiF6) is 79.1% and sodium silicofluoride (Na2SiF6).
munity at the lowest level possible. The result is that
the actual fluoride level in the water will vary around Fluoride Feed Rate
the lowest value in the range instead of around the Adjusting the fluoride level in a water supply to an optimal
optimal level. level is accomplished by adding the proper concentration of
(2) Some studies have shown that sub-optimal fluorides a fluoride chemical at a consistent rate. To calculate the fluo-
are relatively ineffective in actually preventing den- ride feed rate for any fluoridation feeder in terms of pounds of
tal caries. Even a drop of 0.2 ppm below optimal lev- fluoride to be fed per day, it is necessary to determine:
els can reduce dental benefits significantly.
• Dosage
Important Point: In water fluoridation, underfeeding is a • Maximum pumping rate (capacity)
much more serious problem than overfeeding. • Chemical purity
Fluoridation Process Calculations
In this section, important process calculations are discussed. TABLE 5.5
Solubility of Fluoride Chemicals
Percent Fluoride Ion in a Compound
Solubility (g per 100 mL
When calculating the percent fluoride ion present in a com- Chemical Temperature of H2O)
pound, we need to know the chemical formula for the com-
Sodium 0.0 4.00
pound (e.g., NaF) and the atomic weight of each element in the
fluoride 15.0 4.03
compound. The first step is to calculate the molecular weight
20.0 4.05
of each element in the compound (Number of atoms × atomic
25.0 4.10
weight = molecular weight). Then, we calculate the percent 100.0 5.00
fluoride in the compound using Equation 5.106. Sodium 0.0 0.44
fluorosilicate 25.0 0.76
% Fluoride in Compound
37.8 0.98
Molecular Weight of Fluoride (5.107) 65.6 1.52
= ´100 100.0 2.45
Molecular Weight of Compound
Fluorosilicic Infinite at all
Important Point: Available fluoride ion concentration is acid temperatures
abbreviated as AFI in the calculations that follow. Source: Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Water Plant Operators. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, p. 17, 1994.
• Available fluoride ion concentration pounds per minute if a factor of 1 million is included in the
denominator.
The fluoride feed rate formula is a general equation used to
calculate the concentration of a chemical added to water. It Fluoride Fd Rt. (lb/min)
will be used for all fluoride chemicals except sodium fluoride Dosage (mg/l) ´ cap. (gpm) ´8.34 lb/gal (5.109)
when used in a saturator. =
Important Point: mg/L is equal to ppm. 1,000,000 ´ AFI ´ chemical purity
The fluoride feed rate (the amount of chemical required to
raise the fluoride content to the optimal level) can be calcu- Example 5.177
lated as follows:
Problem: A water plant produces 2,000 gpm and the city
Fluoride Fd. Rt. (lb/day) wants to add 1.1 mg/L of fluoride. What would the fluoride
feed rate be?
Dosage (mg/l) ´ cap. (MGD) ´8.34 lb/gal (5.108)
= SOLUTION:
AFI ´ chemical purity
2, 000 gpm ´ 1440 minutes /day = 2,880,000 gpd
If the capacity is in MGD, the fluoride feed rate will be in
2,880,000 gpd ¸ 1000
, ,000 = 2.88 MGD
pounds per day. If the capacity is in gpm, the feed rate will be
Fluoride Feed Rate (lb /day)
1.1mg/l ´ 2.88 MGD ´ 8.34 lb
b/gal
=
0.607 ´ 0.985
TABLE 5.6 Fluoride Feed Rate, lb /day = 44.2 lb /day
Properties of Fluorosilicic Acid
Acid (%)a Specific Gravity (s.g.) Density (lb/gal)
The fluoride feed rate is 44.2 lbs/day. Some feed rates from
equipment design data sheets are given in grams/minute.
0 (water) 1.000 8.345 To convert to grams/minute, divide by 1,440 min/day and
10 1.0831 9.041 multiply by 454 g/lb.
20 1.167 9.739
23 1.191 9.938 Fluoride Fd. Rt. ( gm/min)
25 1.208 10.080
30 1.250 10.431 = 44.2 lb /day ¸ 1440 min /day ´ 454 gm/lb
35 1.291 10.773 Fluoride Feed Rate = 13.9 g /min.
Source: Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Water Plant Operator. U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, p. 19, 1994. Example 5.178
Note: Actual densities and specific gravities will be slightly higher when
distilled water is not used. Add approximately 0.2 lbs/gal to density Problem: If it is known that the plant rate is 4,000 gpm and
depending on impurities. the dosage needed is 0.8 mg/L, what is the fluoride feed
a Based on the other percentage being distilled water.
rate in mL/minute for 23% fluorosilicic acid?
TABLE 5.7
Recommended Optimal Fluoride Level
Recommended Fluoride Concentrations Recommended Control Range
Community Systems School Systems
Annual Aver. of Max. Daily
Air Tempsa (°F) Community (ppm) Schoolb (ppm) 0.1 Below 0.5 Above 20% Low 20% High
40.0–53.7 1.2 5.4 1.1 1.7 4.3 6.5
53.8–58.3 1.1 5.0 1.0 1.6 4.0 6.0
58.4–63.8 1.0 4.5 0.9 1.5 3.6 5.4
63.9–70.6 0.9 4.1 0.8 1.4 3.3 4.9
70.7–79.2 0.8 3.6 0.7 1.3 2.9 4.3
79.3–90.5 0.7 3.2 0.6 1.2 2.6 3.8
Source: Water Fluoridation: A Manual for Water Plant Operators. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, p. 21, 1994.
a Based on temperature data obtained for a minimum of five years.
b Based on 4.5 times the optimal fluoride level for communities.

SOLUTION: Fluoride Fd Rate (gpm )

1000
, ,000 = 106 Cap. (gpm ) ´ dosage(mg/l) (5.110)
=
18, 000 mg/1
Fluoride Fd Rate (lb /min)
The fluoride feed rate will have the same units as the capacity.
Dosage (mg /l ) ´ cap. (gpm) ´ 8.34 lb/gal
= If the capacity is in gallons per minute (gpm), the feed rate
106 ´ AFI ´ chemical purity
will be in gpm also. If the capacity is in gallons per day (gpd),
Fluoride Feed Rt (lb /min) the feed rate will be in gpd.
0.8 mg/l ´ 4,000 gpm ´ 8.34 lb/gal Note: For the mathematician, the following derivation is given.
=
106 ´ 0.79 ´ 0.23
Fluoride Feed Rate = 0.147 lb
b /min Fluoride Fd Rate (lb/min)
Dosage (mg/l) ´ cap. (gpm) ´8.34 lb/gal (5.111)
Note: A gallon of 23% fluorosilicic acid weighs 10 lb. and =
there are 3,785 mL/gal. The following formula can be used 106 ´ AFI ´ chemical purity
to convert the feed rate to mL/min:
To change the Fluoride Feed Rate from pounds of dry feed
to gallons of solution, divide by the concentration of sodium
Fluoride Fd Rate (ml/min)
fluoride and the density of the solution (water).
= 0.147 lb /min ¸ 10 lb /gal ´ 3785 ml/gal Note: The chemical purity of the sodium fluoride in solu-
tion will be 4% × 8.34 lbs/gal.
Fluoride Feed Rate = 55.6 ml/min
Fluoride Feed Rt (gal/min)
Example 5.179
cap. (gpm) ´ dosage (mg /l) ´ 8.34 lb/gal
=
Problem: If a small water plant wishes to use sodium fluo- 106 ´ AFI ´ chemical purity
ride in a dry feeder, and the water plant has a capacity
(flow) of 180 gpm, what would be the fluoride feed rate? Fluoride Feed Rt (gal/min)
Assume 0.1-mg/L natural fluoride and 1.0 mg/L is desired cap. (gpm) ´ dosage (mg /l) ´ 8.34 lb/gal
in the drinking water. =
106 ´ 0.45 ´ 4% x 8.34 lb/gal
Important Point: Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
recommends against using sodium fluoride in a dry feeder. Fluoride Feed Rt (gal/min)
SOLUTION:
cap. (gpm) ´ dosage (mg/l)
=
106 ´ 0.45 ´ 0.04
Fluoride Feed Rt (lb/min)
dosage (mg/l ) ´ cap. (gpm) ´ 8.34 lb/gal Fluoride Feed Rt (gpm)

=
106 ´ AFI ´ chemical purity cap. (gpm) ´ dosage (mg/l) (5.112)
=
Fluoride Feed Rt (lb/min) 18,000 mg/l
(1.0 - 0.1) mg/l ´ 180 gpm ´ 8.34 lb/gal
=
106 ´ 0.45 ´ 0.98 Example 5.180 Feed Rate for Saturator
Fluoride Feed Rate = 0.003 lb /min or 0.18 lb/ hr
Problem: A water plant produces 1.0 MGD and has less
Thus, sodium fluoride can be fed at a rate of 0.18 lbs/h to than 0.1 mg/L of natural fluoride. What would the fluoride
obtain 1.0 mg/L of fluoride in the water. feed rate be to obtain 1.0 mg/L in the water?
Fluoride Feed Rates for Saturator SOLUTION:

A sodium fluoride saturator is unique in that the strength of Fluoride Feed Rate (gpd)
the saturated solution formed is always 18,000 ppm. This is capacity (gpd) ´ dosage (mg/l)
because sodium fluoride has a solubility that is practically =
18,0000 mg/1
constant at 4.0 g/100 mL of water at temperatures gener-
ally encountered in water treatment. This means that each Fluoride Feed Rate (gpd)
liter of solution contains 18,000 mg of fluoride ion (40,000
1000
, ,000 gpd ´ 1.0 mg/l
mg/L times the percent available fluoride [45%] equals 18,000 =
mg/L). This simplifies calculations because it eliminates the 18,000 mg/l
need for weighing the chemicals. A meter on the water inlet
Fluoride Feed Rate = 55.6 gpd
of the saturator provides this volume all that is needed is the
volume of solution added to the water, for calculated dosage. Thus, it takes approximately 56 gal of saturated solution to
treat 1 MG of water at a dose of 1.0 mg/L.
Calculated Dosages 6.5 lb NaF

= 1.7% NaF solution
Some states require that records be kept regarding the amount 375 lbs H 2O
of chemical used, and that the theoretical concentration of
This means that 6.5 lb of fluoride chemical dissolved in 45
chemical in the water be determined mathematically. In order
gal of water will yield a 1.7% solution. To find the solution
to find the theoretical concentration of fluoride, the calculated
concentration of an unknown sodium fluoride solution, use
dosage must be determined. Adding the calculated dosage to
the following formula:
the natural fluoride level in the water supply will yield the the-
oretical concentration of fluoride in the water. This number,
Solution Concentration
the theoretical concentration, is calculated as a safety precau-
tion to help ensure that an overfeed or accident does not occur. 18,000 mg/l ´ solution strength (%) (5.116)
It is also an aid in solving trouble-shooting problems. If the =
4%
theoretical concentration is significantly higher or lower than
the measured concentration, steps should be taken to deter- Example 5.181
mine the discrepancy. The fluoride feed rate formula can be
changed to find the calculated dosage as follows: Problem: Assume that 6.5 lb of NaF is dissolved in 45 gal
of water, as previously given. What would be the solution
Dosage (mg /l) concentration? The solution strength is 1.7% (see above).
Fluoride Fd Rate ( lb /day ) ´ AFI ´ chemical purity (5.113)
= SOLUTION:
capacity ( MGD ) ´ 8.34 lb /gal
Solution Concentration
When the fluoride feed rate is changed to fluoride fed and the
capacity is changed to the actual daily production of water in 18, 000mg/l ´ solution strength (%)
=
the water system, then the dosage becomes the calculated dos- 4%
age. The units remain the same, except that fluoride feed goes
from lbs/day to lbs and actual production goes from MGD to 18,000 mg/l ´ 1.7%
MG (million gallons) (the “day” units cancel). Solution Concentration =
4%
Note: The amount of fluoride fed (lb) will be determined
over a time period (day, week, month, etc.) and the actual pro-
Solution Concentration = 7, 650 mg /l
duction will be determined over the same time period.
Note: The calculated dosage formula for an unsaturated
Cal. Dosage (mg/l)
sodium fluoride solution is:
Fluoride fed (lb) ´ AFI ´ chemical purity (5.114)
= Cal. Dosage (mg/l)
Actual production (MG) ´8.34 lb/gal
Sol. fed (gal) ´ sol. conc. (mg/L)
The numerator of the equation gives the pounds of fluoride =
ion added to the water while the denominator gives million Actual production (gal)
pounds of water treated. Pounds of fluoride divided by mil-
lion pounds of water equals ppm or mg/L. The formula for Caution: CDC recommends against the use of unsaturated
calculated dosage for the saturator is as follows: sodium fluoride solution in water fluoridation.
Calculated Dosage (mg/l)

Calculated Dosage Problems
sol. fed (gal) ´18,000 mg/l (5.115)
=
actual production (gal)
Determining the calculated dosage for an unsaturated Example 5.182 Sodium Fluorosilicate Dosage
sodium fluoride solution is based upon the
Problem: A plant uses 65 lb of sodium fluorosilicate in
particular strength of the solution. For example, a treating 5,540,000 gal of water in one day. What is the
2% strength solution is equal to 8,550 mg/L. The calculated dosage?
percent strength is based upon the pounds of sodium
fluoride dissolved into a certain amount of water. SOLUTION:
For example, find the percent solution if 6.5 lbs of Calculated Dosage (mg/l)
sodium fluoride are dissolved in 45 gal of water:
Fluoride fed (lb) ´ AFI ´ purity
=
Actual production (MG) ´ 8.34 lb/gal
45 gal ´ 8.34 lb /gal = 375 lbs. of water
Calculated Dosage (mg/l) SOLUTION:
65 lbs ´ 0.607 ´ 0.985 Cal. Dosage (mg/l)

=
5,540 MG ´ 8.34 lb/gal Solution fed (gal) ´18,000 mg/l
=
Actual production (gal)
Calculated Dosage = 0.84 mg /l
10 gallons ´ 18,000 mg/l
Cal. Dosage (mg/l) =
200,000 gallons
Example 5.183 Fluorosilicic Acid Dosage
Calculated Dosage = 0.9 mg /l
Problem: A plant uses 43 lb of fluorosilicic acid in treat-
ing 1,226,000 gal of water. Assume the acid is 23% pure.
Example 5.186 Sodium Fluoride—
What is the calculated dosage?
Unsaturated Solution Dosage
SOLUTION:
Problem: A water plant adds 93 gpd of a 2% solution of
Cal. Dosage (mg/l) sodium fluoride to fluoridate 800,000 gpd. What is the
calculated dosage?
=
Actual production (MG) ´ 8.34 lb/gal SOLUTION:
Sol. Concentration (mg/l)
43 lbs ´ 0.792 ´ 0.23
Cal. Dosage (mg/l) = 18,000 mg/l ´ sol. strength (%)
1.226 MG ´ 8.34 lb/gal =
4%
Calculated Dosage = 0.77 mg /l 18,000 mg/l ´ 0.02

Sol. Concentration (mg/l) =
0.04
Note: The calculated dosage is 0.77 mg/L. If the natural
fluoride level is added to this dosage, then it should equal Solution Concentration = 9,000 mg /l
what the actual fluoride level is in the drinking water.
Calculated Dosage (mg/l)
solution fed (gal) ´ sol. conc. (mg/l)
Example 5.184 Sodium Fluoride (Dry) Dosage =
actual production (gal)
Problem: A water plant feeds sodium fluoride in a dry
feeder. They use 5.5 lb of the chemical to fluoridate 93 gal ´ 9,000 mg/l
Calculated Dosage (mg/l) =
240,000 gal of water. What is the calculated dosage? 800,000 gal
SOLUTION: Calculated Dosage = 1.05 mg /l
Cal. Dosage (mg/l)

Water Softening
= Hardness in water is caused by the presence of certain posi-
Actual production (MG) ´ 8.34 lb/gal
tively charged metallic ions in solution in the water. The most
common of these hardness-causing ions are calcium and mag-
5.5 lb ´ 0.45 ´ 0.98
Cal. Dosage (mg/l) = nesium; others include iron, strontium, and barium. The two
0.24 MG ´ 8.34 lb/gal
primary constituents of water that determine the hardness of
water are calcium and magnesium. If the concentration of
Calculated Dosage = 1.2 mg /l these elements in the water is known, the total hardness of the
water can be calculated. To make this calculation, the equiva-
lent weights of calcium, magnesium, and calcium carbonate
Example 5.185 Sodium Fluoride—
must be known; the equivalent weights are given below.
Saturator Dosage
Problem: A plant uses 10 gal of sodium fluoride from its

saturator in treating 200,000 gal of water. What is the cal- EQUIVALENT WEIGHTS
culated dosage? Calcium, Ca 20.04
Magnesium, Mg 12.15
Calcium Carbonate, CaCO3 50.045
Calculating Calcium Hardness, as CaCO3 Example 5.189

The hardness (in mg/L as CaCO3) for any given metallic ion
is calculated using Equation 5.117. Problem: A sample of water contains 24-mg/L magnesium.
Express this magnesium hardness as CaCO3.
Calcium Hardness, mg/L as CaCO3 SOLUTION:
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3 Magnesium Hardness, m/L as CaCO3
(5.117)
Calccium, mg /L Equivalent Weight of CaCO3
=
Equivalent Weight of Calcium Magnesium, mg /L
=
Equivalent Weight of Magnesium
Example 5.187 x mg/L 24 mg/L

=
50.045 12.15
Problem: A water sample has a calcium content of 51 ( 24)(50.045)
mg/L. What is this calcium hardness expressed as CaCO3? x=
12.15
SOLUTION: x = 98.9 mg/L
Calcium Hardness, mg/L as CaCO3 Example 5.190

Equivalent Weight of CaCO3
Problem: The magnesium content of a water sample is 16
Calccium, mg /L mg/L. Express this magnesium hardness as CaCO3.
=
Equivalent Weight of Calcium
SOLUTION:
x mg/L 51mg/L Magnesium Hardness, m/L as CaCO3
=
50.045 20.04 Equivalent Weight of CaCO3
(51)(50.045)
x= Magnesium, mg /L
20.45 =
x = 124.8 mg/L Ca as CaCO3
x mg /L 16 mg /L
=
50.045 12.15
Example 5.188
(16)(50.045)
x=
Problem: The calcium content of a water sample is 26 12.15
mg/L. What is this calcium hardness expressed as CaCO3? x = 65.9 mg/L Mg as CaCO3
SOLUTION: Calculating Total Hardness

Calcium and magnesium ions are the two constituents that are
Calcium Hardness, mg/L as CaCO3
the primary cause of hardness in water. To find total hardness,
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3
we simply add the concentrations of calcium and magnesium
Calcium, mg/L ions, expressed in terms of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, using
=
Equivalent Weight of Calcium Equation 5.119.
x mg/L 26 mg/L Total Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
=
50.045 20.04
= Cal. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3 (5.119)
( 26)(50.045)
x= + Mg. Hardness., mg /L as CaCO3
20.04
x = 64.9 mg/L Ca as CaCO3 Example 5.191
Problem: A sample of water has a calcium content of 70 mg/L

Calculating Magnesium Hardness, as CaCO3 as CaCO3 and magnesium content of 90 mg/L as CaCO3.
To calculate magnesium hardness, we use Equation 5.118. SOLUTION:
Total Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
Magnesium Hardness, m/L as CaCO3
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3 = Calcium Hard., mg /L
(5.118)
Magnesium, mg /L + Magnesium Hard., mg /L
=
= 70 mg /L + 90 mg /L
= 160 mg /L as CaCO3
Example 5.192 When the alkalinity (as CaCO3) is less than the total hardness,
then the alkalinity represents carbonate hardness and the bal-
Problem: Determine the total hardness as CaCO3 of a ance of the hardness is noncarbonate hardness:
sample of water that has a calcium content of 28 mg/L and
magnesium content of 9 mg/L. Total Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
SOLUTION: = Carb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3 (5.122)
Express calcium and magnesium in terms of CaCO3: + Noncarb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3
Calcium Hardness, mg/L as CaCO3 When carbonate hardness is represented by the alkalinity, we
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3 use Equation5.123.
Caalcium, mg /L
= Total Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
Equivalent Weight of Calcium
= Alk., mg /L as CaCO3 (5.123)
x mg/L 28 mg/L
= + Noncarb. Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
50.045 20.04
x = 69.9 mg/L Mg as CaCO3
Example 5.193
Magnesium Hardness, mg/L as CaCO3
Equivalent Weight of CaCO3 Problem: A water sample contains 110-mg/L alkalinity as
CaCO3 and 105-mg/L total hardness as CaCO3. What is
Magnesium, mg /L
= the carbonate and noncarbonate hardness of the sample?
x mg/L 9 mg/L
= SOLUTION:
50.045 12.15
Because the alkalinity is greater than the total hardness, all
x = 37.1mg/L Mg as CaCO3 the hardness is carbonate hardness:
Now, total hardness can be calculated:

Total Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3 = Carbonate Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
= Cal. Hardness, mg /L
+ Mag. Hardness, mg /L 105 mg /L as CaCO3 = Carbonate Hardness
= 69.9 mg /L + 37.1mg /L
No noncarbonate hardness is present in this water.
= 107 mg /L as CaCO3
Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness Example 5.194

As mentioned, total hardness is comprised of calcium and
Problem: The alkalinity of a water sample is 80 mg/L as
magnesium hardness. Once total hardness has been calcu- CaCO3. If the total hardness of the water sample is 112
lated, it is sometimes used to determine another expression mg/L as CaCO3, what is the carbonate and noncarbonate
hardness—carbonate and noncarbonate. When hardness is hardness in mg/L as CaCO3?
numerically greater than the sum of bicarbonate and carbon-
ate alkalinity, that amount of hardness equivalent to the total SOLUTION:
alkalinity (both in units of mg CaCO3/L) is called the carbon-
Alkalinity is less than total hardness. Therefore, both car-
ate hardness; the amount of hardness in excess of this is the bonate and noncarbonate hardness will be present in the
noncarbonate hardness. When the hardness is numerically hardness of the sample.
equal to or less than the sum of carbonate and noncarbonate
alkalinity, all hardness is carbonate hardness and noncarbon- Total Hard., mg /L CaCO3
ate hardness is absent. Again, the total hardness is comprised
= Carb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3
of carbonate hardness and noncarbonate hardness:
+ Noncarb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3
Total Hardness = Carbonate Hardness
(5.120) 112 mg /L = 80 mg /L – x mg /L
+ Noncarbonate Hardness
112 mg /L – 80 mg /L = x mg /L
When the alkalinity (as CaCO3) is greater than the total hard-
ness, all the hardness is carbonate hardness: 32 mg /L noncarbonate hardness = x

(5.121)
= Carbonate Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
Alkalinity Determination SOLUTION:

Alkalinity measures the acid-neutralizing capacity of a water Phenolphthalein Alk. mg/L as CaCO3
sample. It is an aggregate property of the water sample and
can be interpreted in terms of specific substances only when (0 mL)(0.02 N)(50, 000)
=
a complete chemical composition of the sample is also per- 100 mL
formed. The alkalinity of surface waters is primarily due to = 0 mg /L
the carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide content and is often
Total Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3
interpreted in terms of the concentrations of these constitu-
ents. The higher the alkalinity, the greater the capacity of the (7.6 mL)(0.02 N)(50, 000)
=
water to neutralize acids; conversely, the lower the alkalinity, 100 mL
the less the neutralizing capacity. To detect the different types
of alkalinity, the water is tested for phenolphthalein and total = 76 mg /L
alkalinity, using Equations 5.124 and 5.125. Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness
Soda ash is used for precipitation and removal of noncarbon-
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3 ate hardness. To calculate the soda ash dosage required, we
(A)(N)(50,000) (5.124) use, in combination, Equations 5.126 and 5.127.
=
ML of Sample
Tot. Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
Total Alkalinity mg/L as CaCO3 = Carb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3 (5.126)
(B)(N)(50,000) (5.125)
= + Noncarb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3
ML of Sample
Soda Ash ( Na 2 CO3 ) Fd., mg /L
where (5.127)
A = mL titrant used to pH 8.3 = ( Noncarb. ) Hard., mg /L as CaCO3 (106 /100 )
B = total mL of titrant used to titrate to pH 4.5
N = normality of the acid (0.02 N H2SO4 for this
Example 5.197
alkalinity test)
50,000 = a conversion factor to change the normality
Problem: A water sample has a total hardness of 250 mg/L
into units of CaCO3 as CaCO3 and a total alkalinity of 180 mg/L. What soda
ash dosage (mg/L) will be required to remove the noncar-
Example 5.195 bonate hardness?
Problem: A 100-mL water sample is tested for phenol- SOLUTION:

phthalein alkalinity. If 1.3-mL titrant is used to pH 8.3 and Calculate the noncarbonate hardness:
the sulfuric acid solution has a normality of 0.02 N, what
is the phenolphthalein alkalinity of the water? Total Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3
SOLUTION: = Carb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3

+ Noncarb. Hard., mg /L as CaCO3
Phenolphthalein Alkalinity, mg/L as CaCO3
250 mg /L – 180 mg /L = x mg /L
( A )(N)(50, 000)
=
ml of Sample 70 mg /L = x

(1.3 ml)(0.02 N)(50, 000) Calculate the soda ash required:
=
100 ml
Soda Ash, mg /L
= 13 mg /l as CaCO3Phen
nolphthalein Alk.
= (Noncarbonate Hardness ) , mg /L as CaCO3 (106) /100
Example 5.196
= (70 mg /L ) (106 ) /100
Problem: A 100-mL sample of water is tested for alkalinity. = 74.2 mg / L soda ash
The normality of the sulfuric acid used for titrating is 0.02 N.
If 0 mL is used to pH 8.3, and 7.6-mL titrant is used to pH 4.5,
Example 5.198
what is the phenolphthalein and total alkalinity of the sample?
Problem: Calculate the soda ash required (in mg/L) to
soften water if the water has a total hardness of 192 mg/L
and a total alkalinity of 103 mg/L.

Determine noncarbonate hardness:
Problem: The A, B, C, and D factors of the excess lime
equation have been calculated as: A = 10 mg/L; B = 87
192 mg /L = 103 mg /L + x mg /L
mg/L; C = 0; D = 111 mg/L. If the residual magnesium is 5
192 mg /L – 103 mg /L = x mg/L, what carbon dioxide dosage would be required for
recarbonation?
89 mg /L = x
Calculate soda ash required: SOLUTION:
The excess lime is:
Soda Ash, mg /L
= (Noncarbonate ) Hardness, mg /L as CaCO3 (106) /100 Excess Lime, mg /L

= ( 89 mg /L ) (106 ) /100 = ( A + B + C + D )( 0.15)
= 94 mg /L soda ash = (10 mg /L + 87 mg /L + 0 + 111mg /L ) ( 0.15)
Recarbonation Calculation = ( 208 )( 0.15)

Recarbonation involves the reintroduction of carbon dioxide = 31 mg /L
into the water, either during or after lime softening, lower-
The required carbon dioxide dosage for recarbonation is:
ing the pH of the water to about 10.4. After the addition of
soda ash, recarbonation lowers the pH of the water to about Total CO2 Dosage, mg /L
9.8, promoting better precipitation of calcium carbonate and
magnesium hydroxide. Equations 5.128 and 5.129 are used to = ( 31mg /L ) ( 44)/74 + ( 5 mg /L ) ( 44) / 24.3
estimate carbon dioxide dosage.
= 18 mg /L + 9mg /L
Excess Lime, mg /L = ( A + B + C + D ) ( 0.15 ) (5.128) = 27 mg /L CO2
Total CO2 Dosage, mg /L Calculating Feed Rates

The appropriate chemical dosage for various unit processes
= éëCa ( OH )2 Excess, mg /L ùû (44) / 74 (5.129)
is typically determined by lab or pilot scale testing (e.g., jar
( )
+ Mg +2 Residual mg /L (44)/ 24.3
testing, pilot plant), only monitoring, and historical experi-
ence. Once the chemical dosage is determined, the feed rate
can be calculated by Equation 5.130. Once the chemical feed
Example 5.199 rate is known, this value must be translated into a chemical
feeder setting.
Problem: The A, B, C, and D factors of the excess lime
equation have been calculated as follows: A = 14 mg/L; Feed Rate (lbs /day ) = Flow Rate, MGD
B = 126 mg/L; C = O; D = 66 mg/L. If the residual mag-
nesium is 5 mg/L, what is the carbon dioxide (in mg/L) ´ Chem. Dose, mg /L (5.130)
required for recarbonation?
´ 8.34 lb /gal
SOLUTION:
To calculate the lbs/min chemical required we use Equation
Calculate the excess lime concentration: 5.131.
Excess Lime (mg /L ) Chemical, lb/day

Chemical, lb/min = (5.131)
1440 min/day
= ( A + B + C + D ) ´ 0.15

= (14 mg /L + 126 mg /L + 0 + 66 mg /L ) ( 0.15) Example 5.201
= 31mg /L Problem: Jar tests indicate that the optimum lime dosage
is 200 mg/L. If the flow to be treated is 4.0 MGD, what
Determine the required carbon dioxide dosage: should be the chemical feeder setting in lbs/day and lb/
min?
Total CO2 Dosage, mg /L
SOLUTION:
= ( 31mg /L ) ( 44) /74 + ( 5 mg /L ) ( 44) / 24.3
Calculate the lbs/day feed rate:
= 18 mg /L + 9 mg /L
= 27 mg /L CO2
Feed Rate, lb /day Example 5.203

= (Flow Rate, MGD ) The hardness removal capacity of an exchange resin is
´ ( Chemical Dose, mg /L ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) 24,000-grains/cu ft. If the softener contains a total of 70
cu ft of resin, what is the total exchange capacity (grains)
= ( 200 mg /L ) ( 4.0 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) of the softener?
= 6672 lb /day Exchange Cap., grains
= (Removal Cap., grains /cu ft )

Convert this feed rate to lb/min:
´ ( Media Vol., cu ft )
6672 lb/day
= = ( 22, 000 grains /cu ft )(70 cu ft )
1440 min/day
= 4.6 lb /min = 1, 540, 000 grains
Example 5.204
Example 5.202
Problem: An ion exchange water softener has a diameter
Problem: What should the lime dosage setting be, in lbs/
of 7 ft. The depth of the resin is 5 ft. If the resin has a
day and lbs/h, if the optimum lime dosage has been deter-
removal capacity of 22-kg/cu ft, what is the total exchange
mined to be 125 mg/L and the flow to be treated is 1.1
capacity of the softener (in grains)?
MGD?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
Before the exchange capacity of a softener can be calcu-
The lbs/day feed rate for lime is:
lated, the cu ft resin volume must be known:
Lime, lb /day ( )
Vol., cu ft = ( 0.785) D2 (Depth, ft )
= (Lime, mg /L ) (Flow, MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) = (0.785)(7 ft )(7 ft )(5 ft )

= (125 mg /L ) (1.1 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /day ) = 192 cu ft
Calculate the exchange capacity of the softener:
= 1147 lb /day
Exchange Cap., grains
Convert this to lbs/min feed rate, as follows:
= (Removal Cap., grains/ ft )
1147 lb/day
= ´ ( Media Vol., cu ft )
24 hrs/day
= ( 22,000 grains/cu ft )(192 cu ft )
= 48 lb /hr
= 4,224,000 grains
Ion Exchange Capacity
An ion exchange softener is a common alternative to the use of Water Treatment Capacity
lime and soda ash for softening water. Natural water sources To calculate when the resin must be regenerated (based on
contain dissolved minerals that dissociate in water to form volume of water treated), we know the exchange capacity of
charged particles called ions. Of major concern are the posi- the softener and the hardness of the water. Equation 5.132 is
tively charged ions of calcium, magnesium, and sodium, and used for this calculation:
bicarbonate, sulfate, and chloride are the normal negatively Water Treatment Cap., gal
charged ions of concern. An ion exchange medium, called
Exchange Capacity, grains (5.132)
resin, is a material that will exchange a hardness-causing ion =
for another one that does not cause hardness, hold the new ion Hardness, grains/gallon
temporarily, and then release it when a regenerating solution
Example 5.205
is poured over the resin. The removal capacity of an exchange
resin is generally reported as grains of hardness removal per
Problem: An ion-exchange softener has an exchange
cubic foot of resin. To calculate the removal capacity of the capacity of 2,445,000 grains. If the hardness of the water
softener, we use Equation 5.131. to be treated is 18.6 grains/gal, how many gallons of water
Exchange Capacity, grains can be treated before regeneration of the resin is required?
= ( Removal Cap., grains /cu ft ) (5.131a)
´ ( Media Vol., cu ft )
SOLUTION: Treatment Time Calculation (Until

Water Treatment Capacity, gal Regeneration Required)
After calculating the total number of gallons of water to be
Exchange Capacity, grains treated (before regeneration), we can also calculate the operat-
=
Harrdness, grains/gal ing time required to treat that amount of water. Equation 5.133

2,455,000 grains is used to make this calculation.
=
18.6 gpg
Water Treated, gal
= 131, 989 gal Operating Time, hrs = (5.133)
Flow Rate, gph
Example 5.206
Problem: An ion exchange softener has an exchange Example 5.208

capacity of 5,500,000 grains. If the hardness of the water
to be treated is 14.8 grains/gal, how many gallons of water Problem: An ion exchange softener can treat a total of
can be treated before regeneration of the resin is required? 642,000 gal before regeneration is required. If the flow
SOLUTION: rate treated is 25,000 gph how many hours of operation
are there before regeneration is required?
Water Treatment Capacity, gal
Exchange Capacity, grains SOLUTION:

=
Hardness, grains/gal
Operating Time, hrs
5,500,000 grains
=
14.8 gpg Water Treated, gal
=
Flow Rate, gph
= 371622
, gal
Example 5.207 00 gal
642,00
=
25,000 gph
Problem: The hardness removal capacity of an ion = 25.7 hrs of operation before regeneration
exchange resin is 25-kilograins/cu ft. The softener contains
a total of 160 cu ft of resin. If the water to be treated con- Example 5.209
tains 14.0 gpg hardness, how many gallons of water can be
treated before regeneration of the resin is required? Problem: An ion exchange softener can treat a total of
820,000 gal of water before regeneration of the resin is
SOLUTION: required. If the water is to be treated at a rate of 32,000
gph, how many hours of operation are there until regen-
Both the water hardness and the exchange capacity of the eration is required?
softener must be determined before the gallons of water
can be calculated. SOLUTION:
Exchange Capacity, grains operating Time, hrs

Water Treatment, gal
= (Removal Capacity, grains /cu ft ) =
Flow Rate, gph
´ ( Media Volume, cu ft )
820,,000 gal
=
= ( 25,000 grains /cu ft )(160 cu ft ) 32,000 gph
= 4,000,000 grains = 25.6 hr before regeneration

Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration
Calculate the gallons of water treated:
When calcium and magnesium ions replace the sodium ions
in the ion exchange resin, the resin can no longer remove the
Water Treatment Capacity, gal
hardness ions from the water. When this occurs, pumping a
4,000,000 grains concentrated solution (10–14% sodium chloride solution) on
=
14.0 gpg the resin must regenerate the resin. When the resin is com-
pletely recharged with sodium ions, it is ready for softening
= 285,714 gal
again. Typically, the salt dosage required to prepare the brine
solution ranges from 5 lb salt/cu ft to 15 lb salt/cu ft resin.
Equation 5.134 is used to calculate salt required (pounds, lbs)
and Equation 5.135 is used to calculate brine (gallons).
Salt Required, lb = ( Salt Req., lb /kgrains. Rem. ) WASTEWATER MATH CONCEPTS

(5.134)
´ ( Hard. Rem., kgrains ) Preliminary Treatment Calculations
Salt Required, lb The initial stage of treatment in the wastewater treatment
Brine, gal = (5.135) process (following collection and influent pumping) is pre-
Brine Solution, lb salt/gal brine
liminary treatment. Process selection normally is based
To determine the brine solution, lbs salt/gal brine factor use upon the expected characteristics of the influent flow. Raw
in Equation 5.135, we must refer to the salt solutions table influent entering the treatment plant may contain many kinds
shown below. of materials (trash), and preliminary treatment protects
downstream plant equipment by removing these materials,
which could cause clogs, jams, or excessive wear in plant
Salt Solutions machinery. In addition, the removal of various materials at
the beginning of the treatment train saves valuable space
% NaCl lbs NaCl/gal lbs NaCl/cu ft within the treatment plant.
10 0.874 6.69 Two of the processes used in preliminary treatment include
11 0.990 7.41 screening and grit removal. However, preliminary treatment
12 1.09 8.14 may also include other processes, each designed to remove
13 1.19 8.83 a specific type of material that presents a potential problem
14 1.29 9.63 for downstream unit treatment processes. These processes
15 1.39 10.4 include shredding, flow measurement, preaeration, chemi-
cal addition, and flow equalization. Except in extreme cases,
plant design will not include all of these items. In this chapter,
Example 5.210 we focus on and describe typical calculations used in two of
these processes: screening and grit removal.
Problem: An ion exchange softener removes 1,310,000
grains of hardness from the water before the resin must Screening
be regenerated. If 0.3 lb salt is required for each kilograin Screening removes large solids, such as rags, cans, rocks,
removed, how many pounds of salt will be required for branches, leaves, roots, etc., from the flow before the flow
preparing the brine to be used in resin regeneration?
moves on to downstream processes.
SOLUTION: Screenings Removal Calculations
Salt Required, lb = ( Salt Required, lb /1000 grains ) Wastewater operators responsible for screenings disposal are
typically required to keep a record of the amount of screen-
´ (Hardness Removed, kg )
ings removed from the flow. To keep and maintain accurate
= ( 0.3 lb salt /kilograins removed ) screenings records, the volume of screenings withdrawn must
´ (1310 kilograins )
be determined. Two methods are commonly used to calculate
the volume of screenings withdrawn:
= 393 lb salt required
Screenings Removed, cu ft/day
Example 5.211
Screenings, cu ft (5.136)
Problem: A total of 430 lb salt will be required to regener- =
days
ate an ion exchange softener. If the brine solution is to be
a 12% (see Salt Solutions table to determine the lbs salt/gal Screenings Removed, cu ft/MG
brine for a 12% brine solution) brine solution, how many
gallons brine will be required? Screenings, cu ft (5.137)
=
Flow, MG
SOLUTION:
Salt Required, Ib Example 5.212
Brine, gal =
Brine Solution, Ib salt/gal brine
Problem: A total of 65 gal of screenings are removed from
430 lb salt the wastewater flow during a 24-h period. What is the
=
1.09 lb salt/gal brine screenings removal reported as ft3/day?
= 394 gal of 12% brine SOLUTION:

Thus, it takes 430 lb salt to make up a total of 394 gal brine First convert gallon screenings to cubic feet:
will result in the desired 12% brine solution.
65 gal Example 5.215

= 8.7 ft 3 screenings
7.48 gal/ft 3
Problem: A plant has been averaging a screenings removal
Then calculate screenings removed as cu ft/day: of 2 ft3/MG. If the average daily flow is 1.8 MGD how
many days will it take to fill the pit with an available capac-
Screenings Removed(cu/ft/day) ity of 125 ft3?
8.7 ft 3
= = 8.7 ft 3 /day SOLUTION:
1 day
The filling rate must first be expressed as ft3/day:
Example 5.213

( 2ft ) (1.8 MGD) = 3.6 ft
3
3
/day
Problem: During 1 week, a total of 310 gal of screenings MG
were removed from the wastewater screens. What is the
average removal in ft3/day?
125 ft 3
Screenings Pit Fill Time, days =
SOLUTION: 3.6 ft 3 /day
First gallon screenings must be converted to cu ft = 34.7 days

screenings:
Example 5.216
310 gal
= 41.4 cu ft screenings
7.48 gal/cu ft Problem: A screenings pit has a capacity of 12 yd3 available
Then calculate screenings removed as ft3/day. for screenings. If the plant removes an average of 2.4 ft3 of
screenings per day, in how many days will the pit be filled?
Screenings Removed, cu ft day
SOLUTION:
41.4 ft 3
= 3
= 5.5 ft 3 /day Because the filling rate is expressed as ft3/day, the volume
7.48 gal/ft must be expressed as ft3:
Screenings Pit Capacity Calculations
Recall that detention time may be considered the time required
(12 yd )( 27 ft
3 3
)
/yd3 = 324 ft 3
for flow to pass through a basin or tank or the time required
Now calculate fill time:
to fill a basin or tank at a given flow rate. In screenings pit
capacity problems, the time required to fill a screenings pit is Screenings Pit Fill Time, days
being calculated. The equation used in screenings pit capacity
problems is given below: Volume of Pit, ft 3
=
ScreeningsRemoved, ft 3 /day
Screenings Pit Fill Time, days
324 ft 3
(5.138) =
Volume of Pit, ft 3 2.4 ft 3 /day
= 3
Screenings Removed, ft /day
= 135 days
Example 5.214 Grit Removal

The purpose of grit removal is to remove inorganic solids
Problem: A screenings pit has a capacity of 500 ft3. (The (sand, gravel, clay, eggshells, coffee grounds, metal filings,
pit is actually larger than 500 ft3 to accommodate soil seeds, and other similar materials) that could cause excessive
for covering.) If an average of 3.4 ft3 of screenings are
mechanical wear. Several processes or devices are used for
removed daily from the wastewater flow, in how many
days will the pit be full?
grit removal, all based on the fact that grit is heavier than
the organic solids, which should be kept in suspension for
SOLUTION: treatment in following unit processes. Grit removal may be
accomplished in grit chambers or by the centrifugal separa-
Screenings Pit Fill Time, days tion of biosolids. Processes use gravity/velocity, aeration, or
Volume of Pit, ft 3
centrifugal force to separate the solids from the wastewater.
=
Screenings Removed, ft 3 /day
Grit Removal Calculations
=
500 cu ft Wastewater systems typically average 1–15 ft3 of grit per mil-
3.4 ft 3 /day lion gallons of flow (sanitary systems: 1–4 ft3/MG; combined
wastewater systems, 4–15 ft3/MG of flow), with higher ranges
= 147.1 days
during storm events. Generally, grit is disposed of in sani- SOLUTION:

tary landfills. Because of this process, for planning purposes, First, calculate the grit generated each day:
operators must keep accurate records of grit removal. Most
often, the data are reported as cubic feet of grit removed per
million gallons for flow:
( 2.5 ft ) ( 2.5 MGD) = 6.25 ft
3
3
each day
MG
Grit Volume, ft 3
Grit Removed, ft 3 /MG = (5.139) The ft3 grit generated for 90 days would be:
Flow, MG
Over a given period, the average grit removal rate at a plant (at (6.25 ft )
(90 days) = 562.5 ft 3
least a seasonal average) can be determined and used for plan- day
ning purposes. Typically, grit removal is calculated as cubic
yards, because excavation is normally expressed in terms of Convert ft3 to yd3 grit:
cubic yards.
562.5 ft 3
= 21 yd3
Total grit, ft 3 27 ft 3 /yd3
Cubic yd 3 = (5.140)
27 ft 3 /yd 3
Grit Channel Velocity Calculation
The optimum velocity in sewers is approximately 2 fps at
Example 5.217
peak flow, because this velocity normally prevents solids from
Problem: A treatment plant removes 10 ft3 of grit in one
settling from the lines. However, when the flow reaches the
day. How many ft3 of grit are removed per million gallons grit channel, the velocity should decrease to about 1 fps to
if the plant flow was 9 MGD? permit the heavy inorganic solids to settle. In the example cal-
culations that follow, we describe how the velocity of the flow
SOLUTION: in a channel can be determined, by the float and stopwatch
method and by channel dimensions.
Grit Volume, ft 3
Grit Removed, ft 3 /MG =
Flow, MG
Example 5.220 Velocity by Float and Stopwatch
10 ft 3
= = 1.1ft 3 /MG
9 MG Distance Traveled (ft)
Velocity, fps = (5.141)
Time required (sec)
Example 5.218
Problem: A float takes 30 sec to travel 37 ft in a grit chan-
Problem: The total daily grit removed for a plant is 250 gal. nel. What is the velocity of the flow in the channel?
If the plant flow is 12.2 MGD, how many cubic feet of grit
are removed per MG flow? SOLUTION:
SOLUTION: 37 ft
Velocity (fps) = = 1.2 fps
30 sec
First, convert gallon grit removed to ft3:
250 gal
= 33 ft 3 Example 5.221 Velocity by Flow
7.48 gal/ft 3
and Channel Dimensions
Next, complete the calculation of ft3/MG:
This calculation can be used for a single channel or tank or
3
Grit Removed, ft /MG for multiple channels or tanks with the same dimensions
and equal flow. If the flow through each unit of the unit
Grit Vol. ft 3 33 ft 3 dimensions is unequal, the velocity for each channel or
= = = 2.7 ft 3 /MGD tank must be computed individually.
Flow, MG 12.2 MGD
Velocity, fps
Example 5.219 Flow, MGD ´ 1.55 cfs/MGD
= (5.142)
éëChannels in Service ´ Channel Width, ft
Problem: The monthly average grit removal is 2.5 ft3/MG.
´ Water Depth, ft ûù
If the monthly average flow is 2,500,000 gpd, how many
cubic yards must be available for grit disposal if the dis-
posal pit is to have a 90-day capacity? Problem: The plant is currently using two girt channels.
Each channel is 3 ft wide and has a water depth of 1.3
ft. What is the velocity when the influent flow rate is 4.0 SOLUTION:
MGD?
3 ft ´ 0.85 fps
Required Channel Length = = 31.6 ft
SOLUTION: 0.080 fps
4.0 MGD ´ 1.55 cfs/MGD Yes, the channel is long enough to ensure all the sand will
Velocity, fps = be removed.
2 Channels x3 ft ´ 1.3 ft
6.2 cfs Primary Treatment Calculations

Velocity, fps = = 0.79 fps
7.8 ft 2 Primary treatment (primary sedimentation or clarification)
should remove both settleable organic and floatable solids.
Key Point: Because 0.79 is within the 0.7–1.4 level, Poor solids removal during this step of treatment may cause
the operator of this unit would not make any organic overloading of the biological treatment processes fol-
adjustments. lowing primary treatment. Normally, each primary clarifica-
Key Point: The channel dimensions must always be tion unit can be expected to remove 90–95% of settleable
in feet. Convert inches to feet by dividing by 12
solids, 40–60% of the total suspended solids, and 25–35%
in./ft.
of BOD.
Example 5.222 Required Settling Time Process Control Calculations

As with many other wastewater treatment plant unit pro-
This calculation can be used to determine the time cesses, several process control calculations may be helpful in
required for a particle to travel from the surface of the liq- evaluating the performance of the primary treatment process.
uid to the bottom at a given settling velocity. To compute Process control calculations are used in the sedimentation
the settling time, settling velocity in fps must be provided
process to determine:
or determined by experiment in a laboratory.
• Surface loading rate (surface settling rate)

Liquid Depth in ft
Settling Time (sec) = (5.143) • Weir overflow rate (weir loading rate)
Settling, Velocity, fps
• BOD and SS removed, lbs/day
• Percent removal
Problem: The plant’s grit channel is designed to remove
• Hydraulic detention time
sand, which has a settling velocity of 0.080 fps. The chan-
• Biosolids pumping
nel is currently operating at a depth of 2.3 ft. How many
seconds will it take for a sand particle to reach the channel • Percent total solids (% TS)
bottom?
In the following sections, we take a closer look at a few of
SOLUTION: these process control calculations and example problems.
Key Point: The calculations presented in the following
2.3 ft
Settling Time, sec = = 28.7 sec sections allow you to determine values for each function
0.080 fps
performed. Again, keep in mind that an optimally operated
primary clarifier should have values in an expected range.
Recall that the expected range percent removal for a primary
Example 5.223 Required Channel Length
clarifier is:
This calculation can be used to determine the length of
channel required to remove an object with a specified set- • Settleable solids 90–95%
tling velocity. • Suspended solids 40–60%
• BOD 25–35%
Required Channel Length
The expected range of hydraulic detention time for a primary
Channel Depth, ft ´ Flow Velocity, fps (5.144) clarifier is 1–3 h. The expected range of surface loading/set-
=
0.080 fps tling rate for a primary clarifier is 600–1,200 gpd/ft2 (ballpark
estimate). The expected range of weir overflow rate for a pri-
Problem: The plant’s grit channel is designed to remove mary clarifier is 10,000–20,000 gpd/ft.
sand, which has a settling velocity of 0.080 fps. The chan-
nel is currently operating at a depth of 3 ft. The calculated Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling
velocity of flow through the channel is 0.85 fps. The chan-
Rate/Surface Overflow Rate)
nel is 36 ft long. Is the channel long enough to remove the
desired sand particle size? Surface loading rate is the number of gallons of wastewater
passing over 1 ft2 of tank per day. This can be used to compare
actual conditions with design. Plant designs generally use a Flow, gal/day
surface-loading rate of 300–1,200 gal/day/ft2. Weir Overflow Rate, gpd/ft = (5.146)
Weir Length, ft
Key Point: To calculate weir circumference, use total feet of
Surface Loading Rate, gpd/ft 2 weir = 3.14 × weir diameter (ft).
gal/day (5.145)
= 2 Example 5.227
Surface Tank Area, ft
Problem: The circular settling tank is 80 ft in diameter and
Example 5.224 has a weir along its circumference. The effluent flow rate
is 2.75 MGD. What is the weir overflow rate in gallons per
Problem: The circular settling tank has a diameter of 120 day per foot?
ft. If the flow to the unit is 4.5 MGD, what is the surface
loading rate in gal/day/ft 2? SOLUTION:
Weir Overflow Rate, gpd/ft
SOLUTION:
2.75 MGD ´ 1000
, ,000 gal
Surface Loading Rate =
3.14 ´ 80 ft
4.5 MGD ´ 1000
, ,000 gal/MGD
= = 10,947 galday/ft
0.785 ´ 120 ft ´ 120 ft
Key Point: Notice that 10,947 gal/day/ft is above the rec-
= 398 gpd/ft 2 ommended minimum of 10,000.

Problem: A circular clarifier has a diameter of 50 ft. If the
Problem: A rectangular clarifier has a total of 70 ft of weir.
primary effluent flow is 2,150,000 gpd, what is the surface
What is the weir overflow rate in gpd/ft when the flow is
overflow rate in gpd/sq ft?
1,055,000 gpd?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
Key Point: Remember that Area = (0.785) (50 ft) (50 ft)
Weir Overflow Rate
Flow, gpd Flow, gpd

Surface Overflow Rate = =
Area, sq ft Weir Length, ft

2150
, ,000 1055
, ,000 gpd
= = 1096
, gpd/sq ft = = 15, 071 gpd
(0.785) (50 ft )(50 ft ) 70 ft
Example 5.226 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lbs/day)

To calculate the pounds of BOD or suspended solids removed
Problem: A sedimentation basin 90-ft by 20 ft receives a each day, we need to know the mg/L BOD or SS removed and
flow of 1.5 MGD. What is the surface overflow rate in the plant flow. Then, we can use the mg/L to lbs/day equation.
gpd/sq ft?
SS Removed = mg /L ´ MGD ´ 8.34 lb /gal (5.147)
Flow, gpd
Surface Overflow Rate =
Area, ft 2
1500
, ,000 gpd Example 5.229
=
20 ft )
(90 ft )(2
Problem: If 120 mg/L suspended solids are removed by a
= 833 gpd /ft 2 primary clarifier, how many lbs/day suspended solids are
removed when the flow is 6,250,000 gpd?
Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)
SOLUTION:
A weir is a device used to measure wastewater flow. Weir
overflow rate (weir loading rate) is the amount of water leav- SS Removed = 120 mg /L ´ 6.25 MGD
ing the settling tank per linear foot of water. The result of ´ 8.34 lb /gal
this calculation can be compared with design. Normally, weir
= 6,255 lb /day
overflow rates of 10,000–20,000 gpd/ft are used in the design
of a settling tank.
Example 5.230 Trickling filter operation involves spraying wastewater over

a solid media such as rock, plastic, or redwood slats (or laths).
Problem: The flow to a secondary clarifier is 1.6 MGD. If As the wastewater trickles over the surface of the media, a
the influent BOD concentration is 200 mg/L and the efflu- growth of microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae,
ent BOD concentration is 70 mg/L, how many pounds of helminths or worms, and larvae) develops. This growth is
BOD are removed daily? visible as a shiny slime very similar to the slime found on
rocks in a stream. As wastewater passes over this slime, the
lb /day BOD removed = 200 mg /L – 70 mg /L
slime adsorbs the organic (food) matter. This organic mat-
= 130 mg /L ter is used as food by microorganisms. At the same time, air
moving through the open spaces in the filter transfers oxygen
After calculating mg/L BOD removed, calculate lbs/day to the wastewater. This oxygen is then transferred to the slime
BOD removed. to keep the outer layer aerobic. As the microorganisms use
the food and oxygen, they produce more organisms, carbon
BOD removed, lb /day dioxide, sulfates, nitrates, and other stable by-products; these
= (130 mg /L ) (1.6 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
materials are then discarded from the slime back into the
wastewater flow and are carried out of the filter.
= 1735
, lb /day
Trickling Filter Process Calculations
Example 5.231 Several calculations are useful in the operation of trickling
filters: these include hydraulic loading, organic loading, and
Problem: If 120 mg/L suspended solids are removed by biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (SS)
a trickling filter, how many lbs/day suspended solids are removal. Each type of trickling filter is designed to operate
removed when the flow is 4.0 MGD? with specific loading levels. These levels vary greatly depend-
ing on the filter classification. To operate the filter properly,
SOLUTION:
filter loading must be within the specified levels. The main
(mg /L )( MGD flow ) ´ 8.34 (lb /gal) = lb /day three loading parameters for the trickling filter are hydraulic
loading, organic loading, and recirculation ratio.
(120 mg /L ) ( 4.0 MGD) ´ ( 8.34 lb /gal)
Hydraulic Loading
= 4,003 lb SS /day
Calculating the hydraulic loading rate is important in account-
ing for both the primary effluent and the recirculated trick-
Example 5.232 ling filter effluent. These are combined before being applied
to the filter surface. The hydraulic loading rate is calculated
Problem: The 3,500,000-gpd influent flow to a trickling based on filter surface area. The normal hydraulic loading
filter has a BOD content of 185 mg/L. If the trickling filter rate ranges for standard rate and high rate trickling filters are:
effluent has a BOD content of 66 mg/L, how many pounds
of BOD are removed daily? Standard Rate—25–100 gpd/sq ft or 1–40 MGD/acre
High Rate—100–1,000 gpd/sq ft or4–40 MGD/acre
SOLUTION:
(mg /L )( MGD flow )( 8.34 lb /gal) Key Point: If the hydraulic loading rate for a particular trick-
ling filter is too low, septic conditions will begin to develop.
= lb /day removed
Example 5.233
185 mg /L – 66 mg /L = 119 mg /L
Problem: A trickling filter 80-ft in diameter is operated
with a primary effluent of 0.588 MGD and a recirculated
(119 mg /L ) ( 3.5 MGD) ( 8.34 lb /gal) effluent flow rate of 0.660 MGD. Calculate the hydraulic

= 3,474 lb /day removed loading rate on the filter in units gpd/ft 2.
Trickling Filter Calculations SOLUTION:
The trickling filter process is one of the oldest forms of The primary effluent and recirculated trickling fil-
ter effluent are applied together across the surface of
dependable biological treatment for wastewater. By its very
the filter; therefore, 0.588 MGD + 0.660 MGD = 1.248
nature, the trickling filter has its advantages over other unit MGD = 1,248,000 gpd.
processes. For example, it is a very economical and depend-
able process for treatment of wastewater prior to discharge.
Capable of withstanding periodic shock loading, process
energy demands are low because aeration is a natural process.
and COD contribution of the recirculated flow is not included

Circular surface area = 0.785 ´ ( diameter )
2
in the organic loading.

= 0.785 ´ ( 80 ft )
2

Example 5.236
= 5, 024 ft 2
Problem: A trickling filter, 60 ft in diameter, receives a
1248
, ,000 gpd primary effluent flow rate of 0.440 MGD. Calculate the
= 248.4 gpd/ft 2
5,024 ft 2 organic loading rate in units of pounds of BOD applied per
day per 1,000 ft3 of media volume. The primary effluent
BOD concentration is 80 mg/L. The media depth is 9 ft.
Example 5.234
SOLUTION:
Problem: A trickling filter 80-ft in diameter treats a primary 0.440 MGD ´ 80 mg /L ´ 8.34 lb /gal
effluent flow of 550,000 gpd. If the recirculated flow to the
clarifier is 0.2 MGD, what is the hydraulic loading on the = 293.6 lb of BOD applied /d
trickling filter?
Surface Area = 0.785 ´ (60 ) = 2,826 ft 2
2

SOLUTION:
Area ´ Depth = Volume
Hydraulic loading rate
2,826 ft 2 ´ 9 ft = 25, 434 cu ft ( TF Volume )
Total Flow, gpd
=
Area, ft 2
Key Point: To determine the pounds of BOD per 1,000 ft3
750,000 gpd total flow in a volume of thousands of cubic feet, we must set up the
= equation as shown below.
(0.785)(80 ft )(80 ft )
= 149 gpd /ft 2 293.6 lb BOD/d 1, 000

´
Example 5.235 25, 434 ft 3 1, 000
Regrouping the numbers and the units together:

Problem: A high-rate trickling filter receives a daily flow of
1.8 MGD. What is the dynamic loading rate in MGD/acre 293.6 lb BOD/d ´ 1000
, lb BOD/d
if the filter is 90 ft in diameter and 5 ft deep? ´
25, 434 ft 3 1, 000 ft 3

SOLUTION: lb BOD/d
= 11.5
1, 000 ft 3
( 0.785) ( 90 ft )( 90 ft ) = 6,359 sq ft
Recirculation Flow
6,359 ft 2 Recirculation in trickling filters involves the return of filter
= 0.146 acres
43,560 ft 2 /ac effluent back to the head of the trickling filter. It can level flow
variations and assist in solving operational problems, such as
Hydraulic Loading Rate ponding, filter flies, and odors. The operator must check the
rate of recirculation to ensure that it is within design speci-
1.8 MGD
= = 12.3 MGD/ac fications. Rates above design specifications indicate hydrau-
0.146 acres lic overloading; rates under design specifications indicate
Key Point: When the hydraulic loading rate is expressed hydraulic underloading. The trickling filter recirculation
as MGD per acre, this is still an expression of gallon flow ratio is the ratio of the recirculated trickling filter flow to the
over the surface area of trickling filter.
primary effluent flow. The trickling filter recirculation ratio
Organic Loading Rate may range from 0.5:1 (.5) to 5:1 (5). However, the ratio is often
found to be 1:1 or 2:1.
Trickling filters are sometimes classified by the organic load-
ing rate applied. The organic loading rate is expressed as a
Recirculated Flow, MGD
certain amount of BOD applied to a certain volume of media. Recirculation = (5.148)
Primary Effluent Flow, MGD
In other words, the organic loading is defined as the pounds
of BOD5 or Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) applied per day
per 1,000 ft3 of media—a measure of the amount of food being Example 5.237
applied to the filter slime. To calculate the organic loading on
the trickling filter, two things must be known: the pounds of Problem: A treatment plant receives a flow of 3.2 MGD. If
BOD or COD being applied to the filter media per day and the the trickling filter effluent is recirculated at the rate of 4.50
MGD, what is the recirculation ratio?
volume of the filter media in 1,000 cubic foot units. The BOD
SOLUTION: Hydraulic Loading Rate

Recirculation Ratio The manufacturer normally specifies the RBC media surface
area, and the hydraulic loading rate is based on the media
Recirculated Flow, MGD surface area, usually in square feet (ft2). Hydraulic loading
=
Primary Effluent Flow, MGD is expressed in terms of gallons of flow per day per square

4.5 MGD foot of media. This calculation can be helpful in evaluating
= the current operating status of the RBC. A comparison with
3.2 MGD
design specifications can determine if the unit is hydraulically
= 1.4 Recirculation Ratio over- or underloaded. Hydraulic loading on an RBC can range
from 1 gpd/ft2 to 3 gpd/ft2.
Example 5.238
Problem: A trickling filter receives a primary effluent flow Example 5.239

of 5 MGD. If the recirculated flow is 4.6 MGD, what is the
recirculation ratio? Problem: An RBC treats a primary effluent flow rate of
0.244 MGD. What is the hydraulic loading rate in gpd/ft 2
SOLUTION: if the media surface area is 92,600 ft 2?
Recirculation Ratio SOLUTION:

Recirculated Flow, MGD 244,000 gpd
= = 2.63 gpd/ft 2
Primary Effluent Flow, MGD 92,000 ft 2

4.6 MGD
=
5 MGD Example 5.240
= 0.92 Recirculation Ratio
Problem: An RBC treats a flow of 3.5 MGD. The manufac-
turer’s data indicate a media surface area of 750,000 ft 2.
What is the hydraulic loading rate on the RBC?
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs)
The rotating biological contactor (RBC) is a variation of SOLUTION:
the attached growth idea provided by the trickling filter. Flow, gpd
Still relying on microorganisms that grow on the surface of Hydraulic Loading Rate =
Media Area, ft 2
a medium, the RBC is instead a fixed film biological treat-
ment device. The basic biological process, however, is simi- 3,500,000 gpd
=
lar to that occurring in trickling filters. An RBC consists of 50,000 ft 2
75
a series of closely spaced (mounted side by side) circular,
= 4.7 ft 2
plastic synthetic disks, typically about 11.5 ft in diameter.
Attached to a rotating horizontal shaft, approximately 40%
of each disk is submersed in a tank that contains the waste- Example 5.241
water to be treated. As the RBC rotates, the attached biomass
film (zoogleal slime) that grows on the surface of the disks Problem: A rotating biological contactor treats a primary
effluent flow of 1,350,000 gpd. The manufacturer’s data
moves into and out of the wastewater. While submerged in
indicates that the media surface area is 600,000 ft 2. What
the wastewater, the microorganisms absorb organics; while is the hydraulic loading rate on the filter?
they are rotated out of the wastewater, they are supplied with
needed oxygen for aerobic decomposition. As the zoogleal SOLUTION:
slime re-enters the wastewater, excess solids and waste prod-
ucts are stripped off the media as sloughings. These slough- Flow, gpd
Hydraulic Loading Rate =
ings are transported with the wastewater flow to a settling Area, ft 2
tank for removal. ,
1350 ,000 gpd
=
600,000 ft 2
RBC Process Control Calculations
Several process control calculations may be useful in the = 2.3 ft 2
operation of an RBC. These include soluble BOD, total media
area, organic loading rate, and hydraulic loading. Settling Soluble BOD
tank calculations and biosolids pumping calculations may be The soluble BOD concentration of the RBC influent can be
helpful for the evaluation and control of the settling tank fol- determined experimentally in the laboratory, or it can be
lowing the RBC. estimated using the suspended solids concentration and the
“K” factor. The “K” factor is used to approximate the BOD
(particulate BOD) contributed by the suspended matter. The Organic Loading Rate
K factor must be provided or determined experimentally in
the laboratory. The K factor for domestic wastes is normally Sol. BOD ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34 lb/gal (5.150)
=
in the range of 0.5–0.7. Media Area, 1, 000 ft 2
Example 5.244
Soluble BOD5
= Total BOD5 (5.149) Problem: A rotating biological contactor (RBC) has a
media surface area of 500,000 ft 2 and receives a flow of
– ( K Factor ´ Total Suspended Solids ) 1,000,000 gpd. If the soluble BOD concentration of the
primary effluent is 160 mg/L, what is the organic loading
on the RBC in lbs/day/1,000 ft 2?
Example 5.242
SOLUTION:
Problem: The suspended solids concentration of a waste-
Organic Loading Rate
water is 250 mg/L. If the amount of K-value at the plant is
0.6, what is the estimated particulate biochemical oxygen Sol. BOD, Ib/day
demand (BOD) concentration of the wastewater? =
Media Area, 1000
, ft
SOLUTION: (160 mg/L)(1.0 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal )

=
500 ´ 1, 000 ft 2
( 250 mg /L ) ( 0.6 ) = 150 mg /L Particulate BOD
2.7 lb/day Sol. BOD
=
1, 000 ft 2
Key Point: The K-value of 0.6 indicates that about 60% of
the suspended solids are organic suspended solids (par- Example 5.245
ticulate BOD).
Problem: The wastewater flow to an RBC is 3,000,000
Example 5.243 gpd. The wastewater has a soluble BOD concentration of
120 mg/L. The RBC consists of six shafts (every 110,000
Problem: A rotating biological contactor receives a flow of ft 2), with two shafts comprising the first stage of the sys-
2.2 MGD with a BOD content of 170 mg/L and suspended tem. What is the organic loading rate in lbs/day/1,000 ft 2
solids (SS) concentration of 140 mg/L. If the K-value is 0.7, on the first stage of the system?
how many pounds of soluble BOD enter the RBC daily?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION: Organic Loading Rate
Total BOD = Particulate BOD + Soluble BOD Sol. BOD, lb/day
=
170 mg /L = (140 mg /L ) ( 0.7 ) + x mg /L Media Area, 1, 000 ft 2

(120 mg/L) ´ (3.0 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal )
170 mg /L = 98 mg /L + x mg /L =
220 1, 000 ft 2
170 mg /L – 98 mg /L = x
= 13.6 lb Sol. BOD /dayy /1, 000 ft 2
x = 72 mg /L Soluble BOD
Total Media Area
Now, lbs/day soluble BOD may be determined: Several process control calculations for the RBC use the total
surface area of all the stages within the train. As was the case
(mg /L) ( Soluble BOD )( MGD Flow ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) with the soluble BOD calculation, plant design information or
= lb /day information supplied by the unit manufacturer must provide
the individual stage areas (or the total train area), because
72 mg /L ´ 2.2 MGD ´ 8.34 lb /gal = 1, 321lb /day
physical determination of this would be extremely difficult.
Total Area = 1st Stage Area + 2nd Stage Area
The organic loading rate can be expressed as total BOD load- (5.151)
ing in pounds per day per 1,000 ft2 of media. The actual val- + ¼ + nth Stage Area
ues can then be compared with plant design specifications to
determine the current operating condition of the system.
Activated Biosolids
The activated biosolids process is a man-made process that
mimics the natural self-purification process that takes place
in steams. In essence, we can state that the activated biosolids 4 2,480 9 2,655
treatment process is a “stream in a container.” In wastewater 5 2,558 10 2,396
treatment, activated-biosolids processes are used for both sec-
ondary treatment and complete aerobic treatment without pri-
mary sedimentation. Activated biosolids refers to biological SOLUTION:
treatment systems that use a suspended growth of organisms Moving Aver., Day 7
to remove BOD and suspended solids. 3, 340 + 2, 480 + 2, 398 + 2, 480 + 2, 558 + 2, 780 + 2, 476
(1)
=
The basic components of an activated biosolids sewage 7
treatment system include aeration tank and a secondary = 2,645
basin, settling basin, or clarifier. Primary effluent is mixed Moving Aver., Day 7
with settled solids recycled from the secondary clarifier
2, 480 + 2, 398 + 2, 480 + 2, 558 + 2, 780 + 2, 476 + 2, 756
and is then introduced into the aeration tank. Compressed (2)
=
7
air is injected continuously into the mixture through porous
= 2,561
diffuses located at the bottom of the tank, usually along
Moving Aver., Day 7
one side.
Wastewater is fed continuously into an aerated tank, where 2, 398 + 2, 480 + 2, 558 + 2, 780 + 2, 476 + 2, 756 + 2, 655
(3)
=
the microorganisms metabolize and biologically flocculate 7
the organics. Microorganisms (activated biosolids) are settled = 2,586

from the aerated mixed liquor under quiescent conditions
in the final clarifier and are returned to the aeration tank. BOD or COD Loading
Left uncontrolled, the number of organisms would eventu- When calculating BOD, COD, or SS loading on an aeration
ally become too great; therefore, some must periodically be process (or any other treatment process), loading on the pro-
removed (wasted). A portion of the concentrated solids from cess is usually calculated as lbs/day. The following equation
the bottom of the settling tank must be removed from the pro- is used:
cess (waste activated sludge or WAS). Clear supernatant from
the final settling tank is the plant effluent. BOD, COD, or SS Loading, lb /day
(5.153)
Activated Biosolids Process Control Calculations = ( mg /L )( MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal )
As with other wastewater treatment unit processes, process
control calculations are important tools used by the operator Example 5.247
to control and optimize process operations. In this chapter, we
Problem: The BOD concentration of the wastewater enter-
review many of the most frequently used activated biosolids
ing an aerator is 210 mg/L. If the flow to the aerator is
process calculations. 1,550,000 gpd, what are the lbs/day BOD loading?
Moving Averages
SOLUTION:
When performing process control calculations, the use of
a seven-day moving average is recommended. The moving BOD, lb /day
average is a mathematical method to level the impact of any = (BOD, mg /L )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
one test result. The moving average is determined by adding
the test results collected during the past seven days and divid- = ( 210 mg /L ) (1.55 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
ing by the number of tests.
= 2715 lb /day
Moving Average Example 5.248

Test 1 + Test 2 + Test 3 +¼ Test 6 + Test 7 (5.152)
= Problem: The flow to an aeration tank is 2,750 gpm. If
# of Tests Performed during the Seven Days the BOD concentration of the wastewater is 140 mg/L,
how many pounds of BOD are applied to the aeration tank
Example 5.246 daily?
Problem: Calculate the seven-day moving average for days SOLUTION:

7, 8, and 9. First convert the gpm flow to gpd flow:
Day MLSS Day MLSS

( 2750 gpm)(1440 min/day ) = 3,960,000 gpd
1 3,340 6 2,780
2 2,480 7 2,476 Then calculate lbs/day BOD:
3 2,398 8 2,756
BOD, lb /day Process lb MLVSS lb MLVSS

Conventional 0.2–0.4 0.5–1.0
= (BOD, mg /L )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
Contact Stabilization 0.2–0.6 0.5–1.0

= (140, mg /L ) ( 3.96
6 MGD )( 8.34 lb /day ) Extended Aeration 0.05–0.15 0.2–0.5
Pure Oxygen 0.25–1.0 0.5–2.0
= 4624 lb /day
Solids Inventory
Example 5.250
In the activated biosolids process, it is important to control
the amount of solids under aeration. The suspended solids in Problem: The aeration tank influent BOD is 145 mg/L, and
an aeration tank are called Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids the aeration tank influent flow rate is 1.6 MGD. What is
(MLSS). To calculate the pounds of solids in the aeration tank, the F/M ratio of the MLVSS is 2,300 mg/L and the aeration
we need to know the mg/L MLSS concentration and the aera- tank volume is 1.8 MG?
tion tank volume. Then lbs MLSS can be calculated as follows:
SOLUTION:
lb MLSS = (MLSS, mg/L)(MG)(8.34 lb/gal) (5.154)
145 mg/L ´ 1.6 MGD ´ 8.34 lb/mg/LMG
F/M ratio =
2, 300 mg/L ´ 1.8 MG ´ 8.34 lb/mg/LM
Example 5.249
= 0.0.6 lb BOD /lb MLVSS
Problem: If the mixed liquor suspended solids concentra-
tion is 1,200 mg/L, and the aeration tank has a volume of Key Point: If the MLVSS concentration is not available, it
550,000 gal, how many pounds of suspended solids are in can be calculated if the percent volatile matter (% VM) of
the aeration tank? the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) is known.
SOLUTION: MLVSS = MLSS ´ % ( decimal) Volatile Matter ( VM ) (5.156)
lbs = (mg /L ) ( MG Volume ) ( 8.34 lb /gal) Key Point: The “F” value in the F/M ratio for computing
loading to an activated biosolids process can be either
= (1200 mg /L ) ( 0.550 MG) ( 8.34 lbs /gal) BOD or COD. Remember, the reason for biosolids pro-
= 5504 lbs MLSS duction in the activated biosolids process is to convert
BOD to bacteria. One advantage of using COD over
BOD for analysis of organic load is that COD is more
Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) accurate.
The food-to-microorganism ratio (F/M ratio) is a process con-
trol method/calculation based upon maintaining a specified Example 5.251
balance between available food materials (BOD or COD) in
the aeration tank influent, and the aeration tank mixed liquor Problem: The aeration tank contains 2,885 mg/L of MLSS.
volatile suspended solids (MLVSS) concentration. The chem- Lab tests indicate the MLSS is 66% volatile matter. What is
ical oxygen demand (CDO) test is sometimes used, because the MLVSS concentration in the aeration tank?
the results are available in a relatively short period of time. To
calculate the F/M ratio, the following information is required: SOLUTION:
• Aeration tank influent flow rate, MGD MLVSS, mg /L = 2, 885 mg /L ´ 0.66 = 1, 904 mg /L
• Aeration tank influent BOD or COD, mg/L
• Aeration tank MLVSS, mg/L
Required MLVSS Quantity (Pounds)
• Aeration tank volume, MG
The pounds of MLVSS required in the aeration tank to achieve
F /M Ratio the optimum F/M ratio can be determined from the average
éë Primary Eff. COD/BOD mg/L
influent food (BOD or COD) and the desired F/M ratio:
(5.155)
´ Flow MGD ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG ùû
= MLVSS, lb
MLVSS mg/L ´ Aerator Vol. MG ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG
Primary Effluent BOD or COD ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34 (5.157)
Typical F/M ratio for activated biosolids process is shown in =
Desired F/M Ratio
the following:
The required pounds of MLVSS determined by this calcula-
tion can then be converted to a concentration value by:
lb BOD lb COD DesiredMLVSS (Ib)

MLVSS, mg/L = (5.158)
[ Aeration Volume, MG ´ 8.34]
Problem: The aeration tank influent flow is 4.0 MGD, and Problem: Given the following information, determine the
the influent COD is 145 mg/L. The aeration tank volume is required waste rate in gallons per minute to maintain an
0.65 MG. The desired F/M ratio is 0.3 lb COD/lb MLVSS. F/M ratio of 0.17-lb COD/lb MLVSS.
How many pounds of MLVSS must be maintained in the
aeration tank to achieve the desired F/M ratio?
Primary Effluent COD 140 mg/L
SOLUTION: Primary Effluent Flow 2.2 MGD
Determine the required concentration of MLVSS in the MLVSS, mg/L 3,549 mg/L
aeration tank? Aeration Tank Volume 0.75 MG
Waste Volatile Concentrations 4,440 mg/L (Volatile Solids)
145 mg/lx4.0 MGD ´ 8.34 lb/gal
MLVSS =
0.3 lb COD/lb MLVSS SOLUTION:
= 16,124 lb MLVSS Actual MLVSS, lb = 3,549 mg /l ´ 0.75 MG ´ 8.34

MLVSS, mg/l = 22,199 lb
16,124 lb MLVSS
= 2,974 mg /l MLVSS Required MLVSS, lb
éë0.65 MG ´ 8.34ùû
140 mg/l ´ 2.2 MGD ´ 8.34
= 15,110 lb MLVSS
Calculating Waste Rates Using F/M Ratio 0.17 lb COD/lb MLVSS
Maintaining the desired F/M ratio is accomplished by con- Waste, lb /day = 22199
, lb - 15,110 lb
trolling the MLVSS level in the aeration tank. This may
be accomplished by adjustment of return rates; however, = 7,089 lb
the most practical method is by proper control of the waste
rate. 7,089 lb/day
Waste, MGD = = 0.19 MGD
4,440 mg/l ´ 8.34
Waste Vol.Solids, lb /day
(5.159)
= Actual MLVSS, lb - Desired MLVSS, lb 0.19 MGD ´ 1000
, ,000 gpd/MGD
Waste,gpm =
1440
, min/day
If the desired MLVSS is greater than the actual MLVSS, wast-
ing is stopped until the desired level is achieved. Practical = 132 gpm
considerations require that the required waste quantity be
converted to a required volume to waste per day. This is Gould Biosolids Age
accomplished by converting the waste pounds to flow rate in Biosolids age refers to the average number of days a particle
million gallons per day or gallons per minute. of suspended solids remains under aeration. It is a calculation
used to maintain the proper amount of activated biosolids in
Waste, MGD the aeration tank. This calculation is sometimes referred to
Waste Volatile, lb/day (5.160) as Gould Biosolids Age so that it is not confused with simi-
= lar calculations such as Solids Retention time (or Mean Cell
éë Waste Volatile Conc., mg/L ´ 8.34 lb/gal ùû
Residence Time).
Waste, gpm When considering sludge age, in effect we are asking,
“how many days of suspended solids are in the aeration
Waste, MGD ´ 1,000,000 gpd MGD (5.161)
= tank?” For example, if 3,000 lb of suspended solids enter the
1, 440 minute/day aeration tank daily and the aeration tank contains 12,000 lb
of suspended solids, then 4 days of solids are in the aeration
Key Point: When F/M ratio is used for process control, tank—a sludge age of 4 days.
the volatile content of the waste activated sludge should be
determined. SS in Tank, lb
Sludge Age, days = (5.162)
SS Added, lb/day
Example 5.254
Problem: A total of 2,740 lbs/day suspended solids enter

an aeration tank in the primary effluent flow. If the aeration
tank has a total of 13,800 lb of mixed liquor suspended comparison of the effluent quality with MCRT values. When
solids, what is the biosolids age in the aeration tank? the optimum MCRT is established, the quantity of solids to be
removed (wasted) is determined by:
SOLUTION:
MLSS, lb Waste, lb/day
Sludge Age, days =
SS Added, lb/day æ MLSS ´ ( Aer., MG + Clarifier, MG) ´ 8.34 ö
= çç ÷÷ (5.164)
13,800 lb è Desired MCRT ø
=
2740 lb/day
- [ TSSout ´ Flow ´ 8.34]
= 5.0 days
Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) Example 5.256
Mean cell residence time (MCRT), sometimes called sludge
retention time, is another process control calculation used for 3, 400 mg/L ´ (1.4 MG + 0.50 MG) ´ 8.34
activated biosolids systems. MCRT represents the average 8.6 days
length of time an activated biosolids particle remains in the
´ éë10 mg/L ´ 5.0 MGD ´ 8.34ùû
activated biosolids system. It can also be defined as the length
of time required at the current removal rate to remove all the Waste Quality, lb/day = 5,848 lb
solids in the system.
Mean Cell Residence Time, days
Waste Rate in Million Gallons/Day
é MLSS mg/L ´ ( Aeration Vol. + Clarifier Vol. )
ë When the quantity of solids to be removed from the system is
´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG ùû (5.163) known, the desired waste rate in million gallons per day can
=
é( WAS, mg/L ´ WAS flow ´ 8.34 ) be determined. The unit used to express the rate (MGD, gpd,
ë
+ ( TSS out ´ flow out ´ 8.34 ) ùû and gpm) is a function of the volume of waste to be removed
and the design of the equipment.
Key Point: MCRT can be calculated using only the aeration
Waste Pounds/day
tank solids inventory. When comparing plant operational lev- Waste, MGD = (5.165)
WAS Concentration, mg/L ´ 8.34
els to reference materials, you must determine which calcula-
tion the reference manual uses to obtain its example values. Waste MGD ´1000
, ,000 gpd/MGD
Other methods are available to determine the clarifier solids Waste, gpm = (5.166)
1.440 minutes/day
concentrations. However, the simplest method assumes that
the average suspended solids concentration is equal to the Example 5.257
aeration tank’s solids concentration.
Problem: Given the following data, determine the required
Example 5.255 waste rate to maintain an MCRT of 8.8 days.
Problem: Given the following data, what is the MCRT?

MLSS, mg/L 2,500 mg/L
Aeration Volume 1.20 MG
Aerator Volume = 1,000,000 gal
Clarifier Volume 0.20 MG
Final Clarifier = 600,000 gal
Effluent TSS 11 mg/L
Flow = 5.0 MGD
Waste Rate = 0.085 MGD Effluent Flow 5.0 MGD
MLSS mg/L = 2,500 mg/L Waste Concentration 6,000 mg/L
Waste mg/L = 6,400 mg/L
Effluent TSS = 14 mg/L
SOLUTION: SOLUTION:
é 2,500 mg/l ´ (1.0 MG + 0.60 MG) ´ 8.34ù

MRCT = ë û Waste, lb/day
é( 6,400 mg/l ´ 0.085 MGD ´ 8.34 )
ë 2,500 mg/L ´ (1.20 + 0.20) ´ 8.34
+ (14 mg/l ´ 5.0 mgd ´ 8.34 ) ùû =
8.8 days
= 6.5 days
´ éë11mg/L ´ 5.0 MGD ´ 8.34ùû
Waste Quantities/Requirements
= 3,317 lb /day - 459 lb /day
MCRT for process control requires the determination of the
optimum range for MCRT values. This is accomplished by = 2, 858 lb /day
2, 858 lb/day SOLUTION:

Waste, Ib/day =
éë6, 000 mg/L ´ 8.34ùû Return, MGD = ( 5.0 MGD + 1.8 MGD ) ´ 0.37

= 0.057 MGD = 2.5 MGD
0.057 MGN ´ 1000
, ,00 gpd MGD
Waste, gpm = Sludge Volume Index (SVI)
1, 440 min/day
Sludge volume index (SVI) is a measure (an indicator) of the
= 40 gpm settling quality (a quality indicator) of the activated biosolids.
As the SVI increases, the biosolids settles slower and does
Estimating Return Rates from SSV60 not compact as well, and is likely to result in an increase in
Many methods are available for estimation of the proper return effluent suspended solids. As the SVI decreases, the biosolids
biosolids rate. A simple method described in the Operation of becomes denser, settling is more rapid, and the biosolids ages.
Wastewater Treatment Plants, Field Study Programs (1986), SVI is the volume in milliliters occupied by 1 g of activated
developed by the California State University, Sacramento, biosolids. For the settled biosolids volume (mL/L) and the
uses the 60-min percent settled sludge volume. The %SSV60 mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) calculation, mg/L is
test results can provide an approximation of the appropri- required. The proper SVI range for any plant must be deter-
ate return activated biosolids rate. This calculation assumes mined by comparing SVI values with plant effluent quality.
that the SSV60 results are representative of the actual settling
occurring in the clarifier. If this is true, the return rate in per- Sludge Volume Index (SVI)
cent should be approximately equal to the SSV60. To deter- SSV, ml /l ´ 1, 000 (5.168)
mine the approximate return rate in million gallons per day =
(MGD), the influent flow rate, the current return rate, and the MLSS, mg/ l
SSV60 must be known. The results of this calculation can then
be adjusted based on sampling and visual observations to Example 5.259
develop the optimum return biosolids rate.
Key Point: The percent SSV60 must be converted to a deci- Problem: The SSV30 is 365 mL/L, and the MLSS is 2,365
mal percent and total flow rate (wastewater flow and current mg/L. What is the SVI?
return rate in million gallons per day must be used).
SOLUTION:
Est. Return Rate, MGD Sludge Volume Index (SVI)
= ( Influent Flow, MGD + Current Return Flow, MGD )
365 ml/l ´ 1, 000
= = 154.3
´ %SSV60 2,365 mg/l
Return, Biosolids Rate, gpd SVI equals 154.3.

RAS Rate, GPM = (5.167)
1, 440 min/day
What does this mean? It means that the system is operat-
where it is assumed that:
ing normally with good settling and low effluent turbidity.
How do we know this? We know this because we com-
• %SSV60 is representative. pare the 154.3 result with the parameters listed below to
• Return rate in percent equals %SSV60. obtain the expected condition (the result).
• Actual return rate is normally set slightly higher to
ensure organisms are returned to the aeration tank SVI Expected Conditions (indicates)
as quickly as possible. The rate of return must be
<100 Old Biosolids—possible pin floc
adequately controlled to prevent the following:
Effluent turbidity increasing
• Aeration and settling hydraulic overloads
100– Normal operation—good settling
• Low MLSS levels in the aerator
250
• Organic overloading of aeration Low effluent turbidity
• Septic return-activated biosolids >250 Bulking biosolids—poor settling
• Solids loss due to excessive biosolids blanket High effluent turbidity
depth
Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids

Example 5.258
Solids are produced whenever biological processes are used to
Problem: The influent flow rate is 5.0 MGD, and the cur- remove organic matter from wastewater. Mass balance for anaer-
rent return-activated sludge flow rate is 1.8 MGD. The obic biological process must take into account both the solids
SSV60 is 37%. Based on this information, what should be removed by physical settling processes and the solids produced
the return biosolids rate in million gallons per day (MGD)? by biological conversion of soluble organic matter to insoluble
suspended matter organisms. Research has shown that the amount SOLUTION:
of solids produced per pound of BOD removed can be predicted BOD in = 220 mg/L × 1.1 MGD × 8.34 = 2,018 lbs/
based upon the type of process being used. Although the exact day
amount of solids produced can vary from plant to plant, research BOD out = 18 mg/L × 1.1 MGD × 8.34 = 165 lbs/day
has developed a series of K factors that can be used to estimate BOD Removed = 2,018 lbs/day−165 lbs/day = 1,853
the solids production for plants using a particular treatment pro- lbs/day
cess. These average factors provide a simple method to evalu- Solids Produced = 1,853 lbs/day × 0.65 lbs/lbs
ate the effectiveness of a facility’s process control program. The BOD = 1,204 lbs solids/day
mass balance also provides an excellent mechanism to evaluate Solids Out, lbs/day = 22 mg/L × 1.1 MGD × 8.34 = 202
lbs/day
the validity of process control and effluent monitoring data gen-
Sludge Out, lbs/day
= 8,710 mg/L × 0.024
erated. Recall that average K factors are listed in pounds of solids MGD × 8.34 = 1,743 lbs/day
produced per pound of BOD removed for selected processes: Solids Removed, lbs/day = (202 lbs/day + 1,743 lbs/
Mass Balance Calculation: day) = 1,945 lbs/day
BOD in, lb = BOD, mg /L ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34
BOD out, lb = BOD, mg /L Mass Balance

´ Flow, MGD ´8.34 (1204
, lb Solids/day - 1945
, lb/day ) ´ 100
=
Solids Produced, lb /day ,
1204 lb/day

= éë BOD in. lb - BOD out, lb ùû ´ K = 62%
TSS out, lb /day = TSS out, mg /L The mass balance indicates:

´ Flow, MGD ´8.34
(1) The sampling point(s), collection methods, and/
Waste, lb /day = Waste, mg /L or laboratory testing procedures are producing
non-representative results.
´ Flow, MGD ´8.34 (2) The process is removing significantly more sol-
ids than is required. Additional testing should
Solids Removed, lb /day
be performed to isolate the specific cause of the
= TSS out, lb /day + Waste, lb /day imbalance.
% Mass Balance To assist in the evaluation, the waste rate based upon the
mass balance information can be calculated.

=
( Solids Produced - Solids Removed ) ´100 (5.169)
Solids Produced Solids Produced, lb/day
Waste, GPD = (5.171)
Biosolids Waste Based upon Mass Balance ( Waste TSS, mg/L ´ 8.34 )
Waste Rate, MGD
1, 204 lb /day ´ 1000
, ,000
Solids Produced, lb/day (5.170) Waste, GPD =
= 8,710 mg/L ´ 8.34
( Waste Concentration ´88.34 ) = 16,575 gpd
Example 5.260 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time

Oxidation ditch systems may be used where the treatment
Problem: Given the following data, determine the mass of wastewater is amenable to aerobic biological treatment
balance of the biological process and the appropriate and the plant design capacities generally do not exceed 1.0
waste rate to maintain current operating conditions.
MGD. The oxidation ditch is a form of aeration basin where
the wastewater is mixed with return biosolids. The oxidation
Process Extended Aeration (no primary) ditch is essentially a modification of a completely mixed acti-
Influent Flow 1.1 MGD vated biosolids system used to treat wastewater from small
BOD 220 mg/L communities. This system can be classified as an extended
TSS 240 mg/L aeration process and is considered to be a low loading rate
Effluent Flow 1.5 MGD system. This type of treatment facility can remove 90% or
BOD 18 mg/L more of influent BOD. Oxygen requirements will generally
TSS 22 mg/L depend on the maximum diurnal organic loading, degree of
Waste Flow 24,000 gpd treatment, and suspended solids concentration to be main-
TSS 8,710 mg/L tained in the aerated channel mixed liquor suspended solids
(MLSS). Detention time is the length of time required for a
given flow rate to pass through a tank. Detention time is not volume, and flow rate parameters that are crucial for making
normally calculated for aeration basins, but it is calculated for treatment pond calculations.
oxidation ditches.
Key Point: When calculating detention time it is essential Pond Area in Inches
that the time and volume units used in the equation are con-
sistent with each other. Area, ft 2
Area, acres = (5.173)
43,560 ft 2 /acre
Detention Time, hrs
Pond Volume in Acre-Feet
Vol. of Oxidation Ditch, gal (5.172)
=
Flow Rate, gph
Volume, ft 3
Volume, acre-feet = (5.174)
Example 5.261 43, 560 ft 2 /acre-foot
Problem: An oxidation ditch has a volume of 160,000 gal. Flow Rate in Acre-Feet/Day
If the flow to the oxidation ditch is 185,000 gpd, what is
the detention time in hours? Flow, acre-feet /day
(5.175)
SOLUTION: = flow, MGD ´ 3,069 acre-feet /MG
Because detention time is desired in hours, the flow must Key Point: Acre-feet (ac-ft) is a unit that can cause confu-
be expressed as gph: sion, especially for those not familiar with pond or lagoon
operations. One acre-foot is the volume of a box with a 1-acre
185,000 gpd top and 1 ft of depth—but the top doesn’t have to be an even
= 7708 gph
24 hrs/day number of acres in size to use acre-feet.
Now calculate detention time:
Determining Flow Rate in Acre-Inches Day
Detention Time, hrs
Flow, acre-inches /day
Vol. of Oxidation Ditch, gal (5.176)
=
Flow Rate, gph = flow, MGD ´ 36.8 acre-inches /MG

160,000 gallons
= Treatment Pond Process Control Calculations
7708 gph
Although there are no recommended process control calcula-
= 20.8 hrs tions for the treatment pond, there are several calculations that
may be helpful in evaluating process performance or iden-
Treatment Ponds tifying causes of poor performance. These include hydrau-
The primary goals of wastewater treatment ponds focus on lic detention time, BOD loading, organic loading rate, BOD
simplicity and flexibility of operation, protection of the water removal efficiency, population loading, and hydraulic loading
environment, and protection of public health. Moreover, rate. In the following we provide a few calculations that might
ponds are relatively easy to build and manage, they accom- be helpful in pond performance evaluation and identification
modate large fluctuations in flow, and they can also provide of causes of poor performance process along with other cal-
treatment that approaches conventional systems (producing a culations and/or equations that may be helpful.
highly purified effluent) at a much lower cost. It is the cost (the
Hydraulic Detention Time (Days)
economics) that drives many managers to decide on the pond
option of treatment. The actual degree of treatment provided
Hydraulic detention time, days
in a pond depends on the type and number of ponds used.
Ponds can be used as the sole type of treatment, or they can Pond volume, acre-feet (5.177)
be used in conjunction with other forms of wastewater treat- =
Influent flow, acre-feet/day
ment—that is, other treatment processes followed by a pond
or a pond followed by other treatment processes. Ponds can Key Point: Normally, hydraulic detention time ranges from 30
be classified based upon their location in the system, by the days to 120 days for stabilization ponds.
type of wastes they receive, and by the main biological pro-
cess occurring in the pond. Example 5.262
Treatment Pond Parameters Problem: A stabilization pond has a volume of 54.5 acre-
Before we discuss process control calculations, it is impor- feet. What is the detention time in days when the flow is
tant first to describe the calculations for determining the area, 0.35 MGD?
SOLUTION: BOD Removal Efficiency

Flow, ac-ft /day = 0.35 MGD ´ 3.069 ac-ft /MG As mentioned, the efficiency of any treatment process is its
effectiveness in removing various constituents from the water
= 1.07 ac-ft /day or wastewater. BOD removal efficiency is therefore a mea-
sure of the effectiveness of the wastewater treatment pond in
54.5 acre/ft removing BOD from the wastewater.
DT days =
1.07 ac-ft/day
BOD Removed, mg/l
% BOD Removed = ´ 100 (5.180)
BOD Loading BOD Total, mg/l
When calculating BOD loading on a wastewater treatment
pond, the following equation is used: Example 5.265
Problem: The BOD entering a waste treatment pond is194

lb /day = (BOD, mg /l)( flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) (5.178) mg/L. If the BOD in the pond effluent is 45 mg/L, what is
the BOD removal efficiency of the pond?
% BOD Removed
Example 5.263
BOD Removal, mg/L
= ´ 100
Problem: Calculate the BOD loading (lbs/day) on a pond BOD Total, mg/L
if the influent flow is 0.3MGD with a BOD of 200 mg/L.
149 mg/L
= ´ 100
4 mg/L
194
SOLUTION:
= 77%
Lbs /day = (BOD, mg /L )( flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) Population Loading
= ( 200 mg /L ) ( 0.3 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
Population loading, people/acre/day
= 500 lb /day BOD
BOD, mg/L Infl. flow, MGD ´ 8.34 (5.181)
=
Pond area, acres
Organic loading can be expressed as a pound of BOD per acre Hydraulic Loading, In./Day (Hydraulic Overflow Rate)
per day (most common), pounds of BOD per-acre foot per day,
or people per acre per day. Hydraulic Loading, in/day
Influent flow, acre-in./day (5.182)
Organic Loading, lb BOD/acre/day =
Pond area, acres
BOD, mg/L Influent Flow, MGD ´ 8.34 (5.179)
=
Pond area, acres Chemical Dosing
Key Point: Normal range is 10–50 lbs BOD per day per acre. Chemicals are used extensively in wastewater treatment (and
water treatment) operations. Plant operators add chemicals
to various unit processes for slime-growth control, corrosion
Example 5.264 control, odor control, grease removal, BOD reduction, pH
control, biosolids-bulking control, ammonia oxidation, bac-
Problem: A wastewater treatment pond has an average terial reduction, and for other reasons. In order to apply any
width of 370 ft and an average length of 730 ft. The influ- chemical dose correctly, it is important to make certain dos-
ent flow rate to the pond is 0.10 MGD with a BOD con-
age calculations. One of the most frequently used calculations
centration of 165 mg/L. What is the organic loading rate to
the pound in pounds per day per acre (lb/day/ac)?
in wastewater/water mathematics is the dosage or loading.
The general types of mg/L to lbs/day or lb calculations are for
chemical dosage, BOD, COD, SS loading/removal, pounds of
SOLUTION: solids under aeration, and WAS pumping rate. These calcula-
1 ac tions are usually made using either Equation 5.183 or 5.184.
730 ft ´ 370 ft ´ = 6.2 acre
43,560 ft 2
( Chemical, mg /L )( MGD flow )(8.34 lb /gal )
0.10 MGD ´ 165 mg /L ´ 8.34 lb /gal = 138 lb /day (5.183)
= lb /day
138 lb/d
= 22.2 lb/d/ac
6.2 ac ( Chemical, mg /l )( MG volume )(8.34 lb /gal ) = lb (5.184)
Key Point: If mg/L concentration represents a concentration SOLUTION:

in a flow, then million gallons per day (MGD) flow is used as Polymer, lb /day = Polymer, mg /L
the second factor. However, if the concentration pertains to a
tank or pipeline volume, then million gallons (MG) volume is ´ flow, MGD ´ 8.34 lb /day
used as the second factor. = 10 mg /L Polymer
Key Point: Typically, especially in the past, the expression
parts per million (ppm) was used as an expression of concen- ´ ( 2.10 MGD )( 8.34 lb /day )
tration, because 1 mg/L = 1 ppm. However, current practice is
= 175 lb /day Polymer
to use mg/L as the preferred expression of concentration.
Chemical Feed Rate Key Point: To calculate chemical dose for tanks or pipe-
lines, a modified equation must be used. Instead of MGD
In chemical dosing, a measured amount of chemical is added flow, MG volume is used:
to the wastewater (or water). The amount of chemical required
depends on the type of chemical used, the reason for dosing, lb Chemical = Chemical, mg /L ´ Tank Volume, MG
and the flow rate being treated. The two expressions most (5.185)
´ 8.34 lb /gal
often used to describe the amount of chemical added or
required are:
Example 5.268
• Milligrams per liter (mg/L)
• Pounds per day (lbs/day) Problem: To neutralize a sour digester, one pound of lime
is added for every pound of volatile acids in the digester
A milligram per liter is a measure of concentration. As shown biosolids. If the digester contains 300,000 gal of biosolids
below, if a concentration of 5 mg/L is desired, then a total of with a volatile acid (VA) level of 2,200 mg/L, how many
15-mg chemical would be required to treat 3 L: pounds of lime should be added?
SOLUTION:
5 mg ´ 3 15 mg
= Because volatile acid concentration is 2,200 mg/L the lime
L´3 3L
concentration should also be 2,200 mg/L:
The amount of chemical required therefore depends on two lb lime required

factors:
= lime, mg /L ´ digester volume, MG
• The desired concentration (mg/L) ´ 8.34 lb /gal

• The amount of wastewater to be treated (normally = ( 2200
0 mg /L ) ( 0.30 MG) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
expressed as MGD).
= 5,504 lb lime
To convert from mg/L to lbs/day, Equation 6.26 is used:
Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual
Example 5.266 Chlorine is a powerful oxidizer that is commonly used in
wastewater and water treatment for disinfection, in waste-
Problem: Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) water treatment for odor control, bulking control, and other
needed to treat a flow of 5 MGD with a chemical dose applications. When chlorine is added to a unit process, we
of 3 mg/L. want to ensure that a measured amount is added, obviously.
Chlorine dose depends on two considerations: the chlorine
SOLUTION:
demand and the desired chlorine residual:
Chemical, lb /day = Chemical, mg /L
´ flow, MGD ´ 8.34 lb /gal

Chlorine Dose = Chlorine Demand
(5.186)
= 3 mg /L ´ 5 MGD ´ 8.34 lb /gal + Chlorine Residual
= 125 lb /day Chlorine Dose

In describing the amount of chemical added or required, we
Example 5.267 use Equation 5.187:
Problem: The desired dosage for a dry polymer is 10 mg/L. lb /day = Chemical, mg /L ´ MGD
If the flow to be treated is 2,100,000 gpd, how many lbs/ (5.187)
day polymer will be required? ´ 8.34, lb /day
Example 5.269 Hypochlorite Dosage

Hypochlorite is less hazardous than chlorine; therefore, it is
Problem: Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) needed often used as a substitute chemical for elemental chlorine.
to treat a flow of 8 MGD with a chlorine dose of 6 mg/L. Hypochlorite is similar to strong bleach and comes in two
SOLUTION: forms: dry calcium hypochlorite (often referred to as HTH)
and liquid sodium hypochlorite. Calcium hypochlorite contains
(mg /L ) ( MGD)( 8.34) = lb /day about 65% available chlorine; sodium hypochlorite contains
(6 mg /L ) ( 8 MGD) ( 8.34 lb /gal) = lb /day about 12% to 15% available chlorine (in industrial strengths).
Key Point: Because either type of hypochlorite is not 100%
= 400 lb /day pure chlorine, more lbs/day must be fed into the system to
Chlorine Demand obtain the same amount of chlorine for disinfection. This is an
The chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine used in react- important economical consideration for those facilities think-
ing with various components of the water such as harmful ing about substituting hypochlorite for chlorine. Some studies
organisms and other organic and inorganic substances. When indicate that such a substitution can increase operating costs,
the chlorine demand has been satisfied, these reactions cease. overall, by up to three times the cost of using chlorine.
To calculate the lbs/day hypochlorite required, a two-step
Example 5.270 calculation is required:
Step (1): mg /l ( MGD )( 8.34 ) = lb /day

Problem: The chlorine dosage for a secondary effluent is
6 mg/L. If the chlorine residual after 30 min contact time
is found to be 0.5 mg/L, what is the chlorine demand Chorine, lb /day
Step (2): = hypochlorite, lb /day (5.188)
expressed in mg/L? % available
100
SOLUTION:
Example 5.272
Chlorine Dose = Chlorine demand
+ Chlorine Residual Problem: A total chlorine dosage of 10 mg/L is required to
6 mg /L = x mg /L + 0.5 mg /L treat a particular wastewater. If the flow is 1.4 MGD and
the hypochlorite has 65% available chlorine, how many
6 mg /L - 0.5 mg /L = x mg/L lbs/day of hypochlorite will be required?
x = 5.5 mg /L Chlorine Demand
SOLUTION:
Chlorine Residual Step 1: Calculate the lbs/day chlorine required using
Chlorine residual is the amount of chlorine remaining after the mg/L to lbs/day equation:
the demand has been satisfied.
(mg /L ) ( MGD)( 8.34) = lb /day

Example 5.271 (10 mg /L )(1.4 MGD)( 8.34 lb /gal) = 117 lb /day
Problem: What should the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) be Step 2: Calculate the lbs/day hypochlorite required.
to treat a flow of 3.9 MGD if the chlorine demand is 8 Because only 65% of the hypochlorite is chlo-
mg/L and a chlorine residual of 2 mg/L is desired? rine, more than 117 lbs/day will be required:
117 lb /day chlorine
SOLUTION: = 180 lb /day hypochlorite
65 available chlorine
First calculate the chlorine dosage in mg/L: 100
Example 5.273
Chlorine Dose = Chlorine demand
+ Chlorine Residual Problem: A wastewater flow of 840,000 gpd requires a
chlorine dose of 20 mg/L. If sodium hypochlorite (15%
= 8 mg /L + 2 mg /L
available chlorine) is to be used, how many lbs/day of
= 10 mg /L sodium hypochlorite are required? How many gal/day of
Then calculate the chlorine dosage (feed rate) in lbs/day: sodium hypochlorite is this?
SOLUTION:
( Chlorine, mg /L ) ( MGD flow )( 8.34 lb /gal)
(1) Calculate the lbs/day chlorine required:
= lb /day Chlorine
(mg /l) ( MGD)( 8.34) = lb /day
(10 mg /L )( 3.9 MGD)( 8.34 lb /gal)
( 20 mg /l)( 0.84 MGD)( 8.34 lb /gal)
1.
= 325 lb /day Chlorine
= 140 lb /day chlorine
(2) Calculate the lbs/day sodium hypochlorite: Important to making accurate computations of chemical
strength is a complete understanding of the dimensional
140 lb /day chlorine units involved. For example, it is important to understand
2. = 933 lb /day hypochlorite
15 available chlorine
exactly what milligrams per liter (mg/L) signifies.
100
(3) Calculate the gal/day sodium hypochlorite: Milligrams per Liter (mg/L)
933 lb/day Milligrams of Solute (5.190)
3. = 112 gal/day sodium hypochlorite =
8.34 lb/gal Liters of Solution
Another important dimensional unit commonly used when
Example 5.274
dealing with chemical solutions is parts per million (ppm).
Problem: How many pounds of chlorine gas are neces- Parts per Million (ppm)
sary to treat 5,000,000 gal of wastewater at a dosage of (5.191)
2 mg/L? Patts of Solute
=
Million Parts of Solution
SOLUTION: Key Point: “Parts” is usually a weight measurement; for

example:
Step 1: Calculate the pounds of chlorine required.
V , 106 gal = chlorine concentration (mg /l) ´ 8.34 8 lb solids

8 ppm =
1000
, ,000 lb solution
= lb chlorine
Step 2: Substitute 5 × 106 gal × 2 mg/L × 8.34 = 83 lb 8 mg solids

chlorine 8 ppm =
1000
, ,000 mg solution
Chemical Solutions
Solution Chemical Feeder Setting, GPD
A water solution is a homogeneous liquid consisting of the
solvent (the substance that dissolves another substance) and Calculating the GPD feeder setting depends on how the solu-
the solute (the substance that dissolves in the solvent). Water tion concentration is expressed, lb/gal or percent. If the solu-
is the solvent. The solute (whatever it may be) may dissolve tion strength is expressed as lb/gal, use the following equation:
up to a certain point. This is called its solubility—that is, the
solubility of the solute in the particular solvent (water) at a Solution, gpd
particular temperature and pressure. Remember, in chemical (Chemical, mgL)(Flow, MGD)(8.34, lb/gal) (5.192)
=
solutions, the substance being dissolved is called the solute, Ib Chemical Solution
and the liquid present in the greatest amount in a solution (and In water and wastewater operations, a standard, trial-and-
that does the dissolving) is called the solvent. We should also error method known as jar testing is conducted to determine
be familiar with another term, concentration—the amount of optimum chemical dosage. Jar testing has been the accepted
solute dissolved in a given amount of solvent. Concentration bench testing procedure for many years. After jar testing
is measured as: results are analyzed to determine the best chemical dosage,
the following example problems demonstrate how the actual
Wt. of solute calculations are made.
% Strength = ´ 100
Wt. of solution
(5.189)
Wt of solute Example 5.276
= ´ 100
Wt. of solute + solvent
Problem: Jar tests indicate that the best liquid alum dose
Example 5.275 for a water is 8 mg/L. The flow to be treated is 1.85 MGD.
Determine the gpd setting for the liquid alum chemical
Problem: If 30 lb of chemical is added to 400 lb of water, feeder if the liquid alum contains 5.30 lb of alum per gal-
what is the percent strength (by weight) of the solution? lon of solution.
SOLUTION: SOLUTION:
30 lb solute First, calculate the lbs/day of dry alum required, using the
% Strength = ´ 100
400 lb water mg/L to lbs/day equation:
30 lb solute
= ´ 100
30 lb solute + 400 lb water lb /day = ( dose, mg /L )( flow, MGD )( 8.34, lb /gal)
30 lb solute = ( 8 mg /L )(1.85 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
= ´ 10
00
430 lb solute/water
= 123 lb /day dry alum
% Strength = 7.0%
Then, calculate gpd solution required.
123 lb/day alum Example 5.278

Alum Solution, gpd =
5.30 lb alum/gal solution
Problem: The required chemical pumping rate has been
The feeder setting, then, is 23 gpd alum solution. If the calculated as 8 gpm. If the maximum pumping rate is 90
solution strength is expressed as a percent, we use the gpm, what should the percent stroke setting be?
following equation:
SOLUTION:
( Chem., mg /l)(Flow Treated, MGD)( 8.34 lb /gal)
(5.193) The percent stroke setting is based on the ratio of the gpm
= ( Sol., mg /L ) ( Sol. Flow, MGD )( 8.34, lb /gal) required to the total possible gpm:
Required Feed, gpd

% Stroke Setting = ´ 100
Example 5.277 Maximum Feed, gpd
Problem: The flow to a plant is 3.40 MGD. Jar testing indi- 8 gpm
= ´ 100
cates that the optimum alum dose is 10 mg/L. What should 90 gpm
the gpd setting be for the solution feeder if the alum solu-
= 8 .9 %
tion is a 52% solution?
SOLUTION: Chemical Solution Feeder Setting, mL/min

Some chemical solution feeders dispense chemical as millili-
A solution concentration of 52% is equivalent to 520,000
mg/L: ters per minute (mL/min). To calculate the mL/min solution
required, use the following equation:
Desired Dose, lb /day = Actual Dose, lb /day
(gpd)(3785 mL/gal)
Solution, mL/min = (5.195)
1440 min/day
( Chemical, mg /L )(Flow Treated, MGD)( 8.34, lb /gal)

= ( Sol, mg /l) ( Sol. Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal) Example 5.279
(10 mg /L )( 3.40 MGD) ( 8.34 lb /gal) Problem: The desired solution feed rate was calculated to
be 7 gpd. What is this feed rate expressed as mL/min?
= ( 520,000 mg /l)( x MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
SOLUTION:
(10)(3.40)(8.34) Because the gpd flow has already been determined, the
x=
(520,000)(8.34) mL/min flow rate can be calculated directly:
x = 0.0000653 MGD
(gpd)(3785 mL/gal)
feed rate mL/min =
1440 min/day
This can be expressed as gpd flow:
(7 gpd) (3785 mL/gal)
=
0.0000653 MGD = 65.3 gpd flow 1440 min/day
= 18 mL /min feed rate
Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting

Chemical feed pumps are generally positive displacement Chemical Feed Calibration
pumps (also called “piston” pumps). This type of pump dis- Routinely, to ensure accuracy, we need to compare the actual
places, or pushes out, a volume of chemical equal to the vol- chemical feed rate with the feed rate indicated by the instru-
ume of the piston. The length of the piston, called the stroke, mentation. To accomplish this, we use calibration calcula-
can be lengthened or shortened to increase or decrease the tions. To calculate the actual chemical feed rate for a dry
amount of chemical delivered by the pump. As mentioned, chemical feed, place a container under the feeder, weigh the
each stroke of a piston pump “displaces” or pushes out chemi- container when empty, and then weigh the container again
cal. In calculating the percent stroke setting, use the following after a specified length of time, such as 30 min. Then actual
equation: chemical feed rate can then be determined as:
Required Feed, gpd
% Stroke Setting = (5.194) Chemical Feed Rate, lb/min
Maximum Feed, gpd
Chemical Applied, lb (5.196)
=
Example 5.280 the actual chemical feed rate is determined and then com-
pared with the feed rate indicated by the instrumentation.
Problem: Calculate the actual chemical feed rate, lbs/day, The calculations used for solution feeder calibration are
if a container is placed under a chemical feeder and a total as follows:
of 2.2 lb is collected during a 30-min period.
(mL/min)(1440 min/day)
Flow rate, gpd =
SOLUTION: 3785 mL/gal (5.197)
First calculate the lb/min feed rate: = gpd
Chemical Feed Rate, lb/min Then calculate chemical dosage, lbs/day:

Chemical Applied, lb
= Chemical, lb /day
Length of Applications, min (5.198)
= ( Chemical, mg /L )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /day )
2.2 lb
=
30 min
= 0.07 lb /min Feed Rate Example 5.282
Problem: A calibration test is conducted for a solution

Then calculate the lbs/day feed rate:
chemical feeder. During 5 min, the solution feeder deliv-
ers a total of 700 mL. The polymer solution is a 1.3% solu-
Chemical Feed Rate, lb /day
tion. What is the lbs/day feed rate? (Assume the polymer
= ( 0.07 lb /min)(1440 min /day ) solution weighs 8.34 lbs/gal.)
= 101lb /day Feed Rate SOLUTION:

The mL/min flow rate is calculated as:
Example 5.281
700 mL
Problem: A chemical feeder is to be calibrated. The con- = 140 mL/min
tainer to be used to collect chemical is placed under the 5 min
chemical feeder and weighed (0.35 lb). After 30 min, the Then convert mL/min flow rate to gpd flow rate:
weight of the container and chemical is found to be 2.2 lb.
Based on this test, what is the actual chemical feed rate, (140 mL/min) (1440 min/day)
in lbs/day? = 53 gpd flow rate
3785 mL/gal
Key Point: The chemical applied is the weight of the
container and chemical minus the weight of the empty Now calculate the lbs/day feed rate:
container.
( Chemical, mg /L )(Flow, MGD)( 8.34 lb /day )
SOLUTION:
= Chemical, lb /day
First calculate the lb/min feed rate:
Chemical Feed Rate, lb / min

(13,000 mg /L )( 0.000053 MGD)( 8.34 lb /day )

= 5.7 lb /day polymer
Chemical Applied, lb
=
Actual pumping rates can be determined by calculating
2.2 lb - 0.35 lb the volume pumped during a specified timeframe. For
=
30 min example, if 120 gal are pumped during a 15-min test, the
average pumping rate during the test is 8 gpm. The gallons
1.85 lb pumped can be determined by measuring the drop in tank
=
30 min level during the timed test.
= 0.062 lb /min Feeed Rate

Volume Pumped, gal
Flow, gpm = (5.199)
Then calculate the lbs/day feed rate: Duration of Test, min
( 0.062 lb /min) (1440 min/day ) Then the actual flow rate (gpm) is calculated using:

= 89.28 lb /day Feed Rate Flow Rate, gpm
When the chemical feeder is for a solution, the calibra-
tion calculation is slightly more difficult than that for a dry ( 0.785) (D2 ) (Drop in Level, ft ) (7.48 gal/ft 3 ) (5.200)
=
chemical feeder. As with other calibration calculations, Duration of Test, min
Example 5.283 Wednesday—92 lbs/day Sunday—88 lbs/day

Thursday—88 lbs/day
Problem: A pumping rate calibration test is conducted for
5-min. The liquid level in the 4-ft diameter solution tank SOLUTION:
is measured before and after the test. If the level drops 0.4
ft during the 5-min test, what is the pumping rate in gpm? Average Use, lb/day =
Number of Days
SOLUTION: 642 lb
=
7 days
Flow Rate, gpm
Average Use = 91.7 lb /day
( 0.785) (D2 ) (Drop, ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft )
= Example 5.285

(0.785)( 4 ft )( 4 ft )(0.4 ft )(7.48 gal/cu ft ) Problem: The average chemical use at a plant is 83 lbs/day.
=
5 min If the chemical inventory in stock is 2,600 lb, how many
days’ supply is this?
mping Rate = 38 gpm
Pum
SOURCE:
Average Use Calculations Days’ Supply in Inventory
During a typical shift, operators log in or record several parame-
ter readings. The data collected is important in monitoring plant Total Chemical in Inventory, lb
=
operation—in providing information on how to best optimize Average Use, lb/day

plant or unit process operation. One of the important parameters 2600 lb in Inventory
monitored each shift or each day is the actual use of chemicals. =
83 lb/day Average Use
From the recorded chemical use data, expected chemical use
can be forecasted. This data also is important for inventory con- = 31.3 days’ supply
trol; that is, a determination can be made when additional chem-
ical supplies will be required. In determining average chemical Process Residuals: Biosolids Production
use, we first must determine the average chemical use: and Pumping Calculations
The wastewater unit treatment processes remove solids and
Average Use, lb/day = (5.201) biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) from the wastestream
Number of Days before the liquid effluent is discharged to its receiving waters.
or What remains to be disposed of is a mixture of solids and
wastes, called process residuals—more commonly referred to
Total Chemical Used, gal as biosolids (or sludge).
Average Use, gpd = (5.202)
Number of Days Key Point: Sludge is the commonly accepted name for
wastewater residual solids. However, if wastewater sludge is
Then calculate the day’s supply in inventory:
used for beneficial reuse (i.e., as a soil amendment or fertil-
izer), it is commonly called biosolids. I choose to refer to pro-
Day’s Supply in Inventory
cess residuals as biosolids in this text.
Total Chemical in Inventory, lb (5.203) The most costly and complex aspects of wastewater treat-
= ment can be the collection, processing, and disposal of biosol-
Average Use, lb/day
ids. This is the case because the quantity of biosolids produced
or may be as high as 2% of the original volume of wastewater,
depending somewhat on the treatment process being used.
Day’s Supply in Inventory
Because the 2% biosolids can be as much as 97% water con-
Total Chemical in Inventory, gal (5.204) tent, and because cost of disposal will be related to the volume
= of biosolids being processed, one of the primary purposes or
Average Use, gpd
goals (along with stabilizing it so it is no longer objection-
able or environmentally damaging) of biosolids treatment is
Example 5.284
to separate as much of the water from the solids as possible.
Problem: The chemical used for each day during a week is
Primary and Secondary Solids Production Calculations
given below. Based on this data, what was the average lbs/
day chemical use during the week? It is important to point out that when making calculations per-
taining to solids and biosolids, the term solids refers to dry
Monday—92 lbs/day Friday—96 lbs/day solids and the term biosolids refers to the solids and water.
Tuesday—94 lbs/day Saturday—92 lbs/day The solids produced during primary treatment depend on the
solids that settle in, or are removed by, the primary clarifier. Example 5.288
In making primary clarifier solids production calculations, we
use the mg/L to lbs/day equation shown below: Problem: The 1.5-MGD influent to the secondary system
has a BOD concentration of 174 mg/L. The secondary
SS removed ( lb /day ) effluent contains 22 mg/L BOD. If the bacteria growth
rate, unknown x-value, for this plant is 0.40 lb SS/lb BOD
= ( SS Removed, mg /L )( Flow, MGD ) (5.205) removed, how many pounds of dry biosolids solids are
produced each day by the secondary system?
´ ( 8.34 lb /gal )
SOLUTION:
Primary Clarifier Solids Production Calculations
BOD Removed, lb /day
Example 5.286
= (BOD, mg /L )(Flow, MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)

Problem: A primary clarifier receives a flow of 1.80 MGD = (152 mg /L ) (1.5 MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
with suspended solids concentrations of 340 mg/L. If the
clarifier effluent has a suspended solids concentration of = 1902 lb /day
180 mg/L, how many pounds of solids are generated daily?
Then use the unknown x-value to determine lbs/day solids
produced.
SOLUTION:
SS, lb /day Removed 0.44 lb SS Produced x lb SS Produced
=
1 lb BOD Removed 1902 lb /day BOD Removed
= ( SS Removed, mg /L )(Flow, MGD )

( 0.44 )(1902) = x
´ ( 8.34 lb /gal) 1
837 lb /day Solids Produced = x
= (160 mg /L )(1.80 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
Key Point: Typically, for every pound of food consumed
Solids = 2402 lb /day (BOD removed) by the bacteria, between 0.3 lb and 0.7
lb of new bacterial cells are produced; these are solids that
Example 5.287 have to be removed from the system.
Problem: The suspended solids content of the primary Percent Solids

influent is 350 mg/L and the primary influent is 202 mg/L. Biosolids is composed of water and solids. The vast majority of
How many pounds of solids are produced during a day biosolids is water, usually in the range of 93–97%. To determine
that the flow is 4,150,000 gpd? the solids content of a biosolids, a sample of biosolids is dried
overnight in an oven at 103°–105°F. The solids that remain after
SOLUTION: drying represent the total solids content of the biosolids. Solids
SS, lb /day Removed content may be expressed as a percent or as a mg/L. Either one
of two equations is used to calculate percent solids.
= ( SS Removed, mg /l)(Flow, MGD )
´ ( 8.34 lb /gal) Total Solids, g

% Solids = ´100 (5.207)
Biosolids Sample, g
= (148 mg /L )( 4.15 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
Solids, lb/day
Solids Removed = 5122 lb /day % Solids = ´100 (5.208)
Biosolids, lb/day
Secondary Clarifier Solids Production Calculation Example 5.289

Solids produced during secondary treatment depend on many
factors, including the amount of organic matter removed by Problem: The total weight of a biosolids sample (sample
only, not the dish) is 22 g. If the weight of the solids after dry-
the system and the growth rate of the bacteria. Because the
ing is 0.77 g, what is the percent total solids of the biosolids?
precise calculation of biosolids production is complex, we
use a rough estimate method of solids production which uses SOLUTION:
an estimated growth rate (unknown) value. We use the BOD
Removed, lbs/day, equation shown below. Total Solids (g)
% Solids =
Biosolids Sample (g)
BOD Removed, lb /day 0.77 g
= ´ 100
= (BOD Removed, mg /L ) (5.206) 22 g
´ (Flow, MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /day ) = 3 .5 %
Biosolids Pumping Biosolids Production in Wet Tons/Year

While on shift, wastewater operators are often required to Biosolids production can also be expressed in terms of the
make various process control calculations. An important cal- amount of biosolids (water and solids) produced per year. This
culation involves biosolids pumping. The biosolids pumping is normally expressed in wet tons per year.
calculations the operator may be required to make are covered
in this section. Biosolids, Wet Tons /year
éë Biosolids Prod., lb /MG
Estimating Daily Biosolids Production (5.211)
´ Aver. Daily Flow, MGD ´ 365 days /year ùû
The calculation for estimation of the required biosolids- =
2, 000 lb /ton
pumping rate provides a method to establish an initial pump-
ing rate or to evaluate the adequacy of the current withdrawal
rate. Example 5.292
Est. pump rate Problem: The plant is currently producing biosolids at the
rate of 16,500 lbs/MG. The current average daily wastewa-
=
( Influ. TSS Conc. - Effluent TSS Conc.) ´ Flow ´ 8.34 (5.209) ter flow rate is 1.5 MGD. What will be the total amount of
% Solids in Sludge ´ 8.34 ´ 1,440 min/day
biosolids produced per year in wet tons per year?

Biosolids, Wet Tons/year
Problem: The biosolids withdrawn from the primary set-
tling tank contains 1.4% solids. The unit influent contains 16,500 lb/MG ´ 1.5 MGD ´ 365 days/year
285 mg/L TSS, and the effluent contains 140 mg/L TSS. If =
2,0000 lb/ton
the influent flow rate is 5.55 MGD, what is the estimated
biosolids withdrawal rate in gallons per minute (assuming = 4,517 Wet Tons /year
the pump operates continuously)?
Biosolids Pumping Time
SOLUTION: The biosolids pumping time is the total time the pump oper-
ates during a 24-h period in minutes.
Biosolids Rate, gpm
=
( 285 mg/L - 140 mg/L ) ´ 5.55 ´ 8.34
Pump Operating Time
(5.212)
0.014 ´ 8.34 ´ 1,440 min/day = Time /Cycle, min ´ Frequency, cycles /day
= 40 gpm
Note: The following information is used for examples
5.290–5.294.
Biosolids Production in Pounds per Million Gallons
A common method of expressing biosolids production is Frequency 24 times/day
in pounds of biosolids per million gallons of wastewater Pump Rate 120 gpm
treated. Solids 3.70%
Volatile Matter 66%
Biosolids, lb /MG
Total Biosolids Production, lb (5.210)
= Example 5.293
Total Wastewater Flow, MG
Problem: What is the pump operating time?
Problem: Records show that the plant has produced Pump Operating Time
85,000 gal of biosolids during the past 30 days. The aver- = 15 min /hour ´ 24 ( cycles ) /day
age daily flow for this period was 1.2 MGD. What was the
plant’s biosolids production in pounds per million gallons? = 360 min /day
SOLUTION: Biosolids Pumped/Day in Gallons

85,000 gal ´ 8.34 lb/gal
Biosolids, lb /MG = Biosolids, gpd = Operating Time, min /day
1.2 MGD ´ 30 days
(5.213)
= 19,692 lb/MG ´ Pump Rate, gpm
Example 5.294 Biosolids Thickening

Biosolids thickening (or concentration) is a unit process used
Problem: What is the biosolids pumped per day in gallons? to increase the solids content of the biosolids by removing a
portion of the liquid fraction. In other words, biosolids thick-
SOLUTION: ening is all about volume reduction. By increasing the solids
Biosolids, gpd = 360 min/day ´ 120 gpm content, more economical treatment of the biosolids can be
effected. Biosolids thickening processes include the following:
= 43,200 gpd
• Gravity thickeners
Biosolids Pumped/Day in Pounds • Flotation thickeners
• Solids concentrators
Sludge, lb /day = Gallons of Biosolids Pumped
(5.214) Biosolids thickening calculations are based on the concept
´8.34 lb /gal
that the solids in the primary or secondary biosolids are equal
to the solids in the thickened biosolids. The solids are the
Example 5.295 same. It is primarily water that has been removed in order
to thicken the biosolids and result in higher percent solids.
Problem: What is the biosolids pumped per day in pounds? In this unthickened biosolids, the solids might represent 1%
or 4% of the total pounds of biosolids. But when some of the
water is removed, those same amount of solids might repre-
SOLUTION:
sent 5–7% of the total pounds of biosolids.
What is the biosolids pumped per day in pounds? Key Point: The key to biosolids thickening calculations is
that solids remain constant.
Biosolids, lb /day = 43,200 gal/day ´ 8.34 lb /gal
Gravity/Dissolved Air Flotation Thickener Calculations
= 360,000 lb /day
As mentioned, biosolids thickening calculations are based on
Solids Pumped per Day in Pounds the concept that the solids in the primary or secondary biosol-
ids are equal to the solids in the thickened biosolids. That is,
assuming a negligible amount of solids are lost in the thickener
Solids Pumped, lb /day
(5.215) overflow, the solids are the same. Note that the water is removed
= Biosolids Pumped, lb /day ´ % Solids to thicken the biosolids, resulting in higher percent solids.
Estimating Daily Biosolids Production

Example 5.296 The calculation for estimation of the required biosolids-
pumping rate provides a method to establish an initial pump-
Problem: What are the solids pumped per day? ing rate or to evaluate the adequacy of the current pump rate.
SOLUTION: Est. Pump Rate
Solids Pumped lb /day = 360,300 lb /day ´ 0.0370 ( Influent TSS Conc. - Eff. TSS Conc.) ´ Flow ´ 8.334 (5.217)
=
% Solids in Biosolids ´ 8.34 ´ 1, 440 min/day
= 13,331lb /day
Volatile Matter Pumped per Day in Pounds Example 5.298
Problem: The biosolids withdrawn from the primary set-

Vol. Matter ( lb /day ) = Solids Pumped, lb /day tling tank contains 1.5% solids. The unit influent contains
(5.216) 280 mg/L TSS, and the effluent contains 141 mg/L TSS. If
´ % Volatile Matter the influent flow rate is 5.55 MGD, what is the estimated
biosolids withdrawal rate in gallons per minute (assuming
the pump operates continuously)?
Example 5.297
SOLUTION:
Problem: What is the volatile matter in pounds per day?
Biosolids WithdrawalRate, gpm
SOLUTION:
=
( 280 mg/l - 141mg/l) ´ 5.55 MGD ´ 8.334
Volatile Matter, lb /day = 13,331lb /day ´ 0.66
0.015 ´ 8.34 ´ 1440
, min/day
= 8,798 lb /day
= 36 gpm
Surface Loading Rate (gal/day/ft2) SOLUTION:

The surface loading rate (surface settling rate) is hydraulic 7 .7 %
loading—the amount of biosolids applied per square foot of CF = = 2 .2
3 .5 %
gravity thickener.
Air-to-Solids Ratio
Surface Loading, gal/day/ft 2
The air-to-solids ratio is the ratio between the pounds of sol-
Biosolids Applied to the Thickener, god (5.218) ids entering the thickener and the pounds of air being applied.
=
ThickenerArea, ft 3
Air/Solids Ratio
Example 5.299 (5.221)
Air Flow ft 3 /min ´ 0.0785 lb/ft 3
=
Problem: A 70-ft diameter gravity thickener receives Biosolids Flow, gpm ´ % Solids ´ 8.34 lb/gal
32,000 gpd of biosolids. What is the surface loading in
gallons per square foot per day? Example 5.302
SOLUTION:
Problem: The biosolids pumped to the thickener is 0.85%
32,000 gpd solids. The airflow is 13 cfm. What is the air-to-solids ratio
Surface Loading =
0.785 ´ 70 ft ´ 70 ft if the current biosolids flow rate entering the unit is 50

gpm?
= 8.32 gpd/ft 2
SOLUTION:
Solids Loading Rate, lbs/day/ft2
The solids loading rate is the pounds of solids per day being 13 cfm ´ 0.075 lb/ft 3
Air:Solids Ratio =
applied to 1 ft2 of tank surface area. The calculation uses the 50 gpm ´ 0.0085 ´ 8.34 lb/gal
surface area of the bottom of the tank. It assumes the floor of = 0.28
the tank is flat and has the same dimensions as the surface.
Recycle Flow in Percent
Surf . Loading Rt., lb/day/ft 2 The amount of recycle flow expressed as a percent.
% Biosolids solids ´ biosolids flow, gpd ´ 8.34 lb/gal (5.219)
=
Thickener Area, ft 2 Recycle Flow Rate, gpm ´ 100
Recycle % =
Sludge Flow, gpm (5.222)
Example 5.300
= 175%
Problem: The thickener influent contains 1.6% solids. The
influent flow rate is 39,000 gpd. The thickener is 50 ft Example 5.303
in diameter and 10 ft deep. What is the solid loading in
pounds per day? Problem: The sludge flow to the thickener is 80 gpm. The
SOLUTION: recycle flow rate is 140 gpm. What is the percent recycle?
Solids Loading Rate, lb/day/ft SOLUTION:

0.016 ´ 39,000 gpd ´ 8.34 lb/gal 140 gpm ´ 100
= % Recycle = = 175%
785 ´ 50 ft ´ 50 ft
0.7 80 gpm
= 2.7 lb/ft 2
Concentration Factor (CF) Centrifuge Thickening Calculations
The concentration factor (CF) represents the increase in con- A centrifuge exerts a force on the biosolids thousands of times
centration resulting from the thickener—it is a means of deter- greater than gravity. Sometimes polymer is added to the influ-
mining the effectiveness of the gravity thickening process. ent of the centrifuge to help thicken the solids. The two most
important factors that affect the centrifuge are the volume of
Thickened Biosolids Concentration, % the biosolids put into the unit (gpm) and the pounds of solids
CF = (5.220)
Influent Biosolids Concentration, % put in. The water that is removed is called centrate. Normally,
hydraulic loading is measured as flow rate per unit of area.
Example 5.301 However, because of the variety of sizes and designs, hydrau-
lic loading to centrifuges does not include area considerations.
Problem: The influent biosolids contains 3.5% solids. The It is expressed only as gallons per hour. The equations to be
thickened biosolids solids concentration is 7.7%. What is used if the flow rate to the centrifuge is given as gallons per
the concentration factor? day or gallons per minute are:
Flow, gpd Aerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations

Hydraulic Loading, gph = (5.223)
24 hrs/day The purpose of aerobic digestion is to stabilize organic mat-
ter, to reduce volume, and to eliminate pathogenic organisms.
Aerobic digestion is similar to the activated biosolids process.
(gpm flow)(60 min)
Hydraulic Loading, gph = (5.224) Biosolids is aerated for 20 days or more. Volatile solids are
hr reduced by biological activity.
Volatile Solids Loading, lb/ft3/day

Example 5.304
Volatile solids (organic matter) loading for the aerobic digester
is expressed in pounds of volatile solids entering the digester
Problem: A centrifuge receives a waste activated biosolids
flow of 40 gpm. What is the hydraulic loading on the unit,
per day per cubic foot of digester capacity.
in gal/h?
Volatile Solids Loading, lb/day/ft 3
SOLUTION:
Volatile Solids Added, lb/day (5.225)
Hydraulic Loading, gph =
(gpm flow)(60 min) =
hr DigesterVolume, ft 3
( 40 gpm)(60 min)
= Example 5.306
hr
= 2400 gph Problem: The aerobic digester is 20 ft in diameter and has
an operating depth of 20 ft. The biosolids that are added to
Example 5.305 the digester daily contains 1,500 lb of volatile solids. What is
the volatile solids loading in pounds per day per cubic foot?
Problem: A centrifuge receives 48,600 gal of biosolids
daily. The biosolids concentration before thickening is SOLUTION:
0.9%. How many pounds of solids are received each day?
Vol. Solids Loading, lb/day/ft 3
SOLUTION:
1, 500 lb/day
=
48, 600 gal 8.34 lb 0.9 0.785 ´ 20 ft ´ 20 ft ´ 20 ft
´ ´ = 3648 lb /d
d gal 100
= 0.24 lb/day/ft 3
Digestion Time, Days
Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization
The theoretical time the biosolids remains in the aerobic
A major problem in designing wastewater treatment plants is
digester:
the disposal of biosolids into the environment without causing
damage or nuisance. Untreated biosolids is even more diffi-
Digester volume (gal)
cult to dispose of. Untreated raw biosolids must be stabilized Digestion Time, Days = (5.226)
to minimize disposal problems. In many cases, the term sta- Biosolids added (gpd)
bilization is considered synonymous with digestion.
Key Point: The stabilization of organic matter is accom-
Example 5.307
plished biologically using a variety of organisms. The micro-
organisms convert the colloidal and dissolved organic matter
Problem: The digester volume is 240,000 gal. Biosolids is
into various gases and into protoplasm. Because protoplasm added to the digester at the rate of 15,000 gpd. What is the
has a specific gravity slightly higher than that of water, it can digestion time in days?
be removed from the treated liquid by gravity.
Biosolids digestion is a process in which biochemical SOLUTION:
decomposition of the organic solids occurs; in the decom-
240, 000 gal
position process, the organics are converted into simpler and Digestion Time, Days = = 16 days
more stable substances. Digestion also reduces the total mass 15, 000 gpd
or weight of biosolids solids, destroys pathogens, and makes it
easier to dry or de-water the biosolids. Well-digested biosolids pH Adjustment
has the appearance and characteristics of a rich-potting soil. In many instances, the pH of the aerobic digester will fall
Biosolids may be digested under aerobic or anaerobic con- below the levels required for good biological activity. When
ditions. Most large municipal wastewater treatment plants this occurs, the operator must perform a laboratory test to
use anaerobic digestion. Aerobic digestion finds application determine the amount of alkalinity required to raise the pH
primarily in small, package-activated biosolids treatment to the desired level. The results of the lab test must then be
systems. converted to the actual quantity required by the digester.
Chemical Required, lb Volatile Acids to Alkalinity Ratio

Chem. Used in Lab Test, mg ´ Dig. Vol ´ 3.785 (5.227) The volatile acids to alkalinity ratio can be used to control
= anaerobic digester.
Sample Vol., l ´ 454 g /lb ´ 1000
, mg /g
Volatile Acids Concentration

Example 5.308 Ratio = (5.229)
Alkalinity Concentration
Problem: 240 mg of lime will increase the pH of a 1-L sam-
ple of the aerobic digester contents to pH 7.1. The digester Example 5.310
volume is 240,000 gal. How many pounds of lime will be
required to increase the digester pH to 7.3? Problem: The digester contains 240 mg/L volatile acids and
1,840 mg/alkalinity. What is the volatile acids/alkalinity ratio?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
Chemical Required, lb
240 mg/l
240 mg ´ 240,000 gal ´ 3.785 l/gal Ratio = = 0.13
= 1, 840 mg/l
1l ´ 454 g/b ´ 1,000 mg/g
Key Point: Increases in the ratio normally indicate a poten-
tial change in the operating condition of the digester.
Anaerobic Digestion Process Control Calculations
The purpose of anaerobic digestion is the same as aerobic Biosolids Retention Time
digestion: to stabilize organic matter, to reduce volume, and to The length of time the biosolids remains in the digester.
eliminate pathogenic organisms. Equipment used in anaero-
bic digestion includes an anaerobic digester of either the float- Digester Volume in Gallons
ing or the fixed cover type. These include biosolids pumps for BRT = (5.230)
Biosolids Volume added per day, gpd
biosolids addition and withdrawal, as well as heating equip-
ment such as heat exchangers, heaters and pumps, and mix-
ing equipment for recirculation. Typical ancillaries include Example 5.311
gas storage, cleaning equipment, and safety equipment such
as vacuum relief and pressure relief devices, flame traps, and Problem: Biosolids is added to a 520,000-gal digester at
the rate of 12,600 gal per day. What is the biosolids reten-
explosion-proof electrical equipment. In the anaerobic pro-
tion time?
cess, biosolids enters the sealed digester where organic matter
decomposes anaerobically. Anaerobic digestion is a two-stage SOLUTION:
process:
520, 000 gal
BRT = = 41.3 days
(1) Sugars, starches, and carbohydrates are converted to 12, 600 gpd
volatile acids, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide.
(2) Volatile acids are converted to methane gas. Estimated Gas Production in Cubic Feet/Day
The rate of gas production is normally expressed as the volume
Key anaerobic digestion process control calculations are cov- of gas (ft3) produced per pound of volatile matter destroyed.
ered in the sections that follow. The total cubic feet of gas a digester will produce per day can
be calculated by
Required Seed Volume in Gallons
Gas Production, ft 3 /day
Seed Volume ( Gallons )
(5.228) = Vol. Matter In, lb /day
= Digester Volume, gal ´ % Seed (5.231)
´ % Vol. Mat. Reduction
´ Prod. Rate ft 3 /lb
Example 5.309 Key Point: Multiplying the volatile matter added to the
digester per day by the percent volatile matter reduction (in
Problem: The new digester requires 25% seed to achieve
decimal percent) gives the amount of volatile matter being
normal operation within the allotted time. If the digester
destroyed by the digestion process per day.
volume is 280,000 gal, how many gallons of seed material
will be required?
SOLUTION:
Seed Volume = 280,000 ´ 0.25 = 70,000 gal
Example 5.312 Digested Biosolids % Solids 15%

% Moisture 85% (100%
Problem: The digester reduces 11,500 lb of volatile matter − 15%)
per day. Currently, the volatile matter reduction achieved
by the digester is 55%. The rate of gas production is 11.2
ft3 of gas per pound of volatile matter destroyed.
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
% Moisture Reduction =
( 0.91- 0.85) ´ 100
Gas Prod. = 11500 lb /day ´ 0.55 ´ 11.2 ft 3 /lb éë0.91- ( 0.91´ 0.85) ùû

= 70, 840 ft /day
3
= 44
4%
Percent Volatile Matter Reduction Biosolids Dewatering

Because of the changes occurring during biosolids diges- The process of removing enough water from a liquid biosol-
tion, the calculation used to determine percent volatile matter ids to change its consistency to that of damp solid is called
reduction is more complicated. biosolids dewatering. Although the process is also called bio-
solids drying, the “dry” or dewatered biosolids may still con-
% Red.
tain a significant amount of water, often as much as 70%. But

=
(% Vol. Matterin - %Vol. Matterout ) ´ 100 (5.232) at moisture contents of 70% or less, the biosolids no longer
é% Vol. Matterin - ( % Vol. Matterin ´ % Vol. Matterout ) ù behaves as a liquid and can be handled manually or mechani-
ë û
cally. Several methods are available to dewater biosolids. The
particular types of dewatering techniques/devices used best
Example 5.313 describe the actual processes used to remove water from bio-
solids and change their form from a liquid to damp solid. The
Problem: Using the digester data provided here, determine commonly used techniques/devices include the following:
the percent volatile matter reduction for the digester: raw
biosolids volatile matter, 71%, and digested biosolids vola- • Filter presses
tile matter, 54%. • Vacuum filtration
• Sand drying beds
SOLUTION:
% Volatile Matter Reduction Key Point: Centrifugation is also used in the dewatering
process. However, in this text we concentrate on those unit
0.71 - 0.54 processes listed above that are traditionally used for biosolids
= = 52%
éë0.71 - ( 0.71 ´ 0.54 ) ùû dewatering.
Note that an ideal dewatering operation would capture all
of the biosolids at minimum cost and the resultant dry bio-
solids solids or cake would be capable of being handled with-
Percent Moisture Reduction in Digested Biosolids
out causing unnecessary problems. Process reliability, ease
of operation, and compatibility with the plant environment
% Moisture Reduction
would also be optimized.

=
(% Moisture in - % Moistureout ) ´ 100 (5.233)
Pressure Filtration
é% Moisture in - ( % Moisture in ´ % Moisture out ) ù
ë û In pressure filtration, the liquid is forced through the filter
media by a positive pressure. Several types of presses are
available, but the most commonly used types are plate and
Key Point: Percent Moisture = 100%—Percent Solids frame presses and belt presses.
Plate and Frame Press Calculations

Example 5.314
The plate and frame press consists of vertical plates that
Problem: Using the digester data provided below, deter- are held in a frame and that are pressed together between a
mine the percent moisture reduction and percent volatile fixed and a moving end. A cloth filter medium is mounted
matter reduction for the digester. on the face of each individual plate. The press is closed, and
biosolids is pumped into the press at pressures up to 225 psi
and passes through feed holes in the trays along the length
Raw Biosolids % Solids 9% of the press. Filter presses usually required a precoat mate-
% Moisture 91% (100% − 9%) rial, such as incinerator ash or diatomaceous earth to aid in
solids retention on the cloth and to allow easier release of the
cake. Performance factors for plate and frame presses include Solids Loading Rate
feed biosolids characteristics, type and amount of chemical
conditioning, operating pressures, and the type and amount (Biosolids, gph)(8.34 lbs/gal) (% Sol./100))
=
of precoat. Filter press calculations (and other dewatering cal- Plate Area, ft 2

culations) typically used in wastewater solids handling opera- (330 gph)(8.34 lb/gal)(3.3/100)
tions include solids loading rate, net filter yield, hydraulic =
100 ft 2
loading rate, biosolids feed rate, solids loading rate, flocculant
feed rate, flocculant dosage, total suspended solids, and per- = 0.83 lb /hr /ft 2
cent solids recovery. Next, calculate net filter yield, using the corrected time
factor:
Solids Loading Rate
The solids loading rate is a measure of the lbs/h solids applied Net Filter Yield, lbs/hr/sq ft
per square foot of plate area, as shown in Equation 5.234.

=
(0.83 lb/hr/t ) ( 2 hrs ) = 0.71lbs /hr /ft
2
2
Sol. Loading Rate ( lbs/hr/sq ft ) 2.33 hrs
Belt Filter Press Calculations

=
( Biosolids, gph ) (8.34, lbs/gal )(% Sol/100 ) (5.234) The belt filter press consists of two porous belts. The biosolids
Plate Area (ft) is sandwiched between the two porous belts. The belts are
pulled tight together as they are passed around a series of roll-
Key Point: The solids loading rate measures the lb/h of solids ers to squeeze water out of the biosolids. Polymer is added to
applied to each ft2 of plate surface area. However, this does the biosolids just before it gets to the unit. The biosolids is
not reflect the time when biosolids feed to the press is stopped. then distributed across one of the belts to allow for some of
the water to drain by gravity. The belts are then put together
Net Filter Yield
with the biosolids in between.
Operated in the batch mode, biosolids is fed to the plate and
frame filter press until the space between the plates is com- Hydraulic Loading Rate
pletely filled with solids. The biosolids flow to the press is Hydraulic loading for belt filters is a measure of gpm flow per
then stopped and the plates are separated, allowing the bio- foot or belt width.
solids cake to fall into a hopper or conveyor below. The net
filter yield, measured in lbs/h/sq ft, reflects the run time as Hydraulic Loading Rate, gpm/ft
well as the down time of the plate and frame filter press. To
calculate the net filter yield, simply multiply the solids load- Flow, gpm (5.236)
=
ing rate (in lbs/h/sq ft) by the ratio of filter run time to total Belt Width, ft
cycle time as follows:
Example 5.316
N. F. Y.
Problem: A 6-ft wide belt press receives a flow of 110 gpm
(Biosolids, gph) (8.34 lb/gal)(% Sol/100)
= (5.235) of primary biosolids. What is the hydraulic loading rate in
Plate Area, sq ft gpm/ft?
Filter Run Time
´ SOLUTION:
Total Cycle Time
Flow, gpm
Hydraulic Loading Rate, gpm/ft =
Example 5.315 Belt Width, ft
110 gp
pm
Problem: A plate and frame filter press receives a flow of =
6 ft
660 gal of biosolids during a 2-h period. The solids con-
centration of the biosolids is 3.3%. The surface area of = 18.3 gpm/ft
the plate is 110 ft 2. If the down time for biosolids cake
discharge is 20 min, what is the net filter yield in lbs/h/ft 2? Example 5.317
SOLUTION: Problem: A belt filter press 5-ft wide receives a primary

First, calculate solids loading rate then multiply that num- biosolids flow of 150 gpm. What is the hydraulic loading
ber by the corrected time factor: rate in gpm/ft 2?
SOLUTION: SOLUTION:
Flow, gpm Sol. Load. Rate, lb /hr
Hydraulic Loading Rate, gpm/ft =
Belt Width, ft
= (Feed, gpm)( 60 min /hr )( 8.34 lb /gal) ( % TSS ) /100
150 gpm
= = (120 gpm)( 60 min /hr )( 8.34 lb /gal) ( 4 /100 )
5 ft
= 2402 lb /hr
= 30 gpm/ft
Biosolids Feed Rate Flocculant Feed Rate

The biosolids feed rate to the belt filter press depends on The flocculant feed rate may be calculated like all other mg/L
several factors, including the biosolids, lbs/day, that must be to lbs/day calculations, and then converted to lbs h feed rate,
dewatered; the maximum solids feed rate, lbs/h, that will pro- as follows:
duce an acceptable cake dryness; and the number of hours
per day the belt press is in operation. The equation used in Flocculant Feed, lb /day
calculating biosolids feed rate is: ( Floc., mg /l )( Feed Rate, MGD ) (8.34 lb /gal ) (5.239)
=
24 hr /day
Biosolids Feed Rate, lb /hr
Biosolids to be dewatered, lb/day (5.237)
= Example 5.320
Operating Time, hrs/day
Problem: The flocculant concentration for a belt filter
Example 5.318 press is 1% (10,000 mg/L). If the flocculant feed rate is 3
gpm, what is the flocculant feed rate in lb/h?
Problem: The amount of biosolids to be dewatered by the
belt filter press is 20,600 lbs/day. If the belt filter press is to
be operated 10 h each day, what should the biosolids feed SOLUTION:
rate in lbs/h be to the press? First calculate lbs/day flocculant using the mg/L to lbs/
day calculation. Note that the gpm feed flow must be
SOLUTION: expressed as MGD feed flow:
Biosolids Feed Rate, lb /hr (3 gpm)(1440 min/day)

= 0.00432 MGD
Biosolids to be dewatered, lb/day 1000
, ,000
=
Operating Time, hr/day
Flocculant Feed, lb /day
20, 600 lb/day
=
10 hr/day = (mg /L Floc.)(Feed Rate, MGD ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)

= 2060 lb /hr = (10,000 mg /L )( 0.00432 MGD )( 8.34 lb /gal)
Solids Loading Rate = 360 lb /day

The solids loading rate may be expressed as lbs/h or as tons/h.
In either case, the calculation is based on biosolids flow (or Then convert lbs/day flocculant to lb/h:
feed) to the belt press and percent of mg/L concentration of
total suspended solids (TSS) in the biosolids. The equation 360 lb/day
= = 15 lb/hr
used in calculating solids loading rate is 24 hr/day
Sol. Load. Rate, lb /hr

Flocculant Dosage
= (Feed, gpm)(60 min /hr ) (5.238) Once the solids loading rate (ton/h) and flocculant feed rate
(lb/h) have been calculated, the flocculant dose in lb/ton can
´ ( 8.34 lb /gal) ( % TSS/100 )
be determined. The equation used to determine flocculant
dosage is
Example 5.319
Problem: The biosolids feed to a belt filter press is 120

Flocculant Dosage, 16 /ton
gpm. If the total suspended solids concentration of the Flocculant, 16 /hr (5.240)
feed is 4%, what is the solids loading rate, in lb/h? =
Solids Treated, ton/hr
Example 5.321 filterable residue test (measures only the dissolved solids con-
centration). By subtracting the total filterable residue from the
Problem: A belt filter has a solids loading rate of 3,100 total residue, the result is the total non-filterable residue (total
lbs/h and a flocculant feed rate of 12 lbs/h. Calculate the suspended solids), as shown in Equation 5.241.
flocculant dose in lb per ton of solids treated?
Total Res., mg /l - Total Filterable Residue, mg /l
SOLUTION: (5.241)
= Total Non-Filterable Res., mg /l
First convert lb/h solids loading to ton/h solids loading:
3100 lb/hr Example 5.322

= 1.55 ton/hr
2000 lb/ton
Lab tests indicate that the total residue portion of a feed
Now calculate lb flocculant per ton of solids treated: biosolids sample is 22,000 mg/L. The total filterable resi-
due is 720 mg/L. On this basis what is the estimated total
suspended solids concentration of the biosolids sample?
Total Re sidue, mg /l - Total Filterable Res., mg /l
= Total Non-Filterable Res., mg /l

22, 000 mg /l - 720 mg /l = 21, 280 mg /l Total SS
Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering Calculations

The rotary vacuum filter is a device used to separate solid
material from liquid. The vacuum filter consists of a large
drum with large holes in it covered with a filter cloth. The
drum is partially submerged and rotated through a vat of
conditioned biosolids. Capable of excellent solids capture
and high-quality supernatant/filtrate, solids concentrations of
15–40% can be achieved.
Flocculant Dosage, lb /ton
Filter Loading
Flocculant, lb/hr
= The filter loading for vacuum filters is a measure of lbs/h of
Solids Treated, ton/hr
solids applied per square foot of drum surface area. The equa-
12 lb/hr tion to be used in this calculation is shown below.
=
1.55 ton/hr
= 7.8 lb/ton Solids to Filter, lb/hr

Filter Loading, lb /hr/ft 2 = (5.242)
Surface Area, ft 2
Total Suspended Solids
Example 5.323
The feed biosolids solids are comprised of two types of sol-
ids: Suspended solids, and dissolved solids. Suspended solids Problem: Digested biosolids is applied to a vacuum filter
will not pass through a glass fiber filter pad. Suspended sol- at a rate of 70 gpm, with a solids concentration of 3%. If
ids can be further classified as total suspended solids (TSS), the vacuum filter has a surface area of 300 ft 2, what is the
volatile suspended solids, and/or fixed suspended solids and filter loading in lbs/h/ft 2?
can also be separated into three components based on set-
tling characteristics: settleable solids, flotable solids, and SOLUTION:
colloidal solids. Total suspended solids in wastewater is nor- Filter Loading, lb/hr/ft 2
mally in the range of 100–350 mg/L. Dissolved solids will
pass through a glass fiber filter pad. Can also be classified as (Biosolids, gpm)(60 min/hr)(8.34 lb/gal)(%Sol./100)
=
Surface Area, ft 2
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), volatile dissolved solids, and
fixed dissolved solids. Total dissolved solids is normally in =
(70 gpm)(60 min/hr)(8.34 lb/gal)(3/100)
the range of 250–850 mg/L. 300 ft 2
Two lab tests can be used to estimate the total suspended = 3.5 lb /hr /ft 2
solids concentration of the feed biosolids concentration of the
feed biosolids to the filter press: total residue test (measures
both suspended and dissolved solids concentrations) and total
Filter Yield Percent Solids Recovery

One of the most common measures of vacuum filter perfor- As mentioned, the function of the vacuum filtration process is
mance is filter yield. It is the lb/h of dry solids in the dewa- to separate the solids from the liquids in the biosolids being
tered biosolids (cake) discharged per square foot of filter area. processed. Therefore, the percent of feed solids “recovered”
It can be calculated using Equation 5.243. (sometimes referred to as the percent solids capture) is a mea-
sure of the efficiency of the process. Equation 5.244 is used to
Filter Yield, lbs/hr/ft 2 determine percent solids recovery.
(Wet Cake Flow, lb /hr) (% Solids in Cake) (5.243) % Sol Rec.

= 100
Filter Area, ft 2 ( Wet Cake Flow, lb /hr )(% Sol. In Cake )
(5.244)
= 100 ´ 100
Example 5.324 ( Biosolids Feed, lb /hr )(% Sol. In Feed )
100
Problem: The wet cake flow from a vacuum filter is 9,000
lbs/h. If the filter area is 300 ft 2 and the percent solids in
Example 5.326
the cake is 25%, what is the filter yield in lb/h/ft 2?
Problem: The biosolids feed to a vacuum is 3,400 lbs/day,
with a solids content of 5.1%. If the wet cake flow is 600 lbs/h
SOLUTION:
with 25% solids content, what is the percent solids recovery?
2
Filter Area, ft
SOLUTION:
(Wet Cake Flow, lb /hr) (% Solids in Cake)
100 % Sol. Rec.
=
Filter Area, ft 2
( Wet Cake Flow, lb /hr ) ( % Sol. In Cake )
(9000 lb /hr)( 25) = 100 ´ 100
= 100 = 7.5 lb /hr /ft 2
(Biosolids Feed, lb /hr ) ( % Sol. In Feed )
300 ft 2 100
(600 lb /hr ) ( 25)
Vacuum Filter Operating Time
= 100 ´ 100
Example 5.325 ( 3400 lb /hr ) ( 5.1)
100
Problem: A total of 4,000 lbs/day primary biosolids solids
150 lb/hr
are to be processed by a vacuum filter. The vacuum filter = ´ 100
yield is 2.2-lb/h/ft 2. The solids recovery is 95%. If the area 173 lb/hr
of the filter is 210 ft 2, how many hours per day must the % Sol. Rec. = 87%
vacuum filter remain in operation to process these solids?
Sand Drying Beds
SOLUTION: Drying beds are generally used for dewatering well-digested
biosolids. Biosolids drying beds consist of a perforated or
Filter Yield, lb /hr /ft 2 open joint drainage system in a support media usually gravel
Solids. to filter, lb /day or wire mesh. Drying beds are usually separated into work-

Filter operation., lb /day ( % Recovery ) able sections by wood, concrete, or other materials. Drying
= beds may be enclosed or opened to the weather. They may
Filter Area, ft 2 100
rely entirely on natural drainage and evaporation processes
4000 lb /day or may use a vacuum to assist the operation. Sand drying
x hr /day Oper. (95) beds are the oldest biosolids dewatering technique and con-
2.2-lb /hr /ft 2 = sist of 6–12 in. of coarse sand underlain by layers of graded
210 ft 2 100
gravel ranging from 1/8 in. to 1/4 in. at the top and 3/4 in to
( 4000 lb /day) (1) (95) 1–1/2 in. of the bottom. The total gravel thickness is typi-
2.2-lb /hr /ft 2 =
x hr /day 210 ft 2 100 cally about 1 ft. Graded natural earth (4–6 in.) usually makes
up the bottom with a web of drain tile placed on 20–30-ft
( 4000)(1)(95) centers. Sidewalls and partitions between bed sections are
x=
( 2.2)( 210)(100) usually of wooden planks or concrete and extend about 14
in. above the sand surface. Typically, three calculations are
x = 8.2 hr /day used to monitor sand drying bed performance: total biosolids
applied, solids loading rate, and biosolids withdrawal to dry-
ing beds.
Total Biosolids Applied may be substantial. For this reason, the use of drying beds
The total gallons of biosolids applied to sand drying beds may is more common for smaller plants than for larger plants.
be calculated using the dimensions of the bed and depth of When calculating biosolids withdrawal to drying beds, use
biosolids applied, as shown by Equation 5.245. Equation 5.247:
Volume, gal = ( length, ft )( width, ft ) Biosolids Withdrawn, ft 3

(5.247)

(
´ ( depth, ft ) 7.48, gal /ft 3
)
(5.245) = ( 0.785) D2( ) (Drawdown, ft )
Example 5.329
Example 5.327
Problem: Biosolids is withdrawn from a digester that has a
Problem: A drying bed is 220 ft long and 20 ft wide. If
diameter of 40 ft. If the biosolids is drawn down 2 ft, how
biosolids is applied to a depth of 4 in., how many gallons
many ft3 will be sent to the drying beds?
of biosolids are applied to the drying bed?
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION:
Biosolids Withdrawal, ft 3
(
Volume, gal = (l)( w )( d ) 7.48 gal/ft 3 )
= ( 220 ft )( 20 ft )(0.33 ft ) (7.48 gal/ft )
3 ( )
= ( 0.785) D2 ( ft drop )

= ( 0.785) ( 40 ft )( 40 ft )( 2 ft )
= 10,861 gal
= 2512 ft 3 withdrawn
Solids Loading Rate
The biosolids loading rate may be expressed as lb/yr/ft2. The Biosolids Disposal
loading rate is dependent on biosolids applied per applications, In the disposal of biosolids, land application, in one form or
lb, percent solids concentration, cycle length, and square feet another, has become not only a necessity (because of the ban-
of sand bed area. The equation for biosolids loading rate is ning of ocean dumping in the United States in 1992 and the
given below. shortage of landfill space since then), but also quite popular
as a beneficial reuse practice. Beneficial reuse means that the
Sol. Load Rate, lb /yr /ft 2 biosolids is disposed of in an environmentally sound manner
Biosolids applied ( lb ) ( 365 days ) ´ (% Solids ) (5.246) by recycling nutrients and soil conditions. Biosolids are being
´ applied throughout the United States to agricultural and forest
Days of Application yr 100
= lands. For use in land applications, the biosolids must meet
( length, ft ) ´ ( width, ft )
certain conditions. Biosolids must comply with state and fed-
Example 5.328 eral biosolids management/disposal regulations and must also
be free of materials dangerous to human health (i.e., toxicity,
Problem: A biosolids bed is 210 ft long and 25 ft wide. pathogenic organisms, etc.) and/or dangerous to the environ-
A total of 172,500 lb of biosolids is applied to each sand ment (i.e., toxicity, pesticides, heavy metals, etc.). Biosolids
drying bed. The biosolids has a solids content of 5%. If are land applied by direct injection, by application and incor-
the drying and removal cycle requires 21 days, what is the poration (plowing in), or by composting.
solids loading rate in lb/year/ft 2?
Land Application Calculations
SOLUTION:
Land application of biosolids required precise control to avoid
(172,500 lb) (365 days) (5) problems. Use of process control calculations are part of the
=
21 days yr 100 overall process control process. Calculations include deter-
(210 ft )(25 ft ) mining disposal cost, plant available nitrogen (PAN), appli-
cation rate (dry tons and wet tons/acre), metals loading rates,
= 37.5 lb /yr//ft 2
maximum allowable applications based upon metals loading,
and site life based on metals loading.
Biosolids Withdrawal to Drying Beds
Pumping digested biosolids to drying beds is one method Disposal Cost
among many for dewatering biosolids, thus making the dried The cost of disposal of biosolids can be determined by:
biosolids useful as a soil conditioner. Depending upon the
climate of a region, the drying bed depth may range from 8 Cost = Wet Tons Biosolids Produced /Year
in. to 18 in. Therefore, the area covered by these drying beds (5.248)
´ % Solids ´ Cost /dry ton
Example 5.330 crop requires. The biosolids application rate based upon the
nitrogen requirement is determined by the following:
Problem: The treatment system produces 1,925 wet tons
of biosolids for disposal each year. The biosolids are 18% (1) Using an agriculture handbook to determine the

solids. A contractor disposes of the biosolids for $28.00 nitrogen requirement of the crop to be grown
per dry ton. What is the annual cost for biosolids disposal? (2) Determining the amount of biosolids in dry tons
required to provide this much nitrogen:
SOLUTION:
Cost = 1925
, wet tons /year ´ 0.18 Dry tons/acre
´ $2800 /dry ton Plant Nitrogen Requirement, lb/acre (5.250)
=
= $9,702 Plant Available Nitrogen, lb/dry ton
Plant Available Nitrogen (PAN) Example 5.332

One factor considered when land applying biosolids is the
amount of nitrogen in the biosolids available to the plants Problem: The crop to be planted on the land applica-
tion site requires 150 lb of nitrogen per acre. What is the
grown on the site. This includes ammonia nitrogen and
required biosolids application rate if the PAN of the biosol-
organic nitrogen. The organic nitrogen must be mineral- ids is 30 lbs/dry ton?
ized for plant consumption. Only a portion of the organic
nitrogen is mineralized per year. The mineralization factor
(f1) is assumed to be 0.20. The amount of ammonia nitro- SOLUTION:
gen available is directly related to the time elapsed between 150 lb nitrogen nitrogen/acre
applying the biosolids and incorporating (plowing) the bio- Dry tons/acre =
30 lb/dry ton
solids into the soil. Volatilization rates are presented in the
example below. = 5 dry tons/acre
PAN, lb /dry ton

Metals Loading
ë( )
= é Or. Nit., mg /kg ´ f 1 + ( Amm. Nit., mg /kg ´ V1 ) ù (5.249)
û
When biosolids is land applied, metals concentrations are
closely monitored and the loading on land application sites
´ 0..002 lb /dry ton are calculated.
where:
f1 = Mineral rate for organic nitrogen (assume 0.20) Loading, lb /acre = Metal Conc., mg /kg
V1 = Volatilization rate ammonia nitrogen ´ 0.002 lb /dry ton (5.251)
V1 = 1.00 if biosolids are injected
V1 = 0.85 if biosolids are plowed in within 24 h ´ Appl. Rate, dry tons /acre
V1 = 0.70 if biosolids are plowed in within 7 days
Example 5.333
Example 5.331 Problem: The biosolids contain 14 mg/kg of lead. Biosolids

are currently being applied to the site at a rate of 11 dry
Problem: The biosolids contain 21,000 mg/kg of organic tons/ac. What is the metals loading rate for lead in pounds
nitrogen and 10,500 mg/kg of ammonia nitrogen. The per acre?
biosolids are incorporated into the soil within 24 h after
application. What is the plant available nitrogen (PAN) per SOLUTION:
dry ton of solids?
Loading Rate, lb /acre
SOLUTION: = 14 mg /kg ´ 0.002 lb /dry ton ´ 11 dry tons
PAN, lb /dry ton = 0.31llb /acre
= éë( 21, 000 mg /kg ´ 0.20 ) + (10,500 ´ 0.85) ùû ´ 0.002

Maximum Allowable Applications
= 26
6.3 lb PAN/dry ton Based upon Metals Loading
If metals are present, they may limit the total number of
Application Rate based on Crop Nitrogen Requirement applications a site can receive. Metals loadings are normally
In most cases, the application rate of domestic biosolids to expressed in terms of the maximum total amount of metal
crop lands will be controlled by the amount of nitrogen the that can be applied to a site during its use.
Applications Performance factors related to biosolids composting include

moisture content, temperature, pH, nutrient availability, and
Max. Allowable Cumulative Load for the Metal, lb /Ac (5.252)
= aeration. The biosolids must contain sufficient moisture to
Metal Loading, lb /acre /application
support the biological activity. If the moisture level is too low
(40% less), biological activity will be reduced or stopped. At
Example 5.334 the same time, if the moisture level exceeds approximately
60%, it will prevent sufficient airflow through the mixture.
Problem: The maximum allowable cumulative lead load- The composting process operates best when the temperature is
ing is 48 lbs/ac. Based upon the current loading of 0.35
maintained within an operating range of 130–140°F—biologi-
lbs/ac, how many applications of biosolids can be made
to this site? cal activities provide enough heat to increase the temperature
well above this range. Forced air ventilation or mixing is used
SOLUTION: to remove heat and maintain the desired operating tempera-
ture range. The temperature of the composting solids when
48.0 lb/ac maintained at the required levels will be sufficient to remove
Applications = = 137 applications
0.35 lb/ac pathogenic organisms. The influent pH can affect the perfor-
mance of the process if extreme (less than 6.0 or greater than
Site Life Based on Metals Loading 11.0). The pH during composting may have some impact on
The maximum number of applications based upon metals the biological activity but does not appear to be a major factor.
loading and the number of applications per year can be used Composted biosolids generally have a pH in the range of 6.8–
to determine the maximum site life. 7.5. The critical nutrient in the composting process is nitrogen.
The process works best when the ratio of nitrogen to carbon is
Site Life, years in the range of 26–30 carbon to one nitrogen. Above this ratio,
composting is slowed. Below this ratio, the nitrogen content of
Maximum Allowable Applications (5.253)
= the final product may be less attractive as compost. Aeration
Number of Applications Planned/Year is essential to provide oxygen to the process and to control the
temperature. In force air processes, some means of odor con-
Example 5.335 trol should be included in the design of the aeration system.
Problem: Biosolids is currently applied to a site twice Composting Calculations

annually. Based upon the lead content of the biosolids, the Pertinent composting process control calculations include
maximum number of applications is determined to be 135 determination of percent of moisture of compost mixture and
applications. Based upon the lead loading and the appli-
compost site capacity. An important consideration in compost
cations rate, how many years can this site be used?
operation is the solids processing capability (fill time), lbs/day
SOURCE:
or lbs/wk. Equation 5.254 is used to calculate site capacity.
135 applications Total Available Capacity, yd 3

Site Life = = 68 year
2 applications/year Wet Compost, lb /day
Fill Time, days = (5.254)
Key Point: When more than one metal is present, the calcu- Compost Bulk Density, lbs /yd 3
lations must be performed for each metal. The site life would
then be the lowest value generated by these calculations.
Example 5.336
Biosolids to Compost
The purpose of composting biosolids is to stabilize the organic Problem: A composting facility has an available capacity
matter, reduce volume, eliminate pathogenic organisms, and of 7,600 yd3. If the composting cycle is 21 days, how many
produce a product that can be used as a soil amendment or lbs/day wet compost can be processed by this facility?
conditioner. Composting is a biological process. In a com- Assume a compost bulk density of 900-lbs/yd3.
posting operation, dewatered solids are usually mixed with a
SOLUTION:
bulking agent (i.e., hardwood chips) and stored until biologi-
cal stabilization occurs. The composting mixture is ventilated Total Available Capacity, yd3
during storage to provide sufficient oxygen for oxidation and Wet Compost , lb /day
Fill Time, days =
to prevent odors. After the solids are stabilized, they are sepa- Compost Bulk Density, lbs /yd3
rated from the bulking agent. The composted solids are then
stored for curing and are applied to farmlands or other benefi- 7600 yd3
21 days =
cial uses. Expected performance of the composting operation x lb /day
for both percent volatile matter reduction and percent mois- 900 lb /yd3
ture reduction ranges from 40% to 60%.
21 days =
(7600 yd )(900 lb/yd )
3 3 Example 5.337
x lb/day Problem: The flow from a faucet filled up the gallon con-
tainer in 48 sec. What was the gpm flow rate from the fau-
21days =
(7600 yd )(900 lb/yd )
3 3 cet? Because the flow rate is desired in minutes the time
should also be expressed as minutes:
x lb/day
48 sec
= 0.80 min
x lb/day =
(7600 yd )(900 lb/yd )
3 3 60 sec/min
21 days
SOLUTION:
x = 325, 714 lb /day
Calculate flow rate from the faucet:
WATER/WASTEWATER LABORATORY Volume, gal

Flow, gpm =
Time, min
CALCULATIONS
1 gal
Waterworks and wastewater treatment plants are sized to meet =
0.80 min
the current needs, as well as those for the future. No mat-
ter the size of the treatment plant, some space or area within = 1.25 gpm
the plant is designated as the lab area, which can range from
Example 5.338
closet-size to fully equipped and staffed environmental labo-
ratories. Water and wastewater laboratories usually perform a Problem: The flow from a faucet filled up the gallon con-
number of different tests. Lab test results provide the opera- tainer in 55 sec. What was the gpm flow rate from the
tor with the information necessary to operate the treatment faucet?
facility at optimal levels. Laboratory testing usually includes
service line flushing time, solution concentration, pH, chemi- SOLUTION:
cal oxygen demand or COD, total phosphorus, fecal coliform
55 sec
count, chlorine residual, and BOD (seeded) test, to name a = 0.92 min
60 sec/min
few. The standard reference for performing wastewater test-
ing is contained in Standard Methods for the Examination of Calculate the flow rate:
Water & Wastewater (APHA,2012).
In this section, the focus is on standard water/wastewa- Volume, gal
Flow, gpm =
ter lab tests that involve various calculations. Specifically, Time, min
the focus is on calculations used to determine proportion-
1 gal
ing factor for composite sampling, flow from a faucet esti- =
mation, service line flushing time, solution concentration, 0.92 min
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), molarity and moles, = 1.1 gpm
normality, settleability, settleable solids, biosolids total,
fixed and volatile solids, suspended solids and volatile sus- Service Line Flushing Time
pended solids, and biosolids volume index and biosolids To determine the quality of potable water delivered to the
density index. consumer, a sample is taken from the customer’s outside fau-
cet—water that is typical of the water delivered. To obtain an
Faucet Flow Estimation accurate indication of the system water quality, this sample
must be representative. Further, to ensure that the sample
On occasion, the waterworks sampler must take water sam- taken is typical of water delivered, the service line must be
ples from a customer’s residence. In small water systems, the flushed twice. Equation 5.256 is in calculating flushing time.
sample is usually taken from the customer’s front yard fau-
cet. A convenient flow rate for taking water samples is about Flushing Time, min
0.5 gpm. To estimate the flow from a faucet, use a one-gallon
container and record the time it takes to fill the container. To ( 0.785) ( D2 ) ( Length, ft ) ( 7.48 gal/ft 3 ) ( 2 ) (5.256)
calculate the flow in gpm, insert the recorded information into =
Flow Rate, gpm
Equation 5.255.
Volume, gal
Flow, gpm = (5.255)
Time, min
Example 5.339 The operator makes unit process adjustments based on

local knowledge (experience) and on lab test results. However,
Problem: How long (minutes) will it take to flush a 40-ft before lab tests can be performed, samples must be taken.
length of ½-inch diameter service line if the flow through There are two basic types of samples: grab samples and com-
the line is 0.5 gpm? posite samples. The type of sample taken depends on the spe-
cific test, the reason the sample is being collected, and the
SOLUTION: requirements in the plant discharge permit.
Calculate the diameter of the pump in feet. A grab sample is a discrete sample collected at one time
and one location. They are primarily used for any parameter
(0.50) whose concentration can change quickly (i.e., dissolved oxy-
= 0.04 ft
12in./ft gen, pH, temperature, total chlorine residual), and they are
Calculate the flushing time: representative only of the conditions at the time of collection.
A composite sample consists of a series of individual grab
Flushing Time, min samples taken at specified time intervals and in proportion to
flow. The individual grab samples are mixed together in pro-
( 0.785) (D2 ) (Length, ft ) (7.48gal/ft 3 ) ( 2) portion to the flow rate at the time the sample was collected to
=
Flow Rate, gpm form the composite sample. The composite sample represents
the character of the water/wastewater over a period of time.
( 0.785) ( 0.04 ft )( 0.04 ft )( 40 ft ) (7.48 gal/ft 3 ) ( 2) Because knowledge of the procedure used in processing com-
=
0.5 gpm posite samples in important (a basic requirement) to the water/
= 1.5 min wastewater operator, the actual procedure used is covered in
this section:
Example 5.340
• Determine the total amount of sample required for
Problem: At a flow rate of 0.5 gpm, how long (minutes all tests to be performed on the composite sample.
and seconds) will it take to flush a 60-ft length of ¾-inch • Determine the treatment system’s average daily flow.
service line? Key Point: Average daily flow can be determined
by using several months of data—which will provide
SOLUTION: a more representative value.
¾-inch diameter = 0.06 ft. • Calculate a proportioning factor.
Flushing Time, min Prop. Factor ( PF )

(5.257)
( 0.785) (D2 ) (Length, ft ) (7.48 gal/ft 3 ) ( 2) =
Total Sample Volume Required, mm
= # of Samples to be Calculated ´ Aver. Daily Flow, MGD
Flow Rate, gpm

=
( )
( 0.785) ( 0.06 ft )( 0.06 ft )(60 ft ) 7.48 gal/ft 3 ( 2) Key Point: Round the proportioning factor to the
0.5 gpm nearest 50 units (i.e., 50,100, 150, etc.) to simplify
= 5.1 minutes the calculation of the sample volume.
• Collect the individual samples in accordance with
Convert the fractional part of a minute (0.1) to seconds:
the schedule (once per hour, once per 15 min, etc.).
• Determine flow rate at the time the sample was
( 0.1min)(60 sec /min) = 6 sec collected.

= 5 min, 6 sec • Calculate the specific amount to add to the compos-
ite container.
Composite Sampling Calculation
When preparing oven-baked food, a cook pays close attention Required Volume, mL = Flow T ´ PF (5.258)
in setting the correct oven temperature, usually setting the
temperature at the correct temperature and then moving on T = Time sample was collected
to some other chore. The oven thermostat makes sure that the • Mix the individual sample thoroughly, measure the
oven-baked food is cooked at the correct temperature and that required volume, and add to the composite storage
is that. Unlike the cook, in water and wastewater treatment container.
plant operations, the operator does not have the luxury of set- • Keep the composite sample refrigerated throughout
ting a plant parameter and then walking off and forgetting the collection period.
about it. To optimize plant operations, various adjustments to
unit processes must be made on an on-going basis.
Problem: The effluent testing will require 3,825 mL of Problem: The BOD5 test is completed. Bottle 1 of the test
sample. The average daily flow is 4.25 MGD. Using the had dissolved oxygen (DO) of 7.1 mg/L at the start of the
flows given below, calculate the amount of sample to be test. After 5 days, bottle 1 had a DO of 2.9 mg/L. Bottle 1
added at each of the times shown: contained 120 mg/L of sample.
SOLUTION:
Time Flow, MGD
BOD 5 (Unseeded )
8 AM 3.88
9 AM 4.10
=
(7.1mg/L - 2.9 mg/L ) ´ 300 mL
10 AM 5.05 120 mL
11 AM 5.25
= 10.5 mg/L
12 Noon 3.80
1 PM 3.65 BOD5 (Seeded)
2 PM 3.20 If the BOD5 sample has been exposed to conditions that could
3 PM 3.45
reduce the number of healthy, active organisms, the sample must
4 PM 4.10
be seeded with organisms. Seeding requires use of a correction
factor to remove the BOD5 contribution of the seed material.
Seed Correction
SOLUTION:
Seed Material BOD5 ´ Seed in Dilution, mL (5.260)
Proportioning Factor (PF) =
300 mL
3, 825 mL
=-
9 Samples ´ 4.25 MGD BOD5 ( Seeded )
= 110 é( DOstart , mg /L - DOfinal , mg /L ) - Seed Corr.ù ´ 300 (5.261)

=ë û
Sample Volume, mL
Volume8 AM = 3.88 × 100 = 388 (400) mL
Volume9 AM = 4.10 × 100 = 410 (410) mL BOD 7-Day Moving Average
Volume10 AM = 5.05 × 100 = 505 (500) mL Because the BOD characteristic of wastewater varies from
Volume11 AM = 5.25 × 100 = 525 (530) mL day to day, even hour-to-hour, operational control of the treat-
Volume12 N = 3.80 × 100 = 380 (380) mL ment system is most often accomplished based on trends in
Volume1 PM = 3.65 × 100 = 365 (370) mL data rather than individual data points. The BOD 7-day mov-
Volume2 PM = 3.20 × 100 = 320 (320) mL ing average is a calculation of the BOD trend.
Volume3 PM = 3.45 × 100 = 345 (350) mL
Key Point: The 7-day moving average is called a moving
Volume4 PM = 4.10 × 100 = 410 (410) mL
average, because a new average is calculated each day, adding
the new day’s value and the six previous days' values.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Calculations
7-day Average BOD
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) measures the amount
BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD BOD (5.262)
of organic matter that can be biologically oxidized under + + + + + +
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Day 6 Day 7
=
controlled conditions (five days @ 20°C in the dark). Several 7
criteria are used when selecting which BOD5 dilutions to be
used for calculating test results. Consult a laboratory test- Example 5.343
ing reference manual (such as Standard Methods) for this
information. There are two basic calculations for BOD5. Problem: Given the following primary effluent BOD test
The first is used for samples that have not been seeded. The results, calculate the 7-day average.
second must be used whenever BOD5 samples are seeded.
Both methods are introduced and examples are provided June 1—200 mg/L June 5—222 mg/L
below. June 2—210 mg/L June 6—214 mg/L
June 3—204 mg/L June 7—218 mg/L
BOD5 (Unseeded) June 4—205 mg/L
7-day average BOD

BOD5 ( Unseeded )
200 + 210 + 204 + 205 + 222 + 214 + 218

=
( DOstart , mg/L - DOfinal , mg/L ) ´ 300 mL (5.259) =
7

Sample Volume, mL = 210 mg /L
Moles and Molarity The molarity of a solution is calculated by taking the moles
of solute and dividing by the liters of solution. The molar-
Chemists have defined a very useful unit called the mole. ity of a solution is calculated by taking the moles of solute
Moles and molarity, a concentration term based on the mole, and dividing by the liters of solution:
have many important applications in water/wastewater oper-
ations. A mole is defined as a gram molecular weight; that Moles of solute
Molarity = (5.264)
is, the molecular weight expressed as grams. For example, a Liters of solution
mole of water is 18 g of water and a mole of glucose is 180 g of
glucose. A mole of any compound always contains the same
number of molecules. The number of molecules in a mole is Example 5.345
called Avogadro’s number and has a value of 6.022 × 1023.
Interesting Point: How big is Avogadro’s number? An Problem: What is the molarity of 2 moles of solute dis-
Avogadro’s number of soft drink cans would cover the surface solved in 1 L of solvent?
of the earth to a depth of over 200 miles.
Key Point: Molecular weight is the weight of one mole- SOLUTION:
cule. It is calculated by adding the weights of all the atoms 2 mole
Molarity = = 2 M
that are present in one molecule. The units are atomic mass 1L
units (amu). A mole is a gram molecular weight, that is, the
molecular weight expressed in grams. The molecular weight
Key Point: Measurement in moles is a measurement of
is the weight of one molecule in daltons. All moles contain the amount of a substance. Measurement in molarity is
the same number of molecules, Avogadro’s number, equal to a measurement of the concentration of a substance—the
6.022 × 1023. The reason all moles have the same number of amount (moles) per unit volume (liters).
molecules is because the value of the mole is proportional to
the molecular weight. Normality
As mentioned, the molarity of a solution refers to its con-
Moles centration (the solute dissolved in the solution). The nor-
As mentioned, a mole is a quantity of a compound equal in mality of a solution refers to the number of equivalents
weight to its formula weight. For example, the formula weight for of solute per liter of solution. The definition of chemical
water can be determined using the Periodic Table of Elements: equivalent depends on the substance or type of chemical
reaction under consideration. Because the concept of equiv-
Hydrogen (1.008) ´ 2 = 2.016 alents is based on the “reacting power” of an element or
+ Oxygen = 16.000 compound, it follows that a specific number of equivalents
of one substance will react with the same number of equiva-
Formula weight of H 2O = 18.016
lents of another substance. When the concept of equivalents
Because the formula weight of water is 18.016, a mole is 18.016 is taken into consideration, it is less likely that chemicals
units of weight. A gram-mole is 18.016 g of water. A pound- will be wasted as excess amounts. Keeping in mind that
mole is 18.016 pounds of water. For our purposes in this text, normality is a measure of the reacting power of a solution
the term mole will be understood to mean “gram-mole.” The (i.e., 1 equivalent of a substance reacts with 1 equivalent of
equation used in determining moles is shown below. another substance), we use the following equation to deter-
mine normality.
Grams of chemical
Moles = (5.263)
Formula weight of chemical No. of Equivalents of Solute
Normality = (5.265)
Liters of Solution
Example 5.344
Example 5.346
Problem: The atomic weight of a certain chemical is 66. If
35 g of the chemical is used in making up a one-liter solu-
tion, how many moles are used? Problem: If 2.0 equivalents of a chemical are dissolved in
1.5 L of solution, what is the normality of the solution?
Grams of chemical
Moles = SOLUTION:
Formula weight
No. of Equivalents of Solute
66 g Normality =
= Liters of Solution
35 g/mole
2..0 Equivalents
= 1.9 moles =
1 .5 L
= 1.33 N

mL Settled Solids
Problem: A 800-mL solution contains 1.6 equivalents of a % Settleable Solids = ´ 100
2000-mL Sample
chemical. What is the normality of the solution?
410 mL
SOLUTION: = ´ 100
2000 mL
First convert 800 mL to liters: = 20.5%

800 mL
= 0 .8 L Settleable Solids
1000 mL
The settleable solids test is an easy, quantitative method to mea-
Then calculate the normality of the solution: sure sediment found in wastewater. An Imhoff cone is filled
No. of Equivalents of Solute with one liter of sample wastewater, stirred, and allowed to
Normality =
Liters of Solution settle for 60 min. The settleable solids test, unlike the settle-
ability test, is conducted on samples from a sedimentation tank
1..6 Equivalents
= or clarifier influent and effluent to determine percent removal of
0 .8 L
settleable solids. The percent settleable solids is determined by:
= 2N
% Settleable Solids Removed
Settleability (Activated Biosolids)
Set. Solids Removed, mL/L (5.267)
The settleability test is a test of the quality of the activated biosol- = ´100
Set. Solids in Influent, mL/L
ids solids—or activated sludge solids (Mixed Liquor Suspended
Solids). Settled biosolids volume (SBV)—or settled sludge vol-
Example 5.350
ume (SSV)—is determined at specified times during sample
testing. Thirty- and 60-min observations are used for control.
Problem: Calculate the percent removal of settleable sol-
Subscripts (SBV30 or SSV30 and SBV60 or SSV60) indicate settling ids if the settleable solids of the sedimentation tank influ-
time. A sample of activated biosolids is taken from the aeration ent is 15 mL/L and the settleable solids of the effluent is
tank, poured into a 2000-mL graduate and allowed to settle for 0.4 mL/L.
30 min or 60 min. The settling characteristics of the biosolids in
the graduate give a general indication of the settling of the MLSS SOLUTION:
in the final clarifier. From the settleability test the percent settle-
First, subtract 0.4 mL/L from 15.0 = 14.6 mL/L removed
able solids can be calculated using the following equation. settleable solids.
Next, insert parameters into Equation 5.267.
mL Settled Solids
% Settleable Solids = ´ 100 (5.266)
2000-mL Sample 14.6 mL/L
% Set. Sol. Removed = ´ 100
15.0 mL/L
Example 5.348 = 97%
Problem: The settleability test is conducted on a sample of Example 5.351

MLSS. What is percent settleable solids if 420 mL settle in
the 2000-mL graduate? Problem: Calculate the percent removal of settleable sol-
ids if the settleable solids of the sedimentation tank influ-
SOLUTION: ent is 13 mL/L and the settleable solids of the effluent is
mL Settled Solids 0.5 mL/L.
% Settleable Solids = ´ 100
2000-mL Sample
SOLUTION:
420 mL
= ´ 100 First determine removed settleable solids.
2000 mL
= 21% 12.5 mL/L

% Set. Sol. Removed = ´ 100
13.0 mL/L
Example 5.349
= 96%
Problem: A 2000-mL sample of activated biosolids is
tested for settleability. If the settled solids is measured as
410 mL, what is the percent settled solids?
Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Weight of total solids

% Total Solids = ´ 100
Solids, and Volatile Solids Weight of biosolids sample
Wastewater consists of both water and solids. The total solids 2.60 g
= ´ 100
may be further classified as either volatile solids (organics) or 51.15 g
fixed solids (inorganics). Normally, total solids and volatile sol- = 5% Total Solids
ids are expressed as percentages; whereas suspended solids are To calculate the percent volatile solids, the grams total sol-
generally expressed as mg/L. To calculate either percentages ids and grams volatile solids must be determined. Because
or mg/L concentrations, certain concepts must be understood: total solids has already been calculated (above), only vola-
tile solids must be calculated:
• Total Solids—It is the residue left in the vessel after Volatile Solids
evaporation of liquid from a sample and subsequent
drying in an oven at 103°C–105°C. 24.88 g Sample and Dish before Burning
• Fixed Solids—It is the residue left in the vessel after 22.98 g Sample and Dish after Burning
---------
a sample is ignited (heated to dryness at 550°C.
1.90 g Solids Lost in Burning
• Volatile Solids—It is the weight loss after a sample is
ignited (heated to dryness at 550°C. Determinations Weight of Volatile Solids
of fixed and volatile solids do not distinguish pre- % Volatile Solids = ´ 100
Weight of Total Sample
cisely between inorganic and organic matter because
1.90 g
the loss on ignition is not confined to organic matter. = ´ 100
2.60 g
It includes losses due to decomposition or volatiliza-
tion of some mineral salts. = 73% Volatile Solids
Key Point: When the word biosolids is used, it may be under- Wastewater Suspended Solids and
stood to mean a semi-liquid mass composed of solids and Volatile Suspended Solids
water. The term solids, however, is used to mean dry solids
Total suspended solids (TSS) are the amount of filterable sol-
after the evaporation of water.
ids in a wastewater sample. Samples are filtered through a glass
Percent total solids and volatile solids are calculated as follows:
fiber filter. The filters are dried and weighed to determine the
amount of total suspended solids in mg/L of sample. Volatile
Total solids weight
% Total Solids = ´1100 (5.268) suspended solids (VSS) are those solids lost on ignition (heat-
Biosolids sample weight
ing to 500°C.). They are useful to the treatment plant opera-
Volatile solids weight tor because they give a rough approximation of the amount
% Volatile Solids = ´100 (5.269) of organic matter present in the solid fraction of wastewater,
Total solids weight
activated biosolids, and industrial wastes. With the exception
Example 5.352 of the required drying time, the suspended solids and volatile
suspended solids tests of wastewater are similar to those of
Problem: Given the information below, determine (1) the the total and volatile solids performed for biosolids.
percent solids in the sample, and (2) the percent of volatile Key Point: The total and volatile solids of biosolids are
solids in the biosolids sample: generally expressed as percents, by
weight. The biosolids samples are 100 mL and are unfil-
Biosolids After Burning tered. Calculation of suspended solids
Sample After Drying (Ash) and volatile suspended solids are demonstrated in the
Weight of Sample 73.43 g 24.88 22.98 example below.
and Dish
Weight of Dish 22.28 g 22.28 22.28 Example 5.353
(tare weight)
Problem: Given the following information regarding a primary
To calculate percent total solids, the grams total solids effluent sample, calculate: (1) the mg/L suspended solids, and
(solids after drying) and grams biosolids sample must be (2) the percent volatile suspended solids of the sample.
determined:
After Drying After Burning
(Before Burning) (Ash)
Total Solids Biosolids Sample
Weight of Sample and Dish 24.6268 g 24.6232 g
24.88 g Total Solids and Dish 73.43 g Biosolids and Dish
Weight of Dish (tare wt.) 24.6222 g 24.6222 g
−22.28 g Weight of Dish −22.28 g Dish
2.60 g Total Solids 51.15 g Biosolids
Sample Volume = 50 mL

To calculate the milligrams suspended solids per liter of
sample (mg/L), you must first determine grams suspended Problem: The settleability test indicates that after 30 min,
solids: 220 mL of biosolids settle in the 1-L graduated cylinder. If
the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentration
in the aeration tank is 2,400 mg/L, what is the biosolids
24.6268 g Dish and Suspended Solids
volume?
−24.6222 g Dish
-----------
00.0046 g Suspended Solids
SOLUTION:
Next, we calculate mg/L suspended solids (using a multipli- Volume ( determined by settleability test )
BVI =
cation factor of 20,this number will vary with sample vol- Density ( determined by the MLSS conc.)
ume, to make the denominator equal to 1 liter (1,000 mL)):
0.0046 g SS 1000 mg 20 92 mg 220 mL /L

´ = BVI =
50 ml 1g 20 1000 ml 2400 mg /L

220 mL
= 92 mg /L SS =
2400 mg
( convert milligrams to grams )
To calculate percent volatile suspended solids, we must
know the weight of both total suspended solids (calculated 220 mL
= = 92
in part “a” above) and volatile suspended solids. 2 .4 g
24.6268 g Dish and SS before Burning The biosolids density index (BDI) is also a method of
−24.6234 g Dish and SS after Burning measuring the settling quality of activated biosolids, yet
------------- it, like the BVI parameter, may or may not provide a true
0.0034 g Solids Lost in Burning picture of the quality of the biosolids in question unless
compared with other relevant process parameters. It
Wt. of Volatile Solids differs from BVI in that the higher the BDI value, the
% VSS = ´ 100
Wt. of Suspended Solids better the settling quality of the aerated mixed liquor.
Similarly, the lower the BDI, the poorer the settling
0.00
034 g VSS
= ´ 100 quality of the mixed liquor. BDI is the concentration in
0.0046 g percent solids that the activated biosolids will assume
= 70% VSS after settling for 30 min. BDI will range from 2.00 to
1.33, and biosolids with values of one or more are gen-
erally considered to have good settling characteristics.
Biosolids Volume Index (BVI) and In making the calculation of biosolids density index
Biosolids Density Index (BDI) (BDI), we simply invert the numerators and denomina-
tors and multiply by 100.
Two variables are used to measure the settling characteristics
of activated biosolids and to determine what the return bio-
solids pumping rate should be. These are the volume of the
biosolids (BVI) and the density of the biosolids (BDI) indices: Example 5.355
% MLSS volume after 30 minutes Problem: The MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is
BVI = 2,500 mg/L. If the activated biosolids settleability test indi-
% MLSS mg /L MLSS (5.270)
cates 225 mL settled in the one-liter graduated cylinder,
= mL settled biosolids ´1000 what is the biosolids density index?
MLSS (%) BDI

BDI = ´ 100 (5.271)
% volume MLSS after 30 min settling
Density ( determined by the MLSS concentration)
=
These indices relate the weight of biosolids to the volume Volume (Determined by the settleability test )
the biosolids occupies. They show how well the liquids-solids ´100
separation part of the activated biosolids system is perform-
ing its function on the biological floc that has been produced
2500 mg
and is to be settled out and returned to the aeration tanks BDI = ´ 100 (convert milligrams to grams)
225 ml
or wasted. The better the liquid-solids separation is, the
smaller will be the volume occupied by the settled biosolids 2 .5 g
= ´ 100
225 ml
and the lower the pumping rate required to keep the solids in
circulation. = 1.11milliliters settle in the 2000-mL graduate ?
CHAPTER REVIEW PROBLEMS 5.20 A trench is to be excavated. If the trench is 3 ft wide,

4 ft deep and 1,200 ft long, what is the cubic yard
General Math Operations volume of the trench?
5.1 The diameter of a tank is 70 ft. If the water depth is 25 5.21 A tank is 30 ft wide and 80 ft long. If the tank con-
ft, what is the volume of water in the tank, in gallons? tains water to a depth of 12 ft, how many gallons of
5.2 A tank is 60 ft in length, 20-ft wide, and 10 ft deep. water are in the tank?
Calculate the cubic feet volume of the tank. 5.22 What is the volume of water (in gallons) contained
5.3 A tank 20 ft wide and 60 ft long is filled with water in a 3,000-ft section of channel if the channel is 8 ft
to a depth of 12 ft. What is the volume of the water wide and the water depth is 3.5 ft?
in the tank (in gal)? 5.23 A tank has a diameter of 70 ft and a depth of 19 ft.
5.4 What is the volume of water in a tank, in gallons, if What is the volume of water in the tank, in gallons?
the tank is 20 ft wide, 40 ft long, and contains water 5.24 If a tank is 25 ft in diameter and 30 ft deep, how
to a depth of 12 ft? many gallons of water will it hold?
5.5 A tank has a diameter of 60 ft and a depth of 12-ft. 5.25 A channel 44 in. wide has water flowing to a depth
Calculate the volume of water in the tank, in gallons. of 2.4 ft. If the velocity of the water is 2.5 fps, what
5.6 What is the volume of water in a tank, in gallons, if is the cfm flow in the channel?
the tank is 20 ft wide, 50 ft long, and contains water 5.26 A tank is 20 ft long and 12 ft wide. With the dis-
to a depth of 16 ft? charge valve closed, the influent to the tank causes
5.7 A rectangular channel is 340 ft in length, 4 ft in the water level to rise 0.8 ft in 1 min. What is the
depth, and 6 ft wide. What is the volume of water, in gpm flow to the tank?
cubic feet? 5.27 A trapezoidal channel is 4 ft wide at the bottom and
5.8 A replacement section of a 10-in. pipe is to be sand- 6 ft wide at the water surface. The water depth is 40
blasted before it is put into service. If the length of in. If the flow velocity through the channel is 130 ft/
pipeline is 1,600 ft, how many gallons of water will min, what is the cfm flow rate through the channel?
be needed to fill the pipeline? 5.28 An 8-in. diameter pipeline has water flowing at a
5.9 A trapezoidal channel is 800 ft in length, 10 ft wide velocity of 2.4 fps. What is the gpm flow rate through
at the top, 5 ft wide at the bottom with a distance of 4 the pipeline? Assume the pipe is flowing full.
ft from top edge to bottom along the sides. Calculate 5.29 A pump discharges into a 3-ft diameter container. If
the gallon volume. the water level in the container rises 28 in. in 30 sec,
5.10 A section of an 8-in. diameter pipeline is to be filled what is the gpm flow into the container?
with treated water for distribution. If the pipeline is 5.30 A 10-in. diameter pipeline has water flowing at a
2,250 ft in length, how many gallons of water will be velocity of 3.1 fps. What is the gpm flow rate through
distributed? the pipeline if the water is flowing at a depth of 5 in.?
5.11 A channel is 1,200 ft in length, carries water 4 ft in 5.31 A channel has a rectangular cross-section. The
depth, and 5 ft wide. What is the volume of water in channel is 6 ft wide with water flowing to a depth of
gallons? 2.6 ft. If the flow rate through the channel is 14,200
5.12 A pipe trench is to be excavated that is 4 ft wide, 4 gpm, what is the velocity of the water in the channel
ft deep, and 1,200 ft long. What is the volume of the (ft/sec)?
trench in cubic yards? 5.32 An 8-in. diameter pipe flowing full delivers 584
5.13 A trench is to be excavated that is 3 ft wide, 4 ft deep, gpm. What is the velocity of flow in the pipeline (ft/
and 500 yds long. What is the cubic yard volume of sec)?
the trench? 5.33 A special dye is used to estimate the velocity of flow
5.14 A trench is 300 yards long, 3 ft wide and 3 ft deep. in an interceptor line. The dye is injected into the
What is the cubic feet volume of the trench? water at one pumping station and the travel time to
5.15 A rectangular trench is 700 ft long, 6.5 ft wide and the first manhole 550-ft away is noted. The dye first
3.5 ft deep. What is the cubic feet volume of the appears at the downstream manhole in 195 sec. The
trench? dye continues to be visible until the total elapsed
5.16 The diameter of a tank is 90 ft. If the water depth in time is 221 sec. What is the ft/sec velocity of flow
the tank is 25 ft, what is the volume of water in the through the pipeline?
tank, in gallons? 5.34 The velocity in a 10-in. diameter pipeline is 2.4 ft/
5.17 A tank is 80-ft long, 20-ft wide, and 16 ft deep. What sec. If the 10-in. pipeline flows into an 18-in. diam-
is the cubic feet volume of the tank? eter pipeline, what is the velocity in the 8-in. pipeline
5.18 How many gallons of water will it take to fill an 8-in. in ft/sec.?
diameter pipe that is 4,000 ft in length? 5.35 A float travels 500 ft in a channel in 1 min 32
5.19 A trench is 400 yards long, 3-ft wide and 3 ft deep. sec. What is the estimated velocity in the channel
What is the cubic feet volume of the trench? (ft/sec)?
5.36 The velocity in an 8-in. diameter pipe is 3.2 ft/sec. 5.59 Convert 2,225 gpm to gpd.
If the flow then travels through a 10-in. diameter 5.60 The total flow for one day at a plant was 5,350,000
section of pipeline, what is the ft/sec velocity in the gallons. What was the average gpm flow for that
10-in. pipeline? day?
5.37 The following flows were recorded for the week:
Monday—4.8 MGD
General Wastewater Treatment Problems
Tuesday—5.1 MGD
Wednesday—5.2 MGD 5.61 Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) needed to
Thursday—5.4 MGD treat a flow of 5.5 MGD with a chlorine dose of 2.5
Friday—4.8 MGD mg/L.
Saturday—5.2 MGD 5.62 To dechlorinate a wastewater, sulfur dioxide is to
Sunday—4.8 MGD be applied at a level 4 mg/L more than the chlo-
What was the average daily flow rate for the week? rine residual. What should the sulfonator feed rate
5.38 The totalizer reading the month of September was be (lbs/day) for a flow of 4.2 MGD with a chlorine
121.4 MG. What was the average daily flow (ADF) residual of 3.1 mg/L?
for the month of September? 5.63 What should the chlorinator setting be (lbs/day) to
5.39 Convert 0.165 MGD to gpm. treat a flow of 4.8 MGD if the chlorine demand is 8.8
5.40 The total flow for one day at a plant was 3,335,000 mg/L and a chlorine residual of 3 mg/L is desired?
gal. What was the average gpm flow for that day? 5.64 A total chlorine dosage of 10 mg/L is required to
5.41 Express a flow of 8 cfs in terms of gpm. treat the water in a unit process. If the flow is 1.8
5.42 What is 35 gps expressed as gpd? MGD and the hypochlorite has 65% available chlo-
5.43 Convert a flow of 4,570,000 gpd to cfm. rine, how many lbs/day of hypochlorite will be
5.44 What is 6.6 MGD expressed as cfs? required?
5.45 Express 445,875 cfs as gpm. 5.65 A storage tank is to be disinfected with 60 mg/L of
5.46 Convert 2,450 gpm to gpd. chlorine. If the tank holds 86,000 gal, how many
5.47 A channel has a rectangular cross-section. The chan- pounds of chlorine (gas) will be needed?
nel is 6 ft wide with water flowing to a depth of 2.5 5.66 To neutralize a sour digester, one pound of lime is
ft. If the flow rate through the channel is 14,800 gpm, to be added for every pound of volatile acids in the
what is the velocity of the water in the channel (ft/sec)? digester liquor. If the digester contains 225,000
5.48 A channel 55 in. wide has water flowing to a depth of gal of sludge with a volatile acid (VA) level of
3.4 ft. If the velocity of the water is 3.6 fps, what is 2,220 mg/L, how many pounds of lime should be
the cfm flow in the channel? added?
5.49 The following flows were recorded for the months 5.67 A flow of 0.83 MGD requires a chlorine dosage
of June, July, and August: June—102.4 MG; July— of 8 mg/L. If the hypochlorite has 65% available
126.8 MG; August—144.4 MG. What was the aver- chlorine, how many lbs/day of hypochlorite will be
age daily flow for this three-month period? required?
5.50 A tank is 12 ft by 12 ft. With the discharge valve 5.68 The suspended solids concentration of the wastewa-
closed, the influent to the tank causes the water level ter entering the primary system is 450 mg/L. If the
to rise 8 in. in 1 min. What is the gpm flow to the plant flow is 1,840,000 gpd, how many lbs/day sus-
tank? pended solids enter the primary system?
5.51 An 8-in. diameter pipe flowing full delivers 510 gpm. 5.69 Calculate the BOD loading (lbs/day) on a stream if
What is the ft/sec velocity of flow in the pipeline? the secondary effluent flow is 2.90 MGD and the
5.52 Express a flow of 10 cfs in terms of gpm. BOD of the secondary effluent is 25 mg/L.
5.53 The totalizer reading for the month of December was 5.70 The daily flow to a trickling filter is 5,450,000 gpd.
134.6 MG. What was the average daily flow (ADF) If the BOD content of the trickling filter influent
for the month of September? is 260 mg/L, how many lbs/day of BOD enters the
5.54 What is 5.2 MGD expressed as cfs? trickling filter?
5.55 A pump discharges into a 3-ft diameter container. If 5.71 The flow to an aeration tank is 2,540 gpm. If the
the water level in the container rises 20 in. in 30 sec, COD concentration of the water is 144 mg/L, how
what is the gpm flow into the container? many pounds of COD are applied to the aeration
5.56 Convert a flow of 1,825,000 gpd to cfm. tank daily?
5.57 6-in. diameter pipeline has water flowing at a veloc- 5.72 The daily flow to a trickling filter is 2,300 gpm with
ity of 2.9 fps. What is the gpm flow rate through the a BOD concentration of 290 mg/L. How many lbs of
pipeline? BOD are applied to the trickling filter daily?
5.58 The velocity in a 10-in. pipeline is 2.6 ft/sec. If the 5.73 If a primary clarifier removes 152 mg/L suspended
10-in. pipeline flows into an 8-in. diameter pipeline, solids, how many lbs/day suspended solids are
what is the ft/sec velocity in the 8-in. pipeline? removed when the flow is 5.7 MGD?
5.74 The flow to a primary clarifier is 1.92 MGD. If the 5.87 The RAS suspended solids concentration is 6,350
influent to the clarifier has a suspended solids con- mg/L. If a total of 7350 lbs/day solids are to be
centration of 310 mg/L and the primary effluent has wasted, what should the WAS pumping rate be, in
122 mg/L SS, how many lbs/day suspended solids gpm?
are removed by the clarifier? 5.88 A total of 5750 lbs/day of solids must be removed
5.75 The flow to a primary clarifier is 1.88 MGD. If the from the secondary system. If the RAS SS concen-
influent to the clarifier has a suspended solids con- tration is 7,240 mg/L, what must be the WAS pump-
centration of 305 mg/L and the primary effluent has ing rate, in gpm?
121 mg/L SS, how many lbs/day suspended solids 5.89 Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) required
are removed by the clarifier? to treat a flow of 3,650,000 gpd with a chlorine dose
5.76 The flow to a trickling filter is 4,880,000 gpd. If the of 2.5 mg/L.
primary effluent has a BOD concentration of 150 5.90 Calculate the BOD loading (lbs/day) on a stream
mg/L and the trickling filter effluent has a BOD con- if the secondary effluent flow is 2.10 MGD and the
centration of 25 mg/L, how many pounds of BOD BOD of the secondary effluent is 17 mg/L.
are removed daily? 5.91 The flow to a primary clarifier is 4.8 MGD. If the
5.77 A primary clarifier receives a flow of 2.13 MGD with influent to the clarifier has a suspended solids con-
a suspended solids concentration of 367 mg/L. If the centration of 310 mg/L and the primary effluent
clarifier effluent has a suspended solids concentra- suspended solids concentration is 120 mg/L, how
tion of 162 mg/L, how many pounds of suspended many lbs/day suspended solids are removed by the
solids are removed daily? clarifier?
5.78 The flow to the trickling filter is 4,200,000 gpd with a 5.92 What should the chlorinator setting be (lbs/day) to
BOD concentration of 210 mg/L. If the trickling filter treat a flow of 5.5 MGD if the chlorine demand is 7.7
effluent has a BOD concentration of 95 mg/L, how mg/L and a chlorine residual of 2 mg/L is desired?
many lbs/day BOD does the trickling filter remove? 5.93 The suspended solids concentration of the waste-
5.79 The aeration tank has a volume of 400,000 gal. If the water entering the primary system is 305 mg/L. If
mixed liquor suspended solids concentration is 2,230 the plant flow is 3.5 MGD, how many lbs/day of sus-
mg/L, how many pounds of suspended solids are in pended solids enters the primary system?
the aerator? 5.94 A total chlorine dosage of 10 mg/L is required to
5.80 The aeration tank of a conventional activated sludge treat water in a unit process. If the flow is 3.1 MGD
plant has a mixed liquor volatile suspended solids and the hypochlorite has 65% available chlorine,
concentration of 1,890 mg/L. If the aeration tank is how many lbs/day of hypochlorite will be required?
115 ft long, 40 ft wide, and has wastewater to a depth 5.95 A primary clarifier receives a flow of 3.44 MGD with
of 12 ft, how many pounds of MLVSS are under a suspended solids concentration of 350 mg/L. If the
aeration? clarifier effluent has a suspended solids concentra-
5.81 The volume of an oxidation ditch is 23,800 ft3. If tion of 140 mg/L, how many pounds of suspended
the MLVSS concentration is 3,125 mg/L, how many solids are removed daily?
pounds of volatile solids are under aeration? 5.96 A storage tank is to be disinfected with 60 mg/L of
5.82 An aeration tank is 110 ft long and 40 ft wide. The chlorine. If the tank holds 90,000 gal, how many
operating depth is 16 ft. If the mixed liquor sus- pounds of chlorine gas will be needed?
pended solids concentration is 2,250 mg/L, how 5.97 An aeration tank is 110 ft long and 45 ft wide. This
many pounds of mixed liquor suspended solids are operating depth is 14 ft. If the mixed liquor sus-
under aeration? pended solids concentration is 2,720 mg/L, how
5.83 An aeration tank is 105 ft long and 50 ft wide. The many pounds of mixed liquor suspended solids are
depth of wastewater in the tank is 16 ft. If the tank under aeration?
contains an MLSS concentration of 2,910 mg/L, how 5.98 The WAS suspended solids concentration is 5,870
many lbs of MLSS are under aeration? mg/L. If 5480 lbs/day solids are to be wasted, what
5.84 The WAS suspended solids concentration is 6,150 must the WAS pumping rate be, in MGD?
mg/L. If 5,200 lbs/day solids are to be wasted, what 5.99 The flow to an aeration tank is 2,300 gpm. If the
must the WAS pumping rate be, in MGD? COD concentration of the water is 120 mg/L, how
5.85 The WAS suspended solids concentration is 6,200 many pounds COD enter the aeration tank daily?
mg/L. If 4,500 lbs/day solids are to be wastes, (a) 5.100 The daily flow to a trickling filter is 2,210 gpm. If
what must the WAS pumping rate be, in MGD? (b) the BOD concentration of the trickling filter influent
What is this rate expressed in gpm? is 240 mg/L, how many lbs/day BOD are applied to
5.86 It has been determined that 6,070 lbs/day of solids the trickling filter?
must be removed from the secondary system. If the 5.101 The 1.7-MGD influent to the secondary system has
RAS SS concentration is 6,600 mg/L, what must be a BOD concentration of 220 mg/L. The secondary
the WAS pumping rate, in gpm? effluent contains 24 mg/L BOD. How many pounds
of BOD are removed each day by the secondary 5.121 A filter 20-ft by 20 ft has a backwash flow rate of
system? 4,900 gpm. What is the filter backwash rate in gpm/
5.102 The chlorine feed rate at a plant is 330 lbs/day. If the sq ft?
flow is 5,300,000 gpd, what is this dosage expressed 5.122 A filter is 25 ft by 15 ft. If the backwash flow rate is
in mg/L? 3,400 gpm, what is the filter backwash rate in gpm/
5.103 It has been determined that 6150 lbs/day solids must sq ft?
be removed from the secondary system. If the RAS 5.123 A filter 25 ft by 30-ft backwashes at a rate of 3,300
SS concentration is 5,810 mg/L, what must be the gpm. What is this backwash rate expressed as gpm/
WAS pumping rate, in gpm? sq ft?
5.104 A trickling filter 100-ft in diameter treats a primary 5.124 The backwash flow rate for a filter is 3,800 gpm. If
effluent flow of 2.5 MGD. If the recirculated flow to the filter is 15 ft by 20 ft, what is the backwash rate
the clarifier is 0.9 MGD, what is the hydraulic load- expressed as gm/ft?
ing on the trickling in gpd/sq ft? 5.125 The total water filtered during a filter is 3,770,000
5.105 The flow to a 90-ft diameter trickling filter is gal. If the filter is 15 ft by 30 ft, what is the unit filter
2,850,000 gpd. The recirculated flow is 1,675,000 run volume (UFRV) in gal/sq ft?
gpd. At this flow rate, what is the hydraulic loading 5.126 The total water filtered during a filter run (between
rate in gpd/sq ft? backwashes) is 1,860,000 gal. If the filter is 20 ft by
5.106 A rotating biological contactor treats a flow of 3.8 15 ft, what is the UFRV in gal/sq ft?
MGD. The manufacturer data indicates a media 5.127 A filter 25-ft by 20 ft filters a total of 3.88 MG during
surface area of 870,000 sq ft. What is the hydraulic the filter run. What is the unit filter run volume in
loading rate on the RBC in gpd/sq ft? gal/sq ft?
5.107 A pond receives a flow of 2,100,000 gpd. If the sur- 5.128 The total water filtered between backwashes is
face area of the pond is 16 acres, what is the hydrau- 1,410,200 gal. If the length of the filter is 20 ft and
lic loading in in./day? the width is 14 ft, what is the unit filter run volume in
5.108 What is the hydraulic loading rate in gpd/sq ft to a gal/sq ft?
90-ft diameter trickling filter if the primary effluent 5.129 A filter is 30 ft by 20 ft. If the total water filtered
flow to the tickling filter is 3,880,000 gpd, and the between backwashes is 5,425,000gallons, what is the
recirculated flow is 1,400,000 gpd? UFRV in gal/sq ft?
5.109 A 20-acre pond receives a flow of 4.4 acre-feet/day. 5.130 A rectangular clarifier has a total of 163 ft of weir.
What is the hydraulic loading on the pond in in./day? What is the weir overflow rate in gpd/ft when the
5.110 A sedimentation tank 70 ft by 25 ft receives a flow of flow is 1,410,000 gpd?
2.05 MGD. What is the surface overflow rate in gpd/ 5.131 A circular clarifier receives a flow of 2.12 MGD. If
sq ft? the diameter of the weir is 60 ft, what is the weir
5.111 A circular clarifier has a diameter of 60 ft. If the pri- overflow rate in gpd/ft?
mary effluent flow is 2.44 MGD, what is the surface 5.132 A rectangular clarifier has a total of 240 ft of weir.
overflow rate in gpd/sq ft? What is the weir overflow rate in gpd/ft when the
5.112 A sedimentation tank is 110 ft long and 50 ft wide. If flow is 2.7 MGD?
the flow to the tank is 3.45 MGD what is the surface 5.133 The flow rate to a clarifier is 1,400 gpm. If the diam-
overflow rate in gpd/sq ft? eter of the weir is 80 ft, what is the weir overflow rate
5.113 The primary effluent flow to a clarifier is 1.66 MGD. If in gpd/ft?
the sedimentation tank is 25 ft and 70 ft long, what is 5.134 A rectangular sedimentation basin has a total weir
the surface overflow rate of the clarifier in gpd/sq ft? length of 189 ft. If the flow to the basin is 4.01 MGD,
5.114 The flow to a circular clarifier is 2.66 MGD. If the what is the weir-loading rate in gpm/ft?
diameter of the clarifier is 70 ft, what is the surface 5.135 A trickling filter 80-ft in diameter with a media depth
overflow rate in gpd/sq ft? of 5 ft receives a flow of 2,450,000 gpd. If the BOD
5.115 A filter 40-ft by 20 ft receives a flow of 2,230 gpm. concentration of the primary effluent is 210 mg/L,
What is the filtration rate in gpm/sq ft? what is the organic loading on the trickling filter in
5.116 A filter 40-ft by 25 ft receives a flow rate of 3,100 lbs BOD/day/1000 cu ft?
gpm. What is the filtration rate in gpm/sq ft? 5.136 The flow to a 3.5-acre wastewater pond is 120,000
5.117 A filter 26-ft by 60 ft receives a flow of 2,500 gpm. gpd. The influent BOD concentration is 170 mg/L.
What is the filtration rate in gpm/sq ft? What is the organic loading to the pond in lbs BOD/
5.118 A filter 40-ft by 20 ft treats a flow of 2.2 MGD. What day/ac?
is the filtration rate in gpm/sq ft? 5.137 An 85-ft diameter trickling filter with a media depth
5.119 A filter has a surface area of 880 sq ft. If the flow of 6 ft receives a primary effluent flow of 2,850,000
treated is 2,850 gpm, what is the filtration rate? gpd with a BOD of 120 mg/L. What is the organic
5.120 A filter 14-ft by 14 ft has a backwash flow rate of 4,750 loading on the trickling filter in lbs BOD/day/1000
gpm. What is the filter backwash rate in gpm/sq ft? cu ft?
5.138 A rotating biological contactor (RBC) receives a clarifier is 3,110,000 gpd, what is the desired MLSS
flow of 2.20 MGD. If the soluble BOD of the influ- concentration?
ent wastewater to the RBC is 140 mg/L and the sur- 5.150 A digester receives a total of 12,110 lbs/day volatile
face area of the media is 900,000 sq ft, what is the solids. If the digester volume is 33,100 cu ft, what is
organic loading rate in lbs BOD/day/1,000 sq ft? the digester loading in the volatile solids added/day/
5.139 A 90-ft diameter trickling filter with a media depth cu ft?
of 4 ft receives a primary effluent flow of 3.5 MGD. 5.151 A digester 60-ft in diameter with a water depth of 25
If the BOD concentration of the wastewater flow to ft receives 124,000-lbs/day raw sludge. If the sludge
the trickling filter is 150 mg/L, what is the organic contains 6.5% solids with 70% volatile matter, what
loading rate in lbs BOD/day/1,000 cu ft? is the digester loading in lbs volatile solids added/
5.140 An activated sludge aeration tank receives a primary day/cu ft?
effluent flow of 3,420,000 gpd with a BOD of 200 5.152 A digester 50-ft in diameter with a liquid level of
mg/L. The mixed liquor volatile suspended solids is 20 ft receives 141,000-lbs/day sludge with 6% total
1,875 mg/L and the aeration tank volume is 420,000 solids and 71% volatile solids. What is the digester
gal. What is the current F.M ratio? loading in lbs volatile solids added/day/cu ft?
5.141 The volume of an aeration tank is 280,000 gal. The 5.153 A digester 40-ft in diameter with a liquid level of
mixed liquor suspended solids is 1,710 mg/L. If the 16 ft receives 21,200-gpd sludge with 5.5% solids
aeration tank receives a primary effluent flow of and 69% volatile solids. What is the digester loading
3,240,000 gpd with BOD of 190 mg/L, what is the in lbs/volatile solids/day/cu ft? Assume the sludge
F/M ratio? weighs 8.34 lbs/gal.
5.142 The desired F/M ratio at a particular activated 5.154 A digester 50-ft in diameter with a liquid level of 20
sludge plant is 0.9 lbs COD/lb mixed liquor volatile ft receives 22,000-gpd sludge with 5.3% total solids
suspended solids. If the 2.25-MGD primary efflu- and 70% volatile solids. What is the digester loading
ent flow has a COD of 151 mg/L how many lbs of in the volatile solids/day/cu ft? Assume the sludge
MLVSS should be maintained? weighs 8.6 lbs/gal.
5.143 An activated sludge plant receives a flow of 2,100,000 5.155 A total of 2050 lbs/day volatile solids are pumped
gpd with a COD concentration of 160 mg/L. The to a digester. The digester sludge contains a total of
aeration tank volume is 255,000 gal and the MLVSS 32,400 lbs of volatile solids. What is the volatile sol-
is 1900 mg/L. What is the current F/M ratio? ids loading on the digester in lbs volatile solids in
5.144 The flow to an aeration tank is 3,110,000 gpd, with digester?
a BOD content of 180 mg/L. If the aeration tank is 5.156 A digester contains a total of 174,600 lbs of sludge
110-ft long, 50 ft wide, has wastewater to a depth of that has a total solids content of 6.1% and volatile
16 ft, and the desired F/M ratio is 0.5, what is the solids of 65%. If 620 lbs/day volatile solids are added
desired MLVSS concentration (mg/L) in the aeration to the digester, what is the volatile solids loading on
tank? the digester in lbs volatile solids added/day/lb vola-
5.145 A secondary clarifier is 70 ft in diameter and receives tile solids in digester?
a combined primary effluent and return activated 5.157 A total of 63,200-lbs/day sludge is pumped to an
sludge (RAS) flow of 3.60 MGD. If the MLSS con- 115,000-gallon digester. The sludge being pumped
centration in the aerator is 2,650 mg/L, what is the to the digester has a total solids content of 5.5% and
solids loading rate on the secondary clarifier in lbs/ a volatile solids content of 73%. The sludge in the
day/sq ft? digester has a solids content of 6.6% with 59% vola-
5.146 A secondary clarifier, 80 ft in diameter, receives tile solids content. What is the volatile solids loading
a primary effluent flow of 3.10 MGD and a return on the digester in lbs volatile solids added/day/lb VS
sludge flow of 1.15 MGD. If the MLSS concentration in digester? Assume the sludge in the digester weighs
is 2,825 mg/L, what is the solids loading rate on the 8.34 lbs/gal.
clarifier in lbs/day/sq ft? 5.158 A total of 110,000 gal of digested sludge is in a
5.147 The desired solids loading rate for a 60-ft diameter digester. The digested sludge contains 5.9% total
clarifier is 26-lbs/day/sq ft. If the total flow to the solids and 58% volatile solids. If the desired volatile
clarifier is 3,610,000 gpd, what is the desired MLSS solids loading ratio is 0.08 lbs volatile solids added/
concentration? day/lb volatile solids under digestion, what is the
5.148 A secondary clarifier 60-ft in diameter receives a desired lbs volatile/day to enter the digester? Assume
primary effluent flow of 2,550,000 gpd and a return the sludge in the digester weighs 8.34 lbs/gal.
sludge flow of 800,000 gpd. If the MLSS concentra- 5.159 A total of 7,900-gpd sludge is pumped to the digester.
tion is 2,210 mg/L, what is the solids loading rate on The sludge has 4.8% solids with a volatile solids
the clarifier in lbs/day/sq ft? content of 73%. If the desired volatile solids loading
5.149 The desired solids loading rate for a 60-ft diameter ratio is 0.06 lbs volatile solids added/day/lb volatile
clarifier is 20-lbs/day/sq ft. If the total flow to the solids under digestion, how many lbs volatile solids
should be in the digester for this volatile solids load? 5.174 The flow to an aeration tank is 3,335,000 gpd with
Assume the sludge pumped to the digester weighs a BOD content of 174 mg/L. If the aeration tank is
8.34 lbs/gal. 80-ft long, 40 ft wide, has wastewater to a depth of 12
5.160 A 5.3-acre wastewater pond serves a population of ft, and the desired F/M ratio is 0.5, what is the desired
1,733. What is the population loading on the pond in MLVSS concentration (mg/L) in the aeration tank?
persons per acre? 5.175 A sedimentation tank 80 ft by 25 ft receives a flow of
5.161 A wastewater pond serves a population of 4,112. If 2.0 MGD. What is the surface overflow rate in gpd/
the pond is 10 acres, what is the population loading da ft?
on the pond? 5.176 The total water filtered during a filter run (between
5.162 A 381,000-gpd wastewater flow has a BOD concen- backwashes) is 1,785,000 gal. If the filter is 25 ft by
tration of 1,765 mg/L. Using an average of 0.2 lbs/ 20 ft, what is the unit filter run volume (UFRV) in
day BOD/person, what is the population equivalent gallons/sq ft?
of this wastewater flow? 5.177 The volume of an aeration tank is 310,000 gal. The
5.163 A wastewater pound is designed to serve a popula- mixed liquor volatile suspended solids is 1920 mg/L.
tion of 6,000. If the desired population loading is 420 If the aeration tank receives a primary effluent flow
persons per acre, how many acres of pond will be of 2,690,000 gpd with a COD of 150 mg/L, what is
required? the F/M ratio?
5.164 A 100,000-gpd wastewater flow has a BOD content 5.178 A total of 24,500 gal of digested sludge is in a digester.
of 2,210 mg/L. Using an average of 0.2 lbs/day BOD/ The digested sludge contains 5.5% solids and 56%
person, what is the population equivalent of this flow? volatile solids. To maintain a desired volatile loading
5.165 A circular clarifier has a diameter of 80 ft. If the pri- ratio or 0.09 lbs volatile solids added/day/lb volatile
mary effluent flow is 2.25 MGD, what is the surface solids under digestion, what is the desired lbs volatile
overflow rate in gpd/sq ft? solids/day loading to the digester?
5.166 A filter has a square foot area of 190 sq ft. If the flow 5.179 The flow to a filter is 4.44 MGD. If the filter is 40 ft
rate to the filter is 2,960 gpm, what is this filter back- by 30 ft, what is the filter-loading rate in gpm/sq ft?
wash rate expressed as gpm/sq ft? 5.180 An 80-ft diameter trickling filter with a media depth
5.167 The flow rate to a circular clarifier is 2,100,000 gpd. of 4 ft receives a primary effluent flow of 3.3 MGD
If the diameter of the weir is 80 ft, what is the weir with a BOD concentration of 115 mg/L. What is the
overflow rate in gpd/ft? organic loading on the filter in lbs BOD/day/1,000 cu
5.168 A trickling filter, 90 ft in diameter, treats a primary ft?
effluent flow of 2.8 MGD. If the recirculated flow to 5.181 A circular clarifier receives a flow of 2.56 MGD. If
the clarifier is 0.5 MGD, what is the hydraulic load- the diameter of the weir is 80 ft, what is the weir
ing on the trickling filter in gpd/sq ft? overflow rate in gpd/ft?
5.169 The desired F/M ratio at an activated sludge plant is 5.182 A 5.5-acre wastewater pond serves a population of
0.7 lbs BOD/day/lb mixed liquor volatile suspended 1900. What is the population loading on the pond
solids. If the 2.1-MGD primary effluent flow has a (people/acre)?
BOD of 161 mg/L, how many lbs of MLVSS should 5.183 A rotating biological contactor (RBC) receives a
be maintained in the aeration tank? flow of 2.44 MGD. If the soluble BOD of the influent
5.170 A digester contains a total of 182,000 lbs sludge that wastewater to the RBC is 140 mg/L and the surface
has a total solids content of 6.4% and volatile solids area of the media is 750,000 sq ft, what is the organic
of 67%. If 500 lbs/day volatile solids are added to loading rate in lbs Soluble BOD/day/1000 sq ft?
the digester, what is the volatile solids loading on the 5.184 A filter 40-ft by 30 ft treats a flow of 4.15 MGD.
digester in lbs/day volatile solids added/lb volatile What is the filter-loading rate in gpm/sq ft?
solids in the digester? 5.185 A flocculation basin is 8-ft deep, 16-ft wide, and 30 ft
5.171 A secondary clarifier is 80 ft in diameter and receives long. If the flow through the basin is 1.45 MGD, what
a combined primary effluent and return activated is the detention time in minutes?
sludge (RAS) flow of 3.58 MGD. If the MLSS con- 5.186 The flow to a sedimentation tank 80-ft long, 20 ft
centration in the aerator is 2,760 mg/L, what is the wide, and 12 ft deep is 1.8 MGD. What is the deten-
solids loading rate on the secondary clarifier in lbs/ tion time in the tank in hours?
day/sq ft? 5.187 A basin, 3 ft by 4 ft, is to be filled to the 3-ft level. If
5.172 A digester, 70 ft in diameter with a water depth of 21 the flow to the tank is 6 gpm, how long will it take to
ft, receives 115,000-lbs/day raw sludge. If the sludge fill the tank (in hours)?
contains 7.1% solids with 70% volatile solids, what is 5.188 The flow rate to a circular clarifier is 5.20 MGD. If
the digester loading in lbs volatile solids added/day/ the clarifier is 80 ft in diameter with water to a depth
cu ft volume? of 10 ft, what is the detention time, hours?
5.173 A 25-acre pond receives a flow of 4.15 acre-feet/day. 5.189 A waste treatment pond is operated at a depth of 6
What is the hydraulic loading on the pond in in./day? ft. The average width of the pond is 500 ft and the
average length is 600 ft. If the flow to the pond is 5.198 The volume of an aeration tank is 800,000 gal and
222,500 gpd, what is the detention time, in days? the final clarifier is 170,000 gal. The desired solids
5.190 An aeration tank has a total of 12,300 lbs of mixed retention time (SRT) for the plant is 8 days. The pri-
liquor suspended solids. If a total of 2750 lbs/day mary effluent flow is 2.6 MGD and the WAS pump-
suspended solids enter the aerator in the primary ing rate is 32,000 gpd. If the WAS SS concentration
effluent flow, what is the sludge age in the aeration is 6,340 mg/L and the secondary effluent SS concen-
tank? tration is 20 mg/L, what is the MLSS concentration
5.191 An aeration tank is 110 ft long, 30 ft wide with waste- in mg/L?
water to a depth of 20 ft. The mixed liquor suspended 5.199 The flow to a sedimentation tank 75 ft long, 30 ft
solids concentration is 2,820 mg/L. If the primary wide and 14 ft deep is 1,640,000 gpd. What is the
effluent flow is 988,000 gpd with a suspended solids detention time in the tank in hours?
concentration of 132 mg/L, what is the sludge age in 5.200 An aeration tank has a total of 12,600 lbs of mixed
the aeration tank? liquor suspended solids. If a total of 2,820 lbs/day
5.192 An aeration tank contains 200,000 gal of wastewa- suspended solids enter the aeration tank in the pri-
ter. The MLSS is 2,850 mg/L. If the primary effluent mary effluent flow, what is the sludge age in the aera-
flow is 1.52 MGD with a suspended solids concentration tank?
tion of 84 mg/L, what is the sludge age? 5.201 An aeration tank has a volume of 310,000 gal. The
5.193 The 2.10-MGD primary effluent flow to an aera- final clarifier has a volume of 170,000 gal. The
tion tank has a suspended solids concentration of 80 MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is 3,120
mg/L. The aeration tank volume is 205,000 gal. If a mg/L. If a total of 1,640 lbs/day suspended solids are
sludge age of 6 days is desired, what is the desired wasted and 320 lbs/day suspended solids are in the
MLSS concentration? secondary effluent, what is the solids retention time
5.194 A sludge age of 5.5 days is desired. Assume 1610 lbs/ for the activated sludge system?
day suspended solids enter the aeration tank in the 5.202 The flow through a flocculation basin is 1.82 MGD.
primary effluent. To maintain the desired sludge age, If the basin is 40 ft long, 20 ft wide, and 10 ft deep,
how many lbs of MLSS must be maintained in the what is the detention time in minutes?
aeration tank? 5.203 Determine the solids retention time given the data
5.195 An aeration tank has a volume of 320,000 gal. The below.
final clarifier has a volume of 180,000 gallons. The Aeration Volume—220,000 gal MLSS—2,810 mg/L
MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is 3,300 Final Clarifier Volume—115,000 gal WAS
mg/L. If a total of 1610 lbs/day suspended solids are SS—6,100 mg/L
wasted and 340 lbs/day suspended solids are in the Population Equivalent Flow—2,400,000 gpd Sec.
secondary effluent, what is the solids retention time Effluent SS—18 mg/L
for the activated sludge system? Use the solids reten- WAS Pumping Rate—18,900 gpd
tion equation that uses combined aeration tank and 5.204 The mixed liquor suspended solids concentration in
final clarifier volumes to estimate system solids. an aeration tank is 3,250 mg/L. The aeration tank
5.196 Determine the solids retention time (SRT) given the contains 330,000 gal. If the primary effluent flow is
data below. Use the solids retention time equation 2,350,000 gpd with suspended solids concentrations
that uses combined aeration tank and final clarifier of 100 mg/L, what is the sludge age?
volumes to estimate system solids. 5.205 Calculate the solids retention time given the follow-
Aerator Volume—250,000 gal MLSS—2,750 mg/L ing data:
Final Clarifier Volume—110,000 gal WAS SS—5,410 Aeration Tank Volume—1.5 MG MLSS—2,408
mg/L mg/L
Population Estimate Flow—2.35 MGD Secondary Final Clarifier Volume—0.4 MG WAS SS—6,320
Effluent SS—16 mg/L mg/L
WAS Pumping Rate—19,200 gpd Population Equivalent Flow—2.85 MGD Secondary
5.197 Calculate the solids retention time given the data Effluent SS—25 mg/L
below. Use the SRT equation that uses combined WAS Pumping Rate—71,200 gpd
aeration tank and final clarifier volumes to estimate 5.206 An aeration tank is 80 ft long, 25 ft wide, with waste-
system solids. water to a depth of 10 ft. The mixed liquor suspended
Aeration Tank Volume—1.4 MG MLSS—2,550 solids concentration is 2,610 mg/L. If the influent
mg/L flow to the aeration tank is 920,000 gpd with a sus-
Final Clarifier Volume—0.4 MG WAS SS—6,240 pended solids concentration of 140 mg/L, what is the
mg/L sludge age in the aeration tank?
Population Equivalent Flow—2.8 MGD Sec. Effluent 5.207 A tank 6-ft in diameter is to be filled to the 4-ft level.
SS—20 mg/L If the flow to the tank is 12 gpm, how long will it
WAS Pumping Rate—85,000 gpd take to fill the tank (in minutes)?
5.208 A sludge age of 6 days is desired. The suspended sludge flow of 4,100 gpd that has a solids content of
solids concentration of the 2.14-MGD influent flow 3.6%. What is the percent solids content of the mixed
to the aeration tank is 140 mg/L. To maintain the sludge flow? Assume the density of both sludges is
desired sludge age, how many pounds of MLSS must 8.34 lbs/gal.
be maintained in the aeration tank? 5.221 Primary and thickened secondary sludges are to be
5.209 The average width of a pond is 400 ft and the average mixed and sent to the digester. The 8100-gpd pri-
length is 440 ft. The depth is 6 ft. If the flow to the pond mary sludge has a solids content of 5.1% and the
is 200,000 gpd, what is the detention time in days? 7000-gpd thickened secondary sludge has a solids
5.210 The volume of an aeration tank is 480,000 gal and content of 4.1%. What would be the percent solids
the volume of the final clarifier is 160,000 gal. The content of the mixed sludge? Assume the density of
desired solids retention time for the plant is 7 days. both sludges is 8.34 lbs/gal.
The primary effluent flow is 2,920,000 gpd and the 5.222 A 4750-gpd primary sludge has a solids content of 4.7%.
WAS pumping rate is 34,000 gpd. If the WAS SS The 5250-gpd thickened secondary sludge has a sol-
concentration is 6,310 mg/L, and the secondary ids content of 3.5%. If the sludges were blended, what
effluent SS concentration is 12 mg/L, what is the would be the percent solids content of the mixed sludge?
desired MLSS concentration in mg/L? Assume the density of both sludges is 8.34 lbs/gal.
5.211 The suspended solids concentration entering a trick- 5.223 A primary sludge flow of 8,925 gpd with a solids
ling filter is 110 mg/L. If the suspended solids con- content of 4.0% is mixed with a thickened secondary
centration in the trickling filter effluent is 21 mg/L, sludge flow of 11,340 gpd with 6.6% solids content.
what is suspended solids removal efficiency of the What is the percent solids of the combined sludge flow?
trickling filter? Assume the density of both sludges is 8.34 lbs/gal.
5.212 The BOD concentration of the raw wastewater at an 5.224 If 3,250 lbs/day solids with a volatile solids content
activated sludge plant is 230 mg/L. If the BOD con- of 65% are sent to the digester, how many lbs/day
centration of the final effluent is 14 mg/L, what is the volatile solids are sent to the digester?
overall efficiency of the plant in BOD removal? 5.225 A total of 4,120 gpd of sludge is to be pumped to
5.213 The influent flow to a waste treatment pond has a the digester. If the sludge has 7% solids content with
BOD content of 260 mg/L. If the pond effluent has a 70% volatile solids, how many lbs/day volatile sol-
BOD content of 60 mg/L, what is the BOD removal ids are pumped to the digester? Assume the sludge
efficiency of the pond? weighs 8.34 lbs/gal.
5.214 The suspended solids concentration of the primary 5.226 The static water level for a well is 91 ft. If the pump-
clarifier influent is 310 mg/L. If the suspended solids ing water level is 98 ft, what is the well drawdown?
concentration of the primary effluent is 135 mg/L, 5.227 The static water level for a well is 110 ft. The pump-
what is the suspended solids removal efficiency? ing water level is 125 ft. What is the well drawdown?
5.215 A total of 3,700 gal of sludge are pumped to a 5.228 Before the pump is started, the water level is mea-
digester. If the sludge has a 4.9% solids content, how sured at 144 ft. The pump is then started. If the
many lbs/day solids are pumped to the digester? pumping water level is determined to be 161 ft, what
Assume the sludge weighs 8.34 lbs/gal. is the well drawdown?
5.216 The total weight of a sludge sample is 12.87 g (sam- 5.229 The static water level of a well is 86 ft. The pumping
ple only, not the dish). If the weight of the solids after water level is determined using the sounding line.
drying is 0.87 g, what is the percent total solids of the The air pressure applied to the sounding line is 3.7
sludge? psi and the length of the sound line is 112 ft. What is
5.217 A total of 1450 lbs/day suspended solids are removed the drawdown?
from a primary clarifier and pumped to a sludge 5.230 A sounding line is used to determine the static water
thickener. If the sludge has a solids content of 3.3%, level for a well. The air pressure applied to 4.6 psi
how many lbs/day sludge is this? and the length of the sounding line is 150 ft. If the
5.218 It is anticipated that 258 lbs/day suspended solids pumping water level is 171 ft, what is the drawdown?
will be pumped from the primary clarifier of a new 5.231 If the well yield is 300 gpm and the drawdown is
plant. If the primary clarifier sludge has a solids con- measured to be 20 ft, what is the specific capacity?
tent of 4.4%, how many gpd sludge will be pumped 5.232 During a 5-min well yield test, a total of 420 gal
from the clarifier. Assume a sludge weight of 8.34 were pumped from the well. What is the well yield in
lbs/gal. gpm?
5.219 A total of 291,000 lbs/day sludge is pumped from a 5.233 Once the drawdown of a well stabilized, it was deter-
primary clarifier to a sludge thickener. If the total mined that the well produced 810 gal during a 5-min
solids content of the sludge is 3.6%, how many lbs/ pumping test. What is the well yield in gpm?
day total solids are sent to the thickener? 5.234 During a test for well yield, a total of 856 gal were
5.220 A primary sludge flow of 3,100 gpd with a solids pumped from the well. If the well yield test lasted 5
content of 4.4% is mixed with a thickened secondary min, what was the well yield in gpm? In gph?
5.235 A bailer is used to determine the approximate yield the well if a chlorine concentration of 60 mg/L is
of a well. The bailer is 12 ft long and has a diam- desired?
eter of 12 in. If the bailer is placed in the well and 5.249 The pressure gage reading at a pump discharge is 4.0
removed a total of 12 times during a 5-min test, what psi. What is this discharge head expressed in feet?
is the well yield in gpm? 5.250 The static water level of a well is 94 ft. The well
5.236 During a 5-min well yield test, a total of 750 gal of drawdown is 24 ft. If the gauge reading at the pump
water were pumped from the well. At this yield, if discharge head is 3.6 psi, what is the field head?
the pump is operated a total of 10 h each day, how 5.251 A pond has an average length of 400 ft, an average
many gallons of water are pumped daily? width of 110 ft, and an estimated average depth of
5.237 The discharge capacity of a well is 200 gpm. If the 14 ft. What is the estimated volume of the pond in
drawdown is 28 ft, what is the specific yield in gpm/ gallons?
ft of drawdown? 5.252 A pond has an average length of 400 ft and an aver-
5.238 A well produces 620 gpm. If the drawdown for the age width of 110 ft. If the maximum depth of the
well is 21 ft, what is the specific yield in gpm/ft of pond is 30 ft, what is the estimated gallon volume of
drawdown? the pond?
5.239 A well yields 1,100 gpm. If the drawdown is 41.3 ft, 5.253 A pond has an average length of 200 ft, an average
what is the specific yield in gpm/ft of drawdown? width of 80 ft, and an average depth of 12 ft. What is
5.240 The specific yield of a well is listed as 33.4 gpm/ft. If the acre-feet volume of the pond?
the drawdown for the well is 42.8 ft, what is the well 5.254 A small pond has an average length of 320 ft, an
yield in gpm? average width of 170 ft, and a maximum depth of 16
5.241 A new well is to be disinfected with chlorine at a ft. What is the acre-feet volume of the pond?
dosage of 40 mg/L. If the well casing diameter is 6 5.255 For alga control in a reservoir, a dosage of 0.5-mg/L
in. and the length of the water-filed casing is 140 ft, copper is desired. The reservoir has a volume of 20
how many pounds of chlorine will be required? MG. How many pounds of copper sulfate pentahy-
5.242 A new well with a casing diameter of 12 in. is to be drate (25% available copper) will be required?
disinfected. The desired chlorine dosage is 40 mg/L. 5.256 The static water level for a well is 93.5 ft. If the pump-
If the casing is 190 ft long and the water level in ing water level is 131.5 ft, what is the drawdown?
the well is 81 ft from the top of the well, how many 5.257 During a 5-min well yield test, a total of 707 gal
pounds of chlorine will be required? were pumped from the well. What is the well yield in
5.243 An existing well has a total casing length of 210 ft. gpm? In gph?
The top 180-ft of casing has a 12-in. diameter and 5.258 A bailer is used to determine the approximate yield
the bottom 40-ft of the casing has an 8-in. diameter. of a well. The bailer is 12 ft long and has a diam-
The water level is 71 ft from the top of the well. How eter of 12 in. If the bailer is placed in the well and
many pounds of chlorine will be required if a chlo- removed a total of 8 times during a 5-min test, what
rine dosage of 110 mg/L is desired? is the well yield in gpm?
5.244 The water-filled casing of a well has a volume of 540 5.259 The static water level in a well is 141 ft. The pumping
gal. If 0.48 lbs of chlorine were used in disinfection, water level is determined using the sounding line.
what was the chlorine dosage in mg/L? The air pressure applied to the sounding line is 3.5
5.245 A total of 0.09 pounds of chlorine are required psi and the length of the sounding line is 167 ft. What
for the disinfection of a well. If sodium hypochlo- is the drawdown?
rite (5.25% available chlorine) is to be used, how 5.260 A well produces 610 gpm. If the drawdown for the
many fluid ounces of sodium hypochlorite are well is 28 ft, what is the specific yield in gpm/ft of
required? drawdown?
5.246 A new well is to be disinfected with calcium hypo- 5.261 A new well is to be disinfected with a chlorine dose
chlorite (65% available chlorine). The well casing of 55 mg/L. If the well casing diameter is 6 in. and
diameter is 6 in. and the length of the water-filled the length of the water-filled casing is 150 ft, how
casing is 120 ft. If the desired chlorine dosage is 50 many pounds of chlorine will be required?
g/L, how many ounces (dry measure) of calcium 5.262 During a 5-min well yield test, a total of 780 gal of
hypochlorite will be required? water were pumped from the well. At this yield, if
5.247 How many pounds of chloride of lime (25% avail- the pump is operated a total of 8 h each day, how
able chlorine) will be required to disinfect a well if many gallons of water are pumped daily?
the casing is 18 in.diameter and 200 ft long with a 5.263 The water-filled casing of a well has a volume of 610
water level at 95 ft from the top of the well? The gal. If 0.47 lbs of chlorine were used for disinfection,
desired chlorine dosage is 100 mg/L. what was the chlorine dosage in mg/L?
5.248 The water-filled casing of a well has a volume of 240 5.264 An existing well has a total casing length of 230 ft.
gal. How many fluid ounces of sodium hypochlorite The top 170ft of casing has a 12-in. diameter and
(5.25% available chlorine) are required to disinfect the bottom 45-ft of casing has an 8-in. diameter. The
water level is 81 ft from the top of the well. How 5.269 A flash mix chamber is 5 ft square with water to a
many pounds of chlorine will be required if a chlo- depth of 42 in. What is the volume of water in the
rine dosage of 100 mg/L is desired? flash mixing chamber (in gallons)?
5.265 A total of 0.3 lbs of chlorine is required for the disin- 5.270 A flocculation basin is 25 ft wide, 40 ft long and con-
fection of a well. If sodium hypochlorite is to be used tains water to a depth of 9 ft 2 in. What is the volume
(5.25% available chlorine), how many fluid ounces of of water (in gallons) in the flocculation basin?
sodium hypochlorite are required?
5.266 A flash mix chamber is 4 ft wide, 5 ft long, with
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READING
water to a depth of 3 ft. What is the gallon volume of
water in the flash mix chamber? APHA, 2012. Standard Methods for Examination of Water &
5.267 A flocculation basin is 50 ft long, 20 ft wide, with Wastewater, 22nd ed. Washington, DC: American Public
water to a depth of 8 ft. What is the volume of water Health Association.
AWWA and ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers),
in the basin (in gallons)? 1990. Water Treatment Plant Design, 2nd ed. New York:
5.268 A flocculation basin is 40 ft long, 16 ft wide, with McGraw-Hill.
water to a depth of 8-ft. How many gallons of water Price, J.M., 1991. Applied Math for Wastewater Plant Operators.
are in the basin? Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
6 Water Hydraulics
Beginning students of water hydraulics and its princi- most familiar hydraulic fluid power systems in water/waste-
ples often come to the subject matter with certain mis- water operations are used on dump trucks, front-end loaders,
givings. For example, water and wastewater operators graders, and earth-moving and excavations equipment. In this
quickly learn on the job that their primary operational/ text, we are concerned with liquid water.
maintenance concerns involve a daily routine of moni- Many find the study of water hydraulics difficult and puz-
toring, sampling, laboratory testing, operation, and pro- zling (especially the licensure examination questions), but we
cess maintenance. How does water hydraulics relate to know it is not mysterious or difficult. It is the function or output
daily operations? The hydraulic functions of the treat- of practical applications of the basic principles of water physics
ment process have already been designed into the plant. that is difficult. Because water/wastewater treatment is based on
Why learn water hydraulics at all? the principles of water hydraulics, concise, real-world training is
necessary for operators who must operate the plant and for those
Simply put, while having hydraulic control of the plant
sitting for state licensure/certification examinations.
is obviously essential to the treatment process, main-
taining and ensuring continued hydraulic control is also
essential. No water/wastewater facility (and/or distri- BASIC CONCEPTS
bution collection system) can operate without proper
hydraulic control. To ensure proper hydraulic control, Air Pressure (@ Sea Level )
the operator must know what hydraulic control is and
= 14.7 pounds per square inch ( psi )
what it entails. Moreover, in order to understand the
basics of piping and pumping systems, water and waste-
This relationship shown above is important because our study
water maintenance operators must have a fundamental
of hydraulics begins with air. A blanket of air, many miles
knowledge of basic water hydraulics.
thick, surrounds the earth. The weight of this blanket on a
—Spellman & Drinan (2001) given square inch of the earth’s surface will vary according
to the thickness of the atmospheric blanket above that point.
Note: The practice and study of water hydraulics is
As shown above, at sea level, the pressure exerted is 14.7
not new. Even in medieval times, water hydraulics
pounds per square inch (psi). On a mountaintop, air pressure
was not new. “Medieval Europe had inherited a highly
decreases because the blanket is not as thick.
developed range of Roman hydraulic components”
(Magnusson, 2001). The basic conveyance technology,
based on low-pressure systems of pipe and channels, 1 ft 3 H 2 O = 62.4 lb
was already established. In studying “modern” water
hydraulics, it is important to remember that the science The relationship shown above is also important: both cubic feet
of water hydraulics is the direct result of two immediate and pounds are used to describe a volume of water. There is
and enduring problems: “The acquisition of freshwater a defined relationship between these two methods of measure-
and access to a continuous strip of land with a suit- ment. The specific weight of water is defined relative to a cubic
able gradient between the source and the destination” foot. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. This relation-
(Magnusson, 2001). ship is true only at a temperature of 4°C and at a pressure of one
atmosphere, conditions referred to as standard temperature and
pressure (STP). Note that 1 atmosphere = 14.7 lb/in.2 at sea level
and 1 ft3of water contains 7.48 gal. The weight varies so little
WHAT IS WATER HYDRAULICS? that, for practical purposes, this weight is used for temperatures
The word hydraulic is derived from the Greek words “hydro” ranging from 0°C to 100°C. One cubic inch of water weighs
(meaning water) and “aulis” (meaning pipe). Originally, the 0.0362 lb. Water 1 ft deep will exert a pressure of 0.43 lb/in.2 on
term hydraulics referred only to the study of water at rest the bottom area (12 in × 0.0362 lb/in.3). A column of water 2 ft
and in motion (flow of water in pipes or channels). Today it is high exerts 0.86 psi (2 ft × 0.43 psi/ft); and one 55 ft high exerts
taken to mean the flow of any “liquid” in a system. 23.65 psi (55 ft × 0.43 psi/ft). A column of water 2.31 ft high will
What is a liquid? In terms of hydraulics, a liquid can be exert 1.0 psi (2.31 ft × 0.43 psi/ft). To produce a pressure of 50 psi
either oil or water. In fluid power systems used in modern requires a 115.5-ft water column (50 psi × 2.31 ft/psi).
industrial equipment, the hydraulic liquid of choice is oil. Remember the important points being made here (see
Some common examples of hydraulic fluid power systems Figure 9.1):
include automobile braking and power steering systems,
hydraulic elevators, and hydraulic jacks or lifts. Probably the 1 ft 3 H 2O = 62.4 lb
191
1. A column of water 2.31 ft high will exert 1.0 psi p = w ´h

= 62.4 lb/ft 3 ´ 18 ft
Another relationship is also important:
2
= 1123 lb/ft or 1123 psf
1 gal H 2O = 8.34 lb
Water/wastewater operators generally measure pres-
At standard temperature and pressure, 1 ft3 of water contains sure in pounds per square inch rather than pounds per
7.48 gal. With these two relationships, we can determine the square foot; to convert, divide by 144 in2/ft 2 (12 in × 12
weight of one gallon of water. This is accomplished by: in = 144 in2):
Weight of gal of water = 62.4 lb ¸ 7.48 gal 1123 psf

p= = 7.8 lb/in2 or psi (rounded)
144 in2 /ft 2
= 8.34 lb/gal
Thus,
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
1 gal H 2O = 8.34 lb Table 6.1 shows the relationship between temperature, specific
weight, and density of water. When we say that iron is heavier
Note: Further, this information allows cubic feet to be con- than aluminum, we say that iron has greater density than alu-
verted to gallons by simply multiplying the number of cubic minum. In practice, what we are really saying is that a given
feet by 7.48 gal/ft3. volume of iron is heavier than the same volume of aluminum.
Suppose you had a tub of lard and a large box of cold cereal,
each having a mass of 600 g. The density of the cereal would
Example 6.1
be much less than the density of the lard because the cereal
Problem: Find the number of gallons in a reservoir that has
occupies a much larger volume than the lard occupies. The
a volume of 855.5 ft3. density of an object can be calculated by using the formula:
SOLUTION: Mass
Density = (6.2)
Volume
855.5 ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 = 6,399 gal (rounded)
In water and wastewater treatment, perhaps the most com-
Note: As mentioned earlier, the term head is used to des- mon measures of density are pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) and
ignate water pressure in terms of the height of a column of pounds per gallon (lb/gal):
water in feet. For example, a 10-ft column of water exerts
4.3 psi. This can be called 4.3-psi pressure or 10 ft of head. • 1 cu ft of water weighs 62.4 lb—Density = 62.4 lb/
cu/ft
Stevin’s Law • One gallon of water weighs 8.34 lb—Density = 8.34
lb/gal
Stevin’s Law deals with water at rest. Specifically, the law
states: “The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest depends on
the distance measured vertically to the free surface and the TABLE 6.1
density of the fluid.” Stated as a formula, this becomes, Water Properties (Temperature, Specific Weight and
Density)
p = w ´ h (6.1)
Specific Density Specific Density
Temperature Weight (slugs/ Temperature Weight (slugs/
where (°F) (lb/ft3) ft3) (°F) (lb/ft3) ft3)
p = pressure in pounds per square foot (psf)
32 62.4 1.94 130 61.5 1.91
w = density in pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
40 62.4 1.94 140 61.4 1.91
h = vertical distance in feet
50 62.4 1.94 150 61.2 1.90
60 62.4 1.94 160 61.0 1.90
Example 6.2 70 62.3 1.94 170 60.8 1.89
80 62.2 1.93 180 60.6 1.88
Problem: What is the pressure at a point 18 ft below the 90 62.1 1.93 190 60.4 1.88
surface of a reservoir? 100 62.0 1.93 200 60.1 1.87
110 61.9 1.92 210 59.8 1.86
SOLUTION: 120 61.7 1.92
To calculate this, we must know that the density of the Note: What is density? Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
water (w) is 62.4 lb/ft3.
Water Hydraulics 193
The density of a dry material, such as cereal, lime, soda, and with a specific gravity of less than 0.98 or greater than 1.02,
sand, is usually expressed in pounds per cubic foot. The density the conversions from gallons to pounds must consider specific
of a liquid, such as liquid alum, liquid chlorine, or water, can be gravity. The technique is illustrated in the following example.
expressed either as pounds per cubic foot or as pounds per gal-
lon. The density of a gas, such as chlorine gas, methane, carbon
Example 6.4
dioxide, or air, is usually expressed in pounds per cubic foot.
As shown in Table 6.1, the density of a substance like water Problem: There are 1,455 gal of a certain liquid in a basin.
changes slightly as the temperature of the substance changes. If the specific gravity of the liquid is 0.94, how many
This occurs because substances usually increase in volume pounds of liquid are in the basin?
(size—they expand) as they become warmer. Because of this
expansion with warming, the same weight is spread over a SOLUTION:
larger volume, so the density is lower when a substance is
Normally, for a conversion from gallons to pounds, we
warm than when it is cold. would use the factor 8.34 lb/gal (the density of water) if
Note: What is specific gravity? Specific gravity is the weight the substance’s specific gravity was between 0.98 and
(or density) of a substance compared to the weight (or density) of 1.02. However, in this instance, the substance has a spe-
an equal volume of water. The specific gravity of water is 1. cific gravity outside this range, so the 8.34 factor must be
This relationship is easily seen when a cubic foot of water, adjusted by multiplying 8.34 lb/gal by the specific gravity
which weighs 62.4 lb, is compared to a cubic foot of aluminum, to obtain the adjusted factor:
which weighs 178 lb. Aluminum is 2.8 times heavier than water.
It is not that difficult to find the specific gravity of a piece Step 1: (8.34 lb/gal) (0.94) = 7.84 lb/gal (rounded)
of metal. All you have to do is to weigh the metal in air, then Step 2:Then convert 1,455 gal to pounds using the
corrected factor:
weigh it under water. Its loss of weight is the weight of an
equal volume of water. To find the specific gravity, divide the
(1, 455 gal) (7.84 lb /gal) = 11, 407 lb (rounded)
weight of the metal by its loss of weight in water.
Weight of Substance FORCE AND PRESSURE

Specific Gravity = (6.3)
Weight of Equal Volume of Water Water exerts force and pressure against the walls of its con-
tainer, whether it is stored in a tank or flowing in a pipeline.
Force and pressure are different, although they are closely
Example 6.3 related. Force is the push or pull influence that causes motion.
In the English system, force and weight are often used in the
Problem: Suppose a piece of metal weighs 150 lb in air same way. The weight of a cubic foot of water is 62.4 lb. The
and 85 lb under water. What is the specific gravity?
force exerted on the bottom of a one-foot cube is 62.4 lb. If we
stack two cubes on top of one another, the force on the bottom
SOLUTION:
will be 124.8 pounds. Pressure is a force per unit of area. In
Step 1: 150 lbs subtract 85 lbs = 65 lbs loss of weight equation form, this can be expressed as:
in water
150 F
Step 2: specific gravity = = 2 .3 P= (6.4)
65 A
Note: In a calculation of specific gravity, it is essential that where
the densities be expressed in the same units. P = pressure
F = force
As stated earlier, the specific gravity of water is 1, which A = area over which the force is distributed
is the standard, the reference that all other liquid or solid sub-
stances are compared. Specifically, any object that has a spe- Earlier we pointed out that pounds per square inch (lb/in.2 or
cific gravity greater than one will sink in water (rocks, steel, psi) or pounds per square foot (lb/ft2) are common expressions
iron, grit, floc, sludge). Substances with a specific gravity of of pressure. The pressure on the bottom of the cube is 62.4 lbs/
less than 1 will float (wood, scum, and gasoline). Considering ft2. It is normal to express pressure in pounds per square inch
the total weight and volume of a ship, its specific gravity is (psi). This is easily accomplished by determining the weight of
less than one; therefore, it can float. 1 in.2 of 1-ft cube. If we have a cube that is 12 in. on each side,
The most common use of specific gravity in water/waste- the number of square inches on the bottom surface of the cube
water treatment operations is in gallons-to-pounds conver- is 12 × 12 = 144 in2. Dividing the weight by the number of square
sions. In many cases, the liquids being handled have a specific inches determines the weight on each square inch.
gravity of 1.00 or very nearly 1.00 (between 0.98 and 1.02),
62.4 lb/ft
so 1.00 may be used in the calculations without introducing psi = = 0.433 psi/ft
significant error. However, in calculations involving a liquid 144 in 2
This is the weight of a column of water 1 in. square and 1 ft momentarily higher than that in any of the other containers,
tall. If the column of water were 2 ft tall, the pressure would the higher pressure at the bottom of this container would
be 2 ft × 0.433 psi/ft = 0.866. cause some water to flow into the container having the lower
Note: 1 ft of water = 0.433 psi liquid level. In addition, the pressure of the water at any
With the above information, feet of head can be converted level (such as Line T) is the same in each of the containers.
to psi by multiplying the feet of head times 0.433 psi/ft. Pressure increases because of the weight of the water. The
farther down from the surface, the more pressure is created.
This illustrates that the weight, not the volume, of water con-
Example 6.5 tained in a vessel determines the pressure at the bottom of
the vessel.
Problem: A tank is mounted at a height of 90 ft. Find the
Nathanson (1997) pointed out some very important prin-
pressure at the bottom of the tank.
ciples that always apply for hydrostatic pressure.
SOLUTION:
1. The pressure depends only on the depth of water
90 ft ´ 0.433 psi/ft = 39 psi (rounded) above the point in question (not on the water surface
area).
Note: To convert psi to feet, you would divide the psi by 2. The pressure increases in direct proportion to the
0.433 psi/ft.
depth.
3. The pressure in a continuous volume of water is the
Example 6.6 same at all points that are at the same depth.
4. The pressure at any point in the water acts in all
Problem: Find the height of water in a tank if the pressure directions at the same depth.
at the bottom of the tank is 22 psi.
SOLUTION: Effects of Water under Pressure

22 psi 20Hauser (1995) points out that water under pressure and in
height in feet = = 51 ft (rounded) motion can exert tremendous forces inside a pipeline. One
0.433 psi/ft
of these forces, called hydraulic shock or water hammer, is
Important Point: One of the problems encountered in a the momentary increase in pressure that occurs when there
hydraulic system is storing the liquid. Unlike air, which is a sudden change of direction or velocity of the water.
is readily compressible and is capable of being stored in When a rapidly closing valve suddenly stops water flowing
large quantities in relatively small containers, a liquid such
in a pipeline, pressure energy is transferred to the valve and
as water cannot be compressed. Therefore, it is not pos-
sible to store a large amount of water in a small tank, as
pipe wall. Shock waves are set up within the system. Waves
62.4 lb of water occupies a volume of 1 ft3, regardless of of pressure move in horizontal yo-yo fashion—back and
the pressure applied to it. forth—against any solid obstacles in the system. Neither the
water nor the pipe will compress to absorb the shock, which
may result in damage to pipes and valves and in shaking off
Hydrostatic Pressure loose fittings.
Figure 6.1 shows a number of differently shaped, connected, Another effect of water under pressure is called thrust.
open containers of water. Note that the water level is the Thrust is the force that water exerts on a pipeline as it rounds
same in each container, regardless of the shape or size of a bend. As shown in Figure 6.2, thrust usually acts perpen-
the container. This occurs because pressure is developed, dicular (at 90°) to the inside surface it pushes against. It
within water (or any other liquid), by the weight of the water affects not only bends, but also reducers, dead ends, and tees.
above. If the water level in any one container were to be Uncontrolled, the thrust can cause movement in the fitting or
Liquid
level
FIGURE 6.1 Hydrostatic pressure.

pipeline, which will lead to separation of the pipe coupling HEAD

away from both sections of pipeline, or at some other nearby
coupling upstream or downstream of the fitting. Head is defined as the vertical distance the water/wastewa-
Two types of devices commonly used to control thrust in ter must be lifted from the supply tank to the discharge, or
larger pipelines are thrust blocks and thrust anchors. A thrust as the height a column of water would rise due to the pres-
block is a mass of concrete cast in place onto the pipe and sure at its base. A perfect vacuum plus atmospheric pressure
around the outside bend of the turn. An example is shown in of 14.7 psi would lift the water 34 ft. When the top of the
Figure 6.3. These are used for pipes with tees or elbows that sealed tube is opened to the atmosphere and the reservoir
turn left or right or slant upward. The thrust is transferred to is enclosed, the pressure in the reservoir is increased; the
the soil through the larger bearing surface of the block. A water will rise in the tube. Because atmospheric pressure
thrust anchor is a massive block of concrete, often a cube, is essentially universal, we usually ignore the first 14.7-
cast in place below the fitting to be anchored (see Figure 6.4). psi of actual pressure measurements, and measure only the
As shown in Figure 6.4, imbedded steel shackle rods anchor difference between the water pressure and the atmospheric
the fitting to the concrete block, effectively resisting upward pressure; we call this gauge pressure. For example, water
thrusts. The size and shape of a thrust control device depends in an open reservoir is subjected to the 14.7 psi of atmo-
on pipe size, type of fitting, water pressure, water hammer, spheric pressure; subtracting this 14.7 psi leaves a gauge
and soil type. pressure of 0 psi, indicating that the water would rise 0 ft
above the reservoir surface. If the gauge pressure in a water
main were 120 psi, the water would rise in a tube connected
to the main:
120 psi ´ 2.31 ft/psi = 277 ft (rounded)
The total head includes the vertical distance the liquid must
be lifted (static head), the loss to friction (friction head), and
the energy required to maintain the desired velocity (veloc-
ity head).
Total head = Static head + friction head

(6.5)
+ velocity head
Static Head
FIGURE 6.2 Direction of thrust in a pipe in a trench (viewed from
above). Static head is the actual vertical distance the liquid must be
lifted.
Top view Static head = Discharge elevation

(6.6)
- supply elevation
Example 6.7
Thrust Problem: The supply tank is located at elevation 118 ft.

The discharge point is at elevation 215 ft. What is the static
head in feet?
FIGURE 6.3 Thrust block.

SOLUTION:
Couplings
Static Head, ft = 215 ft - 118 ft = 97 ft
Friction Head
Friction head is the equivalent distance of the energy that
must be supplied to overcome friction. Engineering refer-
Thrust Shackle
ences include tables showing the equivalent vertical distance
direction rods for various sizes and distances for each component.
FIGURE 6.4 Thrust anchor. Friction head, ft = Energy losses due to friction (6.7)
Velocity Head Discharge (or flow) is the quantity of water passing a

given point in a pipe or channel during a given period. Stated
Velocity head is the equivalent distance of the energy con- another way for open channels, the flow rate through an open
sumed in achieving and maintaining the desired velocity in channel is directly related to the velocity of the liquid and the
the system. cross-sectional area of the liquid in the channel.
Velocity head, ft
(6.8) Q = A ´ V (6.12)
= Energy losses to maintain velocity
where
Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) Q = Flow—discharge in cubic feet per second (cfs)
A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe or channel (ft2)
Total head = Static head + friction head
(6.9) V = water velocity in feet per second (fps orft/sec)
+ velocity head
Pressure and Head Example 6.10
The pressure exerted by water and/or wastewater is directly Problem: The channel is 6 ft wide and the water depth is
proportional to its depth or head in the pipe, tank, or chan- 3 ft. The velocity in the channel is 4 fps. What is the dis-
nel. If the pressure is known, the equivalent head can be charge or flow rate in cubic feet per second?
calculated.
SOLUTION:
Head, ft = Pressure, psi ´ 2.31 ft/psi (6.10)
Flow, cfs = 6 ft ´ 3 ft ´ 4 ft/second = 72 cfs
Example 6.8 Discharge or flow can be recorded as gallons/day (gpd),

gallons/minute (gpm), or cubic feet (cfs). Flows treated by
Problem: The pressure gauge on the discharge line from many waterworks or wastewater treatment plants are large,
the influent pump reads 72.3 psi. What is the equivalent and often referred to in million gallons per day (MGD). The
head in feet? discharge or flow rate can be converted from cfs to other
units such as gallons per minute (gpm) or million gallons
SOLUTION: per day (MGD) by using appropriate conversion factors.
Head, ft = 72.3 ´ 2.31 ft/psi = 167 ft

Example 6.11
Head and Pressure Problem: A 12-in. diameter pipe has water flowing through
If the head is known, the equivalent pressure can be calcu- it at 10 fps. What is the discharge in (a) cfs, (b) gpm, and
lated by: (c) MGD?
SOLUTION:
Head, ft
Pressure, psi = (6.11)
2.31 ft/psi Before we can use the basic formula, we must determine the
area (A) of the pipe. The formula for the area of a circle is:
Example 6.9
D2
Area ( A ) = p ´ = p ´ r 2 (6.13)
Problem: A tank is 22 ft deep. What is the pressure in psi at 4
the bottom of the tank when it is filled with water?
Note: π is the constant value 3.14159 or simply 3.14.
SOLUTION: Where:
D = diameter of the circle in feet
22 ft r = radius of the circle in feet
Pressure, psi = = 9.52 psi (rounded)
2.31 ft/psi
Therefore, the area of the pipe is:
FLOW AND DISCHARGE RATES: D2 (1 ft )2

A=p = 3.14 ´ = 0.785 ft 2
WATER IN MOTION 4 4
The study of fluid flow is much more complicated than that

(a) Now we can determine the discharge in cfs:
of fluids at rest, but it is important to have an understand-
ing of these principles because the water in a waterworks and
Q = V ´ A = 10 ft/sec ´ 0.785 ft 2
distribution system and in a wastewater treatment plant and
collection system is nearly always in motion. = 7.85 ft 3 /sec or cfs
(b) We need to know that 1 cfs is 449 gpm, so 7.85 area of the channel or pipe. This principle provides the basis
cfs × 449 gpm/cfs = 3,525 gpm. (rounded) for many of the flow measurement devices used in open chan-
(c) 1 million gallons per day is 1.55 cfs, so: nels (weirs, flumes, and nozzles).
7.85 cfs
= 5.06 MGD
cfs Example 6.12
1.55
MGD
Problem: A pipe 12 in. in diameter is connected to a 6-in.-
Note: Flow may be laminar (streamline—see Figure 6.5) or
diameter pipe. The velocity of the water in the 12-in.-pipe
turbulent (see Figure 6.6). Laminar flow occurs at extremely
is 3 fps. What is the velocity in the 6-in. pipe?
low velocities. The water moves in straight, parallel lines,
called streamlines, or laminae, which slide upon each other
SOLUTION:
as they travel, rather than mixing up. Normal pipe flow is
turbulent flow, which occurs because of friction encoun- Using the equation A1V1 = A 2V2, we need to determine the
tered on the inside of the pipe. The outside layers of flow area of each pipe:
are thrown into the inner layers; the result is that all the
layers mix and are moving in different directions, and at dif- D2
12 in.: A = p ´
ferent velocities; However, the direction of flow is forward. 4
Note: Flow may be steady or unsteady. For our pur-
(1 ft )2
poses, we consider steady state flow only; that is, most of = 3.14 ´
the hydraulic calculations in this manual assume steady 4
state flow. = 0.785 ft 2
Area and Velocity (0.5)2

6 in.: A = 3.14 ´
4
The law of continuity states that the discharge at each point
in a pipe or channel is the same as the discharge at any other = 0.196 ft 2
point (if water does not leave or enter the pipe or channel).
The continuity equation now becomes:
That is, under the assumption of steady state flow, the flow
that enters the pipe or channel is the same flow that exits the
pipe or channel. In equation form, this becomes,
2 ft ö
(0.785 ft ) ´ æçè 3 sec ÷ = ( 0.196 ft ) ´ V
ø
2
2
Q1 = Q 2 or A1V1 = A 2 V2 (6.14) Solving for V2
Note: In regard to the area/velocity relationship, Equation 6.14 (0.785 ft 2 ) ´ (3 ft/sec)

V2 =
also makes clear that for a given flow rate the velocity of the (0.196 ft 2 )
liquid varies indirectly with changes in the cross-sectional
= 12 ft /sec or fps
Pressure and Velocity

In a closed pipe flowing full (under pressure), the pressure is
indirectly related to the velocity of the liquid. This principle,
B when combined with the principle discussed in the previous
section, forms the basis for several flow measurement devices
FIGURE 6.5 Laminar (streamline) flow. (Venturi meters and rotameters) as well as the injector used
for dissolving chlorine into water, and chlorine, sulfur diox-
ide, and/or other chemicals into wastewater.
Velocity1 ´ Pressure1 = Velocity2 ´ Pressure2 (6.15)
or
Streamline Turbulent
V1 P1 = V2 P2
PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE AND

BERNOULLI’S THEOREM
To keep the systems in your plant operating properly and effi-
FIGURE 6.6 Turbulent flow. ciently, you must understand the basics of hydraulics—the
laws of force, motion, and others. As stated previously, most In practice, a piezometer is connected to the side of a tank
applications of hydraulics in water/wastewater treatment or pipeline. If the water-containing vessel is not under pres-
systems involve water in motion—in pipes under pressure sure (as is the case in Figure 6.7), the piezometric surface will
or in open channels under the force of gravity. The volume be the same as the free water surface in the vessel, just as it
of water flowing past any given point in the pipe or channel would if a drinking straw (the piezometer) were left standing
per unit time is called the flow rate or discharge rate—or in a glass of water.
just flow. The continuity of flow and the continuity equa- When a tank and pipeline system is pressurized, as they
tion have been discussed (i.e., Equation 6.15). Along with often are, the pressure will cause the piezometric surface to
the continuity of flow principle and continuity equation, rise above the level of the water in the tank. The greater the
the law of conservation of energy, piezometric surface, and pressure, the higher the piezometric surface (see Figure 6.8).
Bernoulli’s theorem (or principle) are also important to our An increased pressure in a water pipeline system is usually
study of water hydraulics. obtained by elevating the water tank.
Note: In practice, piezometers are not installed on water
towers because water towers are hundreds of feet high, or on
Conservation of Energy
pipelines. Instead, pressure gages are used that record pres-
Many of the principles of physics are important to the study sure in feet of water or in psi.
of hydraulics. When applied to problems involving the flow Water only rises to the water level of the main body of
of water, few of the principles of physical science are more water when it is at rest (static or standing water). The situ-
important and useful to us than the law of conservation of ation is quite different when water is flowing. Consider, for
energy. Simply, the law of conservation of energy states that example, an elevated storage tank feeding a distribution
energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can be con- system pipeline. When the system is at rest, when all the
verted from one form to another. In a given closed system, the valves are closed, all the piezometric surfaces are the same
total energy is constant. height as the free water surface in storage. On the other
hand, when the valves are opened and the water begins to
flow, the piezometric surface changes. This is an important
Energy Head
point because as water continues to flow down a pipeline,
In hydraulic systems, two types of energy (kinetic and poten- less and less pressure is exerted. This happens because some
tial) and three forms of mechanical energy (potential energy pressure is lost (used up) keeping the water moving over the
due to elevation, potential energy due to pressure, and kinetic
energy due to velocity) exist. Energy has the units of foot-
pounds (ft-lbs). It is convenient to express hydraulic energy in
Open end
terms of energy head, in feet of water. This is equivalent to
foot-pounds per pound of water (ft-lb/lb = ft). Free water
surface Piezometric surface
Piezometric Surface Piezometer
As mentioned earlier, we have seen that when a vertical tube,

open at the top, is installed onto a vessel of water, the water
will rise in the tube to the water level in the tank. The water
FIGURE 6.7 A container not under pressure where the piezomet-
level to which the water rises in a tube is the piezometric sur-
ric surface is the same as the free water surface in the vessel.
face. That is, the piezometric surface is an imaginary surface
that coincides with the level of the water to which water in
Pressure applied
a system would rise in a piezometer (an instrument used to
measure pressure).
The surface of water that is in contact with the atmosphere
is known as free water surface. Many important hydraulic
measurements are based on the difference in height between Piezometric surface
the free water surface and some point in the water system.
The piezometric surface is used to locate this free water sur-
face in a vessel, where it cannot be observed directly.
To understand how a piezometer actually measures pres-
sure, consider the following example. If a clear, see-through
pipe is connected to the side of a clear glass or plastic vessel,
the water will rise in the pipe to indicate the level of the water
in the vessel. Such a see-through pipe, the piezometer, allows
you to see the level of the top of the water in the pipe; this is FIGURE 6.8 A container under pressure where the piezometric
the piezometric surface. surface is above the level of the water in the tank.
Piezometric surface Piezometric surface

1 2 3 1 2 3
HGL
HGL
Closed valve Open valve

(A) (B)
FIGURE 6.9 Head loss and piezometric surface changes when water is flowing.
interior surface of the pipe (friction). The pressure that is lost Key Point: Changes in the piezometric surface occur when
is called head loss. water is flowing.
Head Loss Bernoulli’s Theorem

Head loss is best explained by example. Figure 6.9 shows an Nathanson (1997) noted that Swiss physicist and mathemati-
elevated storage tank feeding a distribution system pipeline. cian Samuel Bernoulli developed the calculation for the total
When the valve is closed (Figure 6.9-A), all the piezometric energy relationship from point to point in a steady state fluid
surfaces are the same height as the free water surface in stor- system in the 1700s. Before discussing Bernoulli’s energy
age. When the valve opens and water begins to flow (Figure equation, it is important to understand the basic principle
6.9-B), the piezometric surfaces drop. The farther along the behind Bernoulli’s equation. Water (and any other hydraulic
pipeline, the lower the piezometric surface, because some of fluid) in a hydraulic system possesses two types of energy—
the pressure is used up keeping the water moving over the kinetic and potential. Kinetic energy is present when the water
rough interior surface of the pipe. Thus, pressure is lost and is is in motion. The faster the water moves, the more kinetic
no longer available to push water up in a piezometer; this is energy is used. Potential energy is a result of the water pres-
the head loss. sure. The total energy of the water is the sum of the kinetic
and potential energy. Bernoulli’s principle states that the total
energy of the water (fluid) always remains constant. Therefore,
Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) when the water flow in a system increases, the pressure must
When the valve shown in Figure 6.9 is opened, flow begins decrease. When water starts to flow in a hydraulic system, the
with a corresponding energy loss due to friction. The pres- pressure drops. When the flow stops, the pressure rises again.
sures along the pipeline can measure this loss. In Figure 6.9- The pressure gages shown in Figure 6.10 indicate this balance
B, the difference in pressure heads between sections 1, 2, and more clearly.
3 can be seen in the piezometer tubes attached to the pipe. A Note: This discussion of Bernoulli’s equation ignores fric-
line connecting the water surface in the tank with the water tion losses from point to point in a fluid system employing
levels at section 1, 2, and 3 shows the pattern of continuous steady state flow.
pressure loss along the pipeline. This is called the Hydraulic
Grade Line (HGL) or Hydraulic Gradient of the system.
Note: It is important to point out that in a static water sys-
tem, the HGL is always horizontal. The HGL is a very useful
graphical aid when analyzing pipe flow problems.
Note: During the early design phase of a treatment plant,
it is important to establish the hydraulic grade line across
the plant because both the proper selection of the plant site
elevation and the suitability of the site depend on this consid-
eration. Typically, most conventional water treatment plants
require 16–17 ft of headloss across the plant. FIGURE 6.10 Bernoulli’s principle.
Bernoulli’s Equation The pipeline system shown in Figure 6.11 is horizontal; there-
fore, we can simplify Bernoulli’s equation because zA = zB.
In a hydraulic system, total energy head is equal to the sum of Because they are equal, the elevation heads cancel out from
three individual energy heads. This can be expressed as both sides, leaving:
Total Head = Elevation Head + Pressure Head PA v2A PB v2B
+ + + (6.18)
+ Velocity Head w 2g w 2g
where As water passes through the constricted section of the pipe
elevation head—pressure due to the elevation of the water (section B), we know from continuity of flow that the veloc-
pressure head—the height of a column of water that a ity at section B must be greater than the velocity at section
given hydrostatic pressure in a system could support A, because of the smaller flow area at section B. This means
velocity head—energy present due to the velocity of the that the velocity head in the system increases as the water
water flows into the constricted section. However, the total energy
must remain constant. For this to occur, the pressure head, and
This can be expressed mathematically as therefore the pressure, must drop. In effect, pressure energy is
converted into kinetic energy in the constriction.
p v2 The fact that the pressure in the narrower pipe section (con-
E =z+ + (6.16)
w 2g striction) is less than the pressure in the bigger section seems
where to defy common sense. However, it does follow logically from
E = total energy head continuity of flow and conservation of energy. The fact that
z = height of the water above a reference plane, ft there is a pressure difference allows measurement of flow rate
p = pressure, psi in the closed pipe.
w = unit weight of water, 62.4 lbs/ft3
v = flow velocity, ft/sec Example 6.13
g = acceleration due to gravity, 32.2 ft/sec2
Problem: In Figure 6.11, the diameter at section A is 8 in.
and at section B, it is 4 in. The flow rate through the pipe
Consider the constriction in the section of the pipe shown is 3.0 cfs and the pressure at section A is 100 psi. What is
in Figure 6.11. We know, based on the law of energy conserva- the pressure in the constriction at section B?
tion, that the total energy head at section A, E1, must equal the
total energy head at section B, E2 and using Equation 6.16, we SOLUTION:
get Bernoulli’s equation.
Compute the flow area at each section, as follows:
P v2 P v2 p(0.666 ft )2
z A = A + A = z B + B + B (6.17) AA = = 0.349 ft 2 (rounded)
w 2g w 2g 4
FIGURE 6.11 The law of conservation. Since the velocity and kinetic energy of the water flowing in the constricted section must increase,
the potential energy may decrease. This is observed as a pressure drop in the constriction. Source: Adapted from Nathanson, J.A., Basic
Environmental Technology: Water Supply, Waste Management, and Pollution Control, 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, p.
29, 1997.
p(0.333 ft )2 presented and defined, and they are related pictorially in

AB = = 0.087 ft 2 Figure 6.12. Also discussed are wet wells, which are impor-
4
tant in both water and wastewater operations.
From Q = A × V or V = Q/A, we get
3.0 ft 3 /s Well Hydraulics

VA = = 8.6 ft/s (rounded)
0.349 ft 2 • Static water level—It is the water level in a well
when no water is being taken from the groundwater
3.0 ft 3 /s source (i.e., the water level when the pump is off; see
VB = = 34.5 ft/s (rounded)
0.087 ft 2 Figure 6.12). Static water level is normally measured
as the distance from the ground surface to the water
And we get:
surface. This is an important parameter because it is
used to measure changes in the water table.
100 ´ 144 8 .6 2 p ´ 144 34.52
+ = B + • Pumping water level—It is the water level when the
62.4 2 ´ 32.2 62.4 2 ´ 32.2
pump is off. When water is pumped out of a well, the
Note: The pressures are multiplied by 144 in2/ft 2 to con- water level usually drops below the level in the sur-
vert from psi to lb/ft 2 to be consistent with the units for w; rounding aquifer and eventually stabilizes at a lower
the energy head terms are in feet of head. level; this is the pumping level (see Figure 6.12).
Continuing, we get • Drawdown—It is the difference, or the drop, between
the Static Water Level and the Pumping Water Level,
231+ 1.15 = 2.3 pB + 18.5 measured in feet. Simply, it is the distance the water
level drops once pumping begins (see Figure 6.12).
and
• Cone of depression—In unconfined aquifers, there
is a flow of water in the aquifer from all directions
232.2 - 18.5 213.7
pB = = = 93 psi (rounded) toward the well during pumping. The free water sur-
2 .3 2 .3
face in the aquifer then takes the shape of an inverted
cone or a curved funnel line. The curve of the line
extends from the Pumping Water Level to the Static
WELL AND WET WELL HYDRAULICS Water Level at the outside edge of the Zone (or
When the source of water for a water distribution system is Radius) of Influence (see Figure 6.12).
from a groundwater supply, knowledge of well hydraulics is Note: The shape and size of the cone of depres-
important to the operator. Basic well hydraulics terms are sion are dependent on the relationship between the
FIGURE 6.12 Hydraulic characteristics of a well.

pumping rate and the rate at which water can move line is submerged far enough below the surface, so that air
toward the well. If the rate is high, the cone will be entrained by the active movement of the water at this section
shallow and its growth will stabilize. If the rate is is not able to enter the pump. Because water or wastewater
low, the cone will be sharp and will continue to grow flow is not always constant or at the same level, variable speed
in size. pumps are commonly used in wet well operations, or several
• Zone (or Radius) of Influence—It is the distance pumps are installed for single or combined operation. In many
between the pump shaft and the outermost area cases, pumping is accomplished in an on/off mode. Control of
affected by drawdown (see Figure 6.12). The distance pump operation is in response to water level in the well. Level
depends on the porosity of the soil and other factors. control devices such as mercury switches are used to sense a
This parameter becomes important in well fields high and low level in the well and transmit the signal to pumps
with many pumps. If wells are set too close together, for action.
the zones of influence will overlap, increasing the
drawdown in all wells. Obviously, pumps should be
FRICTION HEAD LOSS
spaced apart to prevent this from happening.
Materials or substances capable of flowing cannot flow freely.
Two important parameters not shown in Figure 6.12 are well Nothing flows without encountering some type of resistance.
yield and specific capacity. Consider electricity, the flow of free electrons in a conduc-
tor. Whatever type of conductor used (i.e., copper, aluminum,
(1) Well yield is the rate of water withdrawal that a well silver, etc.) offers some resistance. In hydraulics, the flow
can supply over a long period, or, alternatively, the of water/wastewater is analogous to the flow of electricity.
maximum pumping rate that can be achieved without Within a pipe or open channel, for instance, flowing water,
increasing the drawdown. The yield of small wells is like electron flow in a conductor, encounters resistance.
usually measured in gallons per minute (liters per However, resistance to the flow of water is generally termed
minute) or gallons per hour (liters per hour). For friction loss (or more appropriately, head loss).
large wells, it may be measured in cubic feet per sec-
ond (cubic meters per second).
Flow in Pipelines
(2) Specific capacity is the pumping rate per foot of
drawdown (gpm/ft), or The problem of waste/wastewater flow in pipelines—the pre-
diction of flow rate through pipes of given characteristics, the
Specific capacity = Well yield ¸ drawdown (6.19) calculation of energy conversions therein, and so forth—is
encountered in many applications of water/wastewater opera-
tions and practice. Although the subject of pipe flow embraces
Example 6.14 only those problems in which pipes flow completely full (as
in water lines), we also address pipes that flow partially full
Problem: If the well yield is 300 gpm and the drawdown is
(wastewater lines, normally treated as open channels) in this
measured to be 20 ft, what is the specific capacity?
section.
SOLUTION: Also discussed is the solution of practical pipe flow prob-
lems resulting from application of the energy principle, the
Specific capacity = 300 ÷ 20 equation of continuity and the principle and equation of water
Specific capacity = 15 gpm per ft of drawdown resistance are also discussed. Resistance to flow in pipes not
only is the result of long reaches of pipe but is also offered by
Specific capacity is one of the most important concepts
pipe fittings, such as bends and valves, which dissipate energy
in well operation and testing. The calculation should be
made frequently in the monitoring of well operation. A by producing relatively large-scale turbulence.
sudden drop in specific capacity indicates problems such To gain an understanding of what friction head loss is all
as pump malfunction, screen plugging, or other problems about, it is necessary to review a few terms presented earlier
that can be serious. Such problems should be identified in the text and to introduce some new terms pertinent to the
and corrected as soon as possible. subject (Lindeburg, 1986):
• Laminar and turbulent flow—Laminar flow is

Wet Well Hydraulics
ideal flow; that is, water particles moving along
Water pumped from a wet well by a pump set above the water straight, parallel paths, in layers or streamlines.
surface exhibits the same phenomena as the groundwater Moreover, in laminar flow there is no turbulence in
well. In operation, a slight depression of the water surface the water and no friction loss. This is not typical of
forms right at the intake line (drawdown), but in this case it is normal pipe flow because the water velocity is too
minimal because there is free water at the pump entrance at great, but is typical of groundwater flow. Turbulent
all times (at least there should be). The most important con- flow (characterized as “normal” for a typical water
sideration in wet well operations is to ensure that the suction system) occurs when water particles move in a
haphazard fashion and continually cross each other change from section to section. The flow through a
in all directions resulting in pressure losses along a Venturi section used for measuring flow is a good
length of pipe. example.
• Hydraulic grade line (HGL)—Recall that the • Varied flow—Flow in a channel is considered varied
hydraulic grade line (HGL) (shown in Figure 6.13) if the depth of flow changes along the length of the
is a line connecting two points to which the liquid channel. The flow may be gradually varied or rapidly
would rise at various places along any pipe or open varied (i.e., when the depth of flow changes abruptly)
channel if piezometers were inserted in the liquid. It as shown in Figure 6.14.
is a measure of the pressure head available at these • Slope (gradient)—It is a measure of the head loss per
various points. foot of channel.
Note: When water flows in an open channel, the
HGL coincides with the profile of the water surface.
Major Head Loss
• Energy grade line—The total energy of flow in any
section with reference to some datum (i.e., a refer- Major head loss consists of pressure decreases along the
ence line, surface or point) is the sum of the elevation length of pipe caused by friction created as water encounters
head z, the pressure head y, and the velocity head the surfaces of the pipe. It typically accounts for most of the
V2 /2g. Figure 6.13 shows the energy grade line or pressure drop in a pressurized or dynamic water system. The
energy gradient, which represents the energy from components that contribute to major head loss are roughness,
section to section. In the absence of frictional losses, length, diameter, and velocity.
the energy grade line remains horizontal, although
the relative distribution of energy may vary between 1. Roughness
the elevation, pressure, and velocity heads. In all real Even when new, the interior surfaces of pipes are
systems, however, losses of energy occur because of rough. The roughness varies, of course, depending
resistance to flow, and the resulting energy grade line on pipe material, corrosion (tuberculation and pit-
is sloped (i.e., the energy grade line is the slope of ting), and age. Because normal flow in a water pipe is
the specific energy line). turbulent, the turbulence increases with pipe rough-
• Specific energy (E)—Sometimes called specific ness, which, in turn, causes pressure to drop over the
head, it is the sum of the pressure head y and the length of the pipe.
velocity head V2/2g. The specific energy concept is 2. Pipe Length
especially useful in analyzing flow in open channels. With every foot of pipe length, friction losses
• Steady flow—This occurs when the discharge or rate occur. The longer the pipe, the more the head loss.
of flow at any cross-section is constant. Friction loss because of pipe length must be factored
• Uniform and non-uniform flow—Uniform flow into head loss calculations.
occurs when the depth, cross-sectional area, and 3. Pipe Diameter
other elements of flow are substantially constant Generally, small diameter pipes have more head
from section to section. Non-uniform flow occurs loss than large diameter pipes. This is the case because
when the slope, cross-sectional area, and velocity in large diameter pipes less of the water actually
FIGURE 6.13 Comparison of pipe flow and open-channel flow. Source: Adapted from Metcalf & Eddy. Wastewater Engineering:
Collection and Pumping of Wastewater, New York: McGraw-Hill, p.11, 1981.
RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF GVF RVF
Sluice gate
Hydraulic
jump
Flow over
a weir
Hydraulic
drop
RVF – Rapidly Varied Flow
GVF – Gradually Varied Flow
FIGURE 6.14 Varied flow.
touches the interior surfaces of the pipe (encountering formula is used primarily for determining head loss calcula-
less friction) than in a small diameter pipe. tions in pipes. For making this determination in open chan-
4. Water Velocity nels, the Manning Equation was developed during the later
Turbulence in a water pipe is directly propor- part of the 19th century. Later, this equation was used for both
tional to the speed (or velocity) of the flow. Thus, the open channels and closed conduits.
velocity head also contributes to head loss. In the early 1900s, a more practical equation, the Hazen-
Williams Equation, was developed for use in making calcula-
Note: For the same diameter pipe, when flow increases, head tions related to water pipes and wastewater force mains:
loss increases.
Q = 0.435 ´ CD2.63 ´ S0.54 (6.22)
Calculating Major Head Loss
where
Darcy, Weisbach, and others developed the first practical Q = flow rate (ft3/sec)
equation used to determine pipe friction in about 1850. The C = coefficient of roughness (C decreases with roughness)
equation or formula now known as the Darcy-Weisbach equa- D = hydraulic radius R (ft)
tion for circular pipes is: S = slope of energy grade line (ft/ft)
LV2 C Factor
hf = f (6.20)
D2 g
The C factor, as used in the Hazen-Williams formula, designates
In terms of the flow rate Q, the equation becomes: the coefficient of roughness. C does not vary appreciably with
velocity, and by comparing pipe types and ages, it includes only
8fLQ 2 the concept of roughness, ignoring fluid viscosity and Reynold’s
hf = (6.21)
p2gD5 Number. Based on experience (experimentation), accepted
tables of C factors have been established for pipe (see Table 6.2).
where
Generally, C factor decreases by one with each year of pipe age.
hf = head loss (ft)
Flow for a newly designed system is often calculated with a C fac-
f = coefficient of friction
tor of 100, based on averaging it over the life of the pipe system.
L = length of pipe (ft)
Note: A high C factor means a smooth pipe. A low C factor
V = mean velocity (ft/sec)
means a rough pipe.
D = diameter of pipe (ft)
Note: An alternative to calculating the Hazen-Williams
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)
formula, called an alignment chart, has become quite popular
Q = flow rate (ft3/sec)
for fieldwork. The alignment chart can be used with reason-
able accuracy.
The Darcy-Weisbach formula as such was meant to apply
to the flow of any fluid and into this friction factor was incor-
Slope
porated the degree of roughness and an element called the
Reynold’s Number, which was based on the viscosity of the Slope is defined as the head loss per foot. In open channels,
fluid and the degree of turbulence of flow. The Darcy-Weisbach where the water flows by gravity, slope is the amount of
conveyed back to a treatment facility before being outfalled

TABLE 6.2 to some water body, to begin the cycle again. We call this
C Factors (Lindeburg, 1986) an urban water cycle, because it provides a human-generated
Type of Pipe C Factor imitation of the natural water cycle. Unlike the natural water
cycle, however, without pipes, the cycle would be non-existent
Asbestos cement 140
or, at the very least, short-circuited.
Brass 140
For use as water mains in a distribution system, pipes must
Brick sewer 100
be strong and durable in order to resist applied forces and
Cast iron
10 years old 110
corrosion. The pipe is subjected to internal pressure from the
20 years old 90
water and to external pressure from the weight of the backfill
Ductile iron (cement lined) 140 (soil) and vehicles above it. The pipe may also have to with-
Concrete or concrete lined stand water hammer. Damage due to corrosion or rusting may
Smooth, steel forms 140 also occur internally because of the water quality or exter-
Wooden forms 120 nally because of the nature of the soil conditions.
Rough 110 Pipes used in a wastewater system must be strong and
Copper 140 durable to resist the abrasive and corrosive properties of the
Fire hose (rubber lined) 135 wastewater. Like water pipes, wastewater pipes must also be
Galvanized iron 120 able to withstand stresses caused by the soil backfill material
Glass 140 and the effect of vehicles passing above the pipeline. Joints
Lead 130 between wastewater collection/interceptor pipe sections
Masonry conduit 130 should be flexible, but tight enough to prevent excessive leak-
Plastic 150 age, either of sewage out of the pipe or groundwater into the
Steel pipe. Of course, pipes must be constructed to withstand the
Coal-tar enamel lined 150 expected conditions of exposure, and pipe configuration sys-
New unlined 140 tems for water distribution and/or wastewater collection and
Riveted 110
interceptor systems must be properly designed and installed
Tin 130
in terms of water hydraulics. Because the water and wastewa-
Vitrified 120
ter operator should have a basic knowledge of water hydrau-
Wood stave 120
lics related to commonly used standard piping configurations,
piping basics are briefly discussed in this section.
incline of the pipe, and is calculated as feet of drop per foot of

Piping Networks
pipe length (ft/ft). Slope is designed to be just enough to over-
come frictional losses, so that the velocity remains constant, It would be far less costly and make for more efficient opera-
the water keeps flowing, and solids will not settle in the con- tion if municipal water and wastewater systems were built with
duit. In piped systems, where pressure loss for every foot of separate single pipe networks extending from the treatment
pipe is experienced, slope is not provided by slanting the pipe plant to the user’s residence, or from the user’s sink or bathtub
but instead by pressure added to overcome friction. drain to the local wastewater treatment plant. Unfortunately,
this ideal single-pipe scenario is not practical for real-world
applications. Instead of a single piping system, a network of
Minor Head Loss
pipes is laid under the streets. Each of these piping networks
In addition to the head loss caused by friction between the is composed of different materials that vary (sometimes con-
fluid and the pipe wall, losses also are caused by turbulence siderably) in diameter, length, and age. These networks range
created by obstructions (i.e., valves and fittings of all types) in in complexity to varying degrees, and each of these joined-
the line, changes in direction, and changes in flow area. together pipes contributes energy losses to the system.
Note: In practice, if minor head loss is less than 5% of the Water and wastewater flow networks may consist of pipes
total head loss, it is usually ignored. arranged in series, parallel, or some complicated combina-
tion. In any case, an evaluation of friction losses for the flows
is based on energy conservation principles applied to the flow
BASIC PIPING HYDRAULICS
junction points. Methods of computation depend on the par-
Water, regardless of the source, is conveyed to the waterworks ticular piping configuration. In general, however, they involve
for treatment and distributed to the users. Conveyance from establishing a sufficient number of simultaneous equations or
the source to the point of treatment occurs by aqueducts, employing a friction loss formula where the friction coeffi-
pipelines, or open channels, but the treated water is normally cient depends only on the roughness of the pipe (e.g., Hazen-
distributed in pressurized closed conduits. After use, what- Williams Equation—Equation 6.22).
ever the purpose, the water becomes wastewater, which must Note: Demonstrating the procedure for making these com-
be disposed of somehow, but almost always ends up being plex computations is beyond the scope of this text. We only
1 2 3 1
FIGURE 6.15 Pipes in series.
3
present the operator “need to know” aspects of complex or
compound piping systems in this text.
When two pipes of different sizes or roughnesses are con- FIGURE 6.16 Pipes in parallel.
nected in series (see Figure 6.15), head loss for a given dis-
charge, or discharge for a given head loss, may be calculated by allow the correct flow through, which yields the correct head
applying the appropriate equation between the bonding points, loss (the given head loss) (Lindeburg, 1986).
taking into account all losses in the interval. Thus, head losses Two or more pipes connected (as in Figure 6.16) so that
are cumulative. Series pipes may be treated as a single pipe of flow is first divided among the pipes and is then rejoined,
constant diameter to simplify the calculation of friction losses. comprise a parallel pipe system. A parallel pipe system is a
The approach involves determining an “equivalent length” of a common method for increasing the capacity of an existing
constant diameter pipe that has the same friction loss and dis- line. Determining flows in pipes arranged in parallel is also
charge characteristics as the actual series pipe system. In addi- made by application of energy conservation principles—spe-
tion, application of the continuity equation to the solution allows cifically, energy losses through all pipes connecting common
the head loss to be expressed in terms of only one pipe size. junction points must be equal. Each leg of the parallel net-
Note: In addition to the head loss caused by friction work is treated as a series piping system and converted to a
between the water and the pipe wall, losses also are caused single equivalent length pipe. The friction losses through the
by minor losses: obstructions in the line, changes in direc- equivalent length parallel pipes are then considered equal and
tions, and changes in flow area. In practice, the method of the respective flows determined by proportional distribution.
equivalent length is often used to determine these losses. The Note: Computations used to determine friction losses in
method of equivalent length uses a table to convert each valve parallel combinations may be accomplished using a simulta-
or fitting into an equivalent length of straight pipe. neous solution approach for a parallel system that has only two
When making calculations involving pipes in series, branches. However, if the parallel system has three or more
remember these two important basic operational tenets: branches, a modified procedure using the Hazen-Williams
loss formula is easier.
(1) The same flow passes through all pipes connected in
series.
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
(2) The total head loss is the sum of the head losses of all
of the component pipes. Water is transported over long distances through aqueducts to
locations where it is to be used and/or treated. Selection of an
In some operations involving series networks where the flow aqueduct type rests on such factors as topography, head avail-
is given and the total head loss is unknown, we can use the ability, climate, construction practices, economics, and water
Hazen-Williams formula to solve for the slope and the head quality protection. Along with pipes and tunnels, aqueducts
loss of each pipe as if they were separate pipes. Adding up the may also include or be solely composed of open channels
head losses to get the total head loss is then a simple matter. (Lindeburg, 1986).
Other series network calculations may not be as simple to In this section, we deal with water passage in open chan-
solve using the Hazen-Williams Equation. For example, one nels, which allow part of the water to be exposed to the
problem we may be faced with is what diameter to use with atmosphere. This type of channel—an open-flow channel—
varying sized pipes connected together in a series combination. includes natural waterways, canals, culverts, flumes, and
Moreover, head loss is applied to both pipes (or other multiples), pipes flowing under the influence of gravity.
and it is not known how much loss originates from each one;
thus, determining slope would be difficult—but not impossible.
Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow
In such cases, the equivalent pipe theory, as mentioned
earlier, can be used. Again, one single “Equivalent Pipe” is McGhee (1991) pointed out that basic hydraulic principles
created which will carry the correct flow. This is practical apply in open-channel flow (with water depth constant)
because the head loss through it is the same as that in the although there is no pressure to act as the driving force.
actual system. The equivalent pipe can have any C factor and Velocity head is the only natural energy this water possesses,
diameter, just as long as those same dimensions are main- and at normal water velocities, this is a small value (V2/2g).
tained all the way through to the end. Keep in mind that the Several parameters can be (and often are) used to describe
equivalent pipe must have the correct length, so that it will open-channel flow. However, we begin our discussion with a
few characteristics including laminar or turbulent, uniform or is of primary importance to maintain the proper velocity. This
varied, and subcritical, critical, or supercritical. is the case, of course, because if velocity is not maintained
then flow stops (theoretically). In order to maintain velocity at
Laminar and Turbulent Flow a constant level, the channel slope must be adequate to over-
Laminar and turbulent flow in open channels is analogous to come friction losses. As with other flows, calculation of head
that in closed pressurized conduits (i.e., pipes). It is important loss at a given flow is necessary, and the Hazen-Williams
to point out, however, that flow in open channels is usually Equation is useful (Q = 0.435 × C × d2.63 × S54). Keep in mind
turbulent. In addition, there is no important circumstance in that the concept of slope has not changed. The difference? We
which laminar flow occurs in open channels in either water or are now measuring, or calculating for, the physical slope of a
wastewater unit processes or structures. channel (ft/ft), equivalent to head loss.
The preceding conclusion seems logical, makes sense—
Uniform and Varied Flow but, there is a problem. The problem is with the diameter. In
Flow can be a function of time and location. If the flow quan- conduits that are not circular (grit chambers, contact basins,
tity is invariant, it is said to be steady. Uniform flow is flow in streams, and rivers), or in pipes only partially full (drains,
which the depth, width, and velocity remain constant along a wastewater gravity mains, sewers, etc.) where the cross-sec-
channel. That is, if the flow cross-section does not depend on tional area of the water is not circular, there is no diameter.
the location along the channel, the flow is said to be uniform. Without a diameter, what do we do? Another good question.
Varied or non-uniform flow involves a change in these, with a Because we do not have a diameter in situations where the
change in one producing a change in the others. Most circum- cross-sectional area of the water is not circular, we must use
stances of open-channel flow in water and wastewater systems another parameter to designate the size of the cross-section,
involve varied flow. The concept of uniform flow is valuable, and the amount of it that contacts the sides of the conduit.
however, in that it defines a limit that the varied flow may be This is where the hydraulic radius (rH) comes in. The hydrau-
considered to be approaching in many cases. lic radius is a measure of the efficiency with which the conduit
Note: Uniform channel construction does not ensure uni- can transmit water. Its value depends on pipe size, and amount
form flow. of fullness. Simply, we use the hydraulic radius to measure
how much of the water is in contact with the sides of the chan-
Critical Flow nel, or how much of the water is not in contact with the sides
Critical flow (i.e., flow at the critical depth and velocity) (see Figure 6.17).
defines a state of flow between two flow regimes. Critical Note: For a circular channel flowing either full or half-full,
flow coincides with minimum specific energy for a given dis- the hydraulic radius is (D/4). Hydraulic radii of other channel
charge and maximum discharge for a given specific energy. shapes are easily calculated from the basic definition.
Critical flow occurs in flow measurement devices at or near
free discharges and establishes controls in open-channel flow. Hydraulic Depth
Critical flow occurs frequently in water/wastewater systems The hydraulic depth is the ratio of the area in flow to the
and is very important in their operation and design. width of the channel at the fluid surface (Note that another
Note: Critical flow minimizes the specific energy and name for hydraulic depth is the hydraulic mean depth and
maximizes discharge. hydraulic radius):
Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow A

dH = (6.24)
The three primary parameters used in open-channel flow are w
hydraulic radius, hydraulic depth, and slope (S). where
dH = hydraulic depth
Hydraulic Radius A = area in flow
The hydraulic radius is the ratio of the area in flow to the w = width of the channel at the fluid surface
wetted perimeter.
A
rH = (6.23)
P
where
rH = hydraulic radius
A = the cross-sectional area of the water
P = wetted perimeter
Wetted perimeter Wetted area
Why is hydraulic radius important? Good question.
Probably the best way in which to answer this question is
by illustration. Consider, for example, that in open channels it FIGURE 6.17 Hydraulic radius.
Slope, S
The slope (S) in open channel equations is the slope of the TABLE 6.3
energy line. If the flow is uniform, the slope of the energy line Manning Roughness Coefficient, n
will parallel the water surface and channel bottom. In general, Type of Conduit n Type of Conduit n
the slope can be calculated from the Bernoulli equation as the Pipe
energy loss per unit length of channel: Cast Iron, coated 0.012–0.014 Cast Iron, uncoated 0.013–0.015
Wrought Iron, 0.015–0.017 Wrought Iron, 0.012–0.015
Dh galvanized black
S= (6.25)
D1 Steel, riveted and 0.015–0.017 Corrugated 0.021–0.026
spiral
Wood Stave 0.012–0.013 Cement Surface 0.010–0.013
Open-Channel Flow Calculations
Concrete 0.012–0.017 Vitrified 0.013–0.015
As mentioned, the calculation for head loss at a given flow Clay, drainage tile 0.012–0.014
is typically accomplished by using the Hazen-Williams Lined Channels
Equation. In addition, in open-channel flow problems, Metal, smooth 0.011–0.015 Metal, corrugated 0.023–0.025
although the concept of slope has not changed, the problem semicircular
arises with the diameter. Again, in pipes only partially full Wood, planed 0.010–0.015 Wood, unplanned 0.011–0.015
where the cross-sectional area of the water is not circular, Cement lined 0.010–0.013 Concrete 0.014–0.016
there is no diameter. Thus, the hydraulic radius is used for Cement rubble 0.017–0.030 Grass ----- –0.020
these non-circular areas. In the original version of the Hazen- Unlined Channels
Earth: straight and 0.017–0.025 Earth: dredged 0.025–0.033
Williams Equation, the hydraulic radius was incorporated.
uniform
Moreover, similar versions developed by Chezy (pronounced
Earth: winding 0.023–0.030 Earth: stony 0.025–0.040
“Shay-zee”) and Manning, and others, incorporated the
Rock: smooth and 0.025–0.035 Rock: jagged and 0.035–0.045
hydraulic radius. For use in open channels, Manning’s for-
uniform irregular
mula has become most commonly used:
1.5
Q= A ´ R.66 ´ s.5 (6.26) Free water surface
n
where Wetted perimeter
Q = channel discharge capacity (ft3/sec)
1.5 = constant 2.0 ft
n = channel roughness coefficient
A = cross-sectional flow area (ft2)
R = hydraulic radius of the channel (ft)
S = slope of the channel bottom, dimensionless
The hydraulic radius of a channel is defined as the ratio 3.0 ft

of the flow area to the wetted perimeter P. In formula form,
R = A/P. The new component is n (the roughness coefficient) FIGURE 6.18 Illustration for Example 6.15.
and depends on the material and age for a pipe or lined chan-
nel and on topographic features for a natural streambed. It SOLUTION:
approximates roughness in open channels and can range from Assume n = 0.013
a value of 0.01 for a smooth clay pipe to 0.1 for a small natu- Referring to Figure 6.19, we see that the cross-sectional
ral stream. The value of n commonly assumed for concrete flow area A = 3 ft × 2 ft = 6 ft 2, and the wetted perimeter
pipes or lined channels is 0.013. The n value decreases as the P = 2 ft + 3 ft + 2 ft = 7 ft. The hydraulic radius R = A/P = 6
channels get smoother (see Table 6.3). The following example ft 2/7 ft = 0.86 ft. The slope S = 0.5/100 = 0.005.
illustrates the application of Manning’s formula for a channel Applying Manning’s formula, we get:
with a rectangular cross-section.
2 .0
Q= ´ 6 ´ 0.86.66 ´ 0.005.5
0.013
Example 6.15 Q = 59 cfs
Problem: A rectangular drainage channel is 3 ft wide and
is lined with concrete, as illustrated in Figure 6.18. The To this point, we have set the stage for explaining (in the
bottom of the channel drops in elevation at a rate of 0.5 simplest possible way) what open-channel flow is—what it is
per 100 ft. What is the discharge in the channel when the all about. Thus, now that we have explained the necessary
depth of water is 2 ft? foundational material and important concepts, we are ready
Water surface = HGL
hL
Channel bottom Slope = hL/L
FIGURE 6.19 Steady uniform open-channel flow, where the slope

of the water surface (or HGL) is equal to the slope of the channel
bottom. FIGURE 6.20 Open-channel flow, whether in a surface stream or in
an underground pipe. Source: Adapted from Nathanson, J.A., Basic
to explain open-channel flow in a manner whereby it will be Environmental Technology: Water Supply, Waste Management,
easily understood. and Pollution Control. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, p.
We stated that when water flows in a pipe or channel with 35, 1997.
a free surface exposed to the atmosphere, it is called open-
channel flow. We also know that gravity provides the motive explains: “The most vital activities in the operation of water
force, the constant push, while friction resists the motion and and wastewater treatment plants are dependent on a knowl-
causes energy expenditure. River and stream flow is open- edge of how much water is being processed.” In the statement
channel flow. Flow in sanitary sewers and storm water drains above, Hauser makes clear that flow measurement is not only
are open-channel flow, except in force mains where the water important, but also routine, in water/wastewater operations.
is pumped under pressure. Routine, yes, but also the most important variable measured
The key to solving storm water and/or sanitary sewer rou- in a treatment plant. Hauser also pointed out that there are
tine problems is a condition known as steady uniform flow; several reasons to measure flow in a treatment plant. The
that is, we assume steady uniform flow. Steady flow, of course, American Water Works Association (1995) lists several addi-
means that the discharge is constant with time. Uniform flow tional reasons to measure flow:
means that the slope of the water surface and the cross-sec-
tional flow area are also constant. It is common practice to • The flow rate through the treatment processes needs
call a length of channel, pipeline or stream that has a relatively to be controlled so that it matches distribution sys-
constant slope and cross-section a reach (Nathanson, 1997). tem use.
The slope of the water surface, under steady uniform flow • It is important to determine the proper feed rate of
conditions, is the same as the slope of the channel bottom. chemicals added in the processes.
The hydraulic grade line (HGL) lies along the water surface • The detention times through the treatment processes
and, as in pressure flow in pipes, the HGL slopes downward in must be calculated. This is particularly applicable
the direction of flow. Energy loss is evident as the water sur- to surface water plants that must meet C×T values
face elevation drops. Figure 6.19 illustrates a typical profile required by the Surface Water Treatment Rule.
view of uniform steady flow. The slope of the water surface • Flow measurement allows operators to maintain a
represents the rate of energy loss. record of water furnished to the distribution system
Note: Rate of energy loss (see Figure 6.19) may be expressed for periodic comparison with the total water metered
as the ratio of the drop in elevation of the surface in the reach to customers. This provides a measure of “water
to the length of the reach. accounted for,” or conversely (as pointed out earlier
Figure 6.20 shows typical cross-sections of open-channel by Hauser), the amount of water wasted, leaked, or
flow. In Figure 6.20A, the pipe is only partially filled with otherwise not paid for, that is, lost water.
water and there is a free surface at atmospheric pressure. This • Flow measurement allows operators to determine
is still open-channel flow, although the pipe is a closed under- the efficiency of pumps. Pumps that are not deliver-
ground conduit. Remember, the important point is that grav- ing their designed flow rate are probably not operat-
ity, and not a pump, is moving the water. ing at maximum efficiency, and so power is being
wasted.
• For well systems, it is very important to maintain
FLOW MEASUREMENT records of the volume of water pumped and the hours
Although it is clear that maintaining water and wastewa- of operation for each well. The periodic computation
ter flow is at the heart of any treatment process, clearly, it of well pumping rates can identify problems such as
is the measurement of flow that is essential to ensuring the worn pump impellers and blocked well screens.
proper operation of a water and wastewater treatment system. • Reports that must be furnished to the state by most
Few knowledgeable operators would argue with this state- water systems must include records of raw water and
ment. Hauser (1996) asks: “Why measure flow?” Then she finished water pumpage.
• Wastewater generated by a treatment system must meters, and ultrasonic meters. Flow rate meters are designed
also be measured and recorded. for metering flow in closed pipe or open-channel flow.
• Individual meters are often required for the proper Flow amount is measured in either gallons (gal) or cubic
operation of individual pieces of equipment. For feet (cu ft). Typically, a totalizer, which sums up the gallons or
example, the makeup water to a fluoride saturator is cubic feet that pass through the meter, is used. Most service
always metered to assist in tracking the fluoride feed meters are of this type. They are used in private, commercial,
rate. and industrial activities where the total amount of flow mea-
sured is used in determining customer billing. In wastewater
Note: Simply put, measurement of flow is essential for opera- treatment, where sampling operations are important, auto-
tion, process control, and recordkeeping of water and waste- matic composite sampling units—flow proportioned to grab
water treatment plants. a sample every so many gallons—are used. Totalizer meters
All of the uses just discussed create the need, obviously, can be the velocity (propeller or turbine), positive displace-
for a number of flow-measuring devices, often with differ- ment, or compound types. In addition, weirs and flumes are
ent capabilities. In this section, we discuss many of the major used extensively for measuring flow in wastewater treatment
flow-measuring devices currently used in water/wastewater plants because they are not affected (to a degree) by dirty
operations. water or floating solids.
Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way Flow-Measuring Devices

An approximate but very simple method to determine open- In recent decades, flow measurement technology has evolved
channel flow has been used for many years. The procedure rapidly from the “old fashioned way” of measuring flow, dis-
involves measuring the velocity of a floating object moving in cussed earlier, to the use of simple practical measuring devices
a straight uniform reach of the channel or stream. If the cross- too much more sophisticated devices. Physical phenomena
sectional dimensions of the channel are known and the depth discovered centuries ago have been the starting point for
of flow is measured, then flow area can be computed. From many of the viable flowmeter designs used today. Moreover,
the relationship Q = A × V, the discharge Q can be estimated. the recent technology explosion has enabled flowmeters to
In preliminary fieldwork, this simple procedure is useful in handle many more applications than could have been imag-
obtaining a ballpark estimate for the flow rate, but is not suit- ined centuries ago. Before selecting a particular type of flow
able for routine measurements. measurement device, Kawamura (2000) recommends consid-
eration of several questions:
Example 6.16
1. Is liquid or gas flow being measured?
Problem: A floating object is placed on the surface of
2. Is the flow occurring in a pipe or in an open channel?
water flowing in a drainage ditch and is observed to travel 3. What is the magnitude of the flow rate?
a distance of 20 m downstream in 30 sec. The ditch is 2 m 4. What is the range of flow variation?
wide and the average depth of flow is estimated to be 0.5 5. Is the liquid being measured clean, or does it contain
m. Estimate the discharge under these conditions. suspended solids or air bubbles?
6. What is the accuracy requirement?
SOLUTION: 7. What is the allowable headloss by the flow meter?
8. Is the flow corrosive?
The flow velocity is computed as distance over
time, or 9. What types of flow meters are available to the region?
10. What types of post-installation service is available to
V = D/T = 20 m/ 30 s = 0.67 m/s the area?
The channel area is A = 2 m × 0.5 m = 1.0 m2. Differential Pressure Flowmeters
The discharge Q = A × V = 1.0 m2 × 0.66 m2 = 0.66 For many years differential pressure flowmeters have been
m3/sec. the most widely applied flow-measuring device for water flow
in pipes that require accurate measurement at reasonable cost.
The differential pressure type of flowmeter makes up the larg-
Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement
est segment of the total flow measurement devices currently
Flow measurement can be based on flow rate, or flow amount. being used. Differential pressure-producing meters currently
Flow rate is measured in gallons per minute (gpm), million on the market are the Venturi, Dall type, Hershel Venturi, uni-
gallons per day (MGD), or cubic feet per second (cfs). Water/ versal Venturi, and Venturi inserts.
wastewater operations need flow rate meters to determine The differential pressure-producing device has a flow
process variables within the treatment plant, in wastewater restriction in the line that causes a differential pressure or
collection, and in potable water distribution. Typically, flow “head” to be developed between the two measurement loca-
rate meters used are pressure differential meters, magnetic tions. Differential pressure flowmeters are also known as
head meters, and, of all the head meters, the orifice flowmeter Orifice
is the most widely applied device. The advantages of differen- The most commonly applied orifice is a thin, concentric, and
tial pressure flowmeters include: flat metal plate with an opening in the plate (see Figure 6.21),
installed perpendicular to the flowing stream in a circular
• Simple construction conduit or pipe. Typically, a sharp-edged hole is bored in the
• Relatively inexpensive center of the orifice plate. As the flowing water passes through
• No moving parts the orifice, the restriction causes an increase in velocity. A
• Transmitting instruments are external concurrent decrease in pressure occurs as potential energy
• Low maintenance (static pressure) is converted into kinetic energy (velocity). As
• Wide application of flowing fluid—suitable for mea- the water leaves the orifice, its velocity decreases and its pres-
suring both gas and liquid flow sure increases as kinetic energy is converted back into poten-
• Ease of instrument and range selection tial energy according to the laws of conservation of energy.
• Extensive product experience and performance However, there is always some permanent pressure loss due to
database friction, and the loss is a function of the ratio of the diameter
of the orifice bore (d) to the pipe diameter (D).
Disadvantages include: For dirty water applications (i.e., wastewater), a concentric
orifice plate will eventually have impaired performance due
• Flow rate is a nonlinear function of the differential to dirt buildup at the plate. Instead, eccentric or segmental
pressure orifice plates (see Figure 6.22) are often used. Measurements
• Low flow rate rangeability with normal instrumen- are typically less accurate than those obtained from the con-
tation centric orifice plate. Eccentric or segmental orifices are rarely
applied in current practice.
Operating Principle The orifice differential pressure flowmeter is the low-
Differential pressure flowmeters operate on the principle of est cost differential flowmeter, is easy to install, and has no
measuring pressure at two points in the flow, which pro- moving parts. However, it also has high permanent head loss
vides an indication of the rate of flow that is passing by. (ranging from 40% to 90%) higher pumping costs, an accu-
The difference in pressures between the two measurement racy of±2% for a flow range of 4:1, and is affected with wear
locations of the flowmeter is the result of the change in flow or damage.
velocities. Simply, there is a set relationship between the Note: Orifice meters are not recommended for perma-
flow rate and volume, so the meter instrumentation auto- nent installation to measure wastewater flow; solids in the
matically translates the differential pressure into a volume water easily catch on the orifice, throwing off accuracy. For
of flow. The volume of flow rate through the cross-sectional
area is given by:
Upstream Downstream
Face A Face B
Q = A ´ v (average) Angle of bevel
where:
Q = the volumetric flow rate Flow D Axial centerline
d
A = flow in the cross-sectional area
v = the average fluid velocity Downstream edge
Dam Height
Differential pressure flowmeters operate on the principle
of developing a differential pressure across a restriction that
Upstream edge
can be related to the fluid flow rate.
Note: Optimum measurement accuracy is maintained
FIGURE 6.21 Orifice plate.
when the flowmeter is calibrated, the flowmeter is installed
in accordance with standards and codes of practice, and the
transmitting instruments are periodically calibrated.
Types of Differential Pressure Flowmeters

The most commonly used differential pressure flowmeter
types used in water/wastewater treatment are:
1. Orifice
2. Venturi Concentric Eccentric Segmental
3. Nozzle
4. Pitot-static tube FIGURE 6.22 Orifice plate.
Pipe tap (high) Total pressure tap

Throat tap (low)
Static pressure port
D Flow Throat d D
FIGURE 6.23 Venturi tube.
installation, it is necessary to have ten diameters of straight

pipe ahead of the orifice meter to create a smooth flow pat-
tern, and five diameters of straight pipe on the discharge side.
Venturi FIGURE 6.24 Pitot tube inside a pipe.

A Venturi is a restriction with a relatively long passage with
smooth entry and exit (see Figure 6.23). It has long life expec- same point is the velocity head. The flow rate is the product
tancy, simplicity of construction, relatively high-pressure of the measured velocity and the cross-sectional area at the
recovery (i.e., produces less permanent pressure loss than a point of measurement. Note that the Pitot tube has negligi-
similar sized orifice), but is more expensive, is not linear with ble permanent pressure drop in the line, but the impact port
flow rate, and is the largest and heaviest differential pressure must be located in the pipe where the measured velocity is
flowmeter. It is often used in wastewater flows since the smooth equal to the average velocity of the flowing water through the
entry allows foreign material to be swept through instead of cross-section.
building up as it would in front of an orifice. The accuracy of
this type of flowmeter is ±1% for a flow range of 10:1. The Magnetic Flowmeters
headloss across a Venturi flow meter is relatively small, rang- Magnetic flowmeters are relatively new to the water/wastewa-
ing from 3% to 10% of the differential, depending on the ratio ter industry (USEPA, 1991). They are volumetric flow devices
of the throat diameter to the inlet diameter (a.k.a. beta ratio). designed to measure the flow of electrically conductive liq-
uids in a closed pipe. They measure the flow rate based on the
Nozzle voltage created between two electrodes (in accordance with
Flow nozzles (flow tubes) have a smooth entry and a sharp Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction) as the water
exit. For the same differential pressure, the permanent pres- passes through an electromagnetic field (see Figure 6.25).
sure loss of a nozzle is of the same order as that of an ori- Induced voltage is proportional to flow rate. Voltage depends
fice, but it can handle wastewater and abrasive fluids better on magnetic field strength (constant), distance between elec-
than an orifice can. Note that, for the same line size and flow trodes (constant), and velocity of flowing water (variable).
rate, the differential pressure at the nozzle is lower (headloss Properties of the magnetic flowmeter include: (1) minimal
ranges from 10% to 20% of the differential) than the differ- head loss (no obstruction with line size meter); (2) no effect
ential pressure for an orifice; hence, the total pressure loss on flow profile; (3) suitable for size range between 0.1 in. and
is lower than that of an orifice. Nozzles are primarily used 120 in.; (4) have an accuracy rating of 0.5–2% of flow rate;
in steam service because of their rigidity, which makes them and (5) it measures forward or reverse flow. The advantages of
dimensionally more stable at high temperatures and velocities magnetic flowmeters include:
than orifices.
Note: A useful characteristic of nozzles is that they reach a • Obstruction less flow
critical flow condition; that is, a point at which further reduc- • Minimal head loss
tion in downstream pressure does not produce a greater veloc-
ity through the nozzle. When operated in this mode, nozzles Voltage
are very predictable and repeatable.
Pitot Tube
A Pitot tube is a point velocity-measuring device (see Figure
6.24). It has an impact port; as fluid hits the port, its velocity
is reduced to zero and kinetic energy (velocity) is converted to
potential energy (pressure head). The pressure at the impact
port is the sum of the static pressure and the velocity head. Electromagnet
The pressure at the impact port is also known as stagnation Flow
pressure or total pressure. The pressure difference between
the impact pressure and the static pressure measured at the FIGURE 6.25 Magnetic flowmeter.
• Wide range of sizes 25 ft/sec, but the meter reading is greatly affected by a change
• Bi-directional flow measurement in the fluid composition. Two types of ultrasonic flowmeters
• Variations in density, viscosity, pressure, and tem- are in general use for closed pipe flow measurements. The first
perature with negligible effect (time of flight or transit time) usually uses pulse transmission
• Can be used for wastewater and is for clean liquids, while the second (Doppler) usually
• No moving parts uses continuous wave transmission and is for dirty liquids.
Disadvantages include: Time-of-Flight Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Time-of-flight flowmeters make use of the difference in the
• The metered liquid must be conductive (but you time for a sonic pulse to travel a fixed distance, first in the
wouldn’t use this type of meter on clean fluids direction of flow and then against the flow (Brown, 1991).
anyway). This is accomplished by opposing transceivers positioned
• They are bulky, expensive in smaller sizes, and may on a diagonal path across a meter spool as shown in Figure
require periodic calibration to correct drifting of the 6.26. Each transmits and receives ultrasonic pulses with flow
signal. and against flow. The fluid velocity is directly proportional to
the time difference of pulse travel. The time-of-flight ultra-
The combination of the magnetic flowmeter and the trans- sonic flowmeters operate with minimal head loss; have an
mitter is considered as a system. A typical system, schemati- accuracy range of 1%–2.5% full scale; and can be mounted
cally illustrated in Figure 6.26, shows a transmitter mounted as integral spool piece transducers or as externally mountable
remote from the magnetic flowmeter. Some systems are clamp-ons. They can measure flow accurately when properly
available with transmitters mounted integral to the magnetic installed and applied. The advantages of time-of-flight ultra-
flowmeter. Each device is individually calibrated during the sonic flowmeters include:
manufacturing process, and the accuracy statement of the
magnetic flowmeter includes both pieces of equipment. One • No obstruction to flow
is not sold or used without the other. It is also interesting to • Minimal head loss
note that since 1983 almost every manufacturer now offers the • Clamp-ons
microprocessor-based transmitter. • can be portable
With regard to a minimum piping straight run require- • no interruption of flow
ments, magnetic flowmeters are quite forgiving of piping con- • No moving parts
figuration. The downstream side of the magnetic flowmeter is • Linear over a wide range
much less critical than the upstream side. Essentially, all that • Wide range of pipe sizes
is required of the downstream side is that sufficient backpres- • Bi-directional flow measurement
sure is provided to keep the magnetic flowmeter full of liquid
during flow measurement. Two diameters downstream should The disadvantages include:
be acceptable (Mills, 1991).
Note: Magnetic flowmeters are designed to measure con- • Sensitive to solids or bubble content
ductive liquids only. If air or gas is mixed with the liquid, the • interfere with sound pulses
output becomes unpredictable. • Sensitive to flow disturbances
• Alignment of transducers is critical
Ultrasonic Flowmeters • Clamp-on—pipe walls must freely pass ultrasonic
Ultrasonic flowmeters use an electronic transducer to send a pulses
beam of ultrasonic sound waves through the water to another
transducer on the opposite side of the unit. The velocity of Doppler Type Ultrasonic Flowmeters
the sound beam varies with the liquid flow rate, so the beam Doppler ultrasonic flowmeters make use of the Doppler fre-
can be electronically translated to indicate flow volume. The quency shift caused by sound scattered or reflected from
accuracy is ±1% for a flow velocity ranging from 1 ft/sec to moving particles in the flow path. Doppler meters are not
considered to be as accurate as time-of-flight flowmeters.
Transceiver However, they are very convenient to use and generally more
popular and less expensive than time-of-flight flowmeters.
Flow In operation, a propagated ultrasonic beam is interrupted by
particles in moving fluid and reflected toward a receiver. The
difference of propagated and reflected frequencies is directly
proportional to fluid flow rate. Ultrasonic Doppler flowmeters
feature minimal head loss with an accuracy of 2%–5% full
Transceiver scale. They are either of the integral spool piece transducer
type or of the externally mountable clamp-on one. The advan-
FIGURE 6.26 Time-of-flight ultrasonic flowmeter. tages of the Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter includes:
• No obstruction or interruption of flow particularly well suited for measuring intermediate flow rates
• Minimal head loss on clean water (Oliver, 1991). The advantages of the velocity
• Clamp-on meter include:
• can be portable
• no interruption of flow • Accuracy
• No moving parts • Composed of corrosion-resistant materials
• Linear over a wide range • Long-term stability
• Wide range of pipe sizes • Liquid or gas operation
• Low installation and operating costs • Wide operating range
• Bi-directional flow measurement • Low-pressure drop
• Wide temperature and pressure limits
The disadvantages include: • High shock capability
• Wide variety of electronics available
• Minimum concentration and size of solids or bubbles
for reliable operation (see Figure 6.27) As shown in Figure 6.28, a turbine flowmeter consists of a
• Minimum speed to maintain suspension rotor mounted on a bearing and shaft in a housing. The fluid
• Limited to sonically conductive pipe (clamp-on type) to be measured is passed through the housing, causing the
rotor to spin with a rotational speed proportional to the veloc-
Velocity Flowmeters ity of the flowing fluid within the meter. A device to measure
Velocity or turbine flowmeters use a propeller or turbine the speed of the rotor is employed to make the actual flow
to measure the velocity of the flow passing the device (see measurement. The sensor can be a mechanically gear-driven
Figure 6.28). The velocity is then translated into a volumet- shaft to a meter or an electronic sensor that detects the pas-
ric amount by the meter register. Sizes exist from a variety sage of each rotor blade generating a pulse. The rotational
of manufacturers to cover the flow range from 0.001 gpm to speed of the sensor shaft and the frequency of the pulse are
over 25,000 gpm for liquid service. End connections are avail- proportional to the volumetric flow rate through the meter.
able to meet the various piping systems. The flowmeters are
typically manufactured of stainless steel but are also avail- Positive-Displacement Flowmeters
able in a wide variety of materials, including plastic. Velocity Positive-displacement flowmeters are most commonly used
meters are applicable to all clean fluids. Velocity meters are for customer metering; they have long been used to measure
Transducer Transducer Transducer
Full penetration Partial penetration Poor penetration
FIGURE 6.27 Particle concentration effect. The more the particles, the more the errors.
Register Shaft bearing

Turbine wheel
Flow Flow
(A) (B) Bearing support arm
FIGURE 6.28 (A) Propeller meter; (B) turbine meter.

liquid products. These meters are very reliable and accurate flowmeters use a mechanical gear train that requires a rotary
for low flow rates because they measure the exact quantity of shaft seal or packing gland where the shaft penetrates the
water passing through them. Positive-displacement flowme- external housing.
ters are frequently used for measuring small flows in a treat- The positive-displacement flowmeter can offer excellent
ment plant because of their accuracy. Repair or replacement accuracy, repeatability, and reliability in many applications.
is easy since they are so common in the distribution system The positive-displacement flowmeter has satisfied many
(Barnes, 1991). needs in the past and should play a vital role in serving future
In essence, a positive-displacement flowmeter is a hydrau- needs as required.
lic motor with high volumetric efficiency that absorbs a small
amount of energy from the flowing stream. This energy is
Open-Channel Flow Measurement
used to overcome internal friction in driving the flowmeter
and its accessories and is reflected as a pressure drop across The majority of industrial liquid flows are carried in closed
the flowmeter. Pressure drop is regarded as unavoidable that conduits that flow completely full and under pressure.
must be minimized. It is the pressure drop across the inter- However, this is not the case for high volume flows of liq-
nals of a positive-displacement flowmeter that actually cre- uids in waterworks, sanitary, and stormwater systems that are
ates a hydraulically unbalanced rotor, which causes rotation. commonly carried in open channels. Low system heads and
A positive-displacement flowmeter continuously divides the high volumetric flow rates characterize flow in open channels
flowing stream into known volumetric segments, isolates (Grant, 1991). The most commonly used method of measuring
the segments momentarily, and returns them to the flowing the rate of flow in open-channel flow configurations is that of
stream while counting the number of displacements. hydraulic structures. In this method, flow in an open channel
A positive-displacement flowmeter can be broken down into is measured by inserting a hydraulic structure into the chan-
three basic components: the external housing, the measuring nel, which changes the level of liquid in or near the structure.
unit, and the counter drive train. The external housing is the By selecting the shape and dimensions of the hydraulic struc-
pressure vessel that contains the product being measured. The ture, the rate of flow through or over the restriction will be
measuring unit is a precision metering element and is made related to the liquid level in a known manner. Thus, the flow
up of the measuring chamber and the displacement mecha- rate through the open channel can be derived from a single
nism. The most common displacement mechanisms include measurement of the liquid level in or near the structure.
the oscillating piston, sliding vane, oval gear, trirotor, birotor, The hydraulic structures used in measuring flow in open
and nutating disc types (see Figure 6.29). The counter drive channels are known as primary measuring devices and may
train is used to transmit the internal motion of the measuring be divided into two broad categories—weirs and flumes,
unit into a usable output signal. Many positive-displacement which are covered in the following subsections.
FIGURE 6.29 Six common positive-displacement meter principles.

Weirs devices. Two common weirs, rectangular and triangular, are

The weir is a widely used device to measure open-channel shown in Figure 6.31.
flow. As can be seen in Figure 6.30, a weir is simply a dam Rectangular weirs are commonly used for large flows (see
or obstruction placed in the channel so that water backs up Figure 6.31-A). The formula used to make rectangular weir
behind it and then flows over it. The sharp crest or edge allows computations is:
the water to spring clear of the weir plate and to fall freely in
the form of a nappe. As Nathanson (1997) points out, when Q = 3.33 ´ L ´ h1.5 (6.27)
the nappe discharges freely into the air, there is a hydraulic
relationship between the height or depth of water flowing over where
the weir crest and the flow rate. This height, the vertical dis- Q = flow
tance between the crest and the water surface, is called the L = width of weir
head on the weir; it can be measured directly with a meter h = head on weir (measured from edge of weir in contact
or yardstick or automatically by float-operated recording with the water, up to the water surface).
FIGURE 6.30 Side view of a weir.
FIGURE 6.31 (A) Rectangular weir; (B) triangular V-notch weir.

Example 6.17
Problem: A weir 4-ft high extends 15 ft across a rectangu-

lar channel in which there are 80 cfs flowing. What is the
depth just upstream from the weir?
SOLUTION:
Q = 3.33 × L × h1.5
80 = 3.33 × 15 h1.5
h = 1.4 ft (w/calculator: 1.6 INV yx1.5 = 1.36 or 1.4)
4 ft height of weir + 1.4 ft head of water = 5.4 ft depth
Triangular weirs, also called V-notch weirs, can have notch

angles ranging from 22.5° to 90°, but right angle notches
are the most common (see Figure 6.31-B). FIGURE 6.32 Parshall flume.
The formula used to make V-notch (90°) weir calcula-
tions is special shape of the flume (see Figure 6.32) restricts the channel
area and/or changes the channel slope, resulting in an increased
Q = 2.5 ´ h2.5 (6.28) velocity and a change in the level of the liquid flowing through
the flume. The flume restricts the flow, and then expands it in a
where definite fashion. The flow rate through the flume may be deter-
Q = flow mined by measuring the head on the flume at a single point,
h = head on weir (measured from bottom of notch to usually at some distance downstream from the inlet.
water surface) Flumes can be categorized as belonging to one the three
general families, depending upon the state of flow induced—
Example 6.18 subcritical, critical, or supercritical. Typically, flumes that
induce a critical or supercritical state of flow are most com-
Problem: What should be the minimum weir height for monly used. This is because when critical or supercritical
measuring a flow of 1,200 gpm with a 90-degree V-notch
flow occurs in a channel, one head measurement can indicate
weir, if the flow is now moving at 4 ft/sec in a 2.5 ft wide
rectangular channel? the discharge rate if it is made far enough upstream so that
the flow depth is not affected by the drawdown of the water
SOLUTION: surface as it achieves or passes through a critical state of flow.
For critical or supercritical states of flow, a definitive head-
1200 gpm
= 2.67 cfs discharge relationship can be established and measured, based
60 sec/min ´ 7.48 gal/cu ft on a single head reading. Thus, most commonly encountered
flumes are designed to pass the flow from subcritical through
Q = A × V critical or near the point of measurement.
2.67 = 2.5 × d × 4 The most common flume used for a permanent wastewater
d = 0.27 ft flow-metering installation is called the Parshall flume, shown
Q = 2.5 × h2.5 in Figure 6.32. Formulas for flow through Parshall flumes dif-
2.67 = 2.5 × h2.5
fer, depending on throat width. The formula below can be used
h = 1.03 (calculator: 1.06 INV yx2.5 = 1.026 or 1.03)
0.27 ft (original depth) + 1.03 (head on weir) = 1.3 ft
for widths of 1–8 ft, and applies to a medium range of flows.
It is important to point out that weirs, aside from being Q = 4 ´ W ´ H1a.52 ´ W.026 (6.29)
operated within their flow limits, must also be operated
within the available system head. In addition, the opera- where
tion of the weir is sensitive to the approach velocity of Q = flow
the water, often necessitating a stilling basin or pound Ha = depth in stilling well upstream
upstream of the weir. Weirs are not suitable for water that
W = width of throat
carries excessive solid materials or silt, which deposit in
the approach channel behind the weir and destroy the
conditions required for accurate discharge measurements. Note: Parshall flumes are low maintenance items.
Note: Accurate flow rate measurements with a weir
cannot be expected unless the proper conditions and
dimensions are maintained.
6.1 What should be the minimum weir height for mea-
Flumes suring a flow of 900 gpm with a 90-degree V-notch
A flume is a specially shaped constricted section in an open weir, if the flow is now moving at 3 ft/sec in a 2-ft
channel (similar to the Venturi tube in a pressure conduit). The wide rectangular channel?
6.2 A 90-degree V-notch weir is to be installed in a Barnes, R.G., 1991. Positive Displacement Flowmeters for Liquid
30-in. diameter sewer to measure 600 gpm. What Measurement. In: Spitzer, D.W., Ed. Flow Measurement.
head should be expected? Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument Society of America.
Brown, A.E., 1991. Ultrasonic Flowmeters. In: Spitzer, D.W., Ed.
6.3 For dirty water operations, a ___________ or
Flow Measurement. Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument
_________ orifice plate should be used. Society of America.
6.4 A _________ has a smooth entry and a sharp exit. Grant, D.M., 1991. Open Channel Flow Measurement. In: Spitzer,
6.5 _____________ send a beam of ultrasonic sound D.W., Ed. Flow Measurement. Research Triangle Park, NC:
waves through the water to another transducer on the Instrument Society of America.
opposite side of the unit. Husain, Z.D.&Sergesketter, M.J., 1991. Differential Pressure
6.6 Find the number of gallons in a storage tank that has Flowmeters. In: Spitzer, D.W., Ed.. Flow Measurement.
Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument Society of America.
a volume of 660 ft3.
Hauser, B.A., 1993. Hydraulics for Operators. Boca Raton, FL:
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pounds under water. What is the specific gravity? Hauser, B.A., 1995. Practical Hydraulics Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca
6.8 A 110-ft diameter cylindrical tank contains 1.6 MG Raton, FL: CRC Press.
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6.9 The pressure in a pipeline is 6,400 psf. What is the Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
head on the pipe? Holman, S., 1998. A Stolen Tongue. New York: Anchor Press,
6.10 The pressure on a surface is 35 psig. If the surface Doubleday.
Kawamura, S., 2000. Integrated Design and Operation of Water
area is 1.6 sq ft, what is the force (lb) exerted on the Treatment Facilities, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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6.12 What is pressure head? Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins University Press.
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6.14 A flow of 1,500 gpm takes place in a 12-in. pipe. McGraw-Hill.
Mills, R.C., 1991. Magnetic Flowmeters. In: Spitzer, D.W., Ed..
Calculate the velocity head.
Flow Measurement. Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument
6.15 Water flows at 5.00 ml/sec in a 4-in. line under a Society of America.
pressure of 110 psi. What is the pressure head (ft of Nathanson, J.A., 1997. Basic Environmental Technology: Water
water)? Supply Waste Management, and Pollution Control, 2nd ed.
6.16 In question 6.15, what is the velocity head in the line? Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6.17 What is the velocity head in a 6-in. pipe connected to Oliver, P.D., 1991. Turbine Flowmeters. In: Spitzer, D.W., Ed. Flow
a 1-ft pipe, if the flow in the larger pipe is 1.46 cfs? Measurement. Research Triangle Park, NC: Instrument
Society of America.
6.18 What is velocity head?
Spellman, F.R.&Drinan, J., 2001. Water Hydraulics. Boca Raton,
6.19 What is suction lift? FL: CRC Press.
6.20 Explain energy grade line. Spellman, F.R., 2007. The Science of Water, 2nd ed. Boca Raton,
FL: CRC Press.
USEPA, 1991. Flow Instrumentation: A Practical Workshop on
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING Making Them Work. Sacramento, CA: Water & Wastewater
AWWA, 1995. Basic Science Concepts and Applications: Principles Instrumentation Testing Association.
and Practices of Water Supply Operations, 2nd ed. Denver, Viessman, W., Jr.&Hammer, M.J., 1998. Water Supply and Pollution
CO: American Water Works Association. Control, 6th ed. Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley.
7 Pumps Hydraulic Machines
A hydraulic machine, or pump, is a device that raises, There are three general requirements of pump and motor
compresses, or transfers fluids. combinations: (1) reliability (2) adequacy, and (3) economy.
Reliability is generally obtained by installing in duplicate the
—Frank R. Spellman (1996) very best equipment available and by the use of an auxiliary
power source. Adequacy is obtained by securing liberal sizes
of pumping equipment. Economics can be achieved by tak-
INTRODUCTION ing into account the life and depreciation, first cost, standby
charges, interest, and operating costs.
Garay (1990) points out that “few engineered artifacts are as
Texas Utilities Association (1988)
essential as pumps in the development of the culture which our
western civilization enjoys.” This statement is germane to any
discussion about pumps simply because humans have always Over the past several years, it has become more evident that
needed to move water from one place to another against the many waterworks and wastewater facilities have been unable
forces of nature. As the need for potable water increases, the to meet their optimum supply and/or treatment requirements
need to pump the water from distant locations to where it is for one of three reasons:
most needed is also increasing.
Initially, humans relied on one of the primary forces of 1. Untrained operations and maintenance staff
nature—gravity—to assist in moving water from one place to 2. Poor plant maintenance
another. Gravity only works, of course, if the water is moved 3. Improper plant design
downhill on a sloping grade. People soon discovered that if
they accumulated water behind the water source (e.g., behind BASIC PUMPING CALCULATIONS
a barricade, levy, or dam), pressure moved the water further.
But when pressure is dissipated by various losses (e.g., fric- Calculations, calculations, calculations, and more calcula-
tion loss), when water in low-lying areas is needed in higher tions! Indeed, we can’t get away from them—not in water/
areas, the energy needed to move that water must be created. wastewater treatment and collection/distribution operations
Simply, some type of pump is needed. or licensure certification examinations, nor in real life.
In 287 BCE, Archimedes (Greek mathematician and Basic calculations are a fact of life that the water/wastewa-
physicist) invented the screw pump (see Figure 7.1). The ter maintenance operator soon learns, and hopefully learns
Roman emperor, Nero, around AD 100, is often credited for well enough to use as required to operate a water/wastewater
the development of the piston pump. In operation, the pis- facility correctly. The following sections, basic calculations
ton pump displaces volume after volume of water with each used frequently in water hydraulic and pumping applica-
stroke. The piston pump has two basic problems: (1) its size tions are discussed. The basic calculations that the water and
limits its capacity and (2) it is a high consumer of energy. It wastewater maintenance operator may be required to know
was not until the 19th century before pumping technology for operational and certification purposes are discussed. In
took a leap forward from its rudimentary beginnings. The addition, calculations for pump specific speed, suction spe-
first fully functional centrifugal pumps were developed in cific speed, affinity formulae, and other advanced calcula-
the 1800s. Centrifugal pumps can move great quantities of tions are also covered in this section, although at a higher
water with much smaller units than the pumps previously technical level.
in use.
The pump is a type of hydraulic machine. Pumps convert
Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline
mechanical energy into fluid energy. Whether it is taken from
groundwater or a surface water body, or from one unit treat- The speed or velocity of a fluid flowing through a channel or
ment process to another, or to the storage tank for eventual pipeline is related to the cross-sectional area of the pipeline
final delivery through various sizes and types of pipes to the and the quantity of water moving through the line; for exam-
customer, pumps are the usual source of energy necessary for ple, if the diameter of a pipeline is reduced, then the veloc-
the conveyance of water. Again, the only exception may be, ity of the water in the line must increase to allow the same
of course, where the source of energy is supplied entirely by amount of water to pass through the line.
gravity. Waterworks and wastewater maintenance operators
must therefore be familiar with pumps, pump characteristics, Flow (Q), cfs
Velocity (V), fps = (7.1)
pump operation, and pump maintenance. Cross-Sectional Area (A) ft 2
219
Motor
Gear reducer
Coupler
Top bearing
Screw
Bottom
bearing
FIGURE 7.1 Archimedes’ screw pump.
Example 7.1 Area1 ´ Velocity1 = Area 2 ´ Velocity 2 (7.2)
Problem: If the flow through a 2-ft-diameter pipe is 9 Note: The concept just explained is extremely important
MGD, the velocity is: in the operation of a centrifugal pump and will be dis-
cussed later.
SOLUTION:
9 MGD ´ 1.55 cfs/MGD Pressure-Velocity Relationship
Velocity, fps =
0.785 ´ 2 ft ´ 2 ft A relationship similar to that of velocity and cross-sectional
area exists for velocity and pressure. As the velocity of flow in
14 cfs a full pipe increases the pressure of the liquid decreases. This
V=
3.14 ft 2 relationship is:
V = 4.5 fps (rounded) Pressure1 ´ Velocity1 = Pressure2 ´ Velocity2 (7.3)
Problem: If the same 9-MGD flow used in Example 7.1 Problem: If the flow in a pipe has a velocity of 3 fps and a
is transferred to a pipe with a 1-ft diameter, the velocity pressure of 4 psi and the velocity of the flow increases to
would be? 4 fps, the pressure will be?
SOLUTION: SOLUTION:
9 MGD ´ 1.55 cfs/MGD P1 ´ V1 = P2 ´ V2
Velocity, fps =
0.785 ´ 1 ft ´ 1 ft
4 psi ´ 3 fps = P2 ´ 4 fps
14 cfs
V= Rearranging:
0.785 ft 2
4 psi ´ 3 fps
V = 17.8 fps (rounded) P2 =
4 fps
Based upon these sample problems, you can see that
if the cross-sectional area is decreased, the velocity of 12 psi
P2 =
the flow must be increased. Mathematically we can say 4
that the velocity and cross-sectional area are inversely
proportional when the amount of flow (Q) is constant. P2 = 3 psi
Hydraulic Machines 221
Again, this is another important hydraulics principle that

is very important to the operation of a centrifugal pump.
145 ft
Static Head Pump
Pressure at a given point originates from the height, or depth 128 ft

of water above it. It is this pressure, or head, which gives the
water energy, and causes it to flow. By definition, static head 121 ft
is the vertical distance the liquid travels from the supply tank
to the discharge point. This relationship is shown as:
FIGURE 7.2 Illustration for Example 7.4.
Static Head, ft = Discharge level, ft SOLUTION:

(7.4)
- Supply Level, ft Step 1:
Static Suction Lift, ft

In many cases, it is desirable to separate the static head into
two separate parts: (1) the portion that occurs before the pump = Pump Level, ft - Supply Level, ft
(suction head or suction lift) and (2) the portion that occurs
Static Suction Lift, ft = 128 ft - 121 ft
after the pump (discharge head). When this is done, the center
(or datum) of the pump becomes the reference point. = 7 ft
Static Suction Head Step 2:

Static suction head refers to when the supply is located above Static Discharge Head, ft
the pump datum:
= Discharge Level, ft + Static Suction Lift, ft

Static Suction Head, ft = 145 ft - 128 ft
(7.5)
= Supply Level, ft - Pump Level, ft = 17 ft
Static Suction Lift Step 3:

Static suction lift refers to when the supply is located below
Total Static Head, ft
the pump datum:
= Static Discharge Head, ft + Static Suction Lift
Static Suction Lift, ft
(7.6) = 17 ft + 7 ft
= Pump Level, ft - Supply Level, ft
= 24 ft
Static Discharge Head
—or—
Static Discharge Head, ft
(7.7) Total Static Head, ft
= Discharge Level, ft - Pump datum, ft
= Discharge Level, ft - Supply Level, ft
If the total static head is to be determined after calculating
the static suction head or lift and static discharge head, indi- = 145 ft - 119 ft
vidually, two separate calculations can be used, depending on = 26 ft
whether there is a suction head or a suction lift.
For Suction Head: Example 7.5
Total Static Head = Static Discharge Head, ft Problem: See Figure 7.3
(7.8)
- Static Suction Lift, ft
SOLUTION:
For Suction Lift:
Step 1:
Total Static Head, ft = Static Discharge Head, ft
(7.9) Static Suction Head, ft
+ Static Suction Lift, ft
= Supply Level, ft - Pump Level, ft
Example 7.4
= 124
4 ft - 117 ft
Problem: Refer to Figure 7.2. = 7 ft
The roughness factor (f) varies with length and diameter as

141 ft
well as the condition of the pipe and the material from which
it is constructed; it normally ranges from 0.01–0.04.
Important Point: For centrifugal pumps, good engineer-
ing practice is to try to keep velocities in the suction pipe to 3
124 ft ft/sec or less. Discharge velocities higher than 11 ft/sec may
cause turbulent flow and/or erosion in the pump casing.
Pump
Example 7.6
117 ft
Problem: What is the friction head in a system that uses
FIGURE 7.3 Illustration for Example 7.5. 150 ft of 6-inch diameter pipe, when the velocity is 3 fps?
The system’s valving is equivalent to an additional 75 ft of
Step 2: pipe. Reference material indicates a roughness factor (f) of
Static Discharge Head, ft 0.025 for this particular pipe and flow rate.
= Discharge Level, ft - Pump Level, ft SOLUTION:

= 141 ft - 117 ft Friction Head, ft = Roughness factor
= 24 ft Length Velocity 2
´ ´
Diameter 2g
Step 3:
Total Static Head, ft = Static Discharge Head, ft (150 ft + 75 ft )

Friction Head, ft = 0.025 ´
- Static Suction Head 0.5 ft

= 24 ft - 7 ft
(3 fps)2
= 17 ft ´
2 ´ 32 ft/sec
or
225 ft 9 ft 2 /s2
Friction Head, ft = 0.025 ´ ´
Total Static Head, ft 0.5 ft 64 ft/sec 2
= Discharge Level, ft - Supply Level, ft Friction Head, ft = 0.025 ´ 450 ´ 0.140 ft

= 141 ft - 124 ft
Friction Head, ft = 1.58 ft
= 17 ft
Friction Head It is also possible to compute friction head using tables.

Friction head can also be determined on both the suction
Various formulae calculate friction losses. Hazen-Williams side of the pump and the discharge side of the pump. In
wrote one of the most common for a smooth steel pipe. Usually, each case, it is necessary to determine:
we do not need to calculate the friction losses, because hand-
books such as the Hydraulic Institute Pipe Friction Manual 1. The length of the pipe
tabulated these long ago. This important manual also shows 2. The diameter of the pipe
velocities in different pipe diameters at varying flows, as well 3. Velocity
4. Pipe equivalent of valves, elbows, T’s, etc.
as the resistance coefficient (K) for valves and fittings (Wahren,
1997). Friction head (in feet) is the amount of energy used to
overcome resistance to the flow of liquids through the system. Velocity Head
It is affected by the length and diameter of the pipe, the rough-
Velocity head is the amount of head or energy required to
ness of the pipe, and the velocity head. It is also affected by
maintain a stated velocity in the suction and discharge lines.
the physical construction of the piping system. The number
The design of most pumps makes the total velocity head for
and types of elbows, valves, T’s, etc., will greatly influence the
the pumping system zero.
friction head for the system. These must be converted to their
Note: Velocity head only changes from one point to another
equivalent length of pipe and included in the calculation.
on a pipeline if the diameter of the pipe changes.
Friction Head, ft = Roughness Factor, f Velocity head and total velocity head are determined by:
Length Velocity 2 (7.10) (Velocity)2

´ ´ Velocity Head, ft = (7.11)
Diameter 2g 2g
Total Velocity Head, ft SOLUTION:

= Velocity Head Discharge, ft (7.12) Head, ft = Pressure, psi ´ 2.31 ft psi
- Velocity Head Suction, ft = 20 psi ´ 2.31 ft psi
= 46 ft (rounded)
Example 7.7
Note: The pump must supply an additional head of 46 ft to
Problem: What is the velocity head for a system that has a overcome the internal pressure of the line.
velocity of 5 fps?
SOLUTION: Horsepower
Velocity Head, ft The unit of work is foot pound—the amount of work required
to lift a 1-lb object 1 ft off the ground (ft-lb.). For practical pur-
(Velocity)2 poses, we consider the amount of work being done. It is more
=
2 ´ Acceleration due to gravity valuable, obviously, to be able to work faster; that is, for eco-
nomic reasons we consider the rate at which work is being done
(5 fps)2 (i.e., power or foot pound/second). At some point, the horse was
Velocity Head, ft =
2 ´ 32 ft/sec 2 determined to be the ideal work animal; it could move 550 lbs 1
ft in 1sec, considered to be equivalent to 1 horsepower.
25 ft 2 /sec 2
Velocity Head, ft = 550 ft/lb/sec = 1 Horsepower (hp)
64 ft 2 /sec 2
or
Velocity Head, ft = 0.39 ft
33,000 ft/lb/min = 1 Horsepower (hp)
Note: There is no velocity head in a static system. The
water is not moving. A pump performs work while it pushes a certain amount of
water at a given pressure. The two basic terms for horsepower
Total Head are (1) hydraulic horsepower and (2) brake horsepower.
Total head is the sum of the static, friction, and velocity head. Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP)
A pump has power because it does work. A pump lifts water
Total Head, ft (which has weight) to a given distance, in a specific amount
= Static Head, ft + Friction Head, ft (7.13) of time (ft/lb/min). One hydraulic (water) horsepower (WHP)
+ Velocity Head, ft provides the necessary power to lift the water to the required
height; it equals the following:
Conversion of Pressure to Head
• 550 ft-lb/sec
Pressure is directly related to the head. If the liquid in a con- • 33,000 ft-lb/min
tainer subjected to a given pressure is released into a vertical • 2,545 British thermal units per hour (Btu/hr)
tube, the water will rise 2.31 ft for every pound per square • 0.746 kW
inch of pressure. To convert pressure to head in feet: • 1.014 metric hp
Head, ft = Pressure, psi ´ 2.31 ft/psi (7.14) To calculate the hydraulic horsepower (WHP) using flow in
gpm and head in feet, use the following formula for centrifu-
This calculation can be very useful in cases where liquid is gal pumps:
moved through another line that is under pressure. Since the
liquid must overcome the pressure in the line it is entering, the flow (in gpm) ´ head (in ft) ´ specific gravity
WHP = (7.15)
pump must supply this additional head. 3,960
Example 7.8 Note: 3,960 is derived by dividing 33,000 ft-lb by 8.34 lb/
gal = 3,960.
Problem: A pump is discharging to a pipe that is full of
liquid under a pressure of 20 psi. The pump and pip- Brake Horsepower (BHP)
ing system has a Total Head of 97 ft. How much addi-
tional head must the pump supply to overcome the line A water pump does not operate alone. It is driven by an elec-
pressure? tric motor. Brake horsepower is the horsepower applied to the
pump. A pump’s brake horsepower (BHP) equals its hydraulic practical purposes, nss ranges from about 3,000 to 15,000. The
horsepower divided by the pump’s efficiency. Note that nei- limit for the use of suction specific speed impellers in water is
ther the pump nor its prime mover (motor) is 100% efficient. approximately 11,000. The following equation expresses nss:
There are friction losses within both these units, and it will
take more horsepower applied to the pump to get the required rpm ´ Q 0.2
n ss = (7.18)
amount of horsepower to move the water, and even more NPSHR 0.75
horsepower applied to the motor to get the job done (Hauser,
where:
1993). Thus the formula for BHP is:
rpm = revolutions per minute
Q = flow in gpm
flow (gpm ) ´ head (ft ) ´ specific gravity
BHP = (7.16) NPSHR = net positive suction head required
3960 ´ efficiency
Ideally, nss should be approximately 7,900 for single suc-
Important Points: (1) Water horsepower(whp) is the power tion pumps and 11,200 for double suction pumps. (The value
necessary to lift the water to the required height, (2) brake of Q in Equation 7.18 should be halved for double suction
horsepower(bhp) is the horsepower applied to the pump, (3) pumps.)
motor horsepower (hp) is the horsepower applied to the motor,
and (4) efficiency is the power produced by the unit, divided
Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps
by the power used in operating the unit.
Most parameters (impeller diameter, speed, and flow rate)
determining a pump’s performance can vary. If the impel-
Specific Speed
ler diameter is held constant and the speed varied, the fol-
The capacity of flow rate of a centrifugal pump is governed by lowing ratios are maintained with no change of efficiency
the impeller thickness (Lindeburg, 1986). For a given impel- (because of inexact results, some deviations may occur in the
ler diameter, the deeper the vanes, the greater the capacity of calculations):
the pump.
Each desired flow rate or a desired discharge head will Q 2 Q1 = D2 D1 (7.19)
have one optimum impeller design. The impeller that is best
for developing a high discharge pressure will have different H 2 H1 = ( D2 D1 ) (7.20)
2

proportions from an impeller designed to produce a high flow
rate. The quantitative index of this optimization is called spe-
BHP2 BHP1 = ( D2 D1 ) (7.21)
3
cific speed (ns). The higher the specific speed of a pump, the
higher its efficiency.
The specific speed of an impeller is its speed when pump- where:
ing 1 gpm of water at a differential head of 1 ft. The following Q = flow
formula is used to determine specific speed (where H is at the H1 = head before change
best efficiency point): H2 = head after change
DHP = brake horsepower
D1 = impeller diameter before change
rpm ´ Q 0.5
Ns = (7.17) D2 = impeller diameter after change
H 0.75
where: The relationships for speed (N) changes are as follows:
rpm = revolutions per minute
Q = flow (in gpm) Q 2 Q1 = N 2 N1 (7.22)
H = head (in ft)
H 2 H1 = ( N 2 N1 ) (7.23)
2

Pump specific speeds vary between pumps. Although no
absolute rule sets the specific speed for different kinds of cen-
BHP2 BHP1 = ( N 2 N1 ) (7.24)
3
trifugal pumps, the following rule of thumb for Ns can be used:
• Volute, diffuser, and vertical turbine = 500–5,000 where:

• Mixed flow = 5,000–10,000 N1 = initial rpm
• Propeller pumps = 9,000–15,000 N2 = changed rpm
Suction Specific Speed Example 7.9

Suction specific speed (nss), also an impeller design character-
istic, is an index of the suction characteristics of the impeller Problem: Change an 8-in.-diameter impeller for a 9-in.-
(i.e., the suction capacities of the pump) (Wahren, 1997). For diameter impeller, and find the new flow (Q), head (H),
and brake horsepower (BHP) where the 8-in. diameter absolute or 10% larger than the NPSHR, whichever number
data are: is larger.
Note: With regard to NPSHR, contrary to popular belief,
Q1 = 340 rpm water is not sucked into a pump. A positive head (normal
H1 = 110 ft atmospheric pressure) must push the water into the impel-
BHP1 = 10
ler (i.e., flood the impeller). NPSHR is the minimum water
energy required at the inlet by the pump for satisfactory oper-
SOLUTION: ation. The pump manufacturer usually specifies NPSHR.
Data for the 9-in. impeller diameter data will be as follows: It is important to point out that if NPSHA is less than
NPSHR the water will cavitate. Cavitation is the vaporization
Q2 = 340 × 9/8 = 383 gpm of fluid within the casing or suction line. If the water pressure
H2 = 110 × (9/8)2 = 139 ft is less than the vapor pressure, pockets of vapor will form. As
BHP2 = 10 × (9/8)3 = 14 vapor pockets reach the surface of the impeller, the local high
water pressure will collapse them, causing noise, vibration,
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and possible structural damage to the pump.
Earlier we referred to the net positive suction head required Calculating NPSHA
(NPSHR); also important in pumping technology is net posi-
In the following two examples, we demonstrate how to cal-
tive suction head (NPSH) (Lindeburg, 1986&Wahren, 1997).
culate NPSH for two real world situations: (1) Determining
NPSH is different from both suction head and suction pres-
NPSHA for an open-top water tank or a municipal water
sure. This important point tends to be confusing to those first
storage tank with a roof and correctly size vent, and (2) the
introduced to the term, and to pumping technology in general.
NPSHA for a suction lift from an open reservoir.
When an impeller in a centrifugal pump spins, the motion cre-
ates a partial vacuum in the impeller eye. The NPSH is the Atmospheric Tank
height of the column of liquid that will fill this partial vacuum
The following calculation may be used for an open-top water
without allowing the liquid’s vapor pressure to drop below its
tank or a municipal water storage tank with a roof and cor-
flash point; that is, this is the NPSHR for the pump to function
rectly sized vent as shown in Figures 7.4 and 7.5. The formula
properly.
for calculating NPSHA is:
The Hydraulic Institute (1994) defines NPSH as “the total
suction head in feet of liquid absolute determined at the suc-
NPSHA = Pa + h - PV - h e - h f (7.25)
tion nozzle and referred to datum less the vapor pressure of
the liquid in feet absolute.” This defines the NPSH available where:
(NPSHA) for the pump. (Note that NPSHA is the actual water Pv = vapor pressure in absolute of water at a given
energy at the inlet.) The important point is a pump will run temperature
satisfactorily if the NPSHA equals or exceeds the NPSHR. Pa = atmospheric pressure in absolute or pressure of gases
Most authorities recommend the NPSHA be at least 2 ft against the surface of water
FIGURE 7.4 Open atmospheric tank.

FIGURE 7.5 Roofed water storage tank.
h = height of liquid column from surface of water to cen- Q = 120 gpm

ter of pump suction nozzle in feet absolute he = 0.4 ft
he = entrance losses in feet absolute hf = 2 ft
hf = friction losses in suction line in feet absolute h = 20 ft
Pa = 14.7 psia (34 ft)
Example 7.10
SOLUTION:
Problem: Given the following, find the NPSHA.
NPSHA = 34 ft − 20 ft − 0.6 ft − 0.4 ft − 2 ft
NPSHA = 11 ft
Liquid = water
Temperature (t) = 60°F
Specific gravity = 1.0 Pumps in Series and Parallel
Pv = 0.256 psia (0.6 ft)
he = 0.4 ft Parallel operation is obtained by having two pumps discharging
h = 15 ft into a common header. This type of connection is advantageous
hf = 2 ft when the system demand varies greatly. An advantage of operat-
Pa = 14.7 psia (34 ft) ing pumps in parallel is that when two pumps are on line, one
can be shut down during low demand. This allows the remaining
pump to operate close to its optimum efficiency. Series operation
SOLUTION: is achieved by having one pump discharge into the suction of
NPSHA = 34 ft + 15 ft − 0.6 ft − 0.4 ft − 2 ft the next. This arrangement is used primarily to increase the dis-
NPSHA = 46 ft charge head, although a small increase in capacity also results.
See Figure 7.6.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The centrifugal pump (and its modifications) is the most widely
Example 7.11
used type of pumping equipment in water/wastewater opera-
tions. This type of pump is capable of moving high volumes
Problem: Find the NPSHA, where:
of water/wastewater (and other liquids) in a relatively efficient
Liquid = water manner. The centrifugal pump is very dependable, has rela-
Temperature (t) = 60°F tively low maintenance requirements, and can be constructed
Specific gravity = 1.0 out of a wide variety of construction materials. It is considered
Pv = 0.256 psia (0.6 ft) one of the most dependable systems available for water transfer.
FIGURE 7.6 Suction lift from open reservoir.
Description Key Point: A centrifugal pump is a pumping mechanism

whose rapidly spinning impeller imparts a high velocity to the
The centrifugal pump consists of a rotating element (impeller) water that enters, and then converts that velocity to pressure
sealed in a casing (volute). The rotating element is connected upon exit.
to a drive unit (motor/engine) which supplies the energy to
spin the rotating element. As the impeller spins inside the
Terminology
volute casing, an area of low pressure is created in the cen-
ter of the impeller. This low pressure allows the atmospheric To understand centrifugal pumps and their operation, we
pressure on the liquid in the supply tank to force the liquid must understand the terminology associated with centrifugal
up to the impeller. Because the pump will not operate if there pumps:
is no low pressure zone created at the center of the impeller,
it is important that the casing be sealed to prevent air from • Base plate—It is the foundation under a pump. It
entering the casing. To ensure the casing is airtight, the pump usually extends far enough to support the drive unit.
employs some type of seal (mechanical or conventional pack- The base plate is often referred to as the pump frame.
ing) assembly at the point where the shaft enters the casing. • Bearings—These are devices used to reduce friction
This seal also includes lubrication, provided by water, grease, and to allow the shaft to rotate easily. Bearings may
or oil, to prevent excessive wear. be sleeve, roller, or ball.
From a hydraulic standpoint, note the energy changes that • Thrust bearing—In a single suction pump, it is
occur in the moving water. As water enters the casing, the the bearing located nearest the motor, farthest
spinning action of the impeller imparts (transfers) energy to from the impeller. It takes up the major thrust of
the water. This energy is transferred to the water in the form of the shaft, which is opposite from the discharge
increased speed or velocity. The liquid is thrown outward by direction.
the impeller into the volute casing where the design of the cas- • Radial (line) bearing—In a single suction pump,
ing allows the velocity of the liquid to be reduced, which, in it is the one closest to the pump. It rides free in
turn, converts the velocity energy (velocity head) to pressure its own section and takes up and down stresses.
energy (pressure head). The process by which this change
occurs is described later. The liquid then travels out of the Note: In most cases, where pump and motor are constructed
pump through the pump discharge. The major components of on a common shaft (no coupling), the bearings will be part of
the centrifugal pump are shown in Figure 7.7. the motor assembly.
FIGURE 7.7 Major components of a centrifugal pump.
• Casing—It is the housing surrounding the rotating of liquid, the centrifugal pump will not pump
element of the pump. In the majority of centrifugal efficiently.
pumps, this casing can also be called the volute. • Seals—These are devices used to stop the leak-
• Split casing—It is a pump casing that is manage of air into the inside of the casing around
ufactured in two pieces fastened together by the shaft.
means of bolts. Split casing pumps may be verti- • Packing—This is the material that is placed
cally (perpendicular to the shaft direction) split, around the pump shaft to seal the shaft opening in
or horizontally (parallel to the shaft direction) the casing and prevent air leakage into the casing.
split. • Stuffing box—It is the assembly located around
• Coupling—It is a device to join the pump shaft the shaft at the rear of the casing. It holds the
to the motor shaft. If pump and motor are con- packing and lantern ring.
structed on a common shaft it is called a close- • Lantern ring—Also known as the seal cage, it
coupled arrangement. is positioned between the rings of packing in the
• Extended shaft—For a pump constructed on stuffing box to allow the introduction of a lubri-
one shaft, it must be connected to the motor by cant (water, oil, or grease) onto the surface of the
a coupling. shaft to reduce the friction between the packing
• Frame—It is the housing that supports the pump and the rotating shaft.
bearing assemblies. In an end suction pump, it • Gland—Also known as the packing gland, it is
may also be the support for the pump casing and a metal assembly that is designed to apply even
the rotating element. pressure to the packing to compress it tightly
• Impeller—It is the rotating element in the pump around the shaft.
that actually transfers the energy from the drive • Mechanical seal—It is a device consisting of
unit to the liquid. Depending on the pump appli- a stationary element, a rotating element, and a
cation, the impeller may be open, semi-open, or spring to supply force to hold the two elements
closed. It may also be single or double suction. together. Mechanical seals may be either single
• Impeller eye—It is the center of the impeller, the or double units.
area that is subject to lower pressures due to the • Shaft—It is the rigid steel rod that transmits the
rapid movement of the liquid to the outer edge of energy from the motor to the pump impeller.
the casing. Shafts may be either vertical or horizontal.
• Priming—It means filling the casing and impel- • Shaft sleeve—It is a piece of metal tubing placed
ler with liquid. If this area is not completely full over the shaft to protect the shaft as it passes
through the packing or seal area. In some cases,

the sleeve may also help to position the impeller
on the shaft.
• Shut-off head—It is the head or pressure at
which the centrifugal pump will stop discharg-
ing. It is also the pressure developed by the pump
when it is operated against a closed discharge
valve. This is also known as a cut-off head.
• Shroud—It is the metal plate that is used to either
support the impeller vanes (open or semi-open
impeller) or to enclose the vanes of the impeller
(closed impeller).
• Slinger ring—It is a device to prevent pumped
liquids from traveling along the shaft and enter-
ing the bearing assembly. A slinger ring is also
called a deflector.
• Wearing rings—These are devices that are FIGURE 7.8 Cross-sectional diagram showing the features of a
installed on stationary or moving parts within centrifugal pump.
the pump casing to protect the casing and the
impeller from wear due to the movement of liq- from one cross-sectional area to another with the volute cas-
uid through points of small clearances. ing, the velocity or speed of the water changes proportion-
• Impeller ring—It is a wearing ring installed ately. The volute casing has a cross-sectional area, which is
directly on the impeller. extremely small at the point in the case that is farthest from
• Casing ring—It is a wearing ring installed in the the discharge (see Figure 7.8). This area increases continu-
casing of the pump. A casing ring is also known ously to the discharge. As this area increases, the velocity of
as the suction head ring. the water passing through it decreases as it moves around the
• Stuffing box cover ring—It is a wearing ring volute casing to the discharge point.
installed at the impeller in an end suction pump As the velocity of the water decreases, the velocity head
to maintain the impeller clearances and to pre- decreases and the energy is converted to pressure head. There
vent casing wear. is a direct relationship between the velocity of the water and
the pressure it exerts. Therefore, as the velocity of the water
decreases, the excess energy is converted to additional pres-
Pump Theory
sure (pressure head). This pressure head supplies the energy
The volute-casing centrifugal pump (see Figure 7.8) pro- to move the water through the discharge piping.
vides the pumping action necessary to transfer liquids from
one point to another. First, the drive unit (usually an electric
Pump Characteristics
motor) supplies energy to the pump impeller to make it spin.
This energy is then transferred to the water by the impeller. The centrifugal pump operates on the principle of an energy
The vanes of the impeller spin the liquid toward the outer edge transfer and, therefore, has certain definite characteristics
of the impeller at a high rate of speed or velocity. This action that make it unique. The type and size of the impeller limit
is very similar to that which would occur when a bucket full the amount of energy that can be transferred to the water, the
of water with a small hole in the bottom is attached to a rope characteristics of the material being pumped, and the total
and spun. When sitting still, the water in the bucket will drain head of the system through which the water is moving. For
out slowly. However, when the bucket is spinning, the water any one centrifugal pump, there is a definite relationship
will be forced through the hole at a much higher rate of speed. between these factors along with head (capacity), efficiency,
Centrifugal pumps may be single stage, having a single and brake horsepower.
impeller, or they may be multiple stage, having several impel-
lers through which the fluid flows in series. Each impeller in Head (Capacity)
the series increases the pressure of the fluid at the pump dis- As might be expected, the capacity of a centrifugal pump is
charge. Pumps may have 30 or more stages in extreme cases. directly related to the total head of the system. If the total
In centrifugal pumps, a correlation of pump capacity, head, head on the system is increased, the volume of the discharge
and speed at optimum efficiency is used to classify the pump will be reduced proportionately. As the head of the system
impellers with respect to their specific geometry. This corre- increases, the capacity of the pump will decrease propor-
lation is called specific speed, and is an important parameter tionately until the discharge stops. The head at which the
for analyzing pump performance (Garay, 1990). discharge no longer occurs is known as the cut-off head. As
The volute of the pump is designed to convert velocity pointed out earlier, the total head includes a certain amount
energy to pressure energy. As a given volume of water moves of energy to overcome the friction of the system. This friction
head can be greatly affected by the size and configuration of has the range of capacities or applications available
the piping and the condition of the system’s valving. If the through the use of the centrifugal pump.
control valves on the system are closed partially, the friction • Operation—“Simple and quiet” best describes the
head can increase dramatically. When this happens, the total operation of a centrifugal pump. An operator-in-
head increases and the capacity or volume discharged by the training with a minimum amount of experience may
pump decreases. In many cases, this method is employed be capable of operating facilities that use centrifu-
to reduce the discharge of a centrifugal pump. It should be gal-type pumps. Even when improperly operated,
noted, however, that this does increase the load on the pump the centrifugal pump’s rugged construction allows
and drive system causing additional energy requirements and it to operate (in most cases) without major damage.
additional wear. • Maintenance—The amount of wear on a centrifugal
The total closure of the discharge control valve increases pump’s moving part is reduced and its operating life
the friction head to the point where all the energy supplied is extended because its moving parts are not required
by the pump is consumed in the friction head and is not con- to be constructed to very close tolerances.
verted to pressure head. Consequently, the pump exceeds • Pressure is self-limited—Because of the nature of its
its cut-off head and the pump discharge is reduced to zero. pumping action, the centrifugal pump will not exceed
Again, it is important to note that although the operation of a a predetermined maximum pressure. Thus, if the
centrifugal pump against a closed discharge may not be haz- discharge valve is suddenly closed, the pump cannot
ardous (as with other types of pumps), it should be avoided generate additional pressure that might result in dam-
because of the excessive load placed on the drive unit and age to the system or could potentially result in a haz-
pump. Our experience has shown that on occasion the pump ardous working condition. The power supplied to the
can produce pressure higher than the pump discharge pip- impeller will only generate a specified amount of head
ing can withstand. Whenever this occurs, the discharge pip- (pressure). If a major portion of this head or pressure
ing may be severely damaged by the operation of the pump is consumed in overcoming friction or is lost as heat
against a closed or plugged discharge. energy, the pump will have a decreased capacity.
• Adaptable to high speed drive systems—Centrifugal
Efficiency pumps can make use of high speed, high efficiency
Every centrifugal pump will operate with varying degrees of motors. In situations where the pump is selected to
efficiency over its entire capacity and head ranges. The impor- match a specific operating condition, which remains
tant factor in selecting a centrifugal pump is to select a unit relatively constant, the pump drive unit can be used
that will perform near its maximum efficiency in the expected without the need for expensive speed reducers.
application. • Small space requirements—For most pumping
capacities, the amount of space required for installa-
Brake Horsepower Requirements tion of the centrifugal-type pump is much less than
In addition to the head capacity and efficiency factors, most that of any other type of pump.
pump literature includes a graph showing the amount of • Fewer moving parts—Rotary rather than reciprocat-
energy in horsepower that must be supplied to the pump to ing motion employed in centrifugal pumps reduces
obtain optimal performance. space and maintenance requirements due to the
fewer number of moving parts required.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Although the centrifugal pump is one of the most widely used
of the Centrifugal Pump
pumps, it does have a few disadvantages:
The primary reason why centrifugal pumps have become
one of the most widely used pumps is that they offer several • Additional equipment needed for priming—The cen-
advantages: trifugal pump can be installed in a manner that will
make it self-priming, but it is not capable of draw-
• Construction—The pump consists of a single rotating water to the pump impeller unless the pump
ing element and a simple casing, which can be con- casing and impeller are filled with water. This can
structed using a wide assortment of materials. If the cause problems, because if the water in the casing
fluids to be pumped are highly corrosive, the pump drains out, the pump would cease pumping until it is
parts that are exposed to the fluid can be constructed refilled. Therefore, it is normally necessary to start
of lead or other material that is not likely to cor- a centrifugal pump with the discharge valve closed.
rode. If the fluid being pumped is highly abrasive, The valve is then gradually opened to its proper
the internal parts can be made of abrasion resistant operating level. Starting the pump against a closed
material or coated with a protective material. Also, discharge valve is not hazardous, provided the valve
the simple design of a centrifugal pump allows the is not left closed for extended periods.
pump to be constructed in a variety of sizes and • Air leaks affect pump performance—Air leaks
configurations. No other pump currently available on the suction side of the pump can cause reduced
pumping capacity in several ways. If the leak is not applications is limited to those that frequently occur in water/
serious enough to result in a total loss of prime, the wastewater operations.
pump may operate at a reduced head or capacity due
to air mixing with the water. This causes the water • Large volume pumping—In water/wastewater oper-
to be lighter than normal and reduces the efficiency ations, the primary use of centrifugal pumps is large
of the energy transfer process. volume pumping. In large volume pumping, gener-
• Narrow range of efficiency—Centrifugal pump ally low speed, moderate head, vertically shafted
efficiency is directly related to the head capacity pumps are used. Centrifugal pumps are well suited
of the pump. The highest performance efficiency is for water/wastewater system operations because
available for only a very small section of the head- they can be used in conditions where high volumes
capacity range. When the pump is operated outside are required and a change in flow is not a problem.
of this optimum range, the efficiency may be greatly As the discharge pressure on a centrifugal pump is
reduced. increased, the quantity of water/wastewater pumped
• Pump may run backwards—If a centrifugal pump is reduced. Also, centrifugal pumps can be operated
is stopped without closing the discharge line, it for short periods with the discharge valve closed.
may run backwards, because the pump does not • Non-clog pumping—These specifically designed
have any built-in mechanism to prevent flow from centrifugal pumps use closed impellers with, at
moving through the pump in the opposite direc- most, two to three vanes. It is usually designed to
tion (i.e., from discharge side to suction). If the pass solids or trash up to 3″ in diameter.
discharge valve is not closed or the system does • Dry pit pump—Depending on the application, it may
not contain the proper check valves, the flow that be either a large volume pump or a non-clog pump. It
was pumped from the supply tank to the discharge is located in a dry pit that shares a common wall with
point will immediately flow back to the supply the wet well. This pump is normally placed in such a
tank when the pump shuts off. This results in position to ensure that the liquid level in the wet well
increased power consumption due to the frequent is sufficient to maintain the pump’s prime.
startup of the pump to transfer the same liquid • Wet pit or submersible pump—This type of pump
from supply to discharge. is usually a non-clog type pump that can be sub-
merged, with its motor, directly in the wet well. In
Note: It is sometimes difficult to tell whether a centrifugal a few instances, the pump may be submerged in the
pump is running forward or backwards because it appears and wet well while the motor remains above the water
sounds like it is operating normally when operating in reverse. level. In these cases, the pump is connected to the
motor by an extended shaft.
• Pump speed is difficult to adjust—Centrifugal • Underground pump stations—Utilizing a wet well-
pump speed cannot usually be adjusted without the dry well design, the pumps are located in an under-
use of additional equipment, such as speed reduc- ground facility. Wastes are collected in a separate
ing or speed increasing gears or special drive units. wet well, then pumped upward and discharged into
Because the speed of the pump is directly related another collector line or manhole. This system nor-
to the discharge capacity of the pump, the primary mally uses a non-clog type pump and is designed
method available to adjust the output of the pump to add sufficient head to water/waste flow to allow
other than a valve on the discharge line is to adjust gravity to move the flow to the plant or the next
the speed of the impeller. Unlike some other types of pump station.
pumps, the delivery of the centrifugal pump cannot • Recycle or recirculation pumps—Because the liq-
be adjusted by changing some operating parameters uids being transferred by the recycle or recircula-
of the pump. tion pump normally do not contain any large solids,
the use of the non-clog type centrifugal pump is not
always required. A standard centrifugal pump may
Centrifugal Pump Application
be used to recycle trickling filter effluent, return acti-
The centrifugal pump is probably the most widely used pump vated sludge, or digester supernatant.
available at this time because of its simplicity of design and • Service water pumps—The wastewater plant efflu-
wide ranging diversity (it can be adjusted to suit a multitude ent may be used for many purposes, such asto clean
of applications). Proper selection of the pump components tanks, to water lawns, to provide the water to oper-
(impeller, casing, etc.) and construction materials can produce ate the chlorination system, and to backwash filters.
a centrifugal pump capable of transporting not only water but Because the plant effluent used for these purposes is
also other materials ranging from material/chemical slurries normally clean, the centrifugal pumps used closely
to air (centrifugal blowers). To attempt to list all of the various parallel the units used for potable water. In many
applications for the centrifugal pump would exceed the limi- cases, the double suction, closed impeller or turbine
tations of this guidebook. Therefore, our discussion of pump type pump will be used.
Pump Control Systems a minimum level. This type of control system is simple to
operate and relatively inexpensive to install and maintain.
Pump operations usually control only one variable: flow,
pressure or level. All pump control systems have a measuring
The system has several disadvantages. The system operates at
device that compares a measured value with a desired one. one discharge rate. This can result in (1) extreme variations in
This information relays to a control element that makes the the hydraulic loading on succeeding units and (2) long peri-
changes. The user may obtain control with manually operated ods of non-operation due to low flow periods or maintenance
valves or sophisticated microprocessors. Economics dictate activities.
the accuracy and complication of a control system.
Pneumatic Controls
Wahren (1997)
Pneumatic control systems (also called a bubbler tube control
Most centrifugal pumps require some form of pump control system) are relatively simple systems that can be used to con-
system. The only exception to this practice is when the plant trol one or more pumps. The system consists of an air com-
pumping facilities are designed to operate continuously at pressor, a tube extending into the well, clear well, or storage
a constant rate of discharge. The typical pump control sys- tank/basin, and pressure sensitive switches with varying on/
tem includes a sensor to determine when the pump should be off set points and a pressure relief valve (see Figure 7.10). The
turned on or off, and the electrical/electronic controls to actu- system works on the basic principle which measures the depth
ally start and stop the pump. of the water in the well or tank by determining the air pres-
The control systems currently available for the centrifu- sure that is necessary to just release a bubble from the bottom
gal pump range from a very simple on-off float control to of the tube (see Figure 7.10), hence the name bubbler tube.
an extremely complex system capable of controlling several The air pressure required to force a bubble out of the tube is
pumps in sequence. determined by the liquid pressure, which is directly related to
In the following sections, we briefly describe the opera- the depth of the liquid (1 psi = 2.31 ft). By installing a pressure
tion of various types of control devices/systems used with switch on the airline to activate the pump starter at a given
centrifugal pumps. pressure, the level of the water can be controlled by activating
one or more pumps.
Float Control Installation of additional pressure switches with slightly
Currently, the float control system is the simplest of the cen- different pressure settings allows several pumps to be acti-
trifugal pump controls (see Figure 7.9). In the float control vated in sequence. For example, the first pressure switch can
system, the float rides on the water’s surface in the well, stor- be adjusted to activate a pump when the level in the wet/tank
age tank, or clear well, attached to the pump controls by a rod is 3.8 ft (1.6 psi) and shut off at 1.7 ft (0.74 psi). If the flow into
with two collars. One collar activates the pump when the liq- the pump well/tank varies greatly, and if additional pumps
uid level in the well or tank reaches a preset level and a second are available to ensure that the level in the well/tank does not
collar shuts the pump off when the level in the well reaches exceed the design capacity, additional pressure switches may
be installed. These additional pressure switches are set to acti-
vate a second pump when the level in the well/tank reaches a
preset level (i.e., 4.5 ft or 1.95 psi) and cut off when the well/
tank level is reduced to a preset level (i.e., 2.7 ft or1.2 psi). If
the first pump’s capacity is less than the rate of flow into the
well/tank, the level of the well/tank continues to rise. Upon
reaching the preset level (4-ft level), it will activate the second
pump. If necessary, a third pump can be added to the system
set to activate at a third preset well/tank depth (4.6 ft or 1.99
psi) and cut off at a preset depth (3.0 ft or 1.3 psi).
The pneumatic control system is relatively simple with
minimal operation and maintenance requirements. The major
operational problem involved with this control system is the
clogging of the bubbler tube. If for some reason the tube
becomes clogged, the pressure on the system can increase and
may activate all pumps to run even when the well/tank is low.
This can result in excessive power consumption, which, in
turn, may damage the pumps.
Electrode Control Systems

The electrode control system uses a probe or electrode to con-
trol the pump on and off cycle. A relatively simple control sys-
tem, it consists of two electrodes extended into the clear well
FIGURE 7.9 Float system for pump motor control. or storage tank or basin. One electrode is designed to activate
Vent
Pump Pump Pump

1 2 3
Compressor
FIGURE 7.10 Pneumatic system for pump motor control.
the pump starter when it is submerged in the water, the second making contact with the electrical contacts and activates the
electrode extends deeper into the well/tank and is designed to motor starter. Again, this system can be used to activate sev-
open the pump circuit when the water drops below the elec- eral pumps in series by installation of several sets of contact
trode (see Figure 7.11). The major maintenance requirement points. As the water level drops in the well/tank, the level in
of this system is keeping the electrodes clean. the tube drops below a second contact that deactivates the
Important Point: Because the Electrode Control System motor and stops the pumping. Another control system uses
uses two separate electrodes, the unit may be locked into a mercury switch (or a similar-type of switch) enclosed in a
an on-cycle or off-cycle depending on which electrode is protective capsule. Again, two units are required per pump.
involved. One switch activates the pump when the liquid level rises
and the second switch shuts the pump off when the level
Other Control Systems reaches the desired minimum depth.
Several other systems that use electrical energy are avail-
able for control of the centrifugal pump. These include a
tube-like device that has several electrical contacts mounted 2 3
inside (see Figure 7.12). As the water level rises in the clear 1 3
2
well, or storage tank or basin, the water rises in the tube
On Off 1
To pump controls
Clear well
On
Off
FIGURE 7.11 Electrode system for pump motor control. FIGURE 7.12 Electrical contacts for pump motor control.
Electronic Control Systems

Several centrifugal pump control systems are available that
use electronic systems for control of pump operation. A brief
description of some of these systems is provided in the sec-
tions that follow.
Flow Equalization System

In any multiple pump operation, the flow delivered by each
pump will vary due to the basic hydraulic design of the sys- FIGURE 7.13 Thermocouple installation in journal bearing.
tem. To obtain equal loads on each pump when two or more
are in operation, the flow equalization system electronically immediately upstream and downstream of the suction and
monitors the delivery of each pump and adjusts the speed of discharge nozzles). If transducers are employed, readings are
the pumps to obtain similar discharge rates for each pump. typically displayed and taken (or automatically recorded) at a
remote operating panel or control center.
Sonar or Other Transmission Type of Controllers
A sonar or low level radiation system can be used to control Temperature Detectors
centrifugal pumps. This type of system uses a transmitter and Resistance temperature devices (RTDs) and thermocouples
a receiver to locate the level of the water in a tank, clear well (see Figure 7.13) (Grimes, 1976) are commonly used as tem-
or basin. When the level reaches a predetermined set point, perature detectors on the pump’s prime movers (motors) to
the pump is activated and when the level is reduced to a prede- indicate temperature problems. In some cases, dial ther-
termined set point, the pump is shut off. Basically, the system mometers, armored glass-stem thermometers, or bimetallic-
is very similar to a radar unit. The transmitter sends out a actuated temperature indicators are used. Whichever device
beam that travels to the liquid, bounces off the surface and is employed, it typically monitors temperature variances that
returns to the receiver. The time required for this is directly may indicate a possible source of trouble. On electric motors
proportional to the distance from the liquid to the instrument. greater than 250 hp, RTD elements are used to monitor tem-
The electronic components of the system can be adjusted to peratures in stator winding coils. Two RTDs per phase is
activate the pump when the time interval corresponds to a standard. One RTD element is usually installed in the shoe
specific depth in the well or tank. The electronic system can of the loaded area employed on journal bearings in pumps
also be set to shut off the pump when the time interval cor- and motors. Normally, tilted-pad thrust bearings have an RTD
responds to a preset minimum depth. element in the active, as well as the inactive, side. RTD ele-
ments are used when remote indication, recording, or auto-
Motor Controllers matic logging of temperature readings is required. Because
Several types of controllers are available that start and stop of their smaller size, RTDs provide more flexibility in locat-
motors. They also protect the motor from overloads and also ing the measuring device near the measuring point. When
from short circuit conditions. Many motor controllers also dial thermometers are installed, they monitor oil thrown
function to adjust motor speed to increase or decrease the from bearings. Sometimes temperature detectors also moni-
discharge rate for a centrifugal pump. This type of control tor bearings with water-cooled jackets to warn against water
may use one of the previously described controls to start and supply failure. Pumps with heavy wall casing may also have
stop the pump, and, in some cases, adjust the speed of the casing temperature monitors.
unit. As the depth of the water in a well or tank increases, the
sensor automatically increases the speed of the motor in pre- Vibration Monitors
determined steps to the maximum design speed. If the level Vibration sensors are available to measure either bearing
continues to increase, the sensor may be designed to activate vibration or shaft vibration direction directly. Direct measure-
an additional pump. ment of shaft vibration is desirable for machines with stiff
bearing supports where bearing-cap measurements will be
Protective Instrumentation only a fraction of the shaft vibration. Wahren (1997) noted
Protective instrumentation of some type is normally that pumps and motors of 1,000 hp and larger may have the
employed in pump or motor installation. (Note that the infor- following vibration monitoring equipment:
mation provided in this section applies to the centrifugal
pump as well as to many other types of pumps.) Protective • Seismic pickup with double set points installed on
instrumentation for centrifugal pumps (or most other types the pump outboard housing
of pumps) is dependent on pump size, application, and the • Proximators with X-Y vibration probes complete
amount of operator supervision. That is, pumps under 500 hp with interconnecting co-axial cables at each radial
often only come with pressure gauges and temperature indica- and thrust journal bearing
tors. These gauges or transducers may be mounted locally (on • Key phasor with proximator and interconnecting co-
the pump itself) or remotely (in suction and discharge lines axial cables
Supervisory Instrumentation application in the water distribution and wastewater collec-

Supervisory instruments are used to monitor the routine tion and treatment fields. Modifications to be presented in
operation of pumps, their prime movers, and their accessories this section include:
in order to sustain the desired level of reliability and perfor-
mance. Generally, these instruments are not used for accurate • Submersible pumps
performance tests or for automatic control, although they may • Recessed impeller or vortex pumps
share connections or functions. Supervisory instruments con- • Turbine pumps
sist of annunciators and alarms that provide operators with
warnings of abnormal conditions that, unless corrected, will Submersible Pumps
cause pump failure. Annunciators used for both alarm and The submersible pump is, as the name suggests, placed directly
pre-alarm have both visible and audible signals. in the wet well or groundwater well. It uses a waterproof elec-
tric motor located below the static level of the wet well/well to
drive a series of impellers. In some cases, only the pump is sub-
Centrifugal Pump Modifications merged, while in other cases, the entire pump motor assembly
The centrifugal pump can be modified to meet the needs is submerged. Figure 7.14 illustrates this system.
of several different applications. If there is a need to pro-
duce higher discharge heads, the pump may be modified to Description
include several additional impellers. If the material being The submersible pump may be either a close-coupled centrifugal
pumped contains a large amount of material that could pump or an extended shaft centrifugal pump. If the system is a
clog the pump, the pump construction may be modified to close-coupled system then both motor and pump are submerged
remove a major portion of the impeller from direct contact in the liquid being pumped. Seals prevent water and wastewa-
with the material being pumped. Although there are numer- ter from entering the inside of the motor protecting the electric
ous modifications of the centrifugal pump available, the motor in a close-coupled pump from shorts and motor burnout.
scope of this text covers only those that have found wide In the extended shaft system, the pump is submerged while the
FIGURE 7.14 Submersible pump.

motor is mounted above the pump wet well. In this situation,

an extended shaft assembly must connect the pump and motor.
Applications
The submersible pump has wide applications in the water/
wastewater treatment industry. It generally can be substi-
tuted in any application of other types of centrifugal pumps.
However, it has found its widest application in the distribution
or collector system pump stations.
Advantages
In addition to the advantages discussed earlier for a conven-
tional centrifugal pump, the submersible pump has additional
advantages:
• Because it is located below the surface of the liquid,

there is less chance that the pump will lose its prime, FIGURE 7.15 Schematic of a recessed impeller or vortex pump.
develop air leaks on the suction side of the pump, or
require initial priming. the pump impeller. Because the majority of the flow does not
• As the pump or the entire assembly is located in the come in direct contact with the impeller, there is much less
well/wet well, there is less cost associated with the potential for problems.
construction and operation of this system. It is not
necessary to construct a dry well or a large struc- Disadvantages
ture to hold the pumping equipment and necessary Because there is less direct contact between the liquid and the
controls. impeller, the energy transfer is less efficient. This results in
somewhat higher power costs and limits the pump’s applica-
Disadvantages tion to low to moderate capacities. Objects that might have
The major disadvantage associated with the submersible clogged a conventional type centrifugal pump are able to pass
pump is the lack of access to the pump or pump and motor. through the pump. Although this is very beneficial in reducing
The performance of any maintenance requires either drain- pump maintenance requirements, it has, in some situations,
age of the wet well or extensive lift equipment to remove the allowed material to be passed into a less accessible location
equipment from the wet well or both. This may be a major fac- before becoming an obstruction. To be effective, the piping
tor in determining if a pump receives the attention it requires. and valving must be designed to pass objects of a size equal to
Also, in most cases, all major maintenance on close-coupled that which the pump will discharge.
submersible pumps must be performed by outside contractors
due to the need to re-seal the motor to prevent leakage. Turbine Pumps
The turbine pump consists of a motor, a drive shaft, a discharge
Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps pipe of varying lengths, and one or more impeller-bowl assem-
The recessed impeller or vortex pump uses an impeller that is blies (see Figure 7.16). It is normally a vertical assembly where
either partially or wholly recessed into the rear of the casing water enters at the bottom, passes axially through the impeller-
(see Figure 7.15). The spinning action of the impeller creates bowl assembly where the energy transfer occurs, then moves
a vortex or whirlpool. This whirlpool increases the velocity upward through additional impeller-bowl assemblies to the dis-
of the material being pumped. As in other centrifugal pumps, charge pipe. The length of this discharge pipe will vary with
this increased velocity is then converted to increased pres- the distance from the wet well to the desired point of discharge.
sure or head.
Applications
Applications Due to the construction of the turbine pump, the major appli-
The recessed impeller or vortex pump is used widely in applications have traditionally been for pumping relatively clean
cations where the liquid being pumped contains large amounts water. The line shaft turbine pump has been used extensively
of solids or debris and slurries that could clog or damage the for drinking water pumping, especially in those situations
pump’s impeller. It has found increasing use as a sludge pump where water is withdrawn from deep wells. The main waste-
in facilities that withdraw sludge continuously from their pri- water plant application has been pumping plant effluent back
mary clarifiers. into the plant for use as service water.
Advantages Advantages
The major advantage of this modification is the increased abil- The turbine pump has a major advantage in the amount of
ity to handle materials that would normally clog or damage head it is capable of producing. By installing additional
the pump. Closing the discharge valve can cause rupturing

of the discharge pipe, the pump head, the valve, or some
other component.
Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump

The piston or reciprocating pump is one type of positive dis-
placement pump. This pump works just like the piston in an
automobile engine—on the intake stroke, the intake valve
opens, filling the cylinder with liquid. As the piston reverses
direction, the intake valve is pushed closed and the discharge
valve is pushed open; the liquid is pushed into the discharge
pipe. With the next reversal of the piston, the discharge valve
is pulled closed and the intake valve pulled open, and the
cycle repeats. A piston pump is usually equipped with an
electric motor and a gear and cam system that drives a plunger
connected to the piston. Just like an automobile engine pis-
ton, the piston must have packing rings to prevent leakage,
and must be lubricated to reduce friction. Because the piston
is in contact with the liquid being pumped, only good grade
lubricants can be used when pumping materials that will be
added to drinking water. The valves must be replaced peri-
odically as well.
Diaphragm Pump
FIGURE 7.16 Vertical turbine pump. A diaphragm pump is composed of a chamber used to pump
the fluid: a diaphragm that is operated by either electric or
impeller-bowl assemblies, the pump is capable of even greater mechanical means, and two valve assemblies—a suction and
production. Moreover, the turbine pump has a simple con- a discharge valve assembly (see Figure 7.17). A diaphragm
struction and a low noise level and is adaptable to several pump is a variation of the piston pump in which the plunger is
drive types—motor, engine, or turbine. isolated from the liquid being pumped by a rubber or synthetic
diaphragm. As the diaphragm is moved back-and-forth by the
Disadvantages plunger, the liquid is pulled into and pushed out of the pump.
High initial cost and high repair costs are two of the major This arrangement provides better protection against leakage
disadvantages of turbine pumps. In addition, the presence of the liquid being pumped and allows the use of lubricants
of large amounts of solids within the liquid being pumped that otherwise would not be permitted. Care must be taken
can seriously increase the amount of maintenance the pump to assure that diaphragms are replaced before they rupture.
requires; consequently, the unit has not found widespread use Diaphragm pumps are appropriate for discharge pressures up
in any other situation other than service water pumping. to about 125 psi, but do not work well if they must lift liquids
more than about four feet. Diaphragm pumps are frequently
used for chemical feed pumps. By adjusting the frequency of
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS
the plunger motion and the length of the stroke, extremely
Positive displacement pumps force or displace water through accurate flow rates can be metered. The pump may be driven
the pumping mechanism. Most have a reciprocating element hydraulically by an electric motor or by an electronic driver
that draws water into the pump chamber on one stroke and
pushes it out on the other. Unlike centrifugal pumps that
are meant for low pressure, high flow applications, positive
displacement pumps can achieve greater pressures but are
slower moving, low flow pumps. Other positive displace-
ment pumps include the piston pump, diaphragm pump, and
peristaltic pumps, which are the focus of our discussion. In
the water/wastewater industry, positive displacement pumps
are most often found as chemical feed pumps. It is impor-
tant to remember that positive displacement pumps cannot
be operated against a closed discharge valve. As the name
indicates, something must be displaced with each stroke of FIGURE 7.17 Diaphragm pump.
in which the plunger is operated by a solenoid. Electronically 7.14 With the pump shut off, the difference between
driven metering pumps are extremely reliable (few moving the suction and discharge liquid levels is called
parts) and inexpensive. ___________.
7.15 ________ and __________ is the largest single
contributing factor to the reduction of pressure at a
Peristaltic Pumps pump impeller.
Peristaltic pumps (sometimes called tubing pumps) use a series 7.16 The operation of a centrifugal pump is based on
of rollers to compress plastic tubing to move the liquid through _____________.
the tubing. A rotary gear turns the rollers at a constant speed to 7.17 The casing of a pump encloses the pump impeller,
meter the flow. Peristaltic pumps are mainly used as chemical the shaft, and the __________.
feed pumps. The flow rate is adjusted by changing the speed the 7.18 The _____________ is the part of the pump that
roller-gear rotates (to push the waves faster) or by changing the supplies energy to the fluid.
size of the tubing (so there is more liquid in each wave). As long 7.19 If wearing rings are used only on the volute case, we
as the right type of tubing is used, peristaltic pumps can operate must replace the _________ and _________ at the
at discharge pressures up to 100 psi. Note that the tubing must same time.
be resistant to deterioration from the chemical being pumped. 7.20 Which part of the end suction pump directs water
The principal item of maintenance is the periodic replacement flow into and out of the pump?
of the tubing in the pump head. There are no check valves or
diaphragms in this type of pump. REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING
American Water Works Association, 1995. Basic Science Concepts
CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS and Applications: Principles and Practices of Water Supply
Operations, 2nd ed. Denver, CO: American Water Works
7.1 Applications in which chemicals must be metered Association.
under high pressure require high-powered Fleet Training Center, US Navy, 1963. Class A Engineman Training
___________ pumps. Program. San Diego, CA: Department of Defense.
7.2 ____________ materials are materials that resist Garay, P.N., 1990. Pump Application Desk Book. Lilburn, GA: The
Fairmont Press, Inc., p. 1.
any flow-producing force.
Grimes, A.S., 1976. Supervisory and Monitoring Instrumentation.
7.3 What type of pump is usually used for pumping In: Karassik, I.J., et al., Eds. Pump Handbook. New York:
high-viscosity materials? McGraw-Hill Book Company.
7.4 High-powered positive displacement pumps are Hauser, B.A., 1993. Hydraulics for Operators. Boca Raton, FL:
used to pump chemicals that are under ________ Lewis Publishers.
pressure. Hauser, B.A., 1996. Practical Hydraulics Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca
7.5 _________ viscosity materials are thick. Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
7.6 When the __________ of a pump impeller is above Hydraulic Institute, 1990. The Hydraulic Institute Engineering Data
Book, 2nd ed. Cleveland, OH: Hydraulic Institute.
the level of the pumped fluid, the condition is called Hydraulic Institute, 1994. Hydraulic Institute Complete Pump
suction lift. Standards, 4th ed. Cleveland, OH: Hydraulic Institute.
7.7 When a pump is not running, conditions are referred Lindeburg, M.R., 1986. Civil Engineering Reference Manual, 4th
to as _______; when a pump is running the condi- ed. San Carlos, CA: Professional Publications, Inc.
tions are _________. Onondaga County Department of Drainage and Sanitation,
7.8 With the _________, the difference in elevation 1986. Basic Maintenance Training Course. North
between the suction and discharge liquid levels is Syracuse, NY: Onondaga County Department of Drainage and
Sanitation.
called static head.
Spellman, F.R., 1997. The Science of Water. Lancaster, PA:
7.9 Velocity head is expressed mathematically as Technomic Publishing Company.
__________. Spellman, F.R., 2000. The Handbook for Waterworks Operator
7.10 The sum of total static head, head loss, and dynamic Certification, Volume 2: Intermediate Level. Lancaster, PA:
head is called ____________. Technomic Publishing Company.
7.11 What are the three basic types of curves used for Texas Manual, 1988. Manual of Water Utility Operations, 8th ed.
centrifugal pumps? Texas Utilities Association.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech),
7.12 The liquid used to rate pump capacity is
2007. Water Treatment Operators Short Course. Blacksburg,
___________. VA: Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
7.13 Because of the reduced amount of air pressure at (Virginia Tech).
high altitudes, less __________ is available for the Wahren, U., 1997. Practical Introduction to Pumping Technology.
pump. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.
8 Water/Wastewater Conveyance
The design considerations for the piping system are the piping systems and accoutrements is essential to maintaining
function of the specifics of the system. However, all plant operations.
piping systems have a few common issues: The pipe
strength must be able to resist internal pressure, han-
CONVEYANCE SYSTEMS
dling, and earth and traffic loads; the pipe character-
istics must enable the pipe to withstand corrosion and With regard to early conveyance systems, the prevailing prac-
abrasion and expansion and contraction of the pipeline tice in medieval England was the use of closed pipes. This
(if the line is exposed to atmospheric conditions); engi- practice was contrary to the Romans who generally employed
neers must select the appropriate pipe support, bedding, open channels in their long-distance aqueducts and used pipes
and backfill conditions; the design must account for the mainly to distribute water within cities. The English preferred
potential for pipe failure at the connection point to the to lay long runs of pipes from the water source to the final
basins due to subsidence of a massive structure; and destination. The Italians, on the other hand, where antique
the composition of the pipe must not give rise to any aqueduct arches were still visible, seem to have had more of a
adverse effects on the health of consumers. tendency to follow the Roman tradition of long-distance chan-
nel conduits. At least some of the channel aqueducts seem
—Kawamura (1999)
to have fed local distribution systems of lead or earthenware
In the United States, water and wastewater conveyance pipes (Magnusson, 2001).
systems are quite extensive. Consider, for example, With today’s water and wastewater conveyance, not that
wastewater conveyance. In the year 2000, the United much has changed from the past. Our goal today remains the
States operated 21,264 collection and conveyance sys- same: (1) convey water from source to treatment facility to
tems that included both sanitary and combined sewer user and (2) convey wastewater from user to treatment to the
systems. Publicly owned sewer systems in the country environment. In water and wastewater operations, the term
account for 724,000 miles of sewer pipe and privately conveyance or piping system refers to a complete network of
owned sewer pipe comprises an additional 500,000 pipes, valves, and other components. For water and wastewa-
miles. Most of our nation’s conveyance systems are ter operations in particular, the piping system is all-inclusive;
beginning to show signs of aging, with some systems it includes both the network of pipes, valves, and other com-
dating back more than 100 years. ponents that bring the flow (water or wastewater) to the treat-
ment facility, as well as piping, valves, and other components
—USEPA (2006)
that distribute treated water to the end-user and/or treated
wastewater to outfall. In short, all piping systems are designed
DELIVERING THE LIFEBLOOD OF CIVILIZATION to perform a specific function.
Probably the best way to illustrate the importance of a
Conveyance or piping systems resemble veins, arteries, and
piping system is to describe many of their applications used
capillaries. According to Nayyar (2000):
in water and wastewater operations. In modern water and
They carry the lifeblood of modern civilization. In a modern
wastewater treatment plant, piping systems are critical to suc-
city they transport water from the sources of water supply to cessful operation. In water and wastewater operations, fluids
the points of distribution; convey waste from residential and and gases are used extensively in processing operations; they
commercial buildings and other civic facilities to the treat- usually are conveyed through pipes. Piping carries water
ment facility or the point of discharge. and wastewater into the plant for treatment, fuel oil to heat-
ing units, steam to steam services, lubricants to machinery,
Water and wastewater operators must be familiar with piping, compressed air to pneumatic service outlets for air-powered
piping systems, and the many components that make piping tools, etc., and chemicals to unit processes. For water treat-
systems function. Operators are directly concerned with vari- ment alone, as Kawamura (1999) pointed out, there are:
ous forms of piping, tubing, hose, and the fittings that connect
these components to create workable systems. six basic piping systems: (1) raw water and finished waste dis-
This chapter covers important, practical information about tribution mains; (2) plant yard piping that connects the unit
the piping systems that are a vital part of plant operation, processes; (3) plant utility, including the fire hydrant lines; (4)
chemical lines; (5) sewer lines; and (6) miscellaneous piping,
essential to the success of the total activity. To prevent major
such as drainage and irrigation lines.
system trouble, skilled operators are called upon to perform
the important function of preventive maintenance to avoid
major breakdowns, and must be able to make needed repairs In addition to raw water, treated water, wastewater influ-
when breakdowns do occur. A comprehensive knowledge of ent, and treated wastewater effluent, the materials conveyed
239
Check Union Gate

Valve Valve
Lateral
Elbow Cap
Tee
Fitting 45º
Coupling Check Reduced Elbow
Valve
90º Elbow
(turned down)
FIGURE 8.1 Various components in a single-line piping diagram.
through piping systems include oils, chemicals, liquefied point where the pipe is connected to the point of applica-
gases, acids, paints, sludge, and many others. tion. The piping, fittings, and valves of the hypochlorination
Important Point: Because of the wide variety of materi- pipeline (and others) are important to us. Gate valve, needle
als that piping systems can convey, the components of piping valve, pressure-relief valve, air-and-vacuum-relief valve, dia-
systems are themselves made of different materials and are phragm valve, pinch butterfly valve, check valve, rotary valve
furnished in many sizes to accommodate the requirements of and globe valve, traps, expansion joints, plugs, elbows, tee
numerous applications. For example, pipes and fittings can be fittings, couplings, reducers, laterals, caps, and other fittings
made of stainless steel, many different types of plastic, brass, help ensure the effective flow of fluids through the lines. As
lead, glass, steel, and cast iron. you trace a piping system through your plant site, you will find
Any waterworks or wastewater treatment plant has many many of them (see Figure 8.1). They are important because
piping systems, not just the systems that convey water and they are directly related to the operation of the system. Piping
wastewater. Along with those mentioned earlier, keep in mind system maintenance is concerned with keeping the system
that plant-piping systems also include those that provide hot functioning properly, and to function properly, piping systems
and cold water for plant personnel use. Another system heats must be kept closed and leak proof.
the plant, while still another may be used for air conditioning. Important Point:Figure 8.1 shows a single-line diagram
Water and wastewater operators have many responsibili- that is similar to an electrical schematic. It uses symbols
ties and basic skills. The typical plant operator is skilled in for all the diagram components. A double-line diagram (not
HVAC systems; chemical feed systems; mechanical equip- shown here) is a pictorial view of the pipe, joints, valves, and
ment operation and repair and piping system maintenance other major components similar to an electrical wiring dia-
activities. However, only the fluid transfer systems themselves gram vs. an electrical schematic.
are important to us in this text. The units that the piping sys-
tem serves or supplies (such as pumping, unit processes, and
DEFINITIONS
machines) are discussed in other chapters of the text.
For water and wastewater operators, a familiar example of Key terms related to water/wastewater conveyance are listed
a piping system is the network of sodium hypochlorite pipes and defined in this section.
in treatment plants that use this chemical for disinfection and
other purposes. The whole group of components—pipes, fit- Absolute pressure gauge pressure plus atmospheric
tings, and valves—working together for one purpose makes pressure.
up a system. This particular system has a definite purpose—to Alloy a substance composed of two or more
carry sodium hypochlorite and distribute it, conveying it to metals.
the point of application. Anneal to heat and then cool a metal in order
Note: This chapter is concerned only with the piping sys- to make it softer and less brittle.
tem used to circulate the chemical, not with the hypochlorina- Annealing process of heating and then cooling
tion equipment itself. Our concern begins where the chemical a metal, usually to make it softer and
outlet is connected to the storage tank and continues to the less brittle.
Water/Wastewater Conveyance 241
Asbestos fibrous mineral form of magnesium Fluids any substance that flows.
silicate. Flux used in soldering to prevent
Backsiphonage a condition in which the pressure in the formation of oxides during
the distribution system is less than the soldering operation and to
atmospheric pressure, which allows increase the wetting action so
contamination to enter a water sys- solder can flow more freely.
tem through a cross-connection. Friable readily crumbled by hand.
Bellows a device that uses a bellow for mea- Gate valve a valve in which the closing
suring pressure. element consists of a disk that
Bimetallic made of two different types of metal. slides across an opening to stop
Bourbon tube a semicircular tube of elliptical cross- the flow of water.
section used to sense pressure changes. Gauge pressure the amount by which the total
Brazing soldering with a nonferrous alloy absolute pressure exceeds the
that melts at a lower temperature ambient atmospheric pressure.
than that of the metals being joined; Globe valve a valve having a round, ball-like
also known as hard soldering. shell and horizontal disk.
Butterfly valve a valve in which a disk rotates on a Joint a connection between two
shaft as the valve opens and closes. lengths of pipe or between a
In the full open position, the disk is length of pipe and a fitting.
parallel to the axis of the pipe. Laminar flow arranged in or consisting of
Carcass the reinforcement layers of a hose, thin layers.
between the inner tube and the outer Mandrel a central core or spindle around
cover. which material may be shaped.
Cast iron a generic term for the family of high Neoprene a synthetic material that is highly
carbon-silicon-iron casting alloys resistant to oil, flame, various
including gray, white, malleable, and chemicals, and weathering.
ductile iron. Metallurgy the science and study of metals.
Check valve a valve designed to open in the direc- Nominal pipe size the thickness given in the prod-
tion of normal flow and close with uct material specifications or
reversal of flow. An approved check standard to which manufactur-
valve has substantial construction ing tolerances are applied.
and suitable materials, is positive in Nonferrous a term applied to a material that
closing, and permits no leakage in a does not contain iron.
direction opposite to normal flow. Piping systems a complete network of pipes,
Condensate steam that condenses into water in a valves, and other components.
piping system. Ply one of several thin sheets or lay-
Diaphragm valve a valve in which the closing element ers of material.
is a thin, flexible disk often used in Prestressed concrete concrete that has been com-
low-pressure systems. pressed with wires or rods in
Differential pressure the difference between the inlet and order to reduce or eliminate
outlet pressures in a piping system. cracking and tensile forces.
Double-line diagram pictorial view of the pipes, joints, Pressure-regulating valve a valve with a horizontal disk for
valves, and other major components automatically reducing water pres-
similar to an electrical wiring diagram. sures in a main to a preset value.
Ductile a term applied to a metal that PVC polyvinyl chloride plastic pipe.
can be fashioned into a new Schedule approximate value of the expression
form without breaking. 1000 P/S, where P is the service pres-
Expansion joint absorbs thermal expansion/con- sure and S is the allowable stress, both
traction in piping systems. expressed in pounds per square inch.
Extruding process of shaping a metal or Single-line diagram: uses symbols for all the diagram
plastic by forcing it through a die. components.
Ferrous a term applied to a metal that Soldering a form of brazing in which nonferrous
contains iron. filler metals having melting tempera-
Fer r u le a shor t bush i ng use d for tures below 800°F (427°C) are used.
m a k i ng a t ig ht con ne ct ion. The filler material is called solder
Filter an accessory fitting used to and is distributed between surfaces by
remove solids from a fluid capillary action.
stream.
Solenoid an electrically energized coil of wire good condition (i.e., free of contamination). Piping systems are
surrounding a movable iron case. purposely designed to ensure free and smooth flow of fluids
Stainless steel alloy steel having unusual corrosion- throughout the system, but additional system components are
resisting properties, usually imparted often included to ensure that fluid quality is maintained. Piping
by nickel and chromium. system filters are one example, and strainers and traps are two
Strainer an accessory fitting used to remove large others.
particles of foreign matter from a fluid. It is extremely important to maintain free and smooth flow
Throttle controlling flow through a valve by and fluid quality in piping systems, especially those that feed
means of intermediate steps between vital pieces of equipment/machinery. Consider the internal
fully open and fully closed. combustion engine, for example. Impurities such as dirt and
Tinning covering metal to be soldered with metal particles can damage internal components and cause
a thin coat of solder to work prop- excessive wear and eventual breakdown. To help prevent such
erly. Overheating or failure to keep wear, the oil is run continuously through a filter designed to
the metal clean causes the point to trap and filter out the impurities.
become covered with oxide. The pro- Other piping systems need the same type of protection that
cess of replacing this coat of oxide is the internal combustion engine does, which is why most pip-
called tinning. ing systems include filters, strainers, and traps. These filtering
Trap an accessory fitting used to remove components may prevent damage to valves, fittings, down-
condensate from steam lines. stream equipment/machinery, and the pipe itself. Chemicals,
Vacuum breaker a mechanical device that allows air various types of waste products, paint, and pressurized steam
into the piping system, thereby pre- are good examples of potentially damaging fluids. Filters and
venting backflow that could otherwise strainers play an important role in piping systems—protect-
be caused by the siphoning action cre- ing both the piping system and the equipment that the piping
ated by a partial vacuum. system serves.
Viscosity the thickness or resistance to flow of a
liquid. Scaling
Vitrified clay clay that has been treated in a kiln to
produce a glazed, watertight surface. Because sodium and calcium hypochlorite are widely used in
Water hammer the concussion of moving water water/wastewater treatment operations, problems common in
against the sides of the pipe, caused piping systems feeding this chemical are of special concern.
by a sudden change in the rate of flow In this section, we discuss scaling problems that can occur in
or stoppage of flow in the line. piping systems that convey a hypochlorite solution. To main-
tain the chlorine in solution (used primarily as a disinfectant),
sodium hydroxide (caustic) is used to raise the pH of the hypo-
FLUIDS VS. LIQUIDS
chlorite; the excess caustic raises the shelf life. A high pH
We use the term fluids throughout this text to describe the caustic solution raises the pH of the dilution water to over pH
substance(s) being conveyed through various piping systems 9.0 after it is diluted. The calcium in the dilution water reacts
from one part of the plant to another. We normally think of with dissolved CO2 and forms calcium carbonate. Experience
pipes conveying some type of liquid substance, which most has shown that two-inch pipes have turned into 3/4-inch pipes
of us take to have the same meaning as fluid; however, there due to scale buildup. The scale deposition is greatest in areas
is a subtle difference between the two terms. The diction- of turbulence such as pumps, valves, rotameters, backpressure
ary’s definition of fluid is any substance that flows—which devices.
can mean a liquid or gas (air, oxygen, nitrogen, etc.). Some If lime (calcium oxide) is added (for alkalinity), plant water
fluids carried by piping systems include thick viscous mix- used as dilution water will have higher calcium levels and will
tures such as sludge in a semi-fluid state. Although sludge and generate more scale. While it is true that softened water will
other such materials might seem more solid (at times) than not generate scale, it is also true that it is expensive in large
liquid, they do flow and are considered fluids. In addition to quantities. Many facilities use softened water on hypochlorite
carrying liquids such as oil, hydraulic fluids, and chemicals, mist odor scrubbers only.
piping systems carry compressed air and steam, which also Scaling also often occurs in solution rotameters, making
are considered fluids because they flow. flow readings impossible and freezing the flow indicator in
Important Point: Fluids travel through a piping system at place. Various valves can freeze up and pressure-sustaining
various pressures, temperatures, and speeds. valves freeze and become plugged. Various small diffuser
holes fill with scale. To slow the rate of scaling, many facili-
ties purchase water from local suppliers to dilute hypochlo-
MAINTAINING FLUID FLOW IN PIPING SYSTEMS rite for the RAS and miscellaneous uses. Some facilities have
The primary purpose of any piping system is to maintain the experimented with the system by not adding lime to it. When
free and smooth flow of fluids through the system. Another they did this, manganese dioxide (black deposits) developed
purpose is to ensure that the fluids being conveyed are kept in on the rotameters glass, making viewing the float impossible.
In many instances, moving the point of hypochlorite addition What would we do if the pipe were three to five miles
to downstream of the rotameter seemed to solve the problem. or more in length? Cleaning this length of pipe probably
If remedial steps are not taken, scaling from hypochlorite makes more sense than replacing its entire length. Each
solutions can cause problems. For example, scale buildup can situation is different, requiring remedial choices based on
practicality and expense.
reduce the inside diameter of pipe so much that the actual sup-
ply of the hypochlorite solution required to properly disinfect Piping System Maintenance
water or wastewater was reduced. As a result, the water sent
to the customer or outfalled to the receiving body may not be Maintaining a piping system can be an involved process.
properly disinfected. Because of the scale buildup, the treat- However, good maintenance practices can extend the life of pip-
ment system itself will not function as designed and could ing system components, and rehabilitation can further prolong
result in a hazardous situation in which the reduced pipe size their life. The performance of a piping system depends on the
increases the pressure level to the point of catastrophic fail- ability of the pipe to resist unfavorable conditions and to operate
ure. Scaling, corrosion or other clogging problems in certain at or near the capacity and efficiency for which it was designed.
piping systems, are far from an ideal situation. This performance can be checked in several ways: flow mea-
surement, fire flow tests, loss-of-head tests, pressure tests, simul-
taneous flow and pressure tests, tests for leakage, and chemical
Example 8.1
and bacteriological water tests. These tests are an important part
The scale problem can be illustrated by the use of this of system maintenance. They should be scheduled as part of the
example. Assume that we have a piping system designed to regular operation of the system (AWWA, 1996).
provide chemical feed to a critical plant unit process. If the Most piping systems are designed with various protective
motive force for the chemical being conveyed is provided by features including minimizing wear and catastrophic failure,
a positive-displacement pump at a given volume of solution and therefore the amount of maintenance required is high.
at 70 psi through a clean pipe. After clogging takes place, the Such protective features include pressure relief valves, blow-
pump continues trying to force the same volume of chemi- off valves, and clean-out plugs.
cals through the system at 70 psi, but the pressure drops to 25
psi. Friction caused the pressure to drop. The reduction of the
• Pressure relief valves—These are valves that open
inside diameter of the pipe increased the friction between the
chemical solution and the inside wall of the pipe. automatically when the fluid pressure reaches a pre-
Important Point: A basic principle in fluid mechanics set limit to relieve the stress on a piping system.
states that fluid flowing through a pipe is affected by fric- • Blow-off valve—It is a valve that can be opened to
tion—the greater the friction, the greater the loss of pressure. blow out any foreign material in a pipe.
Important Point: Another principle or rule states that the • Clean-out plug—It is a threaded plug that can be
amount of friction increases as the square of the velocity. removed to allow access to the inside of the pipe for
(Note that speed and velocity are not the same, but com- cleaning.
mon practice refers to the “velocity” of a fluid.) In short, if
the velocity of the fluid doubles, the friction increases four
Important Point: Use caution when removing a clean-out plug
times what it was before. If the velocity is multiplied by
five, the friction is multiplied by 25, and so on. from a piping system. Before removing the plug, pressure
In Example 8.1, the pressure dropped from 70 psi to 25 must be cut off and the system bled off residual pressure.
psi because the solution had to run faster to move through Many piping systems (including water distribution net-
the pipe. Because the velocity of the solution pushed by works and wastewater lines and interceptors) can be cleaned
the pump had to increase to levels above what it was either by running chemical solvents through the lines or by
when the pipe was clean, the friction increased at a higher using mechanical clean-out devices.
rate than before. The fiction loss was the reason that a
pressure of 25 psi reached the far end of the piping system.
The equipment designed to operate at a pressure of 70 psi PIPING SYSTEM ACCESSORIES
could not work on the 25 psi of pressure being supplied. Depending on the complexity of the piping system, the
Important Point: After reviewing the previous example, number of valves included in a system can range from no
you might ask: Why couldn’t the pump be slowed down
more than one in a small, simple system to a large num-
so that the chemical solution could pass more slowly
through the system, thus avoiding the effect of increased ber in very complex systems such as water distributions
friction? Lower pressure results as pump speed is reduced. systems. Valves are necessary for both the operation of a
This causes other problems as well. Pumps that run at a piping system and control of the system and system com-
speed other than that for which they are designed do so ponents. In water/wastewater treatment, this control func-
with a reduction in efficiency. tion is used to control various unit processes, pumps, and
What is the solution to our pressure loss problem in other equipment. Valves also function as protective devices.
Example 8.1? Actually, we can solve this problem in For example, valves used to protect a piping system may be
two possible ways—either replace the piping or clean designed to open automatically to vent fluid out of the pipe
it. Replacing the piping or cleaning it sounds simple and
when the pressure in the lines becomes too high. In lines
straightforward, but it can be complicated. If the pipe is
relatively short, no more than twenty to a few hundred that carry liquids, relief valves preset to open at a given
feet in length, then we may decide to replace the pipe. pressure are commonly used.
Adjustable pipe roll stand
Anchor chair
Adjustable swivel
pipe roll
Standard ring
and bolt hanger Adjustable clevis
and band hanger
FIGURE 8.2 Pipe hangers and supports.
Important Point: Not all valves function as safety valves. wander too far in most plant sites to find pipes covered with
For example, hand-operated gate and globe valves function layers of piping insulation. Piping insulation amounts to wrap-
primarily as control valves. ping the pipe in an envelope of insulating material. The thick-
The size and type of valve are selected depending on its ness of the insulation depends on the application. Under normal
intended use. Most valves require periodic inspection to circumstances, heat passes from a hot or warm surface to a cold
ensure they are operating properly. or cooler one. Insulation helps prevent hot fluid from cooling as
Along with valves, piping systems typically include acces- it passes through the system. For systems conveying cold fluid,
sories such as pressure and temperature gauges, filters, strain- insulation helps keep the fluid cold. Materials used for insula-
ers, and pipe hangers and supports. tion vary, and they are selected according to the requirements
of the application. Various types of insulating materials are also
• Pressure gauges indicate the pressure in the piping used to protect underground piping against rusting and corro-
system. sion caused by exposure to water and chemicals in the soil.
• Temperature gauges indicate the temperature in the
piping system.
METALLIC PIPING
• Filters and strainers are installed in piping systems
to help keep fluids clean and free from impurities. Pipe materials that are used to transport water may also
• Pipe hangers and supports support piping to keep be used to collect wastewater. It is more usual, however, to
the lines straight and to prevent sagging, especially employ less expensive materials since wastewater lines rarely
in long runs. Various types of pipe hangers and sup- are required to withstand any internal pressure. Iron and steel
ports are shown in Figure 8.2. pipes are used to convey wastewater only under unusual load-
ing conditions or for force mains (interceptor lines) in which
the wastewater flow is pressurized (McGhee, 1991).
Piping Systems: Temperature Effects and Insulation
Most materials, especially metals, expand as the temperature
Piping Materials
increases and contract as the temperature decreases. This can
be a significant problem in piping systems. To combat this Materials selected for piping applications must be chosen with
problem, and to allow for expansion and contraction in pip- the physical characteristics needed for the intended service in
ing systems, expansion joints must be installed in the line mind. For example, the piping material selected must be suit-
between sections of rigid pipe. An expansion joint absorbs able for the flow medium and the given operating conditions
thermal expansion and/or terminal movement; as the pipe sec- of temperature and pressure during the intended design life of
tions expand or contract with the temperature, the expansion the product. For long-term service capability, the material’s
joint expands or compresses accordingly, eliminating stress mechanical strength must be appropriate; the piping material
on the pipes. must be able to resist operational variables such as thermal
Piping system temperature requirements also have an impact or mechanical cycling. Extremes in application temperature
on how pipes are insulated. For example, you do not need to must also be considered in respect to material capabilities.
Environmental factors must also be considered. The oper- • Inside diameter (I.D.)—which is used to designate
ating environment surrounding the pipe or piping components pipe less than 12 in. in diameter
affects pipe durability and lifespan. Corrosion, erosion, or a
combination of the two can result in degradation of material Important Point: Another important pipe consideration not
properties or loss of effective load-carrying cross-section. listed above or shown in Figure 8.3 is the weight per foot, which
The nature of the substance contained by the piping is an varies according to the pipe material and pipe’s wall thickness.
important factor as well. In the continuing effort to standardize pipe size and the
Knowledge of the basic characteristics of the metals and wall thickness of pipe, the designation nominal pipe size
nonmetals used for piping provides clues to the uses of the (NPS) replaced the iron pipe size designation, and the term
piping materials with which we work in water/wastewater schedule (SCH) was developed to specify the nominal wall
treatment operations. Such knowledge is especially helpful to thickness of pipe. The NPS diameter (approximate dimen-
operators, making their job much easier and more interest- sionless designator of pipe size) is generally somewhat differ-
ing. In this section, metallic piping is discussed. Piping joints, ent from its actual diameter. For example, the pipe we refer to
how to join or connect sections of metallic piping, and how to as a “3-in. diameter pipe” has an actual O.D. of 3.5 in., while
maintain metallic pipe are also discussed. the actual O.D. of a “12-in. pipe” may be .075 in. greater (i.e.,
12.750 in.) than the nominal diameter. On the other hand, a
pipe 14 in. or greater in diameter has an actual O.D. equal to
Piping: The Basics
the nominal size. The inside diameter will depend upon the
Earlier, we pointed out that “piping” includes pipe, flanges, pipe wall thickness specified by the schedule number.
fittings, bolting, gaskets, valves, and the pressure-containing Important Point: Keep in mind that whether the O.D. is
portions of other piping components. small or large, the dimensions must be within certain toler-
Important Point: According to Nayyar (2000), “A pipe is a ances in order to accommodate various fittings.
tube with round cross-section conforming to the dimensional
requirements of ASME B36.10M (Welded and Seamless Pipe Wall Thickness
Wrought Steel Pipe) and ASME B36.19M (Stainless Steel Pipe).” Original pipe wall thickness designations of STD (standard),
Piping also includes pipe hangers and supports and other XS (extra-strong), and XXS (double extra-strong) are still in
accessories necessary to prevent over pressurization and over- use today; however, because this system allowed no variation
stressing of the pressure-containing components. From a system in wall thickness, and because pipe requirements became more
viewpoint, a pipe is one element or a part of piping. Accordingly, numerous, greater variation was needed. As a result, pipe wall
when joined with fittings, valves, and other mechanical devices thickness, or schedule, today is expressed in numbers (5, 5S, 10,
or equipment, pipe sections are called piping. 10S, 20, 20S, 30, 40, 40S, 60, 80, 80S, 100, 120, 140, 160). (Note
that you may often hear piping referred to either in terms of its
diameter or in terms of its schedule number.) The most com-
Pipe Sizes
mon schedule numbers are 40, 80, 120, and 160. The outside
With time and technological advancements (development of diameter of each pipe size is standardized. Therefore, a par-
stronger and corrosion-resistant piping materials), pipe sizes ticular nominal pipe size will have a different inside diameter
have become standardized and are usually expressed in inches depending upon the schedule number specified. For example,
or fractions of inches. As a rule, the size of a pipe is given in a Schedule 40 pipe with a 3-in. nominal diameter (actual O.D.
terms of its outside or inside diameter. Figure 8.3 shows the of 3.500 in.) has a wall thickness of 0.216 in. The same pipe in
terminology that applies to a section of pipe. Pipes are desig- a Schedule 80 (XS) would have a wall thickness of 0.300 in.
nated by diameter. The principal dimensions are as follows: Important Point: A schedule number indicates the approx-
imate value of the expression 1000 P/S, where P is the ser-
• Wall thickness vice pressure and S is the allowable stress, both expressed in
• Length pounds per square inch (psi). The higher the schedule number,
• Outside diameter (O.D.)—which is used to designate the thicker the pipe is.
pipe greater than 12 in. in diameter Important Point: The schedule numbers followed by the
letter S are per ASME B36.19M, and they are primarily
Wall thickness
intended for use with stainless steel pipe (ASME, 1996).
Piping Classification
O.D. I.D. The usual practice is to classify pipe in accordance with
the pressure-temperature rating system used for classify-
ing flanges. However, because of the increasing variety and
complexity of requirements for piping, a number of engi-
Length neering societies and standards groups have devised codes,
standards, and specifications that meet most applications.
FIGURE 8.3 Pipe terminology. By consulting such codes, (e.g., ASTM, Manufacturer’s
Specifications, NFPA, AWWA, and others) a designer can Types of Piping Systems
determine exactly what piping specification should be used
for any application. Piping systems consist of two main categories: process lines
Important Point: Because pipelines often carry hazardous and service lines. Process lines convey the flow medium used
materials and fluids under high pressures, following a code in a manufacturing process or a treatment process (such as
helps ensure the safety of personnel, equipment, and the pip- fluid flow in water and/or wastewater treatment). For example,
ing system itself. one of the major unit process operations in wastewater treat-
ment is sludge digestion. The sludge is converted from bulky,
1. ASTM ratings—The American Society for Testing odorous, raw sludge to a relatively inert material that can
and Materials (ASTM) publishes standards (codes) be rapidly dewatered with the absence of obnoxious odors.
and specifications, which are used to determine the Because sludge digestion is a unit process operation, the pipes
minimum pipe size and wall thickness to use in a used in the system are called process lines. Service lines (or
given application. utility lines) carry water, steam, compressed air, air condi-
2. Manufacturer’s rating—Pipe manufacturers, tioning fluids, and gas. Normally, all are part of the plant’s
because of propriety design of pipe, fitting, or joint, general service system, which is composed of service lines.
often assign a pressure-temperature rating that may Service lines cool and heat the plant, provide water where it is
form the design basis or the piping system. (In addi- needed, and carry the air that drives air equipment and tools.
tion, the manufacturer may impose limitations that Code for Identification of Pipelines
must be adhered to.)
Under guidelines provided by the American National
Important Point: Under no circumstances shall
Standards Institute (ANSI—A 13.1), a code has been estab-
the manufacturer’s rating be exceeded.
lished for the identification of pipelines. This code involves
3. NFPA ratings—Certain piping systems fall within
the use of nameplates (tags), legends, and colors. The code
the jurisdiction of the National Fire Protection
states that the contents of a piping system shall be identified
Association (NFPA). These pipes are required to
by lettered legend giving the name of the contents. In addition,
be designed and tested to certain required pres-
the code requires that information relating to temperature and
sures (usually rated for 175 psi, 200 psi, or as
pressure should be included. Stencils, tape, or markers can be
specified).
used to accomplish the marking. To identify the characteristic
4. AWWA ratings—The American Water Works
hazards of the contents, colors should be used, but its use must
Association (AWWA) publishes standards and speci-
be in combination with legends.
fications, which are used to design and install water
Important Point: Not all plants follow the same code rec-
pipelines and distribution system piping. The ratings
ommendations, which can be confusing if you are not familiar
used may be in accordance with the flange ratings of
with the system used. Standard piping color codes are often
AWWA, or the rating could be based upon the rating
used in water and wastewater treatment operations. Plant
of the joints used in the piping.
maintenance operators need to be familiar with the pipe codes
5. Other ratings—Sometimes a piping system may
used in their plants.
not fall within the above related rating systems. In
this case, the designer may assign a specific rat-
ing to the piping system. This is a common prac- Metallic Piping Materials
tice in classifying or rating piping for main steam
In the not too distant past, it was not (relatively speaking) that
or hot reheat piping of power plants whose design
difficult to design certain pipe delivery systems. For example,
pressure and design temperature may exceed the
several hundred years ago (and even more recently in some
pressure-temperature rating of ASME B16.5. In
cases), when it was desirable to convey water from a source
assigning a specific rating to such piping, the rat-
to point of use, the designer was faced with only two issues.
ing must be equal to or higher than the design
First, a source of freshwater had to be found. Next, if the
conditions.
source was found and it was determined suitable for whatever
Important Point: The rating of all pressure-con-
the needs required, a means of conveying the water to point
taining components in the piping system must meet
of use was needed.
or exceed the specific rating assigned by the designer
When designing an early water conveyance system, grav-
(Nayyar, 2000).
ity was the key player. This point is clear when you consider
that before the advent of the pump, a motive force to power
When piping systems are subjected to full-vacuum condi-
the pump, and the energy required to provide power to the
tions or submerged in water, they experience both the internal
motive force were developed, gravity was the means by which
pressure of the flow medium and external pressure. In such
water was conveyed (with the exception of burdened humans/
instances, piping must be rated for both internal and external
animals that physically carried the water) from one location to
pressures at the given temperature. Moreover, if a piping sys-
another. Early gravity conveyance systems employed the use
tem is designed to handle more than one flow medium during
of clay pipe, wood pipe, natural gullies or troughs, aqueducts
its different modes of operation, it must be assigned a dual
fashioned from stone, and any other means that were suitable
rating for two different flow media.
or available to convey the water. Some of these earlier pipe or Important Note: When piping is made of stainless steel, an
conveyance materials are still in use today. With the advent of “S” after the schedule number identifies it as such.
modern technology (electricity, the electric motor, the pump, Various heat treatments can be used to manipulate specific
and various machines/processes) and the need to convey flu- properties of steel, such as hardness and ductility (meaning it
ids other than water, also came the need to develop piping can be fashioned into a new form without breaking). One of
materials that could carry a wide variety of fluids. the most common heat treatments employed in steel process-
Modern waterworks have a number of piping systems made ing is annealing. Annealing (sometimes referred to as stress-
up of different materials. One of the principal materials used relieving) consists of heating the metal and permitting it to
in piping systems is metal. Metal pipes may be made of cast cool gradually to make it softer and less brittle.
iron, stainless steel, brass, copper, and various alloys. As a Important Point: Steel is one of the most important basic
waterworks and wastewater maintenance operator who works production materials of modern industry.
with metal piping, you must be knowledgeable about the char- Nonferrous metals, unlike ferrous metals, do not contain
acteristics of individual metals as well as the kinds of consid- iron. A common example of a nonferrous metal used in piping
erations common to all piping systems. These considerations is brass. Other examples of nonferrous materials used in pipe
include the effect of temperature changes, impurities in the include polyethylene, polybutylene, polyurethane, and poly-
line, shifting of pipe supports, corrosion, and water hammer. vinyl chloride (PCV). Pipes of these materials are commonly
used in low-pressure applications for transporting coarse sol-
ids (Snoek and Carney, 1981).
Characteristics of Metallic Materials
In addition to the more commonly used ferrous and nonfer-
Metallurgy (the science and study of metals) deals with the rous metals, special pipe materials for special applications are
extraction of metals from ores and with the combining, treat- also gaining wider use in industry—even though they are more
ing, and processing of metals into useful materials. Different expensive. Probably one of the most commonly used materi-
metals have different characteristics, making them usable in als that falls into this category is aluminum pipe. Aluminum
a wide variety of applications. Metals are divided into two pipe has the advantage of being lightweight and corrosion-
types: ferrous, which includes iron and iron-base alloys (a resistant with relatively good strength characteristics.
metal made up of two or more metals which dissolve into each Important Note: Although aluminum is relatively strong, it
other when melted together), and nonferrous, which includes is important to note that its strength decreases as temperature
other metals and alloys. increases.
Important Point: Mixing a metal and a nonmetal (e.g., Lead is another special pipe material used for certain
steel, which is a mixture of iron (a metal) and carbon (a non- applications, especially where a high degree of resistance to
metal)) can also form an alloy. corrosive materials is desired. Tantalum, titanium, and zirco-
A ferrous metal is one that contains iron (elemental symbol nium piping materials are also highly resistant to corrosives.
Fe). Iron is one of the most common metals but is rarely found Piping systems convey many types of water including ser-
in nature in its pure form. Comprising about 6% of the earth’s vice water, city water, treated or processed water, and distilled
crust, iron ore is actually in the form of iron oxides (Fe2O3 or water. Service water, used for flushing and cooling purposes,
Fe3O4). Coke and limestone are used in the reduction of iron is untreated water that is usually strained, but is otherwise raw
ore in a blast furnace where oxygen is removed from the ore, water taken directly from a source (e.g., lake, river, or deep well).
leaving a mixture of iron and carbon and small amounts of City water is treated potable water. Treated water has been pro-
other impurities. The end product removed from the furnace cessed to remove various minerals that could cause deterioration
is called pig iron—an impure form of iron. Sometimes the or sludge in piping. Distilled water is specially purified.
liquid pig iron is cast from the blast furnace and used directly Important Point: Piping materials selection for use in
for metal castings; however, the iron is more often remelted water treatment/distribution operations should be based on
in a furnace, to further refine it and adjust its composition commonly accepted piping standards such as those provided
(Babcock & Wilcox, 1972). by the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM),
Important Note: Piping is commonly made of wrought American Water Works Association (AWWA), American
iron, cast iron, or steel. The difference among them is largely National Standards Institute (ANSI), the American Society of
the amount of carbon that each contains. Mechanical Engineers (ASME), and the American Petroleum
Remelted pig iron is known as cast iron (meaning the iron Industry (API).
possesses carbon in excess of 2% weight). Cast iron is inferior
to steel in malleability, strength, toughness, and ductility (i.e., Cast-Iron Pipe
it is hard and brittle). Cast iron has, however, better fluidity According to the AWWA (1996), “There are more miles of
in the molten state and can be cast satisfactorily into compli- [cast-iron pipe] in use today than of any other type. There are
cated shapes. many water systems having cast-iron mains that are over 100
Steel is an alloy of iron with not more than 2.0% by weight years old and still function well in daily use.” Cast-iron pipe
carbon. The most common method of producing steel is to has the advantages of strength and long service life and is
refine pig iron by oxidation or impurities and excess carbon— reasonably maintenance-free. The disadvantages include its
both of which have a higher affinity for oxygen than iron. being subject to electrolysis and attack from acid and alkali
Stainless steel is an alloy of steel and chromium. soil and its heaviness (Gagliardi & Liberatore, 2000).
Ductile-Iron Pipe controlled, flexibility is provided by the use of bends, loops,

Ductile-iron pipe resembles cast-iron pipe in appearance or expansion joints (Gagliardi & Liberatore, 2000).
and has many of the same characteristics. It differs from Important Point: Metals expand or contract according to
cast-iron pipe in that the graphite in the metal is sphe- temperature variations. Over a long run (length of pipe), the
roidal or nodular form, that is, in ball-shape form rather effects can cause considerable strain on the lines—damage or
than in flake form. Ductile-iron pipe is strong and durable; failure may result.
it has high flexural strength, good corrosion resistance, is
lighter weight than cast iron, with greater carrying capac- Pipe Support Systems
ity for the same external diameter; and is easily tapped. Pipe supports are normally used to carry dead weight and
However, ductile-iron pipe is subject to general corrosion if thermal expansion loads. These pipe supports may loosen in
installed unprotected in a corrosive environment (Gagliardi time and, therefore, they require periodic inspection. Along
& Liberatore, 2000). with normal expansion and contraction, vibration (water ham-
mer and/or fluids traveling at high speeds and pressures) can
Steel Pipe cause the supports to loosen.
Steel pipe is sometimes used as large feeder mains in water
distribution systems. It is frequently used where there is par- Valve Selection
ticularly high pressure or where a very large diameter pipe Proper valve selection and routine preventive maintenance
is required. Steel pipe is relatively easy to install, has high are critical in the proper operation and maintenance of any
tensile strength, lower cost, good hydraulically when lined, piping system. In water/wastewater piping systems, valves are
and adapted to locations where some movement may occur. generally used for isolating a section of a water main/waste-
However, it is subject to electrolysis external corrosion in acid water collection line, draining the water/wastewater line,
or alkali soil, and has poor corrosion resistance unless prop- throttling liquid flow, regulating water/wastewater storage
erly lined, coated, and wrapped. levels, controlling water hammer, bleed off of air, or prevent-
Note: The materials of which street wastewater (sewer) ing backflow.
pipes are most commonly constructed are vitrified clay pipe,
Isolation
plastic, concrete, and ductile-iron pipe. However, it is metallic
ductile-iron pipe that is most commonly used in wastewater Various valves are used in piping systems to provide for isola-
collection—primarily for force mains (interceptor lines, etc.) tion. For instance, gate valves are used to isolate specific areas
and for piping in and around buildings. Ductile-iron pipe is (valve closed) of the system during repair work or to reroute
generally not used for gravity sewer applications, however. water/wastewater flow (valve open) throughout the distribu-
tion or collection system. Service stop valves are commonly
used to shut off service lines to individual homes or indus-
Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping
tries. Butterfly valves are also used for isolation purposes.
The maintenance required for metallic piping is determined
in part by characteristics of the metal (i.e., expansion, flex- Preventing Backflow
ibility, and support), but also includes the kind of maintenance Backflow, or reversed flow, could result in contaminated or
common to nonmetallic piping systems as well. The major polluted water entering the potable water system. There are
considerations are: numerous places in a water distribution system where unsafe
water may be drawn into the potable water mains if a tem-
• Expansion and flexibility porary vacuum should occur in the system. In addition, con-
• Pipe support systems taminated water from a higher-pressure source can be forced
• Valve selection through a water system connection that is not properly con-
• Isolation trolled. A typical backflow condition from a recirculated sys-
• Preventing backflow tem is illustrated in Figure 8.4.
• Water hammer Important Point: Valves, air gaps, reduced-pressure-zone
• Air binding backflow preventers, vacuum breakers, and barometric loops
• Corrosion effects are often used as backflow prevention devices, depending on
the situation.
Expansion and Flexibility
Because of thermal expansion, water and wastewater systems Water Hammer
(which are rigid and laid out in specified lengths) must have In water/wastewater operations specifically involving flow
adequate flexibility. In water and wastewater systems without through piping, we often hear the term water hammer used.
adequate flexibility, thermal expansion may lead to failure of The term water hammer (often called surging) is actually a
piping or anchors. Moreover, it may also lead to joint leakage misnomer in that it implies only water and the connotation
and excessive loads of appurtenances. The thermal expansion of a “hammering” noise. However, it has become a generic
of piping can be controlled by the use of proper locations of term for pressure wave effects in liquids. By definition, water
anchors, guides, and snubbers. Where expansion cannot be hammer is a pressure (acoustic) wave phenomenon created
Manufacturing
Process
Wastewater
60 PSIG
Reclaimed
wastewater
Wastewater
Treatment
Process
30 PSIG
Public Water Supply
FIGURE 8.4 Backflow from recirculated system.
by relatively sudden changes in the liquid velocity. In pipe- 1. Internal corrosion—caused by aggressive water
lines, sudden changes in the flow (velocity) can occur as a flowing through the pipes
result of (1) pump and valve operation in pipelines, (2) vapor 2. External corrosion—caused by the soil’s chemical
pocket collapse, or (3) even the impact of water following the and electrical conditions
rapid expulsion of air out of a vent or a partially open valve 3. Bimetallic corrosion—caused when components
(Marine, 1999). Water hammer can damage or destroy piping, made of dissimilar metals are connected
valves, fittings, and equipment. 4. Stray-current corrosion—caused by uncontrolled
Important Point: When water hammer occurs, there is DC electrical currents flowing in the soil
little the maintenance operator can do except to repair any
damage that results.
Joining Metallic Pipe
Air Binding According to Crocker (2000), pipe joint design and selection can
Air enters a piping system from several sources, such as the have a major impact on the initial cost, long-range operating cost,
release of air from the water, air carried in through vortices and the performance of the piping system. When determining
into the pump suction, air leaking in through joints that may the type of joint to be used in connecting pipes, certain consider-
be under negative pressure, and air present in the piping sys- ations must be made. For example, initial considerations include
tem before it is filled. The problem with air entry or air bind- material cost, installation labor cost, and degree of leakage integ-
ing, because of air accumulation in piping, is that the effective rity required. The operator is also concerned with periodic main-
cross-sectional area for water/wastewater flow in piping is tenance requirements, and specific performance requirements.
reduced. This flow reduction can, in turn, lead to an increase Metallic piping can be joined or connected in a number
in pumping costs through the resulting extra head loss. of ways. The method used depends on: (1) the nature of the
metal sections (ferrous, nonferrous) being joined; (2) the kind
Corrosion Effects of liquid or gas to be carried by the system; (3) pressure and
All metallic pipes are subject to corrosion. Many materials temperature in the line; and (4) access requirements.
react chemically with metal piping to produce rust, scale, and A joint is defined simply as the connection between ele-
other oxides. In regard to water treatment processes, when raw ments in a piping system. At present, there are five major
water is taken from wells, rivers, or lakes, the water solution types of joints, each used for a special purpose, used for join-
is an extremely dilute liquid of mineral salts and gases. The ing metal pipe: (see Figure 8.5):
dissolved mineral salts are a result of water flowing over and
through the earth layers. The dissolved gases are atmospheric 1. Bell-and-spigot joints
oxygen and carbon dioxide, picked up by water-atmosphere 2. Screwed or threaded joints
contact. Wastewater picks up corrosive materials mainly 3. Flanged joints
from industrial processes and/or from chemicals added to the 4. Welded joints
wastewater during treatment. 5. Soldered joints
Important Point: Materials such as acids, caustic solutions,
and similar solutions are typical causes of pipe corrosion. Bell-and-Spigot Joints
Several types of corrosion should be considered in water The bell-and-spigot joint has been around since its devel-
wastewater distribution and collection piping systems opment in the late 1780s. The joint is used for connecting
(AWWA, 1996). lengths of cast-iron water and wastewater pipe (gravity flow
only). The bell is the enlarged section at one end of the pipe; (where disassembly and reassembly are necessary to accom-
the plain end is the spigot (see Figure 8.5). The spigot end is modate maintenance needs or process changes), and high
placed into the bell, and the joint is sealed. The joint sealing leakage integrity at low pressure and temperature where
compound is typically made up of lead and oakum. Lead and vibration is not encountered. Screwed construction is com-
oakum constitute the prevailing joint sealer for sanitary sys- monly used with galvanized pipe and fittings for domestic
tems. Bell-and-spigot joints are usually reserved for sanitary water and drainage applications.
sewer systems; they are no longer used in water systems. Important Point: Maintenance supervisors must ensure
Important Point: Bell-and-spigot joints are not used in that screwed or threaded joints are used within the limitations
ductile-iron pipe. imposed by the rules and requirements of the applicable code.
Screwed or Threaded Joints Flanged Joints

Screwed or threaded joints (see Figure 8.5) are commonly As shown in Figure 8.6, flanged joints consist of two machined
used to join sections of smaller-diameter low-pressure pipe; surfaces that are tightly bolted together with a gasket between
they are used in low-cost, non-critical applications such as them. The flange is a rim or ring at the end of the fitting, which
domestic water, industrial cooling, and fire protection sys- mates with another section. Flanges are joined either by being
tems. Diameters of ferrous or nonferrous pipe joined by bolted together or welded together. Some flanges have raised
threading range from 1/8 in. up to 8 in. Most couplings have faces and others have plain faces, as shown in Figure 8.7. Steel
threads on the inside surface. The advantages of this type flanges generally have raised faces, and iron flanges usually
of connection are its relative simplicity, ease of installation have plain or flat faces.
Important Point: A flange with a raised face should never
be joined to one with a plain face.
Flanged joints are used extensively in water and waste-
water piping systems because of their ease of assembly and
disassembly; however, they are expensive. Contributing to the
higher cost are the material costs of the flanges themselves
Bell-and-spigot and the labor costs for attaching the flanges to the pipe and
then bolting the flanges together (Crocker, 2000). Flanged
joints are not normally used for buried pipes because of
their lack of flexibility to compensate for ground movement.
Instead, flanged joints are primarily used in exposed locations
where rigidity, self-restraint, and tightness are required (e.g.,
inside treatment plants and pumping stations).
Screwed (threaded) Welded Joints
For applications involving high pressures and temperatures,
welded joints are preferred. Welding of joints is the process
whereby metal sections to be joined are heated to such a high
temperature that they melt and blend together. The advantage
of welded joints is obvious: the pieces joined become one con-
tinuous piece. When a joint is properly welded, the joint is as
strong as the piping itself. The two basic welded joints are (see
Flanged Figure 8.8):
1. Butt-welded joints, in which the sections to be

welded are placed end-to-end and are the most com-
mon method of joining pipe used in large industrial
piping systems.
Welded
Soldered
FIGURE 8.5 Common pipe joints. FIGURE 8.6 Flanged assembly.

Plain faces
Raised faces
FIGURE 8.7 Flange faces.
2. Socket-welded joints, in which one pipe fits inside NONMETALLIC PIPING

the other, the weld being made on the outside of the
lap, are used in applications where leakage integrity Although metal piping is in wide use today, nonmetallic
and structural strength are important. piping (especially clay and cement) is of equal importance.
New processes to make them more useful in meeting today’s
Soldered and Brazed Joints requirements have modified these older materials. Relatively
Soldered and brazed joints are most often used to join copper speaking, using metallic piping is a new practice. Originally,
and copper-alloy (nonferrous metals) piping systems, although all piping was made from clay or wood, and stone soon fol-
brazing of steel and aluminum pipe and tubing is possible. lowed. Open stone channels or aqueducts were used to trans-
The main difference between brazing and welding is tempera- port water over long distances. After nearly 2000 years of
tures employed with each process. Brazing is accomplished service, some of these open channels are still in use today.
at far lower temperatures. Brazing, in turn, requires higher Common practice today is to use metal piping, though non-
temperatures than soldering. In both brazing and soldering, metallic piping is of equal importance and has many appli-
the joint is cleaned (using emery cloth) and then coated with cations in water/wastewater operations. Many of the same
flux that prevents oxides from forming. The clean, hot joint materials that have been used for centuries (clay, for example)
draws solder or brazing rod (via capillary action) into the joint are still used today, but now many new piping materials are
to form the connection. The parent metal does not melt in available, and the choice depends on the requirements of the
brazed or soldered construction. planned application. The development of new technological
processes has enabled the modification of older materials for
Weld metal new applications in modern facilities, and has brought about
the use of new materials for old applications, as well.
Backing In this section, we study nonmetallic piping materials,
Ring
what they are, and where they are most commonly used. We
Butt weld
also describe how to join sections of nonmetallic piping, and
how to maintain them.
Nonmetallic Piping Materials

Socket weld Nonmetallic piping materials used in water/wastewater appli-
cations include clay (wastewater), concrete (water/wastewater),
FIGURE 8.8 Two kinds of welding pipe joints. asbestos-cement pipe (water/wastewater), and plastic (water/
wastewater). Other nonmetallic piping materials include glass

(chemical porcelain pipe) and wood (continuous-strip wooden
pipes for carrying water and waste chemicals are used in
some areas, especially in the western part of the United Spigot
States); however, these materials are not discussed in this text, Bell
because of their limited application in water and wastewater
operations. FIGURE 8.10 Bell-and-spigot ends of clay pipe sections.
Important Point: As with the use of metallic piping, non-
metallic piping must be used in accordance with specifications jute) for solid joints, which is tamped down until about 30%
established and codified by a number of engineering societ- of the space is filled. The joint is then filled with a sealing
ies and standards organizations. These codes were devised to compound. In flexible joint applications, the sealing elements
help ensure personnel safety and protection of equipment. are made from natural or synthetic rubber, or from a plastic-
type material.
Clay Pipe Drainage and wastewater collection lines designed for
Clay pipes are used to carry and/or collect industrial wastes, gravity flow are laid downgrade at an angle, with the bell ends
wastewater, and stormwater (they are not typically used to of the pipe pointing upgrade. The pipe is normally placed in
carry potable water). Clay pipes typically range in size from a trench with strong support members (along its small dimen-
4 in. to 36 in. in diameter, and are available in more than one sion and not on the bell end). Vitrified clay pipes can be
grade and strength. Clay pipe is used in non-pressurized sys- placed directly into a trench and covered with soil. However,
tems. For example, when used in drainpipe applications, liq- unglazed clay pipes must be protected against the effects of
uid flow is solely dependent on gravity; that is, it is used as soil contaminants and ground moisture.
an open-channel pipe, whether partially or completely filled.
Clay pipe is manufactured in two forms: Concrete Pipe
Concrete is another common pipe material, and is sometimes
• Vitrified (glass-like) used for sanitary sewers in locations where grades, tem-
• Unglazed (not glassy) peratures, and wastewater characteristics prevent corrosion
(ACPA, 1987). The pipe provides both high tensile and com-
Important Point: Vitrified clay pipe is extremely corrosion pressive strength and corrosion resistance. Concrete pipe is
proof. It is ideal for many industrial waste and wastewater generally found in three basic forms: (1) nonreinforced con-
applications. crete pipe; (2) reinforced concrete, cylinder and non-cylinder
Important Point:McGhee (1991) recommended that wyes pipe; and (3) reinforced and prestressed concrete pressure
and tees (see Figure 8.9) should be used for joining various pipe. With the exception of reinforced and prestressed pres-
sections of wastewater piping. Failure to provide wyes and sure pipes, most concrete pipes are limited to low-pressure
tees in common wastewater lines invites builders to break the applications. Moreover, almost all-concrete piping is used for
pipe to make new connections. Obviously, this practice should conveying industrial wastes, wastewater, and storm water;
be avoided, because such breaks are seldom properly sealed similarly, some is used for water service connections. Rubber
and can be a major source of infiltration. gaskets are used to join sections of many nonreinforced con-
Both vitrified and unglazed clay pipes are made and joined crete pipes. However, for circular concrete sewer and culvert
with the same type of bell-and-spigot joint described earlier. pipes, flexible, watertight, rubber joints are used to join pipe
The bell-and-spigot shape is shown in Figure 8.10. In join- sections.
ing sections of clay pipe, both ends of the pipe must first be The general advantages of concrete pipe include the
thoroughly cleaned. The small (spigot) end of the pipe must be following:
centered properly, and then seated securely in the large (bell)
end. The bell is then packed with fibrous material (usually • It is relatively inexpensive to manufacture.
• It can withstand relatively high internal pressure or
external loads.
• It has high resistance to corrosion (internal and
external).
• Generally, cement pipe, when installed properly, has
a very long, trouble-free life.
• Bedding requirements during installation are
minimal.
(1) (2) (3) Disadvantages of concrete pipe include:
FIGURE 8.9 Section of bell-and-spigot fittings for clay pipe: (A) • It is very heavy, and thus expensive when shipped
wye, (B) double wye, and (C) tee. long distances.
• Its weight makes special handling equipment installation, and ultimate removal and disposal of asbestos
necessary. products (AWWA, 1996).
• Exact pipes and fittings must be laid out in advance A-C pipe is composed of a mixture of Portland cement and
for installation (AWWA, 1996). asbestos fiber which is built up on a rotating steel mandrel and
then compacted with steel pressure rollers. This pipe has been
Nonreinforced Concrete Pipe used for over 70 years in the United States. Because it has a
Nonreinforced concrete pipe, or ordinary concrete pipe, is very smooth inner surface, it has excellent hydraulic charac-
manufactured in from 4-in. to 24-in. diameters. As in vitrified teristics (McGhee, 1991).
clay pipe, nonreinforced concrete pipe is made with bell-and- In water and wastewater operations, it is the ultimate
spigot ends. Nonreinforced concrete pipe is normally used for removal and disposal of asbestos-cement pipe that poses the
small wastewater (sewer) lines and culverts. problem for operators. For example, consider an underground
wastewater line-break that must be repaired, obviously. After
Reinforced Concrete Pipe locating exactly where the line-break is (this is sometimes dif-
All concrete pipes larger than 24 in. are reinforced; however, ficult to accomplish because A-C pipe is not as easily located
reinforced pipes can also be obtained in sizes as small as 12 as a conventional pipe). The work crew must first excavate
in. Reinforced concrete pipe is used for water conveyance the soil covering the line-break, being careful not to cause
(cylinder pipe), carrying wastewater, stormwater, and indus- further damage (A-C pipe is relatively fragile). Once the soil
trial wastes. It is also used in culverts. It is manufactured by has been removed, exposing the line-break, the damaged pipe
wrapping high-tensile strength wire or rods about a steel cyl- section must be removed. In some instances, it may be more
inder that has been lined with cement mortar. Joints are either economical or practical to remove the damaged portion of
bell-and-spigot or tongue-and-groove in sizes up to 30 in. and the pipe only, and to install a replacement portion and then
tongue-and-groove exclusively above that size. girdle it with a clamping mechanism (sometimes referred to
as a saddle-clamp).
Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Pipe To this point in the described repair operation, there is lit-
When concrete piping is to be used for heavy load high- tle chance for exposure to personnel from asbestos. This is the
pressure applications (up to 600 psi), it is strengthened by case, of course, because in order to be harmful, ACM must
reinforcement and prestressing. Prestressed concrete pipe is release fibers that can be inhaled. The asbestos in undamaged
reinforced by steel wire, steel rods, or bars embedded length- A-C pipe is not friable (non-friable asbestos); that is, it cannot
wise in the pipe wall. If wire is used, it is wound tightly to be readily reduced to powder form by hand pressure when
prestress the core and is covered with an outer coating of con- it is dry. Thus, it poses little or no hazard in this condition.
crete. Prestressing is accomplished by manufacturing the pipe However, if the maintenance crew making the pipe repair
with a permanent built-in compression force. must cut, grind, or sand the A-C pipe section under repair, the
non-friable asbestos is separated from its bond. This type of
Asbestos-Cement (A-C) Pipe repair activity is capable of releasing friable airborne fibers—
Prior to 1971, asbestos was known as the “material of a thou- and herein lies the hazard of working with A-C pipe.
sand uses” (Coastal,1994). It was used for fireproofing (pri- To guard against the hazard of exposure to asbestos fibers,
marily), insulation (secondarily, on furnaces, ducts, boilers, A-C pipe repairs must be accomplished in a safe manner.
and hot water pipes, for example), and soundproofing, as well Operators must avoid any contact with ACM that disturbs its
as a host of other applications. Other applications include its position or arrangement; disturbs its matrix or renders it fri-
use in the conveyance of water and wastewater. However, able; and generates any visible debris from it.
while still used in some industrial applications and in many Important Point: Visibly damaged, degraded, or friable
water/wastewater piping applications, asbestos-containing ACM in the vicinity are always indicators that surface debris
materials (ACM), including asbestos-cement (A-C) pipe, are or dust could be contaminated with asbestos. OSHA stan-
not as widely used as they were before 1971. dards require that we assume that such dust or debris contains
Asbestos-containing materials lost favor with regulators asbestos fibers (Coastal Video Communications, 1994).
and users primarily because of the health risks involved. In the A-C pipe repair operation described above, repairs
Asbestos has been found to cause chronic and often-fatal lung to the A-C pipe require that prescribed USEPA, OSHA, State,
diseases, including asbestosis and certain forms of lung can- and Local guidelines are followed. General EPA/OSHA
cer. Although debatable, there is some evidence that asbestos guidelines, at a minimum, require that trained personnel
fibers in water may cause intestinal cancers as well. While it perform repairs made to the A-C pipe, only. The following
is true that asbestos fibers are found in some natural waters safe work practice is provided for those who must work with
(Bales et al., 1984) and can be leached from asbestos-cement ACMs (Spellman, 2001).
pipe by very aggressive waters (i.e., those that dissolve the
cement itself; Webber et al., 1989) it is also true that the dan- Safe Work Practice: A-C Pipe
ger from asbestos exposure is not so much due to the danger of (1)
When repairs/modifications are conducted that
specific products (A-C pipe, for example) as it is to the over- require cutting, sanding, or grinding on cement
all exposure of people involved in the mining, production, pipe containing asbestos, USEPA-trained asbestos
workers/supervisors are to be called to the work site because of its particular advantages, plastic pipe is replacing
immediately. both metallic and nonmetallic piping. The advantages of plas-
(2) Excavation personnel will unearth buried pipes to the tic piping include:
point necessary to make repairs/modifications. The
immediate work area will then be cleared of person- • High internal and external corrosion resistance
nel as directed by the asbestos-trained supervisor. • Rarely needs to be insulated or painted
(3) The on-scene supervisor will direct the asbestos- • Light weight
trained workers as required to accomplish the work • Ease of joining
task. • Freedom from rot and rust
(4) The work area will be barricaded 20 ft in all direc- • Resistance to burning
tions to prevent unauthorized personnel from • Lower cost
entering. • Long service life
(5) Asbestos-trained personnel will wear all required • Easy to maintain
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Required PPE
shall include Tyvek totally enclosed suits, 1/2 face Several types of plastic pipes are available; still, where plas-
respirator equipped with HEPA filters, rubber boots, tic pipe is commonly used in water and wastewater service,
goggles, gloves, and hardhat. polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is the most common plastic pipe
(6) The supervisor will perform the required air sam- for municipal water distribution systems. PVC is a poly-
pling before entry. mer extruded (shaped by forcing through a die) under heat
(7) Air sampling shall be conducted using the NIOSH and pressure into a thermoplastic that is nearly inert when
7400 protocol. exposed to most acids, fuels, and corrosives. PVC is com-
(8) A portable decontamination station will be set up as monly used to carry cold drinking water, because PVC is
directed by the supervisor. non-toxic and will not affect the water’s taste or cause odor.
(9) Workers will enter the restricted area only when The limitations of PVC pipe include its limited tempera-
directed by the supervisors and, using wet methods ture range—approximately 150°–250°F—and low-pressure
only, will either perform pipe cutting using a rotary capability—usually 75–100 psi. Joining sections of plastic
cutter assembly or inspect the broken area to be cov- pipe is accomplished by welding (solvent, fusion, fillet),
ered with repair saddle device. threading, and flanges.
(10) After performing the required repair/modifications, Important Point: The strength of plastic piping decreases
workers will encapsulate bitter ends and/or frag- as the temperature of the materials it carries increases.
mented sections.
(11) After encapsulation, the supervisor can authorize
TUBING
entry into the restricted area for other personnel.
(12) Broken ACM pipe pieces must be properly disposed Piping by another name might be tubing. A logical question
of following EPA/State/Local guidelines. might be: “When is a pipe a tube, or a tube a pipe?” However,
does it really matter if we call piping or tubing by two dis-
Important Point: Although exposure to asbestos fibers is dan- tinct, separate, and different names? It depends, of course, on
gerous, it is important to note that studies by USEPA, AWWA, the difference(s) between the two. When we think of piping
and other groups have concluded that the asbestos in water and tubing, we think of tubular, which infers cylindrical prod-
mains does not generally constitute a health threat to the pub- ucts that are hollow. Does this description help us determine
lic (AWWA, 1996). the difference between piping and tubing? No, not really. We
Because A-C pipe is strong and corrosion resistant, it is need more—a better, more concise description or delineation.
widely used for carrying water and wastewater. Standard sizes Maybe size will work. It is true that when we normally
range from 3 in. to 36 in. Though highly resistant to corrosion, think of pipe, we think in terms of either metallic or nonme-
A-C pipe should not be used for carrying highly acid solu- tallic cylindrical products that are hollow and range in nomi-
tions or unusually soft water, unless its inner and outer surface nal size from about 0.5 in. (or less) to several feet in diameter.
walls are specially treated. A-C pipe is preferred for use in On the other hand, when we think of tubing we think of cylin-
many outlying areas, because of its lightweight, which results drical, hollow products that are relatively smaller in diameter
in greater ease of handling. Using an asbestos-cement sleeve to that of many piping materials.
joins A-C pipe. The sleeve’s inside diameter (I.D.) is larger Maybe application will work. It is true that when we nor-
than the pipe’s outside diameter (O.D.). The ends of the pipes mally think of pipe, we think of any number of possible appli-
fit snugly into the sleeve and are sealed with a natural or syn- cations from conveying raw petroleum from field to refinery,
thetic rubber seal or gasket, which acts as an expansion joint. to the conveyance of raw water from source to treatment facil-
ity, to wastewater discharge point to treatment to outfall, and
Plastic Pipe several others. On the other hand, when we think in terms of
Plastic pipe has been used in the United States for about 60 tubing applications and products conveyed, the conveyance of
years; its use is becoming increasingly common. In fact, compressed air, gases (including liquefied gas), steam, water,
lubricating oil, fuel oil, chemicals, fluids in hydraulic systems, diameter of the tubing increases, the wall thickness increases
and waste products comes to mind. accordingly (slightly).
On the surface, and evidenced by the discussion above, it is Ranging in size from 1/32 in. to 12 in. in diameter, it is the
apparent that when we attempt to classify or differentiate pip- smaller sizes that are most commonly used. Standard copper
ing and tubing, our effort is best characterized as somewhat tubing ranges from 1/32 in. to 10 in. in diameter, steel from
arbitrary, capricious, vague, and/or ambiguous. It appears that 3/15 in. to 10 3/4 in., aluminum from 1/8 in. to 12 in., and spe-
piping by any other name is just piping. In reality, however, cial alloy tubing is available up to 8 in. in diameter.
piping is not tubing, and in the end (so to speak) the difference Typically, in terms of initial cost, metal tubing materials
may come down to determination by end use. are more expensive than iron piping; however, the high ini-
The bottom line: It is important to differentiate between tial cost versus the ability to do a particular application as
piping and tubing, because they are different. They are differ- designed (as desired), is a consideration that can’t be over-
ent in physical characteristics and methods of installation, as looked, or under-emphasized. Consider, for example, an air
well as in their advantages and disadvantages. In this section, compressor. Typically, while in operation, air compressors are
these differences become clear. mechanical devices that not only produce a lot of noise but
also vibrate. Installing a standard rigid metal piping system
to such a device might not be practical. Installing tubing that
Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference
is flexible to the same device, however, may have no detri-
Lohmeier and Avery (2000) pointed out that piping and tub- mental impact on operation whatsoever. An even more tell-
ing are considered separate products, even though they are ing example is the internal combustion engine. For example,
geometrically quite similar. Moreover, the classification of a lawnmower engine, like the air compressor, also vibrates
“pipe” or “tube” is determined by end use. As mentioned, and is used in less than static conditions (i.e., the lawnmower
many of the differences between piping and tubing are related is typically exposed to all kinds of various dynamic stresses).
to physical characteristics, methods of installation, and the Obviously, we would not want the fuel lines (tubing) in such a
advantages and disadvantages. device to be “hard-wired” with rigid pipe; instead, we would
Simply, tubing refers to tubular materials (products) made want the fuel lines to be durable but also somewhat flexible.
to either an inside (I.D.) or outside diameter (O.D.; expressed Thus, flexible metal tubing is called for in this application,
in even inches or fractions). Tubing walls are generally much because it will hold up.
thinner than those of piping; thus, wall thickness in tubing is Simply put, initial cost can be important. However, consid-
of particular importance. erations such as maintenance requirements, durability, length
Important Point: Wall thickness tolerance in tubing is held of life, and ease of installation, often favor the use of metallic
so closely that wall thickness is usually given in thousandths tubing over the use of metallic pipe.
of an inch rather than as a fraction of an inch. Sometimes a Although it is true that most metallic tubing materials have
gauge number is used to indicate the thickness according to a relatively thin walls, it is also true that most are quite strong.
given system. Small tubing material with thin walls (i.e., soft materials
Tubing of different diameters has different wall thick- up to approximately 1 in. O.D.) can be bent quite easily by
nesses. An example from pipe properties and tubing proper- hand. Tubing with larger diameters requires special bending
ties illustrates the difference between piping and tubing. The tools. The big advantage of flexible tubing should be obvious:
wall thickness of a commercial type of 8-in. pipe is 0.406 in. Tubing can be run from one point to another with fewer fit-
Light-wall 8-in copper tubing, by contrast, has a wall thick- tings than if piping was used.
ness of 0.050 in. When we compare these figures, it is clear Note:Figure 8.11 shows how the use of tubing can elimi-
that tubing has much thinner walls than piping of the same nate several pipefittings.
general diameter (Basavaraju, 2000). The advantages of the tubing type of arrangement shown
Important Note: It is important to note that the range in Figure 8.11 include the following:
between “thick” and “thin” is narrower for tubing than it is
for piping. • It eliminates 18 potential sources of leaks.
The list of tubing applications is a lengthy one. Some • The cost of the eighteen 90° elbow fittings needed
tubing types can be used not only as conduits for electri- for the piping installation is eliminated.
cal wire but also to convey waste products, compressed • The time needed to cut, gasket, and flange the
air, hydraulic fluids, gases, fuel oil, chemicals, lubricating separate sections of pipe is conserved. (Obviously,
oil, stream, waters, and other fluids (i.e., both gaseous and it takes little time to bend tubing into the desired
liquid). configuration.)
Tubing is made from both metals and plastics. Metal • The tubing configuration is much lighter in weight
tubing is designed to be somewhat flexible but also strong. than the separate lengths of pipe and the pipe flanges
Metallic materials such as copper, aluminum, steel, and stain- would have been.
less steel are used in applications where fluids are carried
under high pressure (some types of tubing(e.g., stainless steel) For the configuration shown in Figure 8.12, the weight is consid-
can accommodate very high pressures—>5,000 psi). As the erably less for the copper tubing than the piping arrangement.
Piping and Fittings
Tubing
FIGURE 8.11 Tubing eliminates fittings.
Moreover, the single length of tubing bent to follow the same or stopped. In water/wastewater operations, certain fluid flow
general conveyance route is much easier to install. lines have a frequent on-off cycle. In a conventional piping
It may seem apparent to some readers that many of the system, this may produce vibration, which is transmitted
weight and handling advantages of tubing compared to pip- along the rigid conduit, shaking joints, valves, and other fit-
ing can be eliminated or at least matched simply by reducing tings. The resulting damage usually results in leaks, which, of
the wall thickness of the piping. It is important to remember, course, necessitates repairs. In addition, the piping supports
however, that piping has a thick wall because it often needs can also be damaged. When tubing, with its built-in flexibil-
to be threaded to make connection(s). If the wall thickness of ity, is used in place of conventional iron piping, however, the
iron pipe, for example, was made comparable to the thickness conduit absorbs most of the vibration and shock. The result is
of copper tubing, and then threaded at connection points, its far less wear and tear on the fittings and other appurtenances.
mechanical integrity would be reduced. The point is piping As mentioned, sections of tubing are typically connected
must have sufficient wall thickness left after threading not only by means of soldering, brazing, or welding, rather than by
to provide a tight fit, but also to handle the fluid pressure. On threaded joints, although steel tubing is sometimes joined
the other hand, copper tubing is typically designed for brazed by threading. In addition to the advantages in cost and time
and soldered connections, rather than threaded ones. Thus, its savings, avoidance of using threaded joints precludes other
wall thickness can be made uniformly thin. This advantage of
tubing over iron piping is illustrated in Figure 8.12.
Important Point: The lighter weight of tubing means
greater ease of handling, as well as lower shipping costs.
Advantages of Tubing
To this point, in regard to design requirements, reliability, and
Threaded pipe section
maintenance activities of using tubing instead of piping, we
have pointed out several advantages of tubing. These advan-
tages can be classified as mechanical or chemical advantages.
Mechanical Advantages of Tubing

Probably the major mechanical advantage of using tubing is
its relatively small diameter and its flexibility, which makes it
user-friendly in tight spaces where piping would be difficult
to install and to maintain (i.e., for the tightening or repair/
replacement of fittings). Another mechanical advantage of Pipe section without threads
tubing important to water and wastewater maintenance opera-
tors is the ability of tubing to absorb shock from water ham- FIGURE 8.12 Pipe wall thickness is important when threading is
mer. Water hammer can occur whenever fluid flow is started required.
problems. For example, anytime piping is threaded it is weak- required for connecting sections of tubing. The tools used to
ened. At the same time, threading is commonly used for most make either a soldered connection or a compression connec-
piping systems and usually presents no problem. tion (where joint sections are pressed together) include:
Another advantage of tubing over iron piping is the dif-
ference in inner-wall surfaces between the two. Specifically, • Hacksaw
tubing generally has a smoother inner-wall surface than does • Tube cutter
iron piping. This smoother inner-wall characteristic aids in • Scraper
reducing turbulent flow (wasted energy and decreased pres- • Flat file
sure) in tubing. Instead, flow in the smoother walled tubing is • Burring tool
more laminar; that is, it has less turbulence. Laminar flow is • Flaring tool
characterized as flow in layers—very thin layers. (Somewhat • Presetting tool for flareless fittings
structurally analogous to this liquid laminar flow phenom- • Assorted wrenches
enon is wood type products such as kitchen cabinets, many of • Hammer
which are constructed of laminated materials.) • Tube bender
This might be a good time to address laminar flow inside
a section of tubing. First, we need to discuss both laminar Cutting Tubing
and turbulent flow in order to point out the distinct difference No matter what type of connection you are making (soldered
between them. Simply, in laminar flow, streamlines remain or compressed), it is important to cut the tubing cleanly and
parallel to one another and no mixing occurs between adjacent squarely. This can be accomplished using a tubing cutter. Use
layers. In turbulent flow, mixing occurs across the pipe. The of a tubing cutter is recommended, because it provides a much
distinction between the two regimes lies in the fact that the smoother cut than that made with a hacksaw. A typical tubing
shear stress in laminar flow results from viscosity, while that cutter has a pair of rollers on one side and a cutting wheel on
in turbulent flow results from momentum exchanges occur- the other. The tubing cutter is turned all the way around the
ring as a result of the motion of fluid particles from one layer tubing, making a clean cut.
to another (McGhee, 1991). Normally, flow is laminar inside Important Point: When cutting stainless steel tubing, cut
tubing. However, if there are irregularities (dents, scratches, the tubing as rapidly and safely as you can, with as few strokes
or bumps) on the tubing’s inner wall, the fluid will be forced as possible. This is necessary because as stainless steel is cut,
across the otherwise smooth surface at a different velocity it hardens, especially when cut with a hacksaw.
which causes turbulence. Iron piping has more irregularities After making the tubing cut, the rough edge of the cut must
along its inner walls which cause turbulence in the fluid flow- be smoothed with a burring tool to remove the small metal
ing along the conduit. Ultimately, this turbulence can reduce chads, burrs, or whiskers. If a hacksaw is used to cut the tub-
the delivery rate of the piping system considerably. ing, ensure that the rough cut is filed until it is straight and
square to the length of tubing.
Chemical Advantages of Tubing
The major chemical advantage in tubing as compared to pip- Soldering Tubing
ing comes from the corrosion-resistant properties of the met- Soldering is a form of brazing in which nonferrous filler met-
als used to make the tubing. Against some corrosive fluids, als having melting temperatures below 800°F (427°C) are
most tubing materials do very well. Some metals perform used. The filler metal is called solder (usually a tin-lead alloy,
better than others, however, depending upon the metal and which has a low melting point) and is distributed between sur-
the corrosive nature of the fluid. It is important to also point faces by capillary action. Whether soldering two sections of
out that tubing used must be compatible with the fluid being tubing together or connecting tubing to a fitting, such as an
conveyed. When conveying a liquid stream from one point elbow, the soldering operation is the same. Using emery cloth
to another, the last thing wanted is contamination from the or a wire brush, the two pieces to be soldered must first be
tubing to be added to the fluid. Many tubing conveyance sys- cleaned (turned to bright metal). Clean, oxide-free surfaces
tems are designed for use in food-processing operations, for are necessary to make sound soldered joints. Uniform capil-
example. If we were conveying raw milk to or from a unit pro- lary action is possible only when surfaces are completely free
cess, we certainly would not want to contaminate the milk. of foreign substances such as dirt, oil, grease, and oxide.
To avoid such contamination, where conditions of particular Important Point: During the cleaning process care must
sanitation are necessary, stainless steel, aluminum, or appro- be taken to avoid getting the prepared adjoining surfaces too
priate plastic tubing must be used. smooth. Surfaces that are too smooth will prevent the filler
metal (solder) from effectively wetting the joining areas.
The next step is to ensure that both the tubing outside and
Connecting Tubing
the fitting inside are covered with soldering flux and fitted
The skill required to properly connect metal or nonmetallic together. When joining two tubing ends, use a sleeve. The
tubing can be learned by just about anyone. However, a cer- purpose of flux is to prevent or inhibit the formation of oxide
tain amount of practice and experience is required to ensure during the soldering process. The two ends are fitted into the
the tubing is properly connected. Moreover, certain tools are sleeve from opposite sides. Make sure the fit is snug.
Next, heat the joint. First, heat the tubing next to the fitting Male connect
Sleeve support
then the fitting itself. When the flux begins to spread, solder tube
body Nut
should be added (this is known as tinning). The heat will suck
the solder into the space between the tubing and the sleeve.
Then heat the fitting, on and off, and apply more solder until
the joint is fully penetrated (Giachino & Weeks, 1985).
Important Point: During the soldering operation, it is
important to ensure that the heat is applied evenly around the Tube
tubing. A continuous line of solder will appear where the fit- Flare
ting and tubing meet at each end of the sleeve. Also, ensure
that the joined parts are held so that they will not move. After FIGURE 8.14 Flared fitting.
soldering the connection, wash the connection with hot water
to prevent future corrosion. Bite
Ferrule
The heat source normally used to solder is heated using Pipe thread
an oxyacetylene torch or some other high-temperature heat
source. Important soldering points to remember include:
1. Always use the recommended flux when soldering.

Tube
2. Make sure parts to be soldered are clean and their Body
surfaces fit closely together. Nut
3. During the soldering process, do not allow the parts
to move while the solder is in a liquid state. FIGURE 8.15 Flareless fitting.
4. Be sure the soldering heat is adequate for the solder-
ing job to be done, including the types of metal and a ferrule or bushing located between them. As the threaded
the fluxes. members are tightened, the ferrule bites into the tubing, mak-
5. Wash the solder work in hot water to stop later cor- ing a tight connection.
rosive action.
Connecting Flared/Nonflared Joints Bending Tubing

In addition to being connected by brazing or soldering, tub- A type of tool typically used in water/wastewater mainte-
ing can also be connected by either flared or nonflared joints. nance applications for bending tubing is the hand bender,
Flaring is accomplished by evenly spreading the end of the which is nothing more than a specifically sized spring-type
tube outward, as shown in Figure 8.13. The accuracy of the apparatus. Spring-type benders come in several different
angle of flare is important; it must match the angle of the sizes (the size that fits the particular sized tubing to be bent
fitting being connected. The flaring tool is inserted into the is used to make the correct bend ). The spring-type tubing
squared end of the tubing, and then hammered or impacted bender is slipped over the tubing section to be bent. Then,
into the tube a short distance, spreading the tubing end as carefully, the spring and tubing are bent by hand to conform
required. to the angle of bend desired. When using any type of tub-
Figure 8.14 shows the resulting flared connection. The ing bender, it is important to obtain the desired bend without
flared section is inserted into the fitting in such a way that damaging (flattening, kinking, or wrinkling) the tubing. As
the flared edge of the tube rests against the angled face of the mentioned, any distortion of the smooth, inner wall of a tub-
male connector body—a sleeve supports the tubing. The nut ing section causes turbulence in the flow, which lowers the
is tightened firmly on the male connector body, making a firm pressure. Figure 8.16 shows three different kinds of incorrect
joint that will not leak, even if the tubing ruptures because bends and one correct bend. From the figure, it should be
of excess pressure. Figure 8.15 shows a flareless fitting. As apparent how the incorrect bends constrict the flow, causing
shown, the plain tube end is inserted into the body of the fit- turbulence and lower pressure.
ting. Notice that there are two threaded outer sections with
Types of Tubing
Outside diameter
Toe of sleeve of sleeve Common types of metal tubing in industrial service include:
Copper (seamless, fully annealed, furnished in coils or
Flare in straight lengths). In water treatment applications, copper
tubing has replaced lead and galvanized iron in service line
installations because it is flexible, easy to install, corrosion
Sleeve
resistant in most soils, and able to withstand high pressure.
It is not sufficiently soluble in most water to be a health haz-
FIGURE 8.13 Flared tubing end. ard, but corrosive water may dissolve enough copper to cause
materials. The four most common types of plastic tubing are

Plexiglas (acrylic), polycarbonate, vinyl, and polyethylene
(PE). For plant operations, plastic tubing usage is most prev-
alent where it meets corrosion resistance demands, and the
temperatures are within its working range—primarily used
in chemical processes. Plastic tubing is connected either by
Correct
fusing with solvent-cement or by heating. Reducing the plastic
ends of the tubing to a soft, molten state, then pressing them
together, makes fused joints. In the solvent-cement method,
the ends of the tubing are coated with a solvent that dissolves
the plastic. The tube ends are firmly pressed together, and
as the plastic hardens, they are securely joined. When heat
Flat Kinked Wrinkled
fused, the tubes are held against a hot plate. When molten, the
ends are joined and the operation is complete.
Incorrect
INDUSTRIAL HOSES
FIGURE 8.16 Correct and incorrect tubing bends.
Earlier we described the uses and merits of piping and tubing.
green stains on plumbing fixtures. Copper water service tub- This section describes industrial hoses, which are classified
ing is usually connected by either flare or compression fit- as a slightly different tubular product. Their basic function
tings. Copper plumbing is usually connected with solder is the same, however, and that is to carry fluids (liquids and
joints (AWWA, 1996). gases) from one point to another. The outstanding feature of
Important Point: Annealing is the process of reheating a industrial hose is its flexibility, which allows it to be used in
metal and then letting it cool slowly. In the production of tub- applications where vibrations would make the use of rigid
ing, annealing is performed to make the tubing softer and less pipe impossible. Most water/wastewater treatment plants use
brittle. industrial hoses to convey steam, water, air, and hydraulic flu-
ids over short distances. It is important to point out that each
• Aluminum (seamless, annealed, and suitable for application must be analyzed individually, and an industrial
bending and flaring). hose must be selected which is compatible with the system
• Steel (seamless, fully annealed, also available as a specification.
welded type, suitable for bending and flaring). In this section, we study industrial hoses—what they are,
• Stainless steel (seamless, fully annealed, also avail- how they are classified and constructed, and the ways in
able as a welded type, suitable for bending and which sections of hose are connected to one another and to
flaring). piping or tubing. We will also read about the maintenance
• Special alloy (made for carrying corrosive materials). requirements of industrial hoses, and what to look for when
we make routine inspections or checks for specific problems.
Like metal piping, metal tubing is made in both welded and Industrial hoses, piping, and tubing all are used to con-
seamless styles. Welded tubing begins as flat strips of metal vey a variety of materials under a variety of circumstances.
that are then rolled and formed into tubing. The seam is then Beyond this similar ability to convey a variety of materials,
welded. Seamless tubing is formed as a long, hot metal ingot however, there are differences between industrial hoses and
and then shaped into a cylindrical shape. The cylinder is piping and tubing. For example, in their construction and in
then extruded (passed through a die), producing tubing in the their advantages, industrial hoses are different from piping
larger sizes and wall thicknesses. If smaller tubing (with thin- and tubing. As mentioned, the outstanding advantage of hose
ner walls and closer tolerances) is desired, the extruded tubing is its flexibility; its ability to bend means that hose can meet
is reworked by drawing it through another die. the requirements of numerous applications that can’t be met
by rigid piping and some tubing systems. Two examples of
this flexibility are Camel hose (used in wastewater collection
Typical Tubing Applications
systems to clean out interceptor lines and/or to remove liquid
In a typical water/wastewater operation, tubing is used in unit from excavations where broken lines are in need of repair),
processes and/or machinery. Heavy-duty tubing is used for and the hose that supplies hydraulic fluids used on many fork-
carrying gas, oxygen, steam, and oil, in many underground lifts. Clearly, rigid piping would be impractical to use in both
services, interior plumbing, and heating and cooling systems situations.
throughout the plant site. Steel tubing is used in high-pressure Industrial hose is not only flexible but also has a dampen-
hydraulic systems. Stainless steel tubing is used in many of ing effect on vibration. Certain tools used in water and waste-
their chemical systems. In addition, in many plants, aluminum water maintenance activities must vibrate to do their jobs.
tubing is used as raceways or containers for electrical wires. Probably the best and most familiar such tool is the power
Plastics have become very important as nonmetallic tubing hammer, or jackhammer. Obviously, the built-in rigidity of
piping and tubing would not allow vibrating tools to stand up

very long under such conditions. Other commonly used tools
and machines in water/wastewater operations have pneu-
matically or hydraulically driven components. Many of these
devices are equipped with moving members that require the
air or oil supply to move with them. In such circumstances, of
course, rigid piping could not be used.
It is important to note that the flexibility of industrial hose
is not the only consideration that must be taken into account
when selecting hose over either piping or tubing. That is, hose
must be selected according to the potential damaging condi-
tions of an application. These conditions include the effects of
pressure, temperature, and corrosion.
Hose applications range from the lightweight ventilating
hose (commonly called “elephant trunk”) used to supply fresh
air to maintenance operators working in manholes, vaults or
other tight places. In water and wastewater treatment plants,
hoses are used to carry water, steam, corrosive chemicals and
gases, and hydraulic fluids under high pressure. To meet such FIGURE 8.18 Expanded-end hose.
service requirements, hoses are manufactured from a number
of different materials. Surrounding the tube is the reinforcement material, which
provides resistance to pressure—either from the inside or
outside. Notice that the hose shown in Figure 8.17 has two
Hose Nomenclature layers of reinforcement braid (This braid is fashioned from
To gain a fuller understanding of industrial hoses and their high-strength synthetic cord). The hose is said to be mandrel-
applications, it is important to be familiar with the nomen- braided, because a spindle or core (the mandrel) is inserted
clature or terminology normally associated with industrial into the tube before the reinforcing materials are put on. The
hoses. Accordingly, in this section, we explain hose termi- mandrel provides a firm foundation over which the cords are
nology water/wastewater operators should be familiar with. evenly and tightly braided. The cover of the hose is an outer,
Figure 8.17 is a cutaway view of a high-pressure air hose of protective covering. The hose in Figure 8.17 has a cover of
the kind that supplies portable air hammers and drills and tough, abrasion-resistant material.
other pneumatic tools commonly used in water/wastewater The overall length is the true length of a straight piece of
maintenance operations. The hose is the most common type hose. Hose, which is not too flexible, is formed or molded in
of reinforced nonmetallic hose in general use. Many of the a curve (e.g., automobile hose used in heating systems; see
terms given have already been mentioned. The I.D., which Figure 8.19). As shown in Figure 8.19, the arm is the section of
designates the hose size, refers to the inside diameter through- a curved hose that extends from the end of the hose to the near-
out the length of the hose body unless the hose has enlarged est centerline intersection. The body is the middle section or
ends. The O.D. is the diameter of the outside wall of the hose. sections of the curved hose. Figure 8.20 shows the bend radius
Important Point: If the ends of an industrial hose are (i.e., is the radius of the bend measured to the centerline) of
enlarged, as shown in Figure 8.18, the letters E.E. are used the curved hose, and designated as the radius R. In a straight
(meaning expanded or enlarged end). Some hoses have
Body
enlarged ends to fit a fixed end of piping tightly (e.g., an auto-
mobile engine).
As shown in Figure 8.17, the tube is the inner section
(i.e., the core) of the hose, through which the fluid flows.
R
Carcass Cover Wall thickness
Arm
O.D. I.D.
Reinforcing braid Tube
Overall length
FIGURE 8.17 Common hose nomenclature. FIGURE 8.19 Bend radius.

Standards and codes are safety measures designed to protect

personnel and equipment. For example, specifications are
R provided for working pressures, sizes, and material require-
ments. The working pressure of a hose, for example, is typi-
r cally limited to one-fourth, or 25%, of the amount of pressure
needed to burst the hose. Let’s look at an example. If we have
a hose that has a maximum rated working pressure of 200
psi, it should not rupture until 800 psi has been reached, and
possibly even then. Thus, the use of hoses that meet specified
R = Bend radius for curved hose
r = Bend radius for straight hose
standards or codes is quite evident.
Hose Size
The parameter typically used to designate hose size is its
inside diameter (I.D.). In regard to classification of hose, ordi-
FIGURE 8.20 Bend radius: measurement. narily a dash numbering system is used. Current practice by
most manufacturers is to use the dash system to identify both
hose, bent on the job, the radius of the bend is measured to the hose and fittings. In determining the size of a hose, we simply
surface of the hose (i.e., the radius r in Figure 8.20). convert the size in 16ths. For example, a hose size of 1/2 in. (a
Important Point: Much of the nomenclature used above hose with a 1/2-in. I.D.) is the same as 8/16 in. The numerator
does not apply to nonmetallic hose that is not reinforced. of the fraction (the top number, or “8” in this case) is the dash
However, nonreinforced nonmetallic hose is not very com- size of the hose. In the same way, a 1 1/2-in. size can be con-
mon in water/wastewater treatment plant operations. verted to 24/16 in. and so is identified as a −24 (pronounced
“dash 24”) hose. By using the dash system, we can match a
Factors Governing Hose Selection hose line to tubing or piping sections and be sure the I.D. of
both will be the same. This means, of course, that the non-
The amount of pressure that a hose will be required to con- turbulent flow of fluid will not be interrupted. Based on I.D.,
vey is one of the important factors governing hose selection. hoses range in size from 3/16 in. to as large as 24 in.
Typically, pressure range falls in any of three general groups:
Hose Classifications
• <250 psi (low-pressure applications) Hose is classified in a number of ways; for example, hose
• 250–3,000 psi (medium-pressure applications) can be classified by type of service (hydraulic, pneumatic,
• 3,000–6,000+ psi (high-pressure applications) corrosion-resistant), by material, by pressure, and by type of
construction. Hose may also be classified by type. The three
Important Point: Note that some manufacturers have their types include metallic, nonmetallic, and reinforced nonmetal-
own distinct hose pressure rating scheme; we can’t assume lic. Generally, the terminology is the same for each type.
that a hose rated as “low-pressure” hose will automatically be
useful at 100 psi or 200 psi. It may, in fact, be built for pres- Nonmetallic Hose
sures not to exceed 50 psi, for example. Therefore, whenever Relatively speaking, the use of hose is not a recent develop-
we replace a particular hose, we must ensure that the same ment. Hoses, in fact, have been used for one application or
type of hose with the same pressure rating as the original another for hundreds of years. Approximately 100 years ago,
hose is used. In high-pressure applications, this precaution is after new developments in the processing of rubber, layering
of particular importance. rubber around mandrels usually made hoses. Later, the man-
In addition to the pressure rating of a hose, we must also drel was removed, leaving a flexible rubber hose. However,
consider, for some applications, the vacuum rating of a hose, these flexible hoses tended to collapse easily. Even so, they
which refers to suction hose applications and in which the were an improvement over the earlier types. Manufacturers
pressure outside the hose is greater than the pressure inside later added layers of rubberized canvas. This improvement
the hose. It is important, obviously, to know the degree of gave hoses more strength and gave them the ability to handle
vacuum that can be created before a hose begins to collapse. higher pressures. Later, after the development of synthetic
A drinking straw, for example, collapses rather easily if too materials, manufacturers had more rugged and more corro-
much vacuum is applied. Thus, it has a low vacuum rating. In sion-resistant rubber-type materials to work with. Today, neo-
contrast, the lower automobile radiator hose (also works under prene, nitrile rubber, and butyl rubber are commonly used in
vacuum) has a relatively higher vacuum rating. hose. However, current manufacturing practice is not to make
hoses from a single material. Instead, different materials form
layers in the hose, reinforcing it in various ways for strength
Standards, Codes, and Sizes
and resistance to pressure. Hose manufactured today usually
Just as they have for piping and tubing, authoritative standards has a rubber-type inner tube or a synthetic (e.g., plastic) lining
organizations have devised standards and codes for hoses. surrounded by a carcass (usually braided) and cover. The type
Wire-Reinforced Hose
In this type of hose, wires wound in a spiral around the tube,
or inside the carcass, in addition to a number of layers of
wrapped fabrics, provides the reinforcement (see Figure 8.23).
With I.D.s of 16–24 in. common, this type of hose is used in
oil-suction and discharge situations that require special hose
ends, maximum suction (without collapsing), or special flex-
ing characteristics (must be able to bend in a small radius with-
FIGURE 8.21 Vertical-braided hose. out collapsing), or a combination of these three requirements.
of carcass braiding used is determined by the requirements Wire-Woven Hose

of the application. To reinforce a hose, two types of braiding Wire-woven hose (see Figure 8.24) has cords interwoven with
are used, vertical braiding and horizontal braiding. Vertical wire running spirally around the tube, and is highly flexible,
braiding strengthens the hose against pressure applied at low in weight, and resistant to collapse even under suction
right angles to the centerline of the hose. Horizontal braiding conditions. This kind of hose is well suited for such negative
strengthens the hose along its length, giving it greater resis- pressure applications.
tance to expansion and contraction. Descriptions of the types
of nonmetallic hose follow, with references to their general Other Types of Nonmetallic Hose
applications. Hoses are also made of other nonmetallic materials, many
of them nonreinforced. For example, materials like Teflon®,
Vertical-Braided Hose Dacron®, polyethylene, and nylon have been developed.
Vertical-braided hose has an inner tube of seamless rubber Dacron remains flexible at very low temperatures, even as low
(see Figure 8.21). The reinforcing wrapping (carcass) around as −200+°C (up to −350°F), nearly the temperature of liquid
the tube is made of one or more layers of braided yarn. This nitrogen. Consequently, these hoses are used to carry lique-
type of hose is usually made in lengths of up to 100 ft with fied gas in cryogenic applications. Where corrosive fluids and
I.D.s of up to 1.5 in. Considered a small hose, it is used in fluids up to 230+°C (up to 450°F) are to be carried, Teflon is
low-pressure applications to carry fuel oil, acetylene gas often used. Teflon can also be used at temperatures as low as
and oxygen for welding, water for lawns, gardens, and other −55°C (−65°F). Usually sheathed in a flexible, braided metal
household uses, and paint for spraying.
Horizontal-Braided Hose
Horizontal-braided hose is mandrel built; it is used to make
hose with an I.D. of up to 3 in. Used in high-pressure applica-
tions, the seamless rubber tube is reinforced by one or more
layers of braided fibers or wire. This hose is used to carry
propane and butane gas and steam, and for various hydraulic FIGURE 8.22 Wrapped hose.
applications that require high working pressures.
Reinforced Horizontal-Braided-Wire Hose

In this type of hose, the carcasses around the seamless tube
are made up of two or more layers of fiber braid with steel
wire reinforcement between them. The I.D. may be up to
4 in. Mechanically very strong, this hose is used where
there are high working pressures and/or strong suction
(vacuum) forces, such as in chemical transfer and petroleum
applications. FIGURE 8.23 Wire-reinforced hose.
Wrapped Hose
Made in diameters up to 24 in., wrapped hose is primarily
used for pressure service rather than suction. The hose is
constructed of mandrels, and to close tolerances (see Figure
8.22). It also has a smooth bore, which encourages laminar
flow and avoids turbulence. Several plies (layers) of woven
cotton or synthetic fabric make up the reinforcement. Selected
for their resistance to corrosive fluids, the tube is made from
a number of synthetic rubbers. It is also used in sandblasting
applications. FIGURE 8.24 Wire-woven hose.
covering, Teflon hoses are well protected against abrasion; or quick-disconnect. Probably the best example of the need
they also have added resistance to pressure. for quick-connect is fire hose—quick-disconnect couplings
Nylon hoses (small diameter) are commonly used as air permit rapid connection between separate lengths of hose,
hoses, supplying compressed air to small pneumatic tools. and between hose ends and hydrants or nozzles. Another
The large plastic hoses (up to 24 in.) we use to ventilate man- good example of where the quick-connect, quick-disconnect
holes are made of such neoprene-coated materials as nylon feature is user-friendly is in plant or mobile compressed air
fabric, glass fabric, and cotton duck. The cotton duck vari- systems—a single line may have a number of uses. Changes
ety is for light-duty applications. The glass fabric type is used involve disconnecting one section and connecting another. In
with portable heaters and for other applications involving hot plant shops, for example, compressed air from a single source
air and fumes. is used to power pneumatic tools, cleaning units, paint spray-
Various hoses made from natural latex, silicone rubber, ers, and so on. Each unit has a hose that is equipped for rapid
and pure gum are available. The pure gum hose will safely connecting and disconnecting at the fixed airline.
carry acids, chemicals, and gases. Small hoses of natural Caution: Before connections are broken, unless quick-
latex, which can be sterilized, are used in hospitals, with phar- acting, self-closing connectors are used, pressure must be
maceuticals, blood, and intravenous solutions, and in food- released first.
handling operations and laboratories. Silicone rubber hose For general low-pressure applications, a coupling like that
is used in situations where extreme temperatures and chemi- shown in Figure 8.25 is used. To place this coupling on the
cal reactions are possible. It is also used for aircraft starters, hose by hand, first cut the hose to the proper length, then oil
to which it provides compressed air in very large volumes. the inside of the hose and the outside of the coupling stem.
Silicone rubber hose works successfully over a temperature Force the hose over the stem into a protective cap until it seats
range from −57° C (−70°F) to 232°C (450°F). against the bottom of the cap. No brazing is involved, and the
coupling can be used repeatedly. After the coupling has been
Metallic Hose inserted in the hose, a yoke is placed over it in such a way that
The construction of a braided, flexible all-metal hose includes its arms are positioned along opposite sides of the hose behind
a tube of corrugated bronze. The tube is covered with the the fitting. The arms are then tightly strapped or banded.
woven metallic braid to protect against abrasion, and to pro- Caution: Where the pressure demands are greater, such
vide increased resistance to pressure. Metal hose is also avail- a coupling can be blown out of the tube. Hose couplings
able in steel, aluminum, Monel®, stainless steel, and other designed to meet high-pressure applications must be used.
corrosion-resistant metals in diameters up to 3 in. and in A variation of this type uses a clamp that is put over the
lengths of 24 in. In addition to providing protection against inner end of the fitting and is then tightly bolted, thus holding
abrasion and resistance to pressure, flexible metal hose also the hose firmly. In other cases, a plain clamp is used. Each
dampens vibration. For example, a plant air compressor pro- size clamp is designed for a hose of a specified size (diameter).
duces a considerable amount of vibration. The use of flexible The clamp slides snugly over the hose, and is then crimped
hoses in such machines increases their portability equipment tight by means of a special hand tool or air-powered tool.
and dampens vibrations. Other considerations such as constant Coupling for all-metal hoses, described earlier, involves
bending at high temperatures and pressures are extremely det- two brazing operations, as shown in Figure 8.26. The sleeve is
rimental to most other types of hoses. slipped over the hose end and brazed to it, and then the nipple
Other common uses for metallic hoses include serving as is brazed to the sleeve.
steam lines, lubricating lines, gas and oil lines, and exhaust Important Point: For large hoses of rugged wall con-
hose for diesel engines. The corrugated type, for example, is struction, it is not possible to insert push-on fittings by hand.
used for high-temperature, high-pressure leak-proof service. Special bench tools are required.
Another type of construction is the interlocked flexible metal Quick-connect, quick-disconnect hose couplings provide
hose, used mainly for low-pressure applications. The standard flexibility in many plant process lines where a number of dif-
shop oil can use a flexible hose for the flexible spout. Other ferent fluids or dry chemicals from a single source are to be
metal hose, with a liner of flexible, corrosion-resistant mate- either blended or routed to different vats or other containers.
rial, is available in diameters of up to 24 in. Quick-connect couplings can be used to pump out excavations,
Another type of metallic hose is used in ductwork. This
type of hose is usually made of aluminum, galvanized steel,
and stainless steel and is used to protect against corrosive
fumes, as well as gases at extreme hot or cold temperatures.
This hose is fire resistant because it usually does not burn.
Hose Couplings
The methods of connecting or coupling hoses vary. Hose cou-
plings may be either permanent or reusable. They can also
be manufactured for the obvious advantage of quick-connect FIGURE 8.25 Low-pressure hose coupling.
fittings, whereas a complex chemical processing system may

consist of a variety of components used to measure, control,
condition, and convey the fluids. In this section, the charac-
teristics and functions of various piping and tubing fittings are
described (Geiger, 2000).
Fittings
The primary function of fittings is to connect sections of pip-
ing and tubing and to change the direction of flow. Whether
used in piping or tubing, fittings are similar in shape and type,
even though pipefittings are usually heavier than tubing fit-
tings. Several methods can be used to connect fittings to pip-
ing and tubing systems. However, most tubing is threadless
FIGURE 8.26 Coupling installation for all-metal hose. because it does not have the wall thickness needed to carry
threads. Most pipes, on the other hand, because they have
manholes, and so forth. They would not be used, however, heavier walls, are threaded.
where highly corrosive materials are involved. With regard to changing the direction of flow, the simplest
way would be simply to bend the conduit, which, of course,
is not always practical or possible. When piping is bent, it is
Hose Maintenance
usually accomplished by the manufacturer in the production
All types of equipment and machinery require proper care process (in larger shops equipped with their own pipe-bend-
and maintenance, including hoses. Depending on the hose ing machines), but not by the maintenance operator on the
type and its application, some require more frequent checking job. Tube bending, on the other hand, is a common practice.
than others. The maintenance procedures required for most Generally, a tubing line requires fewer fittings than a pipeline;
hoses are typical, and are outlined here as an example. To however, in actual practice many tube fittings are used.
maintain a hose, we should: Important Point: Recall that improperly made bends can
restrict fluid flow by changing the shape of the pipe and by
1. Examine for cracks in the cover caused by weather, weakening the pipe wall.
heat, oil, or usage Fittings are basically made from the same materials (and in
2. Look for a restricted bore because of tube-swelling the same broad ranges of sizes) as piping and tubing, includ-
or foreign objects ing bronze, steel, cast iron, glass, and plastic. Various estab-
3. Look for cover blisters, which permit material pock- lished standards are in place to ensure that fittings are made
ets to form between carcass and cover from the proper materials and are able to withstand the pres-
4. Look for leaking materials, which is usually caused sures required; they are also made to specific tolerances, so
by improper couplings or faulty fastenings of that they will properly match the piping or tubing that they
couplings join. A fitting stamped “200 lb,” for example, is suitable (and
5. Look for corrosion damage to couplings safe) for use up to 200 psi.
6. Look for kinked or otherwise damaged hose
Caution: Because any of the faults listed above can result in

Functions of Fittings
a dangerous hose failure, regular inspection is necessary. At Fittings in piping and tubing systems have five main functions:
the first sign of weakness or failure, replace the hose. System
pressure and temperature gauges should be checked regularly. • Changing the direction of flow
Do not allow the system to operate above design conditions— • Providing branch connections
especially when hose is a component of the system. • Changing the sizes of lines
• Closing lines
• Connecting lines
PIPE AND TUBE FITTINGS
The term piping refers to the overall network of pipes or Changing the Direction of Flow
tubing, fittings, flanges, valves, and other components that Usually, a 45° or 90°elbow (or “ell”) fitting is used to change
comprise a conduit system used to convey fluids. Whether the direction of flow. Elbows are among the most commonly
a piping system is used to simply convey fluids from one used fittings in piping, and are occasionally used in tubing
point to another or to process and condition the fluid, piping systems. Two types of 90° elbows are shown in Figure 8.27.
components serve an important role in the composition and From the figure, it is apparent that the long-radius fitting (the
operation of the system. A system used solely to convey fluids most preferred elbow) has the more gradual curve of the two.
may consist of relatively few components, such as valves and This type of elbow is used in applications where the rate of
Changing the Sizes of Lines

D For certain applications, it is important to reduce the volume
of fluid flow or to increase flow pressure in a piping or tubing
D system. To accomplish this a reducer (which reduces a line to
a smaller pipe size) is commonly used.
Important Point: Reducing is also sometimes accom-
plished by means of a bushing inserted into the fitting.
Short radius Long radius Sealing Lines

Pipe caps are used to seal or close off the end of a pipe or
FIGURE 8.27 Short- and long-radius elbows. tube (similar to “corking” a bottle). Usually, caps are used in a
part of the system that has been dismantled. To seal off open-
ings in fittings, plugs are used. Plugs also provide a means
of access into the piping or tubing system, in case the line
becomes clogged.
Connecting Lines
To connect two lengths of piping or tubing together, a coupling
or union is used. A coupling is simply a threaded sleeve. A
union is a three-piece device that includes a threaded end, an
internally threaded bottom end, and a ring. A union does not
change the direction of flow, or close off the pipe, or provide
D for a branch line. Unions make it easy to connect or discon-
nect pipes without disturbing the position of the pipes. Figure
FIGURE 8.28 Long-radius return bend. 8.29 is a diagram of a shortened piping system, which illus-
trates how some fittings are used in a piping system. (Figure
flow is critical and where space presents no problem. Flow 8.29 is only for illustrative purposes; it is unlikely that such a
loss caused by turbulence is minimized by the gradual curve. system with so many fittings would actually be used.)
The short-radius elbow (see Figure 8.27) should not be used
in a system made up of long lines and has many changes in
direction. Because of the greater frictional loss in the short- Types of Connection
radius elbow, heavier, more expensive pumping equipment Pipe connections may be screwed, flanged, or welded. Each
may be required. Figure 8.28 shows a return bend fitting that method is widely used, and each has its own advantages and
carries fluid through a 180° (“hairpin”) turn. This type of fit- disadvantages.
ting is used for piping in heat exchangers and heater coils.
Note that tubing, which can be bent into this form, does not Screwed Fittings
require any fittings in this kind of application. Screwed fittings are joined to the pipe by means of threads.
The main advantage of using threaded pipefittings is that they
Providing Branch Connections can be easily replaced. The actual threading of a section of
Because they are often more than single lines running from replacement pipe can be accomplished on the job. The thread-
one point to another point, piping and tubing systems usu- ing process itself, however, which cuts right into the pipe
ally have a number of intersections. In fact, many complex material, may weaken the pipe in the joint area. The weakest
piping and tubing systems resemble the layout of a town links in a piping system are the connection points. Because
or city. threaded joints can be potential problem areas, especially
Plug
Gate Reducing
Valve Union Cross Y-fitting coupling
Tee Cap
Reducing bushing
45º elbow
90º elbow
FIGURE 8.29 Diagram of a hypothetical shortened piping system.

fits against the end of the fitting. The locknut of the flange
is then tightened securely onto the fitting. The compression
fitting connection uses a ferrule that pinches the tube as the
locknut is tightened on the body of the fitting. The flare fitting
connection uses tubing flared on one end of the tubing that
matches the angle of the fitting. The tube’s flared end is butted
against the fitting, and a locknut is screwed tightly onto the
FIGURE 8.30 Flanged fitting. fitting, sealing the tube connection properly.
Other fittings used for flanged connections include expan-
sion joints and vibration dampeners. Expansion joints func-
tion to compensate for slight changes in the length of pipe by
allowing joined sections of rigid pipe to expand and contract
with changes in temperature. They also allow pipe motion,
either along the length of the pipe or to the side, as the pipe
shifts around slightly after installation. Finally, expansion
joints also help dampen vibration and noise carried along
the pipe from distant equipment (e.g., pumps). One type of
expansion joint has a leak-proof tube that extends through the
FIGURE 8.31 Flanged joint. bore and forms the outside surfaces of the flanges. Natural or
synthetic rubber compounds are normally used, depending on
where higher pressures are involved, the threads must be the application. Other types of expansion joints include metal
properly cut to ensure the “weakest” link is not further com- corrugated types, slip-joint types, and spiral-wound types.
promised. Typically, the method used to ensure a good seal In addition, high-temperature lines are usually made with a
in a threaded fitting is to coat the threads with a paste dope. large bend or loop to allow for expansion. Vibration dampen-
Another method is to wind the threads with Teflon® tape. ers absorb vibrations that, unless reduced, could shorten the
life of the pipe and the service life of the operating equipment.
Flanged Connections They also eliminate line humming and hammering (water
Figure 8.30 shows a flanged fitting. Flanged fittings are forged hammer) carried by the pipes.
or cast-iron pipe. The flange is a rim at the end of the fitting,
which mates with another section. Pipe sections are also made
with flanged ends. Flanges are joined either by being bolted or VALVES
welded together. The flange faces may be ground and lapped Any water or wastewater operation will have many valves that
to provide smooth, flat mating surfaces. Obviously, a tight require attention. Simply as a matter of routine, a maintenance
joint must be provided to prevent leakage of fluid and pressure. operator must be able to identify and locate different valves in
Figure 8.31 shows a typical example of a flanged joint. The order to inspect them, to adjust them, and to repair or replace
mating parts are bolted together with a gasket inserted between them. For this reason, the operator should be familiar with all
their faces to ensure a tight seal. The procedure requires proper valves, especially those that are vital parts of a piping system.
alignment of clean parts and tightening of bolts. A valve is defined as any device by which the flow of fluid
Important Point: Some flanges have raised faces and others may be started, stopped, or regulated by a movable part that
have plain faces. Like faces must be matched—a flange with opens or obstructs passage. As applied in fluid power systems,
a raised face should never be joined to one with a plain face. valves are used for controlling the flow, the pressure, and the
direction of the fluid flow through a piping system. The fluid
Welded Connections may be a liquid, a gas, or some loose material in bulk (like a
Currently, because of improvements in piping technology and biosolids slurry). Designs of valves vary, but all valves have
welding techniques/equipment, the practice of using welded two features in common: a passageway through which fluid
joints is increasing. When properly welded, a piping system can flow and some kind of movable (usually machined) part
forms a continuous system, which combines piping, valves, that opens and closes the passageway (Globe Valves, 1998).
flanges, and other fittings. Along with providing a long leak- Important Point: It is all but impossible, obviously, to
proof and maintenance-free life, the smooth joints simplify operate a practical fluid power system without some means of
insulation and take up less room. controlling the volume and pressure of the fluid and directing
the flow of fluid to the operating units. This is accomplished
Tubing Fittings and Connections by the incorporation of different types of valves.
Whatever type of valve is used in a system, it must be accu-
Tubing is connected by brazed or welded flange fittings, com- rate in the control of fluid flow and pressure and the sequence
pression fittings, and flare fittings. of operation. Leakage between the valve element and the valve
The welded flange connection is a reliable means of con- seat is reduced to a negligible quantity by precision-machined
necting tubing components. The flange welded to the tube end surfaces, resulting in carefully controlled clearances. This is,
of course, one of the very important reasons for minimizing and in physical contact with the line fluid.) Valves are made
contamination in fluid power systems. Contamination causes in a full range of sizes, which match pipe and tubing sizes.
valves to stick, plugs small orifices, and causes abrasions of Actual valve size is based upon the internationally agreed def-
the valve seating surfaces, which results in leakage between inition of nominal size. Nominal size (DN) is a numerical des-
the valve element and valve seat when the valve is in the ignation of size that is common to all components in a piping
closed position. Any of these can result in inefficient opera- system other than components designated by outside diam-
tion or complete stoppage of the equipment. Valves may be eters. It is a convenient number for reference purposes and is
controlled manually, electrically, pneumatically, mechani- only loosely related to manufacturing dimensions. Valves are
cally, hydraulically, or by combinations of two or more of made for service at the same pressures and temperatures that
these methods. Factors that determine the method of control piping and tubing are subject to. Valve pressures are based
include the purpose of the valve, the design and purpose of the upon the internationally agreed definition of nominal pres-
system, the location of the valve within the system, and the sure. Nominal pressure (PN) is a pressure that is convention-
availability of the source of power. ally accepted or used for reference purposes. All equipment of
Valves are made from bronze, cast iron, steel, Monel®, the same nominal size (DN) designated by the same nominal
stainless steel, and other metals. They are also made from pressure (PN) number must have the same mating dimensions
plastic and glass (see Table 8.1). Special valve trim is used appropriate to the type of end connections. The permissible
where seating and sealing materials are different from the working pressure depends upon materials, design, and work-
basic material of construction (see Table 8.2). (Valve trim usu- ing temperature, and should be selected from the (relevant),
ally means those internal parts of a valve controlling the flow pressure/temperature tables. The pressure rating of many
valves is designated under the American (ANSI) class system.
The equivalent class rating to PN ratings is based upon inter-
TABLE 8.1 national agreement.
Usually, valve end connections are classified as flanged,
Valves: Materials of Construction
threaded, or other (see Table 8.3). Valves are also covered by
Cast iron Gray cast iron. Also referred to as flake graphite iron.
various codes and standards, as are the other components of
Ductile iron May be malleable iron, or spheroidal graphite (nodular) cast piping and tubing systems. Many valve manufacturers offer
iron.
valves with special features. Table 8.4 lists a few of these
Carbon May be as steel forgings, or steel castings, according to the
special features; however, this is not an exhaustive list and
steel method of manufacture. Carbon steel valves may also be
manufactured by fabrication using wrought steels.
Stainless May also be in the form of forgings, castings, or wrought TABLE 8.3
steel steels for fabrication.
Valve End Connections
Copper May be gunmetal, bronze, or brass. Aluminum bronze may
alloy also be used. Flanged Valves will normally be supplied with flanges conforming to
High duty Are usually those nickel or nickel molybdenum alloys either BS4505 (Equivalent to DIN) or BS 1560 (equivalent
alloys manufactured under various trade names. to ANSI) according to specification. Manufacturers may be
Other Are those pure metals having extreme corrosion resistance able to supply valves with flanges to other standards.
metals such as titanium or aluminum. Threaded Valves will normally be supplied with threads to BS21
Nonmetals Are typically the plastic materials such as PVC or (ISO/7) parallel or taper.
polypropylene. Other End connections include butt or socket weld ends and wafer
valves designed to fit between pipe flanges.
TABLE 8.2
Valve Trim TABLE 8.4
Metal Is commonly used in gate and globe valves, and in the latter
Valve Special Features
seating particularly for control applications where seatings may High Valves are those usually able to operate continuously on
additionally be coated with hard metal. temperature services above 250°C.
Soft Is commonly used in ball, butterfly, and diaphragm valves. Cryogenic Valves are those that will operate continuously on services
seating Seatings may be made from a wide variety of elastomers and in the range of −50°C–196°C.
polymers including fluorocarbons. Bellows Valves are glandless designs having a metal bellows for
Lined Valves are usually made in cast iron with an internal lining of sealed stem sealing.
elastomer of polymer material. Inorganic materials such as Actuated Valves may be operated by a gearbox, pneumatic or
glass, together with metals such as titanium, are so used for hydraulic cylinder (including diaphragm actuator) or
lining. Lining thickness will depend upon design and the type electric motor and gearbox.
of material used. In many cases, the valve lining will also form Fire tested Refers to a valve that has passed a fire test procedure
the seating trim. design specified in an appropriate inspection standard.
for more details of other features, the manufacturer should some other special application. With a few exceptions, these
be consulted. The various types of valves used in fluid power valves take their names from the type of internal element that
systems, their classifications, and their applications are dis- controls the passageway. The exceptions are the check valve,
cussed in this section. quick-opening valve, regulating valve, relief valve, and reduc-
ing valves.
Valve Construction Ball Valves
Figure 8.32 shows the basic construction and principle of Ball valves, as the name implies, are stop valves that use a ball
operation of a common valve type. Fluid flows into the valve to stop or start fluid flow. The ball performs the same function
through the inlet. The fluid flows through passages in the body as the disk in other valves. As the valve handle is turned to
and past the opened element that closes the valve. It then flows open the valve, the ball rotates to a point where part or all of
out of the valve through the outlet or discharge. If the closing the hole through the ball is in line with the valve body inlet
element is in the closed position, the passageway is blocked. and outlet, allowing fluid to flow through the valve. When the
Fluid flow is stopped at that point. The closing element keeps ball is rotated so the hole is perpendicular to the flow open-
the flow blocked until the valve is opened again. Some valves ings of the valve body, the flow of fluid stops. Most ball valves
are opened automatically, and manually operated hand wheels are the quick-acting type. They require only a 90-degree turn
control others. Other valves, such as check valves, operate in to either completely open or close the valve. However, many
response to pressure or the direction of flow. To prevent leakage are operated by planetary gears. This type of gearing allows
whenever the closing element is positioned in the closed posi- the use of a relatively small hand wheel and operating force
tion, a seal is used. In Figure 8.32, the seal consists of a stuffing to operate a large valve. The gearing does, however, increase
box fitted with packing. The closing element fits against the seat the operating time for the valve. Some ball valves also con-
in the valve body to keep the valve tightly closed. tain a swing check located within the ball to give the valve a
check valve feature. The two main advantages of using ball
valves are: (1) the fluid can flow through it in either direction,
Types of Valves
as desired, and (2) when closed, pressure in the line helps to
The types of valves covered in this text include: keep it closed.
1. Ball valves Gate Valves

2. Gate valves Gate valves are used when a straight-line flow of fluid and
3. Globe valves minimum flow restriction are needed; they are the most com-
4. Needle valves mon type of valve found in a water distribution system. Gate
5. Butterfly valves valves are so-named because the part that either stops or
6. Plug valves allows flow through the valve acts somewhat like a gate. The
7. Check valves gate is usually wedge-shaped. When the valve is wide open,
8. Quick-opening valves the gate is fully drawn up into the valve bonnet. This leaves
9. Diaphragm valves an opening for flow through the valve the same size as the
10. Regulating valves pipe in which the valve is installed. For these reasons, the
11. Relief valves pressure loss (pressure drop) through these types of valves is
12. Reducing valves about equal to the loss in a piece of pipe of the same length.
Gate valves are not suitable for throttling (means to control
Each of these valves is designed to perform either control of the flow as desired, by means of intermediate steps between
the flow, the pressure, and the direction of fluid flow or for fully open and fully closed) purposes. The control of flow is
Handwheel
Stem
Closing Stuffing box

element
Body
Inlet Outlet
Open Closed
FIGURE 8.32 Basic valve operation.

difficult because of the valve’s design, and the flow of fluid

slapping against a partially open gate can cause extensive
damage to the valve.
Important Point: Gate valves are well suited to service on
equipment in distant locations, where they may remain in the
open or closed position for a long time. Generally, gate valves
are not installed where they will need to be operated fre-
quently because they require too much time to operate from
fully open to closed (AWWA, 1996).
Globe Valves
Probably the most common valve type in existence, the globe FIGURE 8.34 Common needle valve.
valve is commonly used for water faucets and other house-
hold plumbing. As illustrated in Figure 8.33, the valves have a Flow
circular disk (the globe) that presses against the valve seat to
close the valve. The disk is the part of the globe valve that con- Flow
trols flow. The disk is attached to the valve stem. As shown in
Figure 8.33, fluid flow through a globe valve is at right angles FIGURE 8.35 Cross-section of butterfly valve.
to the direction of flow in the conduits. Globe valves seat very
tightly, and can be adjusted with fewer turns of the wheel than Butterfly Valves
gate valves; thus, they are preferred for applications that call Figure 8.35 shows a cross-sectional view of a butterfly valve.
for frequent opening and closing. On the other hand, globe The valve itself consists of a body in which a disk (butterfly)
valves create high head loss when fully open; thus, they are rotates on a shaft to open or close the valve. Butterfly valves
not suited in systems where head loss is critical. may be flanged or wafer design, the latter intended for fit-
Important Point: The globe valve should never be ting directly between pipeline flanges. In the full open posi-
jammed in the open position. After a valve is fully opened, tion, the disk is parallel to the axis of the pipe and the flow
the hand wheel should be turned toward the closed posi- of fluid. In the closed position, the disk seals against a rubber
tion approximately one-half turn. Unless this is done, the gasket-type material bonded either on the valve seat of the
valve is likely to seize in the open position, making it dif- body or on the edge of the disk. Because the disk of a butter-
ficult, if not impossible, to close the valve. Another reason fly valve stays in the fluid path in the open position, the valve
for not leaving globe valves in the fully open position is that creates more turbulence (higher resistance to flow—equaling
it is sometimes difficult to determine if the valve is open or a higher pressure loss) than a gate valve. On the other hand,
closed (Globe Valves, 1998). butterfly valves are compact. They can also be used to control
flow in either direction. This feature is useful in water treat-
Needle Valves ment plants that periodically backwash to clean filter systems.
Although similar in design and operation to the globe valve (a
variation of globe valves), the needle valve has a closing ele- Plug Valves
ment in the shape of a long tapered point, which is at the end A plug valve (also known as a cock, or petcock) is similar to a
of the valve stem. Figure 8.34 shows a cross-sectional view of ball valve. Plug valves:
a needle valve. Figure 8.34 the long taper of the valve closing
element permits a much smaller seating surface area than that 1. Offer high capacity operation, 1/4 turn operation
of the globe valve; accordingly, the needle valve is more suit- 2. Use either a cylindrical or conical plug as the closing
able as a throttle valve. In fact, needle valves are used for very member
accurate throttling. 3. Are directional
4. Offer moderate vacuum service
5. Allow flow throttling with interim positioning
6. Are of simple construction, an o-ring seal
7. Are not necessarily full on and off
8. Are easily adapted to automatic control
9. Can safely handle gases and liquids
Check Valves
Check valves are usually self-acting and designed to allow the
flow of fluid in one direction only. They are commonly used at
the discharge of a pump to prevent backflow when the power
is turned off. When the direction of flow is moving in the
FIGURE 8.33 Globe valve. proper direction, the valve remains open. When the direction
of flow reverses, the valve closes automatically from the fluid Probably the best example of this situation is seen in the oper-
pressure against it. ation of the plant’s low-pressure air supply system. For shop
Several types of check valves are used in water/wastewater use, no more than 30 psi air is usually required (depending on
operations, including: required usage, of course). This air is supplied by the plant’s
air compressor, which normally operates long enough to fill
1. Slanting disk check valves an accumulator with pressurized air at a set pressure level.
2. Cushioned swing check valves When shop air is required, for whatever reason, compressed
3. Rubber flapper swing check valves air is drawn from the connection point in the shop. The shop
4. Double door check valves connection point is usually connected via a pressure reducer
5. Ball check valves (sets the pressure at the desired usage level) that, in turn, is fed
6. Foot valves from the accumulator, where the compressed air is stored. If
7. Backflow prevention devices the user draws a large enough quantity of compressed air from
the system (from the accumulator), a sensing device within the
In each case, pressure from the flow in the proper direction accumulator will send a signal to the air compressor to start,
pushes the valve element to an open position. Flow in the which will produce compressed air to recharge the accumu-
reverse direction pushes the valve element to a closed position. lator. In addition to providing service in air lines, pressure-
Important Point: Check valves are also commonly referred regulating valves are also used in liquid lines. The operating
to as nonreturn or reflux valves. principle is much the same for both types of service. Simply,
the valve is set to monitor the line, and to make needed adjust-
Quick-Opening Valves ments in response to a signal from a sensing device.
Quick-opening valves are nothing more than adaptations of Temperature-regulating valves (also referred to as thermo-
some of the valves already described. Modified to provide a static control valves) are closely related to pressure-regulat-
quick on/off action, they use a lever device in place of the usual ing valves (see Figure 8.36). Their purpose is to monitor the
threaded stem and control handle to operate the valve. This temperature in a line or process solution tank, and to regulate
type of valve is commonly used in water/wastewater opera- it—to raise or lower the temperature as required. In water and
tions where deluge showers and emergency eyewash stations wastewater operations, probably the most familiar applica-
are installed in work areas where chemicals are loaded and tion whereby temperature-regulating valves (see Figure 8.37)
transferred, and/or where chemical systems are maintained. are used is in heat exchangers. A heat exchanger-type water
They also control the air supply for some emergency alarm system utilizes a water-to-coolant heat exchanger for heat
horns around chlorine storage areas, for example. Moreover, dissipation. This is an efficient and effective method to dis-
they are usually used to cut off the flow of gas to a main or to pose of unwanted heat. Heat exchangers are equipped with
individual outlets. temperature-regulating valves that automatically modulate
the shop process water, limiting usage to just what is required
Diaphragm Valves to achieve the desired coolant temperature.
Diaphragm valves are glandless valves that use a flexible elas-
tomeric diaphragm (a flexible disk) as the closing member Relief Valves
and in addition affect an external seal. They are well suited to Some fluid power systems, even when operating normally,
service in applications where tight, accurate closure is impor- may temporarily develop excessive pressure. For example,
tant. The tight seal is effective whether the fluid is a gas or a whenever an unusually strong work resistance is encountered,
liquid. This tight closure feature makes these valves useful in dangerously high pressure may develop. Relief valves are used
vacuum applications. Diaphragm valves operate similarly to to control this excess pressure. Such valves are automatic
globe valves and are usually multi-turn in operation; they are valves; they start to open at a preset pressure, but require a
available as weir type and full bore. A common application
Plug-type disk
of diaphragm valves in water or wastewater operations is to angle valve
control fluid to an elevated tank.
Regulating Valves
Pressure
As their name implies, regulating valves regulate either pres- gauge
Safety
sure or temperature in a fluid line, keeping them very close valve Pressure-regulating
to a preset level. If the demands and conditions of a fluid valve
line remained steady at all times, no regulator valve would
be needed. In the real world, however, ideal conditions do
not occur. Pressure-regulating valves regulate fluid pressure
levels to meet flow demand variations. Flow variations vary Gate Gate
with the number of pieces of equipment in operation, and the valve valve
change in demand as pumps and other machines operate. In
such fluid line systems, demands are constantly changing. FIGURE 8.36 Pressure-regulating valve system.
frequently operate valves in treatment plants and pumping sta-

tions (AWWA, 1996). In a typical pneumatic ball-valve actua-
Tubing tor, the cylinder assembly is attached to the ball-valve stem
Control
unit close to the pipe. A piston inside the cylinder can move in either
direction. The piston rod is linked to the valve stem, opening or
closing the valve, depending on the direction in which the pis-
ton is traveling. As a fail-safe feature, some of these valves are
spring-loaded. In the case of hydraulic or air pressure failure,
the valve operator returns the valve to the safe position.
Bulb Note: According to Casada (2000), valve operators and
positioners usually require more maintenance than the valves
themselves.
Valve body Magnetic Valve Operators

Magnetic valve operators use electric solenoids. A solenoid is
Closing
a coil of magnetic wire, roughly in the shape of a doughnut.
element When a bar of iron is inserted as a plunger mechanism inside
an energized coil, it moves along the coil because of the mag-
FIGURE 8.37 Temperature-regulating valve assembly. netic field that is created. If the plunger (the iron bar) is fitted
with a spring, it returns to its starting point when the electric
20% overpressure to open wide. As the pressure increases, current is turned off. Solenoids are used as operators for many
the valve continues to open farther until it has reached its different types of valves used in water/wastewater operations.
maximum travel. As the pressure drops, it starts to close, and For example, in a direct-operating valve, the solenoid plunger
finally shut off at about the set pressure. Main system relief is used in place of a valve stem and hand wheel. The plunger
valves are generally installed between the pump or pressure is connected directly to the disk of a globe valve. As the sole-
source and the first system isolation valve. The valve must be noid coil is energized or de-energized, the plunger rises or
large enough to allow the full output of the hydraulic pump to falls, operating or closing the valve.
be delivered back to the reservoir.
Important Point: Relief valves do not maintain flow or
Valve Maintenance
pressure at a given amount, but prevent pressure from ris-
ing above a specific level when the system is temporarily As with any other mechanical device, effective valve main-
overloaded. tenance begins with its correct operation. As an example of
incorrect operation, consider the standard household water
Reducing Valves faucet. As the faucet washers age, they harden and deteriorate.
Pressure-reducing valves provide a steady pressure into a The valve becomes more difficult to operate properly—even-
system that operates at a lower pressure than the supply sys- tually, the valve begins to leak. A common practice is simply
tem. In practice, they are very much like pressure-regulating to apply as much force as possible to the faucet handle. Doing
valves. A pressure-reducing valve reduces pressure by throt- so, however, damages the valve stem and the valve body.
tling the fluid flow. A reducing valve can normally be set for Good maintenance includes preventive maintenance, which,
any desired downstream pressure within the design limits of in turn, includes inspection of valves, correct lubrication of all
the valve. Once the valve is set, the reduced pressure will be moving parts, and the replacement of seals or stem packing.
maintained regardless of changes in supply pressure (as long
as the supply pressure is at least as high as the reduced pres-
PIPING SYSTEMS: PROTECTIVE DEVICES
sure desired) and regardless of the system load, provided the
load does not exceed the design capacity of the reducer. Piping systems must be protected from the harmful effects
of undesirable impurities (solid particles) entering the fluid
stream. Because of the considerable variety of materials car-
Valve Operators
ried by piping systems, there is an equal range of choices in
In many modern water and wastewater operations, devices protective devices. Such protective devices include strainers,
called operators or actuators mechanically operate many filters, and traps. In this section, we describe the design and
valves. These devices may be operated by air, electricity, or function of strainers, filters, and traps. The major maintenance
fluid—that is, pneumatic, hydraulic, and magnetic operators. considerations of these protective devices also are explained.
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators

Applications
Pneumatic and hydraulic valve operators are much the same
in appearance and work in much the same way. Hydraulic Filters, strainers, and traps are normally thought of in terms
cylinders using either plant water pressure or hydraulic fluid of specific components used in specific systems. However, it
is important to keep in mind that the basic principles apply strainer. In operation, the fluid passes through the strainer
in many systems. While the examples used in this chapter screen, which catches most of the contaminants. Then the
include applications found in water/wastewater treatment, fluid passes back into the line. Contaminants in the fluid are
collection, and distribution systems, the applications are also caught in two ways. Either they do not make it through the
found in almost every plant—hot and cold water lines, lubri- strainer screen, or they do not make the sharp turn that the
cating lines, pneumatic and hydraulic lines, and steam lines. fluid must take as it leaves the unit. The bottom of the unit
With regard to steam lines, it is important to point out that in serves as a sump where the solids collect. A blowout connec-
our discussion of traps, their primary application is in steam tion may be provided in the end cap to flush the strainer. The
systems, where they remove unwanted air and condensate blowout plug can be removed, and the pressure in the line can
from lines. be used to blow the fixture clean.
Important Point: A very large percentage (estimated to be Important Point: Before removing the blowout plug, the
>70%) of all plant facilities in the United States make use of valve system must be locked out or tagged out first.
steam in some applications.
Other system applications of piping protective devices
Filters
include conveyance of hot and chilled water for heating and
air conditioning and lines that convey fluids for various pro- The purpose of any filter is to reduce or remove impurities or
cesses. Any foreign contamination in any of these lines can contaminants from a fluid (liquid or gas) to an acceptable or
cause potential trouble. Piping systems can become clogged, a predetermined level. This is accomplished by passing the
thereby causing greatly increased friction and lower line pres- fluid through some kind of porous barrier. Filter cartridges
sure. Foreign contaminants (dirt and other particles) can also have replaceable elements made of paper, wire cloth, nylon
damage valves, seals, and pumping components. cloth, or fine-mesh nylon cloth between layers of coarse wire.
Important Point: Foreign particles in a high-pressure line These materials filter out unwanted contaminants, which col-
can damage a valve by clogging the valve so that it cannot lect on the entry side of the filter element. When clogged, the
close tightly. In addition, foreign particles may wear away the element is replaced. Most filters operate in two ways: (1) they
closely machined valve parts. cause the fluid to make sharp changes in direction as it passes
through (this is important, because the larger particles are too
heavy to change direction quickly), or (2) they contain some
Strainers
kind of barrier that will not let larger contaminants pass.
Strainers, usually wire mesh screens, are used in piping sys-
tems to protect equipment sensitive to contamination that
Traps
may be carried by the fluid. Strainers can be used in pipe-
lines conveying air, gas, oil, steam, water, wastewater, and Traps, used in steam processes, are automatic valves that
nearly any other fluid conveyed by pipes. Generally, strainers release condensate (condensed steam) from a steam space
are installed ahead of valves, pumps, regulators, and traps in while preventing the loss of live steam. Condensate is unde-
order to protect them against the damaging effects of cor- sirable because water produces rust and water plus steam
rosion products that may become dislodged and conveyed leads to water hammer. In addition, steam traps remove air
throughout the piping system (Geiger, 2000). and non-condensate from the steam space. The operation of a
A common strainer is shown in Figure 8.38. This type of trap depends on what is called differential pressure (or delta-
strainer is generally used upstream of traps, control valves, P) (measured in psi). Differential pressure is the difference
and instruments. This strainer resembles a lateral branch fit- between the inlet and outlet pressures. A trap will not oper-
ting with the strainer element installed in the branch. The end ate correctly at a differential pressure higher than the one of
of the lateral branch is removable, to permit servicing of the which it was designed.
There are many types of steam traps because there are
many different types of applications. Each type of trap has a
range of applications for which it is best suited. For example,
thermostatic and float-and-thermostatic are the names given
to the two general types of traps. Thermostatic traps have a
corrugated bellows-operating element that is filled with an
alcohol mixture that has a boiling point lower than that of
water (see Figure 8.39). The bellows contracts when in con-
tact with condensate and expands when steam is present. If a
heavy condensate load occurs, the bellows will remain in the
contracted state, allowing condensate to flow continuously. As
steam builds up, the bellows close. Thus, at times the trap
acts as a “continuous flow” type while at other times it acts
intermittently as it opens and closes to condensate and stream,
FIGURE 8.38 A common strainer. or it may remain totally closed (Bandes and Gorelick, 2000).
condensate flows through the body, the float rises and falls,
opening the valve according to the flow rate. The thermostatic
element discharges air from the steam lines. They are suitable
in heavy and light loads and on high and low pressure, but are
not recommended where water hammer is a possibility.
Trap Maintenance and Testing

Because they operate under constantly varying pressure and
temperature conditions, traps used in steam systems require
maintenance. Just as significant, because of these varying
conditions, traps can fail. When they do fail, most traps fail in
the open mode, which may require the boiler to work harder
to perform a task that, in turn, can create high backpressure
to the condensate system. This inhibits discharge capacities
of some traps, which may be beyond their rating, and cause
system inefficiency.
Important Point: While it is true that most traps operate
with backpressure, it is also true that they do so only at a per-
centage of their rating, affecting everything down the line of
the failed trap. Steam quality and product can be affected.
A closed trap produces condensate back up into the steam
space. The equipment cannot produce the intended heat.
Consider, as an example, a four-coil dryer with only three
operating. In this setup, it will take longer for the dryer to dry
a product, which has a negative effect on production.
FIGURE 8.39 A thermostatic trap (shown in the open positions).
Trap Maintenance
Important Point: The thermostatic trap is designed to operate
at a definite temperature drop, or at a certain number of degrees Excluding design problems, two of the most common causes
below the saturated temperature for the existing steam pressure. of trap failure are oversizing and dirt. Oversizing causes traps
A float-and-thermostatic trap is shown in Figure 8.40. It to work too hard. In some cases, this can result in blowing
consists of a ball float and a thermostatic bellows element. As of live steam. For example, certain trap types can lose their
prime due to an abrupt change in pressure. This will cause
the valve to open. Traps tend to accumulate dirt (sludge) that
prevents tight closing. The moving parts of the traps are sub-
ject to wear. Because the moving parts of traps operate in a
mixture of steam and water, or sometimes in a mixture of
compressed air and water, they are difficult to lubricate.
Important Point: Dirt (sludge) is generally produced from
pipe scale or from over-treating of chemicals in a boiler.
Trap maintenance includes periodic cleaning, removing
dirt that interferes with valve action, adjusting the mechanical
linkage between moving parts and valves, and reseating the
valves when necessary. If these steps are not taken, the trap
will not operate properly.
Trap Testing
Important Point: A word of caution is advised before testing
any steam trap: Inspectors should be familiar with the par-
ticular function, review types of traps and know the various
pressures within the system. This can help to ensure inspector
safety, help avoid misdiagnosis, and allow proper interpreta-
tion of trap conditions.
The three main categories of online trap inspection are
visual, thermal, and acoustic. Visual inspection depends on
a release valve situated downstream of certain traps. A main-
tenance operator opens these valves and looks to see if the
FIGURE 8.40 A float-and-thermostatic trap. trap is discharging condensate or steam. Thermal inspection
relies on upstream/downstream temperature variations in a hand, instead of using a remote outlet to test for compressed
trap. It includes pyrometry, infrared, heat bands (wrapped air supply, all we need to do is look at the compressor air pres-
around a trap, they change color as temperature increases), sure gauge. This gauge should indicate that the compressor is
and heat sticks (which melt at various temperatures). Acoustic producing compressed air.
techniques require a maintenance operator to listen to and Gauges are the main devices that provide us with parame-
detect stream trap operations and malfunction. This method ter indications that we need to determine equipment or system
includes various forms of listening devices such as medical operation. Concerning the air compressor, the parameter we
stethoscopes, screwdrivers, mechanical stethoscopes, and are most concerned about now is air pressure (gauge pres-
ultrasonic detection instruments. sure). Not only is correct pressure generation by the compres-
Important Point: A simple trap test—just listening to the sor important, but also correct pressure in system pipes, tubes,
trap action—tells us how the trap is opening and closing. and hoses is essential. Keeping air pressure at the proper level
Moreover, if the trap has a bypass line around it, leaky valves is necessary mainly for four reasons:
will be apparent when the main line to the trap is cut off, forc-
ing all the fluid through the bypass. 1. Safe operation
2. Efficient, economic conveyance of air through the
entire system, without waste of energy
PIPING ANCILLARIES
3. Delivery of compressed air to all outlet points in the
Earlier, we described various devices associated with process system (the places where the air is to be used) at the
piping systems designed to protect the system. In this section, required pressure
we discuss some of the most widely used ancillaries (or acces- 4. Prevention of too much or too little pressure (either
sories) designed to improve the operation and control the sys- condition can damage the system and become haz-
tem. These include pressure and temperature gauges, vacuum ardous to personnel)
breakers, accumulators, receivers, and heat exchangers. It is
important for us to know how these ancillary devices work, We pointed out that before starting the air compressor, cer-
how to care for them, and, more importantly, how to use them. tain pre-start checks must be made. This is important for all
machinery, equipment, and systems. In the case of our air
compressor example, we want to ensure that proper lubricat-
Gauges
ing oil pressure is maintained. This is important, of course,
To properly operate a system, any system, the operator must because pressure failure in the lubricating line that serves the
know certain things. For example, to operate a plant air com- compressor can mean inadequate lubrication of bearings, and,
pressor, the operator needs to know: (1) how to operate it; (2) in turn, expensive mechanical repairs.
how to maintain it; (3) how to monitor its operation; and, in
many cases, (4) how to repair it. In short, the operator must
Pressure Gauges
know system parameters and how to monitor them. Simply,
operating parameters refer to those physical indications of As mentioned, many pressure-measuring instruments are
system operation. The term parameter refers to a system’s called gauges. Generally, pressure gauges are located at key
limits or restrictions. For example, let’s consider, again, the points in piping systems. Usually expressed in pounds per
plant’s air compressor. Obviously, it is important to know how square inch (psi), there is a difference between gauge pressure
the air compressor operates, or at least how to start and place (psig) and absolute pressure (psia). Simply, “gauge pressure”
the compressor on line properly. However, it is also just as refers to the pressure level indicated by the gauge. However,
important to determine if the compressor is operating as per even when the gauge reads zero, it is subject to ambient atmo-
design. spheric pressure (i.e., 14.7 psi at sea level). When a gauge
Before starting any machine or system we must first per- reads 50 psi that is 50 pounds gauge pressure (psig), the
form a pre-start check to ensure that it has the proper level of true pressure is the 50 pounds shown plus the 14.7 pounds of
lubricating oil, etc. Then, yes, after starting the compressor, atmospheric pressure acting on the gauge. The total “actual”
we need to determine (observe) if the compressor is actually pressure is called the absolute pressure: gauge pressure plus
operating (normally, this is not difficult to discern consid- atmospheric pressure (50 psi + 14.7 psi = 64.7). It is written
ering that most air compressor systems make a lot of noise 64.7 psia.
while in operation). Once in operation, our next move is to Important Point: Pressure in any fluid pushes equally in all
double check system line-up to ensure that various valves in directions. The total force on any surface is the psi multiplied
the system are correctly positioned (opened or closed). We by the area in square inches. For example, a fluid under a pres-
might even go to a remote plant compressed air service out- sure of 10 psi, pushing against an area of 5 in.2, produces a
let to make sure that the system is producing compressed air. total force against that surface of 50 lb (10 × 5).
(Keep in mind that some compressed air systems have a sup-
ply of compressed air stored in an air receiver; thus, when Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges
an air outlet is opened, air pressure might be present even if Pressure, by definition, must operate against a surface. Thus,
the compressor is not functioning as per design). On the other the most common method of measuring pressure in a piping
system is to have the fluid press against some type of surface— Important Point: The Bourdon-tube gauge is available in
a flexible surface that moves slightly. This movable surface, various tube shapes: helical, C-shaped or curved, and spiral.
in turn, is linked mechanically to a gear-lever mechanism The size, shape, and material of the tube depend on the pres-
that moves the indicator arrow to indicate the pressure on the sure range and the type of gauge desired.
dial (i.e., a pressure gauge). The surface that the pressure acts
against may be a disk or diaphragm, the inner surface of a Bellows Gauge
coiled tube, a set of bellows, or the end of a plunger. No matter Figure 8.42 shows how a simplified bellows gauge works. The
the element type, if the mechanism is fitted with a spring that bellows itself is a convoluted unit that expands and contracts
resists the pressure, and returns the element (i.e., the indicator axially with changes in pressure. The pressure to be measured
pointer) back to the zero position when the spring drops to can be applied to either the outside or the inside of the bel-
zero, it is called a spring-loaded gauge. lows; in practice, most bellows measuring devices have the
pressure applied to the outside of the bellows. When pressure
Bourdon-Tube Gauges is released, the spring returns the bellows and the pointer to
Many pressure gauges in use today use a coiled tube as a mea- the zero position.
suring element called a Bourdon tube. (The gauge is named
for its inventor, Eugene Bourdon, a French engineer). The Plunger Gauge
Bourdon tube is a device that senses pressure and converts the Most of us are familiar with the simple tire-pressure gauge.
pressure to displacement. Under pressure, the fluid fills the This device is a type of plunger gauge. Figure 8.43 shows a
tube (see Figure 8.41). Since the Bourdon-tube displacement plunger gauge used in industrial hydraulic systems. The bel-
is a function of the pressure applied, it may be mechanically lows gauge is a spring-loaded gauge, where pressure from the
amplified and indicated by a pointer. Thus, the pointer posi- line acts on the bottom of a cylindrical plunger in the center of
tion indirectly indicates pressure. the gauge and moves it upward. At full pressure, the plunger
FIGURE 8.41 (Top) Bourdon-tube gauge; (bottom) internal components.

Temperature Gauges
As mentioned, ensuring that system pressures are properly
maintained in equipment and piping systems is critical to safe
and proper operation. Likewise, ensuring that the temperature
of fluids in industrial equipment and piping systems is cor-
rect is just as critical. For measuring the temperature of fluids
Spring in industrial systems, various temperature-measuring devices
are available.
Temperature has been defined in a variety of ways. One
Bellows example defines temperature as the measure of heat (thermal
energy) associated with the movement (kinetic energy) of the
molecules of a substance. This definition is based on the the-
ory that molecules of all matter are in continuous motion that
is sensed as heat. For our purposes, we define temperature as
the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance measured
on a definite scale. Temperature is measured when a measur-
ing instrument is brought into contact with the medium being
measured (e.g., a thermometer). All temperature-measuring
Pressure instruments use some change in material to indicate tempera-
ture. Some of the effects that are used to indicate temperature
FIGURE 8.42 Bellows gauge. are changes in physical properties and altered physical dimen-
extends above the gauge, indicating the measured pressure. sions (e.g., the change in the length of a material in the form of
As the pressure drops, the spring contracts to pull the plunger expansion and contraction).
downward, back into the body (the zero reading indication). Several temperature scales have been developed to provide
Note: Spring-loaded gauges are not extremely accurate, but a standard for indicating the temperatures of substances. The
they are entirely adequate where there is no need for more most commonly used scales include the Fahrenheit, Celsius,
precise readings. Kelvin, and Rankine temperature scales. The Celsius scale
is also called the centigrade scale. The Fahrenheit (ºF) and
Celsius (ºC) scales are based on the freezing point and boiling
point of water. The freezing point of a substance is the tem-
perature at which it changes its physical state from a liquid to
a solid. The boiling point is the temperature at which a sub-
stance changes from a liquid state to a gaseous state.
Note: Thermometers are classified as mechanical tem-
perature sensing devices because they produce some type of
mechanical action or movement in response to temperature
changes. There are many types of thermometers: liquid, gas,
and vapor filled systems and bimetallic thermometers.
Figure 8.44 shows an industrial-type thermometer that is
commonly used for measuring the temperature of fluids in
FIGURE 8.43 Plunger gauge. FIGURE 8.44 Industrial thermometer.

into the supply lines (AWWA, 1996). In addition, it can cause

the collapse of tubing or equipment.
Pointer As illustrated in Figure 8.46, this particular type of vac-
Scale
uum breaker uses a ball that is usually held against a seat by a
spring. The ball is contained in a retainer tube mounted inside
the piping system or inside the component being protected.
If a vacuum develops, the ball is forced (sucked) down into
the retainer tube, where it works against the spring. Air flows
Bimetallic element into the system to fill the vacuum. In water systems, when air
enters the line between a cross-connection and the source of
the vacuum, then the vacuum will be broken and backsiphon-
age is prevented (AWWA, 1996). The spring then returns the
ball to its usual position, which acts to seal the system again.
FIGURE 8.45 Bimetallic gauge.

Accumulators
industrial piping systems. This type of measuring instrument
is nothing more than a rugged version of the familiar mer- As mentioned, in a plant compressed air system, a means of
cury thermometer. The bulb and capillary tube are contained storing and delivering air as needed is usually provided. An
inside a protective metal tube called a well. The thermometer air receiver normally accomplishes this. In a hydraulic sys-
is attached to the piping system (vat, tank, or other compo- tem, an accumulator provides the functions provided by an
nent) by a union fitting. air receiver for an air system. That is, the accumulator (usu-
Another common type of temperature gauge is the bime- ally a dome-shaped or cylindrical chamber or tank attached
tallic gauge shown in Figure 8.45. Bimetallic means that if to a hydraulic line) in a hydraulic system works to help store
two materials with different linear coefficients of expansion and deliver energy as required. Moreover, accumulators
(i.e., how much a material expands with heat) are bonded work to help keep pressure in the line smoothed out. For
together, as the temperature changes their rate of expansion example, if the pressure in the line rises suddenly, the accu-
will be different. This will cause the entire assembly to bend mulator absorbs the rise, preventing shock to the piping. If
in an arc. When the temperature is raised, an arc is formed the pressure in the line drops, the accumulator acts to bring
around the material with the smaller expansion coefficient. it up to normal.
The amount of arc is reflected in the movement of the pointer Important Point: The primary function of an accumulator
on the gauge. Because two dissimilar materials form the in a hydraulic system is to supplement pump flow.
assembly, it is known as a bimetallic element, which is also
commonly used in thermostats.
Air Receivers
As shown in Figure 8.47, an air receiver is a tank or cylindri-
Vacuum Breakers
cal-type vessel used for a number of purposes. Most important
Another common ancillary device found in pipelines is a is their ability to store compressed air. Much like accumu-
vacuum breaker (components shown in Figure 8.46). Simply, lators, they cushion shock from sudden pressure rises in an
a vacuum breaker is a mechanical device that allows air into airline. That is, the air receiver serves to absorb the shock of
the piping system, thereby preventing backflow that could valve closure and load starts, stops, and reversals. There is no
otherwise be caused by the siphoning action created by a par- liquid in an air receiver. The air compresses as pressure rises.
tial vacuum. In other words, a vacuum breaker is designed As pressure drops, the air expands to maintain pressure in
to admit air into the line whenever a vacuum develops. A the line.
vacuum, obviously, is the absence of air. Vacuum in a pipe- Important Note: OSHA standard, 29 CFR 1910.169(a),
line can be a serious problem. For example, it can cause fluids requires that air receivers be drained. Specifically, the standard
to run in the wrong direction, possibly mixing contaminants states, “a drain pipe and valve shall be installed at the lowest
with purer solutions. In water systems, backsiphonage can point of every air receiver to provide for the removal of accumu-
occur when a partial vacuum pulls nonpotable liquids back lated oil and water” (OSHA, 1978). This is an item that should
FIGURE 8.46 Vacuum breaker components.

8.10 The major problems in piping systems are caused by

_________ and corrosion.
8.11 If the speed of fluid in a pipe doubled, the friction is
_____________.
8.12 The most important factor in keeping a piping sys-
tem operating efficiently is _________.
8.13 Pipe sizes above _______ in. are usually designated
by outside diameter.
8.14 The difference in __________ numbers represents
the difference in the wall _________ of pipes.
8.15 When pipe wall thickness ___________, the I.D.
FIGURE 8.47 Air receiver. decreases.
8.16 A _________ metal contains iron.
be taken seriously, not only for safety reasons but also because it 8.17 As temperature ____________, the viscosity of a
is a compliance item that OSHA inspectors often check. liquid decreases.
8.18 Another name for rust is __________.
8.19 Sections of __________ water pipe are usually con-
Heat Exchangers
nected with a bell-and-spigot joint.
Operating on the principle that heat flows from a warmer body 8.20 A ferrous metal always contains ___________.
to a cooler one, heat exchangers are devices used for adding 8.21 Asbestos-cement pipe has the advantage of being
or removing heat and cold from a liquid or gas. The purpose highly resistant to ______________.
may be to cool one body, or to warm the other; nonetheless, 8.22 As temperature increases, the strength of plastic pipe
whether used to warm or to cool, the principle remains the ___________.
same. Various designs are used in heat exchangers. The sim- 8.23 Name four basic nonmetallic piping materials.
plest form consists of a tube, or possibly a large coil of tubing, 8.24 Vitrified clay pipe is the most ______________
placed inside a larger cylinder. In an oil lubrication system, pipe available for carrying industrial wastes.
the purpose of a heat exchanger is to cool the hot oil. However, 8.25 Cast-iron pipe can be lined with ____________ to
a heat exchanger system can also be used to heat up a pro- increase its resistance to corrosion.
cess fluid circulating through part of the heat exchanger while 8.26 A joint made so that the sections of tubing are
steam circulates through its other section. __________ together is called a compression joint.
Final Note: In this section, we have discussed the major 8.27 Incorrect tube bends can cause ___________ flow
ancillary or accessory equipment used in many piping sys- and _________ pressure.
tems. It is important to point out that there are other acces- 8.28 High-pressure hydraulic systems use ___________
sories commonly used in piping systems (e.g., rotary pressure tubing.
joints, actuators, intensifiers, pneumatic pressure line acces- 8.29 One process used to join plastic tubing is called
sories, and so forth); however, discussion of these accessories ________ welding.
is beyond the scope of this text. 8.30 Compared to pipe, tubing is more _________.
8.31 _________ tubing is most likely used in food-pro-
cessing applications.
8.32 Before tubing can be bent or flared, it should be
8.1 What is an expansion joint? __________.
8.2 A _______ is defined as any substance or material 8.33 Plastic tubing is usually joined by ___________.
that flows. 8.34 The materials used most commonly for tubing are
8.3 Compressed air is considered to be a _________. __________ and _________.
8.4 Sections or lengths of pipe are ___________ with 8.35 Smooth fluid flow is called _________ flow.
fittings. 8.36 The ___________ hose is the most common type of
8.5 The _______ of fluids through a pipe is controlled hose in general use.
by valves. 8.37 The type of hose construction most suitable for max-
8.6 Friction causes ___________ _______ in a piping imum suction conditions is _____________.
system. 8.38 __________ is the nonmetallic hose best suited for
8.7 As friction __________ in a piping system, the out- use at extremely low temperatures.
put pressure decreases. 8.39 Each size of hose clamp is designed for hose of a
8.8 Relief valves are designed to open specific ____________.
_______________. 8.40 ___________ is the outstanding advantage of hose.
8.9 ____________ is used to help keep the fluids car- 8.41 Applied to hose, the letters _________ stand for
ried in piping systems hot or cold. enlarged end.
8.42 Hose is __________ in order to provide strength Coastal Video Communications Corp., 1994. Asbestos Awareness,
and greater resistance to __________. Virginia Beach, VA.
8.43 Dacron hose remains _________ at extremely low Crocker, S., Jr., 2000. Hierarchy of Design Documents. In: Nayyar,
M.L., Ed. Piping Handbook, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
temperatures.
Gagliardi, M.G. & Liberatore, L.J., 2000. Water Piping Systems.
8.44 The ______________ fitting allows for a certain In: Nayyar, M.L., Ed. Piping Handbook, 7th ed. New York:
amount of pipe movement. McGraw-Hill.
8.45 The ______________ fitting helps reduce the Geiger, E.L., 2000.Piping Components. In: Nayyar, M.L., Ed.
effects of water hammer. Piping Handbook, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
8.46 A flange that has a plain face should be joined to a Giachino, J.W. & Weeks, W., 1985. Welding Skills. Homewood, IL:
flange that has a ____________ face. American Technical Publishers.
Globe Valves, 1998. New York, NY: Integrated Publishing.
8.47 Improperly made ________ restrict fluid flow in a
Integrated Publishing’s Official Web Page @ http://tpub.com/
pipeline. fluid/ch2c.htm.
8.48 The designation 200 lb refers to the __________ at Kawamura, S., 1999. Integrated Design and Operation of Water
which a fitting can safely be used. Treatment Facilities, 2nd Ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
8.49 Used to close off an unused outlet in a fitting with a Lohmeier, A. & Avery, D.R., 2000. Manufacture of Metallic Pipe.
_____________. In: Nayyar, M.L., Ed. Piping Handbook, 7th ed. New York:
8.50 A ____________ connects two or more pipes of McGraw-Hill.
different diameters. Magnusson, R.J., 2001. Technology in the Middle Ages. Baltimore,
MD: John Hopkins University.
Marine, C.S., 1999. Hydraulic Transient Design for Pipeline
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING Systems. In: Mays, L.W., Ed. Water Distribution Systems
Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill.
ACPA, 1987. Concrete Pipe Design Manual. Vienna, VA: American McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed. New York:
Concrete Pipe Association. McGraw-Hill.
ASME, 1996. ASME b 36.10M. Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Nayyar, M.L., 2000. Introduction to Piping. In: Piping Handbook,
Pipe. New York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 7th ed. Nayyar, M.L., Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
AWWA, 1996. Water Transmission and Distribution, 2nd Ed. OSHA, 1978, Drain on Air Receivers. Washington, DC: United
Denver, CO: American Water Works Association. States Department of Labor. 29 CFR 1910.169.
Babcock & Wilcox, 1972. Steam: Its Generation and Use. Snoek, P.E. & Carney, J.C., 1981. Pipeline Material Selection for
Cambridge, ON: The Babcock & Wilcox Company. Transport of Abrasive Tailings. Proceedings of the 6th Internal
Bales, R.C., NewKirk, D.D., & Hayward, S.B., 1984. Chrysotile Technical Conference on Slurry Transportation, Las Vegas, NV.
Asbestos in California Surface Waters from Upstream Rivers Spellman, F.R., 1996. Safe Work Practices for Wastewater Treatment
Through Water Treatment, Journal of American Water Works Plants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Association, 76(5), 66. USEPA, 2006. Emerging Technologies for Conveyance Systems.
Bandes, A. & Gorelick, B., 2000. Inspect Steam Traps for Efficient Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection
System. Terre Haute, IN: TWI Press. Agency. EPA 832-R-06-004.
Basavaraju, C., 2000. Pipe Properties, Geiger, E.L., 2000. Tube Spellman, F.R., 2001. Safe Work Practices for Wastewater Treatment
Properties. In: Nayyar, M.L., Ed. Piping Handbook, 7th ed. Operations. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
New York: McGraw-Hill. Webber, J.S., Covey, J.R., & King, M.V., 1989. Asbestos in Drinking
Casada, D., 2000. Valve Replacement Savings. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Water Supplied Through Grossly Deteriorated Pipe. Journal
Ridge Laboratories. of American Water Works Association, 81, 80.
Part III
Characteristics of Water
9 Basic Water Chemistry
Chemical testing can be divided into two types. The Concepts

first type measures a bulk physical property of the
sample, such as volume, temperature, melting point, Miscibility and Solubility
or mass. These measurements are normally per- Substances that are miscible are capable of being mixed
formed with an instrument, and one simply has to in all proportions. Simply, when two or more substances
calibrate the instrument to perform the test. Most disperse themselves uniformly in all proportions when
analyses, however, are of the second type, in which brought into contact they are said to be completely soluble
a chemical property of the sample is determined that in one another, or completely miscible. The precise chem-
generates information about how much of what is istry definition is: “homogenous molecular dispersion of
present. two or more substances” (Jost, 1992). Examples include the
following:
—Smith (1993)
A colorless, odorless, tasteless liquid, water is the • All gases are completely miscible.
only common substance that occurs naturally on the • Water and alcohol are completely miscible.
earth in all three physical states: solid, liquid, and gas. • Water and mercury (in its liquid form) are immis-
Approximately 73% of the earth’s surface, almost 328 cible liquids.
million cubic miles, is covered with water. The human
body is 70% water by weight, and water is essential to Between the two extremes of miscibility, there is a range of
the life of every living thing. solubility; that is, various substances mix with one another up
to a certain proportion. In many environmental situations, a
—Hauser (2002) rather small amount of contaminants may be soluble in water
Water is a unique molecule. Although no one has seen a water in contrast to the complete miscibility of water and alcohol.
molecule, we have determined through x-rays that atoms in The amounts are measured in parts per million (ppm).
water are elaborately meshed. Moreover, although it is true
that we do not know as much as we need to know about Suspension, Sediments, Particles, and Solids
water—our growing knowledge of water is a work in prog- Often water carries solids or particles in suspension. These
ress—we have determined many things about water. A large dispersed particles are much larger than molecules and
amount of our current knowledge comes from studies of water may be comprised of millions of molecules. The particles
chemistry. may be suspended in flowing conditions and initially under
Water chemistry is important because several factors about quiescent conditions, but eventually gravity causes settling
water to be treated and then distributed or returned to the of the particles. The resultant accumulation by settling is
environment are determined through simple chemical analy- often called sediment or biosolids (sludge) or residual sol-
sis. Probably the most important determination that the water ids in wastewater treatment vessels. Between this extreme
practitioner makes about water is its hardness. of readily falling out by gravity and permanent dispersal
Why chemistry? “I’m not a chemist,” you say. But, when as a solution at the molecular level, there are intermediate
you add chlorine to water to make it safe to drink or safe to types of dispersion or suspension. Particles can be so finely
discharge into a receiving body (usually a river or lake), you milled or of such small intrinsic size as to remain in sus-
are a chemist. Chemistry is the study of substances and the pension almost indefinitely and in some respects similarly
changes they undergo. Water specialists and those interested to solutions.
in the study of water must possess a fundamental knowl-
edge of chemistry. Before beginning our discussion of water Emulsion
chemistry, it is important for the reader to have some basic Emulsions represent a special case of a suspension. As you
understanding of chemistry concepts and chemical terms. know, oil and water do not mix. Oil and other hydrocarbons
The following section presents a review of chemistry terms, derived from petroleum generally float on water with neg-
definitions, and concepts. ligible solubility in water. In many instances, oils may be
dispersed as fine oil droplets (an emulsion) in water and not
readily separated by floating because of size or the addi-
CHEMISTRY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS tion of dispersal-promoting additives. Oil and, in particular,
Chemistry, like the other sciences, has its own language; thus, emulsions can prove detrimental to many treatment technol-
to understand chemistry, you must understand the following ogies and must be treated in the early steps of a multi-step
concepts and key terms. treatment train.
283
Ion Element It is the simplest form of chemical matter.

An ion is an electrically charged particle. For example, Each element has chemical and physical
sodium chloride or table salt forms charged particles on dis- characteristics different from all other
solution in water; sodium is positively charged (a cation), and kinds of matter.
chloride is negatively charged (an anion). Many salts similarly Compound It is a substance of two or more chemical
form cations and anions on dissolution in water. elements chemically combined. Examples::
water (H2O) is a compound formed by
Mass Concentration hydrogen and oxygen. Carbon dioxide
Concentration is often expressed in terms of ppm or mg/L. (CO2) is composed of carbon and oxygen.
Sometimes parts per thousand (ppt) or parts per billion (ppb) Mixture It is a physical, not chemical, inter-
are also used. mingling of two or more substances.
Sand and salt stirred together form a
Mass of substance mixture.
ppm = (9.1) Atom It is the smallest particle of an element
Mass of solutions
that can unite chemically with other ele-
Because 1 kg of solution with water as a solvent has a volume ments. All the atoms of an element are the
of approximately 1 liter: same in chemical behavior, although they
may differ slightly in weight. Most atoms
1 ppm » 1 mg/L can combine chemically with other atoms
to form molecules.
Molecule It is the smallest particle of matter or a
compound that possesses the same com-
DEFINITIONS
position and characteristics as the rest of
Chemistry It is the science that deals with the com- the substance. A molecule may consist of
position and changes in composition of a single atom, two or more atoms of the
substances. Water is an example of this same kind, or two or more atoms of dif-
composition; it is composed of two gases, ferent kinds.
hydrogen and oxygen. Water also changes Radicals These are two or more atoms that unite in
form from liquid to solid to gas, but does a solution and behave chemically as if a
not necessarily change composition. single atom.
Matter It is anything that has weight (mass) and Solvent It is the component of a solution that does
occupies space. Kinds of matter include the dissolving.
elements, compounds, and mixtures. Solute It is the component of a solution that is
Solids These are substances that maintain defi- dissolved by the solvent.
nite size and shape. Solids in water fall into Ion It is an atom or group of atoms that car-
one of the following categories.Dissolved ries a positive or negative electric charge
solids are in solution and pass through a as a result of having lost or gained one or
filter. The solution consisting of the dis- more electrons.
solved components and water forms a Ionization It is the formation of ions by splitting of
single phase, (a homogenous solution). molecules or electrolytes in solution. Water
Colloidal solids (sols) are uniformly dispersed in solution molecules are in continuous motion, even
but they form a solid phase that is distinct at lower temperatures. When two water
from the water phase. molecules collide, a hydrogen ion is trans-
Suspended solids are also a separate phase from the solu- ferred from one molecule to the other. The
tion. Some suspended solids are classified water molecule that loses the hydrogen ion
as settleable solids. Placing a sample in becomes a negatively charged hydroxide
a cylinder and measuring the amount of ion. The water molecule that gains the
solids that have settled after a set amount hydrogen ion becomes a positively charged
of time determines settleable solids. The hydronium ion. This process is commonly
size of solids increases going from dis- referred to as the self-ionization of water.
solved solids to suspended solids. Cation It is a positive charged ion.
Liquids It is one that has a definite volume, but not Anion It is a negative charged ion.
shape; liquid will fill containers to certain Organic Chemical substances of animal or veg-
levels and form free level surfaces. etable origin made of carbon structure.
Gases These have neither a definite volume nor Inorganic Chemical substances of mineral origin.
shape; they completely fill any container Solids These pertain to water—suspended and
in which they are placed. dissolved material in water.
Basic Water Chemistry 285
Dissolved solids These are the materials in water that force with which it is pulled by gravity toward the Earth’s
will pass through a glass fiber filter center. As we leave Earth’s surface, the gravitational pull
and remain in an evaporating dish after decreases, eventually becoming virtually insignificant, while
evaporation of the water. the weight of matter accordingly reduces to zero. Yet, the
Suspended solids It is the quantity of material deposited matter still possesses the same amount of “mass.” Hence, the
when a quantity of water, sewage, or mass and weight of matter are proportional to each other.
other liquid is filtered through a glass Important Point: Since matter occupies space, a given
fiber filter. form of matter is also associated with a definite volume.
Total solids These are the solids in water, sewage, or Space should not be confused with air, since air is itself a
other liquids; it includes the suspended form of matter. Volume refers to the actual amount of space
solids (largely removable by a filter) that a given form of matter occupies.
and filterable solids (those which pass Solids have a definite, rigid shape with their particles
through the filter). closely packed together and sticking firmly to each other. A
Saturated solution It is the physical state in which a solu- solid does not change its shape to fit a container. Put a solid
tion will no longer dissolve more of the on the ground and it will keep its shape and volume—it will
dissolving substance—solute. never spontaneously assume a different shape. Solids also
Colloid It is any substance in a certain state of possess a definite volume at a given temperature and pressure.
fine division in which the particles are Liquids maintain a constant volume, but change shape to fit
less than one micron in diameter. the shape of their container; they do not possess a characteristic
Turbidity It is a condition in water caused by the shape. The particles of the liquid move freely over one another,
presence of suspended matter, resulting but still stick together enough to maintain a constant volume.
in the scattering and absorption of light Consider a glass of water. The liquid water takes the shape of the
rays. glass up to the level it occupies. If we pour the water into a drink-
Precipitate It is a solid substance that can be dis- ing glass, the water takes the shape of the glass; if we pour it into
solved, but is separated from solution a bowl, the water takes the shape of the bowl. Thus, if space is
because of a chemical reaction or change available, any liquid assumes whatever shape its container pos-
in conditions such as pH or temperature. sesses. Like solids, liquids possess a definite volume at a given
temperature and pressure, and they tend to maintain this volume
when they are exposed to a change in either of these conditions.
CHEMISTRY FUNDAMENTALS
Gases have no definite fixed shape and their volume can be
Whenever water and wastewater practitioners add a substance expanded or compressed to fill different sizes of containers.
to another substance (from adding sugar to a cup of tea to add- A gas or mixture of gases like air can be put into a balloon,
ing chlorine to water to make it safe to drink) they perform and will take the shape of the balloon. Particles of gases do
chemistry. Water and wastewater operators (as well as many not stick together at all and move about freely, filling contain-
others) are chemists, because they are working with chemi- ers of any shape and size. A gas is also identified by its lack
cal substances, and it is important for operators to know and of a characteristic volume. When confined to a container with
understand how those substances react. non-rigid, flexible walls, for example, the volume that a con-
fined gas occupies depends on its temperature and pressure.
When confined to a container with rigid walls, however, the
Matter
volume of the gas is forced to remain constant.
Going through a day without coming in contact with many Internal linkages among its units, including between
kinds of matter would be impossible. Paper, coffee, gaso- one atom and another, maintain the constant composi-
line, chlorine, rocks, animals, plants, water, and air—all tion associated with a given substance. These linkages are
the materials of which the world is made—are all differ- called chemical bonds. When a particular process occurs,
ent forms or kinds of matter. Earlier matter was defined as that involves the making and breaking of these bonds, we
anything that has mass (weight) and occupies space—matter say that a chemical reaction or a chemical change has
is distinguishable from empty space by its presence. Thus, occurred. Let’s take a closer look at both chemical and
obviously, the statement about going through a day without physical changes of matter.
coming into contact with “matter” is not only incorrect, but Chemical changes occur when new substances are formed
avoiding some form of matter is virtually impossible. Not that have entirely different properties and characteristics.
all matter is the same, even though we narrowly classify all When wood burns or iron rusts, a chemical change has
matter into three groups: solids, liquids, and gases. These occurred; the linkages—the chemical bonds—are broken.
three groups are called the physical states of matter and are Physical changes occur when matter changes its physical
distinguishable from one another by means of two general properties such as size, shape, and density, as well as when
features, shape and volume. it changes its state, i.e., from gas to liquid to solid. When ice
Important Point: Mass is closely related to the concept of melts or when a glass window breaks into pieces, a physical
weight. On Earth, the weight of matter is a measure of the change has occurred.
The Content of Matter: The Elements symbols. As is apparent from the above list, most of the time
the symbol is easily recognized as an abbreviation of the atom
Matter is composed of pure basic substances. Earth is made up name, such as O for oxygen.
of the fundamental substances of which all matter is composed. Typically we do not find most of the elements as single
These substances that resist attempts to decompose them into atoms. They are more often found in combinations of atoms
simpler forms of matter are called elements. To date, there are called molecules. Basically, a molecule is the least common
more than 100 known elements. They range from simple, light- denominator of making a substance what it is. A system of
weight elements to very complex, heavyweight elements. Some formulae has been devised to show how atoms are combined
of these elements exist in nature in pure form; others are com- into molecules. When a chemist writes the symbol for an
bined. The smallest unit of an element is the atom. element, it stands for one atom of the element. A subscript
The simplest atom possible consists of a nucleus having a following the symbol indicates the number of atoms in the
single proton with a single electron traveling around it. This molecule. O2 is the chemical formula for an oxygen molecule.
is an atom of hydrogen, which has an atomic weight of one It shows that oxygen occurs in molecules consisting of two
because of the single proton. The atomic weight of an element oxygen atoms. As you know, a molecule of water contains two
is equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in the hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, so the formula is H2O.
nucleus of an atom of an element. Important Point: The chemical formula of the water
To better understand the basic atomic structure and related molecule, H2O, was defined in 1860 by the Italian scientist
chemical principles it is useful to compare the atom to our Stanislao Cannizzaro.
solar system. In our solar system, the sun is the center of Some elements have similar chemical properties. For
everything, whereas the nucleus is the center in the atom. example, a chemical such as bromine (atomic number 35) has
The sun has several planets orbiting around it. The atom has chemical properties that are similar to the chemical properties
electrons orbiting about the nucleus. It is interesting to note of the element chlorine (atomic number 17, which most water
that the astrophysicist, who would likely find this analogy operators are familiar with) and iodine (atomic number 53).
overly simplistic, is concerned mostly with activity within the In 1865, English chemist John Newlands arranged some of
nucleus. This is not the case, however, with the chemist. The the known elements in an increasing order of atomic weights.
chemist deals principally with the activity of the planetary Newlands’ arrangement had the lightest element he knew
electrons; chemical reactions between atoms or molecules about at the top of his list and the heaviest element at the bot-
involve only electrons, with no changes in the nuclei. tom. Newlands was surprised when he observed that starting
The nucleus is made up of positive electrically charged from a given element, every eighth element repeated the prop-
protons and neutrons, which are neutral (no charge). The erties of the given element.
negatively charged electrons orbiting it balance the positive Later, in 1869, Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, published
charge in the nucleus. An electron has negligible mass (less a table of the 63 known elements. In his table, Mendeleev,
than 0.02% of the mass of a proton), which makes it practical like Newlands, arranged the elements in an increasing order
to consider the weight of the atom as the weight of the nucleus. of atomic weights. He also grouped them in eight vertical
Atoms are identified by name, atomic number, and atomic columns so that the elements with similar chemical proper-
weight. The atomic number or proton number is the number of ties would be found in one column. It is interesting to note
protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is equal to the positive charge that Mendeleev left blanks in his table. He correctly hypoth-
on the nucleus. In a neutral atom, it is also equal to the number esized that undiscovered elements existed that would fill in
of electrons surrounding the nucleus. As mentioned, the atomic the blanks when they were discovered. Because he knew
weight of an atom depends on the number of protons and neutrons the chemical properties of the elements above and below the
in the nucleus, the electrons having negligible mass. Atoms (ele- blanks in his table, he was able to predict quite accurately the
ments) received their names and symbols in interesting ways. The properties of some of the undiscovered elements.
discoverer of the element usually proposes a name for it. Some Today our modern form of the periodic table is based on
elements get their symbols from languages other than English. work done by the English scientist Henry Moseley, who was
The following is a list of common elements with their common killed during World War I. Following the work of Ernest
names and the names from which the symbol is derived. Rutherford (a New Zealand physicist) and Niels Bohr (a
• Chlorine Cl Danish physicist), Moseley used x-ray methods to determine
• Copper Cu (Cuprum—Latin) the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
• Hydrogen H The atomic number, or number of protons, of an atom is
• Iron Fe (Ferrum—Latin) related to its atomic structure. In turn, atomic structure gov-
• Nitrogen N erns chemical properties. The atomic number of an element
• Oxygen O is more directly related to its chemical properties than is its
• Phosphorus P atomic weight. It is more logical to arrange the periodic table
• Sodium Na (Natrium—Latin) according to atomic numbers than atomic weights. By dem-
• Sulfur S onstrating the atomic numbers of elements, Moseley enabled
chemists to make a better periodic table.
As shown above, a capital letter or a capital letter and a small In the periodic table, each box or section contains the
letter designate each element. These are called chemical atomic number, symbol, and atomic weight of an element. The
numbers down the left side of the box show the arrangement, to a white powder. However, careful examination of the heat-
or configuration, of the electrons in the various shells around ing process shows that carbon dioxide also evolves from the
the nucleus. For example, the element carbon has an atomic calcium carbonate. Substances like calcium carbonate that
number of 6, its symbol is C, and its atomic weight is 12.01. can be broken down into two or more simpler substances are
In the periodic table, a horizontal row of boxes is called a called compound substances or simply compounds. Heating
period or series. Hydrogen is all by itself because of its spe- is a common way of decomposing compounds, but other
cial chemical properties. Helium is the only element in the forms of energy are often used as well.
first period. The second period contains lithium, beryllium, Chemical elements that make up compounds such as
boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and neon. Other calcium carbonate combine with each other in definite pro-
elements may be identified by looking at the table. A verti- portions. When atoms of two or more elements are bonded
cal column is called a group or family. Elements in a group together to form a compound, the resulting particle is called
have similar chemical properties. The periodic table is useful a molecule.
because by knowing where an element is located in the table, Important Point: This law simply means that only a cer-
you can have a general idea of its chemical properties. tain number of atoms or radicals of one element will combine
As mentioned, for convenience, elements have a specific with a certain number of atoms or radicals of a different ele-
name and symbol, but are often identified by chemical symbol ment to form a chemical compound.
only. The symbols of the elements consist of either one or two Water (H2O) is a compound. As stated, compounds are
letters, with the first letter capitalized. Table 9.1 lists the ele- chemical substances made up of two or more elements bonded
ments important to the water practitioner (about a third of the together. Unlike elements, compounds can be separated into sim-
100+ elements) below. Those elements most closely associ- pler substances by chemical changes. Most forms of matter in
ated with water treatment are marked (*). nature are composed of combinations of the 100 pure elements.
Compound Substances If we have a particle of a compound, for example a crystal
of salt (sodium chloride) and subdivide, subdivide, and subdi-
If we take a pure substance like calcium carbonate (lime- vide until you get the smallest unit of sodium chloride possi-
stone) and heat it, the calcium carbonate ultimately crumbles ble, you would have a molecule. As stated, a molecule (or least
common denominator) is the smallest particle of a compound
TABLE 9.1 that still has the characteristics of that compound.
Important Point: Because the weights of atoms and mol-
Elements and Their Symbols
ecules are relative and the units are extremely small, the
Element Symbol chemist works with units he/she identifies as moles. A mole
Aluminum* Al (symbol mol) is defined as the amount of a substance that con-
Arsenic As tains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules, and so
Barium Ba on) as there are atoms in 12 g of the isotope carbon-12.
Cadmium Ca Important Point: An isotope of an element is an atom hav-
Carbon* C ing the same structure as the element—the same electrons
Calcium Ca orbiting the nucleus, and the same protons in the nucleus—but
Chlorine* Cl having more or fewer neutrons.
Chromium Cr One mole of an element that exists as single atoms weighs
Cobalt Co as many grams as its atomic number (so one mole of carbon
Copper Cu weighs 12 g), and it contains 6.022045 × 1023 atoms, which is
Fluoride* F Avogadro’s number.
Helium He
As stated previously, symbols are used to identify ele-
Hydrogen* H
ments. This is a shorthand method for writing the names of
Iodine I
the elements. This shorthand method is also used for writing
Iron* Fe
the names of compounds. Symbols used in this manner show
Lead Pb
the kinds and numbers of different elements in the compound.
Magnesium* Mg
Manganese* Mn
These shorthand representations of chemical compounds are
Mercury Hg
called chemical formulas. For example, the formula for table
Nitrogen* N salt (sodium chloride) is NaCl. The formula shows that one
Nickel Ni atom of sodium combines with one atom of chlorine to form
Oxygen* O sodium chloride. Let’s look at a more complex formula for
Phosphorus P the compound sodium carbonate (soda ash): Na2CO3. The for-
Potassium K mula shows that this compound is made up of three elements:
Silver Ag sodium, carbon, and oxygen. In addition, there are two atoms
Sodium* Na of sodium, one atom of carbon, and three atoms of oxygen in
Sulfur* S each molecule.
Zinc Zn When depicting chemical reactions, chemical equations
are used. The following equation shows a chemical reaction
that most water/wastewater operators are familiar with: chlo-

NaCl « Na + + Cl -
rine gas added to water. It shows the formulas of the molecules Sodium chloride Sodium ion Chloride ion
(cation) (anion)
that react together and the formulas of the product molecules.
The symbols of some the common ions found in water are
Cl 2 + H 2O ® HOCl + HCl provided below:
As stated previously, a chemical equation tells what elements
and compounds are present before and after a chemical reac- Ion Symbol
tion. Sulfuric acid poured over zinc will cause the release of
Hydrogen H+
hydrogen and the formation of zinc sulfate. This is shown by
Sodium Na+
the following equation:
Potassium K+
Chloride Cl−
Zn + H 2SO 4 ® ZnSO 4 + H 2 Bromide Br−
Iodide I−
One atom (also one molecule) of zinc unites with one mol- Bicarbonate HCO3−
ecule sulfuric acid giving one molecule of zinc sulfate and
one molecule (two atoms) of hydrogen. Notice that there is
the same number of atoms of each element on each side of the Water dissolves polar substances better than non-polar sub-
arrow. However, the atoms are combined differently. stances. This makes sense when you consider that water is a
Let us look at another example. When hydrogen gas is polar substance. Polar substances such as mineral acids, bases,
burned in air, the oxygen from the air unites with the hydro- and salts are easily dissolved in water—while non-polar sub-
gen and forms water. The water is the product of burning stances such as oils, fats, and many organic compounds do not
hydrogen. This can be expressed as an equation. dissolve easily in water.
Water dissolves polar substances better than non-polar sub-
2H 2 + O 2 ® 2H 2 O stances—only to a point. Polar substances dissolve in water up
to a point—only so much solute will dissolve at a given tem-
This equation indicates that two molecules of hydrogen unite perature, for example. When that limit is reached, the result-
with one molecule of oxygen to form two molecules of water. ing solution is saturated. When a solution becomes saturated,
no more solute can be dissolved. For solids dissolved in water,
if the temperature of the solution is increased, the amount of
WATER SOLUTIONS
solids (solutes) required to reach saturation increases.
A solution is a condition in which one or more substances are
uniformly and evenly mixed or dissolved. A solution has two
WATER CONSTITUENTS
components, a solvent and a solute. The solvent is the compo-
nent that does the dissolving. The solute is the component that Natural water can contain a number of substances (what we
is dissolved. In water solutions, water is the solvent. Water can may call impurities) or constituents in water treatment opera-
dissolve many other substances—given enough time, there tions. The concentrations of various substances in water in
are not too many solids, liquids, and gases that water cannot dissolved, colloidal, or suspended form are typically low but
dissolve. When water dissolves substances, it creates solutions vary considerably. A hardness value of up to 400 ppm of cal-
with many impurities. Generally, a solution is usually trans- cium carbonate, for example, is sometimes tolerated in public
parent and not cloudy. However, a solution may be colored supplies, whereas 1 ppm of dissolved iron would be unaccept-
when the solute remains uniformly distributed throughout the able. When a particular constituent can affect the good health
solution and does not settle with time. of the water user or the environment, it is called a contami-
When molecules dissolve in water, the atoms making up nant or pollutant. These contaminants, of course, are what the
the molecules come apart (dissociate) in the water. This dis- water operator works to prevent entering or removes from the
sociation in water is called ionization. When the atoms in water supply. In this section, we discuss some of the more
the molecules come apart, they do so as charged atoms (both common constituents of water.
negatively and positively charged) called ions. The positively
charged ions are called cations and the negatively charged Solids
ions are called anions. A good example of the ionization
occurs when calcium carbonate ionizes: Other than gases, all contaminants of water contribute to
the solids content. Natural water carries many dissolved and
undissolved solids. The undissolved solids are non-polar sub-
CaCO 3 « Ca ++ + CO3-2
Calcium carbonate Calcium ion Carbonate ion stances, and consist of relatively large particles of materials
(cation) (anion)
such as silt, that will not dissolve. Classified by their size and
state, by their chemical characteristics and their size distribu-
Another good example is the ionization that occurs when tion, solids can be dispersed in water in both suspended and
table salt (sodium chloride) dissolves in water: dissolved forms.
The size of solids in water can be classified as suspended, natural waters. A small amount of oxygen, up to about ten
settleable, colloidal, or dissolved. Total solids are those sus- molecules of oxygen per million of water, is actually dis-
pended and dissolved solids that remain behind when the solved in water. This dissolved oxygen (DO) is breathed by
water is removed by evaporation. Solids are also character- fish and zooplankton and is needed by them to survive. Other
ized as being volatile or nonvolatile. gases can also be dissolved in water. In addition to oxygen,
The distribution of solids is determined by computing the carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and nitrogen are examples
percentage of filterable solids by size range. Solids typically of gases that dissolve in water. Gases dissolved in water are
include inorganic solids such as silt and clay from riverbanks important. For example, carbon dioxide is important because
and organic matter such as plant fibers and microorganisms of the role it plays in pH and alkalinity. Carbon dioxide is
from natural or human-made sources. released into the water by microorganisms and consumed by
Important Point: Though not technically accurate from a aquatic plants. However, DO in water is of most importance
chemical point of view because some finely suspended mate- to us here, not only because it is important to most aquatic
rial can actually pass through the filter, suspended solids are organisms, but also because dissolved oxygen is an important
defined as those that can be filtered out in the suspended sol- indicator of water quality.
ids laboratory test. The material that passes through the filter Like terrestrial life, aquatic organisms need oxygen to live.
is defined as dissolved solids. As water moves past their breathing apparatus, microscopic
As mentioned, colloidal solids are extremely fine suspended bubbles of oxygen gas in the water, DO, are transferred from
solids (particles) of less than one micron in diameter; they are the water to their blood. Like any other gas diffusion process,
so small (though they still make water cloudy) that they will the transfer is efficient only above certain concentrations. In
not settle even if allowed to sit quietly for days or weeks. other words, oxygen can be present in the water, but at too low
a concentration to sustain aquatic life. Oxygen is also needed
Turbidity by virtually all algae and macrophytes, and for many chemi-
cal reactions that are important to water body functioning.
Simply, turbidity refers to how clear the water is. Water’s clar- Rapidly moving water, such as in a mountain stream or
ity is one of the first characteristics people notice. Turbidity in large river, tends to contain a lot of dissolved oxygen, while
water is caused by the presence of suspended matter, which stagnant water contains little. Bacteria in water can consume
results in the scattering and absorption of light rays. The greater oxygen as organic matter decays. Thus, excess organic material
the amount of total suspended solids (TSS) in the water, the in our lakes and rivers can cause an oxygen-deficient situation
murkier it appears and the higher the measured turbidity. Thus, to occur. Aquatic life can have a hard time in stagnant water
in plain English, turbidity is a measure of the light-transmit- that has a lot of rotting, organic material into it, especially in
ting properties of water. Natural water that is very clear (low summer, when dissolved-oxygen levels are at a seasonal low.
turbidity) allows you to see images at considerable depths. As Important Point: As mentioned, solutions can become satu-
mentioned, high turbidity water, on the other hand, appears rated with the solute. This is the case with water and oxygen.
cloudy. Keep in mind that water of low turbidity is not neces- As with other solutes, the amount of oxygen that can be dis-
sarily without dissolved solids. Dissolved solids do not cause solved at saturation depends upon the temperature of the water.
light to be scattered or absorbed, thus, the water looks clear. In the case of oxygen, the effect is just the opposite of other
High turbidity causes problems for the waterworks operator, as solutes. The higher the temperature, the lower the saturation
components that cause high turbidity can cause taste and odor level; the lower the temperature, the higher the saturation level.
problems and will reduce the effectiveness of disinfection.
Color Metals
Color in water can be caused by a number of contaminants such Metals are elements, present in chemical compounds as posi-
as iron, which changes in the presence of oxygen to yellow or tive ions, or in the form of cations (+ ions) in solution. Metals
red sediments. The color of water can be deceiving. In the first with a density of over 5 kg/dm3 are known as heavy metals.
place, color is considered an aesthetic quality of water with no Metals are one of the constituents or impurities often carried by
direct health impact. Secondly, many of the colors associated water. Although most of the metals are not harmful at normal
with water are not true colors, but the result of colloidal suspen- levels, a few metals can cause taste and odor problems in drink-
sion (apparent color). This apparent color can often be attrib- ing water. In addition, some metals may be toxic to humans,
uted to iron and to dissolved tannin extracted from decaying animals, and microorganisms. Most metals enter water as part
plant material. True color is the result of dissolved chemicals of compounds that ionize to release the metal as positive ions.
(most often organics) that cannot be seen. True color is distin- Table 9.2 lists some metals commonly found in water and
guished from apparent color by filtering the sample. their potential health hazards.
Important Point: Metals may be found in various chemical
and physical forms. These forms, or “species,” can be particles
Dissolved Oxygen or simple organic compounds, organic complexes, or colloids.
Although water molecules contain an oxygen atom, this oxy- The dominating form is determined largely by the chemical
gen is not what is needed by aquatic organisms living in our composition of the water, the matrix, and in particular the pH.
TABLE 9.2 TABLE 9.3

Common Metals Found in Water Relative Strengths of Acids in Water
Metal Health Hazard Perchloric acid HClO4
Barium Circulatory system effects and increase in blood pressure Sulfuric acid H2SO4
Hydrochloric acid HCl
Cadmium Concentration in the liver, kidneys, pancreas, and thyroid
Nitric acid HNO3
Copper Nervous system damage and kidney effects, toxic to humans
Phosphoric acid H3PO4
Lead Same as copper
Nitrous acid HNO2
Mercury Central nervous system (CNS) disorders
Hydrofluoric acid HF
Nickel CNS disorders
Acetic acid CH3COOH
Selenium CNS disorders
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Silver Turns skin gray
Hydrocyanic acid HCN
Zinc Causes taste problems—not a health hazard
Boric acid H3BO3
Organic Matter
The relative strengths of acids in water (listed in descend-
Organic matter or compounds are those that contain the ele- ing order of strength) are classified in Table 9.3.
ment carbon and are derived from material that was once alive Note: Acids and bases become solvated—they loosely
(i.e., plants and animals). Organic compounds include fats, bond to water molecules.
dyes, soaps, rubber products, plastics, wood, fuels, cotton,
proteins, and carbohydrates. Organic compounds in water are
Bases
usually large, non-polar molecules that do not dissolve well in
water. They often provide large amounts of energy to animals A base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions (OH−)
and microorganisms. when dissolved in water. Lye or common soap (bitter things)
Important Point: Natural organic matter (NOM) is used contains bases. The bases used in waterworks operations are
to describe the complex mixture of organic material, such calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2), sodium hydroxide (NaOH),
as humic and hydrophilic acids present in all drinking water and potassium hydroxide (KOH). Note that the hydroxyl
sources. NOM can cause major problems in the treatment group (OH) is found in all bases. In addition, note that bases
of water as it reacts with chlorine to form disinfection by- contain metallic substances, such as sodium (Na), calcium
products (DBPs). Many of the disinfection DBPs formed by (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K). These bases con-
the reaction of NOM with disinfectants, are reported to be tain the elements that produce the alkalinity in water.
toxic and carcinogenic to humans if ingested over an extended
period. The removal of NOM and hence reduction in DBPs is
Salts
a major goal in the treatment of any water source.
When acids and bases chemically interact, they neutralize
each other. The compound (other than water) that forms from
Inorganic Matter
the neutralization of acids and bases is called a salt. Salts con-
Inorganic matter or compounds are carbon-free, not derived stitute, by far, the largest group of inorganic compounds. A
from living matter, and easily dissolved in water; they are of common salt used in waterworks operations, copper sulfate,
mineral origin. The inorganics include acids, bases, oxides, is utilized to kill algae in water. This intentional addition of
salts, etc. Several inorganic components are important in the sulfate, copper sulfate should not be confused with the
establishing and controlling water quality. Two important presence of naturally occurring sulfates in drinking water.
inorganic constituents in water are nitrogen and phosphorous. For further illustration, consider the 1999 EPA case study on
sulfates in drinking water presented in the following.
Acids
Lemon juice, vinegar, and sour milk are acidic or contain Case Study 9.1
acid. The common acids used in waterworks operations are
hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid HEALTH EFFECTS FROM EXPOSURE TO HIGH
(HNO3) and carbonic acid (H2CO3). Note that in each of these LEVELS OF SULFATE IN DRINKING WATER*
acids, hydrogen (H) is one of the elements.
Important Point: An acid is a substance that produces As mentioned, sulfate is a naturally occurring substance
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water. Hydrogen ions that is often found in drinking water. Health concerns
are hydrogen atoms stripped of their electrons. A single hydro- regarding sulfate in drinking water have been raised
gen ion is nothing more than the nucleus of a hydrogen atom. * From USEPA (1999).
because of reports of diarrhea associated with the inges- in these wells increased, more adults reported a laxa-
tion of water containing high levels of sulfate. Available tive effect. For example, for well water containing <200
data suggest that people acclimate rapidly to the pres- mg/L sulfate, only 22% of consumers reported that their
ence of sulfates in their drinking water. However, there water had a laxative effect. Water containing high (≥100
are groups within the general population that may be at mg/L) concentrations of magnesium sulfate affected 62%
greater risk from the laxative effects of sulfate when they of consumers. Neither of these reports suggested that the
experience an abrupt change from drinking water with population affected considered the laxative effect of their
low sulfate concentrations to drinking water with high drinking water to be an adverse health issue.
sulfate concentrations. Experimental studies of the association between
One such potentially sensitive population is infants exposure to sulfate and subsequent diarrhea have been
receiving their first bottles contain tap water, whether conducted in pigs and piglets and in human adults. For
as water alone or as formula mixed with water. A series example, groups of ten artificially reared (using a mechan-
of three case histories from Saskatchewan reported by ical “auto-sow”) neonatal piglets were provided diets con-
Chien et al. (1968) suggested that infants may experience taining 0, 1200, 1,600, or 2,000 mg of added inorganic
gastroenteritis, including diarrhea and dehydration, upon sulfate (as anhydrous sodium sulfate)/L of diet for 28 days
their first exposure to water that contains high levels of (Gomez et al., 1995). Sulfate concentrations ≥1,800 mg/L
sulfate. The three infants discussed in the report were of diet caused persistent, but nonpathogenic diarrhea in
symptom-free until their families moved to areas with the piglets. Growth was not affected in any of the expo-
water supplies that contained high levels of sulfate (650 sure groups. A study by Veenhuizen et al. (1992) found
to 1,150 mg/L). Interestingly, the infants developed diar- no adverse effect on nursery pig performance (e.g., mean
rhea when they were given water from these new sources. weight gain, feed consumption, water consumption, prev-
Stools from two of the infants tested negative for bacterial alence of diarrhea) when the pigs were fed concentrations
pathogens, ova (female reproductive cell), and parasites; of up to 1,800 mg of sodium sulfate, magnesium sulfate,
and the diarrhea subsided when alternative water sources or a combination of sodium and magnesium sulfate/L of
were used. In light of these reports, the authors suggested diet for 16 or 18 days.
that sulfate levels are important with respect to their laxa- In another study, Veenhuizen (1993) conducted a water
tive effect on babies. They recommended that water be quality survey of 54 swine farms in Ohio in which water
screened for sulfate content if a sample is submitted for samples were analyzed for concentration of sulfates and
assessment of suitability for infant feeding. total dissolved solids, and found that sulfate concentra-
Other groups of people who could potentially be tions ranged from 6 to 16,000 mg/L. There was no asso-
adversely affected by water with high sulfate concen- ciation between sulfate concentration and the prevalence
trations are transient populations (i.e., tourists, hunters, of diarrhea on the farms.
students, and other temporary visitors) and people mov- Heizer et al. (1997) provided four healthy adult sub-
ing to areas with high sulfate concentrations in drinking jects with drinking water containing increasing levels of
water from areas with low sulfate concentrations. This sulfate (0, 40, 600, 8,000, 1,000, and 1,200 mg/L from
concern is based primarily on anecdotal reports rather sodium sulfate) for six consecutive two-day periods. In
than on published studies. For example, an analysis of a single-dose study, six other volunteers received water
300 responses to an informal survey conducted by the with 0 to 1,200 mg/L sulfate for two consecutive six-day
North Dakota Department of Health suggested that water periods. In the dose-range study, there was a decrease in
with sulfate levels ≥750 mg/L was considered laxative by mouth-to-anus appearance time (using colored markers)
most consumers (Peterson, 1951). (Peterson notes that a with increasing sulfate concentration. In the single-dose
high concentration of magnesium sulfate was even more study, there was a significant increase in stool mass for the
likely to have a laxative effect on consumers than was a six days of exposure to sulfate compared to the six days
high concentration of sodium sulfate.) He also noted that without exposure. None of the study subjects reported
reports of a laxative effect of water with a low concentra- diarrhea.
tion of sulfate could have been from people new to the While the studies mentioned above address the acute
area, whereas reports of no laxative effect in areas of high effects of sulfate on adult human intestinal function and
sulfate concentration could have come from people accli- provide animal data that can be extrapolated to people, it
mated to sulfate exposure. has not been feasible to conduct an experimental study to
In another informal report, Moore (1952) evaluated verify the reported effects of exposure to high levels of
data collected in North and South Dakota on well water sulfate on human infants. Esteban et al. (1997) conducted
quality. The data from South Dakota included 67 wells a field study in 19 South Dakota counties to determine
with 1,000 to 2,000 mg/L sulfate and indicated that the the risk for diarrhea in infants exposed to high levels of
water was at least tolerable as drinking water with no sulfate in tap water compared to the risk for diarrhea in
apparent extensive physiologic effect. The data from those unexposed. In this study, there was no significant
North Dakota included information from248 private association between sulfate ingestion and the incidence
drinking water wells. As the concentration of sulfate of diarrhea for the range of sulfate concentrations studied
(mean sulfate level 264 mg/L; range 0–2,787 mg/L). In COMMON WATER MEASUREMENTS
addition, there was no dose-response or threshold effect,
and the results suggested that breast milk has a more Water and wastewater practitioners and regulators such as
significant laxative effect than does sulfate in drinking waterworks operators and the United States Environmental
water. However, because the sample size was small (274 Protection Agency (USEPA) along with their scientific
infants) and the age of the infants ranged from 6.5 to 30 counterparts at the United States Geological Survey (USGS)
weeks, it is probable that some of the infants could have have been measuring water for decades. Millions of mea-
been exposed (and become acclimated) to drinking water surements and analyses have been made. Some measure-
containing high levels of sulfate prior to being enrolled ments are taken almost every time water is sampled and
in the study. investigated, no matter where in the United States the water
is being studied. Even these simple measurements can some-
times reveal something important about the water and the
environment around it.
The USGS (2006) has noted that the results of a single
pH measurement of water’s properties are actually less impor-
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration. tant than looking at how the properties vary over time. For
Solutions range from very acidic (having a high concentra- example, if you take the pH of the river running through your
tion of H+ ions) to very basic (having a high concentration of town and find that it is 5.5, you might say “Wow, the water is
OH− ions). The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being the acidic!” But, a pH of 5.5 might be “normal” for that river. It
neutral value. The pH of water is important to the chemical is similar to how normal body temperature (when not ill) is
reactions that take place within water, and pH values that are about 97.5 degrees, but a youngster’s normal temperature is
too high or low can inhibit the growth of microorganisms. “really normal”—right on the 98.6 mark. As with our tem-
With high and low pH values, high pH values are considered peratures, if the pH of your river begins to change, then you
basic and low pH values are considered acidic. Stated another might suspect that something is going on somewhere that is
way, low pH values indicate a high level of H+ concentra- affecting the water, and possibly, the water quality. So, often,
tion, while high pH values indicate a low H+ concentration. the changes in water measurements are more important than
Because of this inverse logarithmic relationship, there is a ten- the actual measured values.
fold difference in H+ concentration. Up to this point, the important constituents and parameters
Natural water varies in pH depending on its source. Pure of turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, and others have been dis-
water has a neutral pH, with an equal number of H+ and OH-. cussed; there are others, too. In the following, the parameters
Adding an acid to water causes additional + ions to be released, of alkalinity, water temperature, specific conductance, and
so that the H+ ion concentration goes up and the pH value goes hardness are discussed.
down.
Alkalinity
HCl « H + + Cl -
Alkalinity is defined as the capacity of water to accept pro-
To control water coagulation and corrosion, the waterworks tons; it can also be defined as a measure of the water’s ability
operator must test for the hydrogen ion concentration of the to neutralize an acid. Bicarbonates, carbonates, and hydro-
water to determine the water’s pH. In a coagulation test, as gen ions cause alkalinity and hydrogen compounds in raw or
more alum (acid) is added, the pH value lowers. If more lime treated water supply. Bicarbonates are the major components
(alkali) is added, the pH value raises. This relationship should because of carbon dioxide action on basic materials of soil;
be remembered—if a good floc is formed, the pH should then borates, silicates, and phosphates may be minor components.
be determined and maintained at that pH value until the raw Alkalinity of raw water may also contain salts formed from
water changes. organic acids such as humic acids.
Pollution can change the pH of water, which in turn can Alkalinity in water acts as a buffer that tends to stabilize
harm animals and plants living in the water. For instance, and prevent fluctuations in pH. In fact, alkalinity is closely
water coming out of an abandoned coal mine can have a pH related to pH, but the two must not be confused. Total alka-
of 2, which is very acidic and would definitely affect any fish linity is a measure of the amount of alkaline materials in the
crazy enough to try to live in it. By using the logarithm scale, water. The alkaline materials act as the buffer to changes in
this mine-drainage water would be 100,000 times more acidic the pH. If the alkalinity to too low (below 80 ppm) there can
than neutral water—so stay out of abandoned mines. be rapid fluctuations in pH—i.e., there is insufficient buf-
Important Point: Sea water is slightly more basic (the pH fer to the pH. High alkalinity (above 200 ppm) results in the
value is higher) than most natural fresh water. Neutral water water being too buffered. Thus, having significant alkalinity
(such as distilled water) has a pH of 7, which is in the middle in water is usually beneficial, because it tends to prevent quick
of being acidic and alkaline. Seawater happens to be slightly changes in pH, which interfere with the effectiveness of com-
alkaline (basic), with a pH of about 8. Most natural water has a mon water treatment processes. Low alkalinity also contrib-
pH range of 6–8, although acid rain can have a pH as low as 4. utes to the water’s corrosive tendencies.
Note: When alkalinity is below 80 mg/L, it is considered

to be low. TABLE 9.4
Water Hardness
Water Temperature Classification mg/l CaCO3
Soft 0–75
Water temperature is not only important to fisherman, but
Moderately hard 75–150
also to industries and even fish and algae. A lot of water is
Hard 150–300
used for cooling purposes in power plants that generate elec-
Very hard Over 300
tricity. They need to cool water to start with, and they gen-
erally release warmer water back to the environment. The
temperature of the released water can affect downstream
habitats. Temperature also can affect the ability of water to of any wastewater treatment plant, especially in regards to
hold oxygen as well as the ability of organisms to resist cer- public relations.
tain pollutants. According to Metcalf & Eddy (1991), in wastewater opera-
tions, “The principal sources of odors are from (1) septic
wastewater containing hydrogen sulfide and odorous com-
Specific Conductance pounds, (2) industrial wastes discharged into the collection
Specific conductance is a measure of the ability of water to con- system, (3) screenings and unwanted grit, (4) septage handling
duct an electrical current. It is highly dependent on the amount facilities, (5) scum on primary settling tanks, (6) organically
of dissolved solids (such as salt) in the water. Pure water, such overloaded treatment processes, (7) [biosolids]-thickening
as distilled water, will have a very low specific conductance, tanks, (8) waste gas-burning operations where lower-than
and sea water will have a high specific conductance. Rainwater optimum temperatures are used, (9) [biosolids]-conditioning
often dissolves airborne gasses and airborne dust while it is in and dewatering faculties, (10) [biosolids] incineration, (11)
the air, and thus often has a higher specific conductance than digested [biosolids] in drying beds or [biosolids]-holding
distilled water. Specific conductance is an important water basins, and (12) [biosolids]-composting operations.”
quality measurement because it gives a good idea of the amount Odor control can be accomplished by chemical or physi-
of dissolved material in the water. When electrical wires are cal means. Physical means include utilizing buffer zones
attached to a battery and light bulb and the wires are put into a between the process operation and the public, making opera-
beaker of distilled water, the light will not light. But, the bulb tion changes, controlling discharges to collection systems,
does light up when the beaker contains saline (salt water). In the containments, dilution, fresh air, adsorption, using activated
saline water, the salt has dissolved, releasing free electrons, and carbon, scrubbing towers, and other means. Odor control by
the water will conduct an electric current. chemical means involves scrubbing with various chemicals,
chemical oxidation, and chemical precipitation methods. In
scrubbing with chemicals, odorous gases are passed through
Hardness specially designed scrubbing towers to remove odors. The
Hardness may be considered a physical or chemical charac- commonly used chemical scrubbing solutions are chlorine
teristic or parameter of water. It represents the total concen- and potassium permanganate. When hydrogen sulfide con-
tration of calcium and magnesium ions, reported as calcium centrations are high, sodium hydroxide is often used. In
carbonate. Simply, the amount of dissolved calcium and mag- chemical oxidation applications, the oxidants chlorine, ozone,
nesium in water determines its “hardness.” Hardness causes hydrogen peroxide, and potassium permanganate are used to
soaps and detergents to be less effective and contributes to oxidize the odor compounds. Chemical precipitation works
scale formation in pipes and boilers. Hardness is not consid- to precipitate sulfides from odor compounds using iron and
ered a health hazard; however, water that contains hardness other metallic salts.
must often be softened by lime precipitation or ion exchange.
Hard water can even shorten the life of fabrics and clothes.
Water Treatment Chemicals
Low hardness contributes to the corrosive tendencies of water.
Hardness and alkalinity often occur together, because some To operate a water treatment process correctly and safely,
compounds can contribute both alkalinity and hardness ions. water operators need to know the types of chemical used in
Hardness is generally classified as shown in Table 9.4. the processes, what the purpose of each is, and the safety pre-
cautions required in the use of each. This section briefly dis-
cusses chemicals used in:
Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment)
There is an old saying in wastewater treatment: “Odor is not • Disinfection (also used in wastewater treatment)
a problem until the neighbors complain” (Spellman 1997). • Coagulation
Experience has shown that when treatment plant odor is appar- • Taste and odor removal
ent, it is not long before the neighbors do complain. Thus, • Water softening
odor control is an important factor affecting the performance • Recarbonation
• Ion exchange softening tastes and odors in water. The perceptions of taste and odor
• Scale and corrosion control are closely related and often confused by water practitioners
as well as by consumers. Thus, it is difficult to precisely mea-
sure either one. Experience has shown that a substance that
Disinfection
produces an odor in water almost invariably imparts a per-
In water practice, disinfection is often accomplished using ception of taste as well. This is not the case, however. Taste is
chemicals. The purpose of disinfection is to selectively generally attributed to mineral substances in the water. Most
destroy disease-causing organisms. Chemicals commonly of these minerals affect water taste but do not cause odors.
used in disinfection include chlorine and its compounds (most Along with the impact minerals can have on water taste,
widely used), ozone, bromide, iodine, hydrogen peroxide, there are other substances or practices that can affect both
and others. Many factors must be considered when choosing water tastes and odors (e.g., metals, salts from the soil, constit-
the type of chemical to be used for disinfection. These fac- uents of wastewater, and end products generated from biologi-
tors include contact time, intensity and nature of the physical cal reactions). When water has a distinct taste but no odor, the
agent, temperature, and type and number of organisms. taste might be the result of inorganic substances. Anyone who
has tasted alkaline water has also tasted its biting bitterness.
Then there are the salts; they not only give water that salty
Coagulation
taste but also contribute to its bitter taste. Other than from
Chemical coagulation conditions water for further treatment natural causes, water can take a distinctive color or taste, or
by the removal of: both, from human contamination of the water. Organic mate-
rials can produce both taste and odor in water. Petroleum-
• Turbidity, color, and bacteria based products are probably the prime contributors to both
• Iron and manganese these problems in water.
• Tastes, odors, and organic pollutants Biological degradation or decomposition of organics in
surface waters also contributes to both taste and odor prob-
In water treatment, normal sedimentation processes do not lems in water. Algae are another problem. Certain species of
always settle out particles efficiently. This is especially the algae produce oily substances that may result in both taste
case when attempting to remove particles of less than 50 µm and odor. Synergy can also work to produce taste and odor
in diameter. problems in water. Mixing water and chlorine is one example.
In some instances, it is possible to agglomerate (to make With regard to chemically treating water for odor and taste
or form into a rounded mass) particles into masses or groups. problems, oxidants such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone,
These rounded masses are of increased size and therefore and potassium permanganate can be used. These chemicals are
increased settling velocities, in some instances. For colloidal- especially effective when water is associated with an earthy or
sized particles, however, agglomeration is difficult—resulting musty odor caused by the nonvolatile metabolic products of
from colloidal particles is difficult to clarify without special Actinomycetes and blue-green algae. Tastes and odors associ-
treatment. ated with dissolved gases and some volatile organic materials
Chemical coagulation is usually accomplished by the addi- are normally removed by oxygen in aeration processes.
tion of metallic salts such as aluminum sulfate (alum) or ferric
chloride. Alum is the most commonly used coagulant in water
Water Softening
treatment and is most effective between pH ranges of 5.0 and
7.5. Sometimes polymer is added to alum to help form small The reduction of hardness, or softening, is a process com-
floc together for faster settling. Ferric chloride, effective down monly practiced in water treatment. Chemical precipitation
to a pH of 4.5 is sometimes used. and ion exchange are the two softening processes that are
In addition to pH, a variety of other factors influence the most commonly used. Softening of hard water is desired (for
chemical coagulation process, including: domestic users) to reduce the amount of soap used, increase
the life of water heaters, and to reduce encrustation of pipes
1. Temperature (cementing together the individual filter media grains).
2. Influent quality
3. Alkalinity Chemical Precipitation
4. Type and amount of coagulant used In chemical precipitation, it is necessary to adjust pH. To pre-
5. Type and length of flocculation cipitate the two ions most commonly associated with hardness
6. Type and length of mixing in water, calcium (Ca+2) and magnesium (Mg+2), the pH must
be raised to about 9.4 for calcium and about 10.6 for magne-
sium. To raise the pH to the required levels lime is added.
Taste and Odor Removal
Chemical precipitation is accomplished by converting cal-
Although odor can be a problem with wastewater treatment, cium hardness to calcium carbonate and magnesium hardness
the taste and odor parameter is only associated with potable to magnesium hydroxide. This is normally accomplished by
water. Either organic or inorganic materials may produce using the lime-soda ash or the caustic soda processes.
The lime-soda ash process reduces the total mineral con- deposit calcium carbonate, which produces an encrusting
tent of the water, removes suspended solids, removes iron and film. During or after the lime-soda ash softening process,
manganese, and reduces color and bacterial numbers. The this recarbonation is accomplished through the reintroduc-
process, however, has a few disadvantages. McGhee (1991) tion of carbon dioxide into the water. Lime softening of hard
points out, for example, the process produces large quantities water supersaturates the water with calcium carbonate and
of sludge, requires careful operation, and, as stated earlier, if may have a pH of greater than 10. Because of this, pressur-
the pH is not properly adjusted, may create operational prob- ized carbon dioxide is bubbled into the water, lowering the
lems downstream of the process. pH and removing calcium carbonate. The high pH can also
In the caustic soda process, the caustic soda reacts with create a bitter taste in drinking water. Recarbonation removes
the alkalinity to produce carbonate ions for reduction with this bitterness.
calcium. The process works to precipitate calcium carbonate
in a fluidized bed of sand grains, steel grit, marble chips, or
Scale and Corrosion Control
some other similar dense material. As particles grow in size
by deposition of CaCO3, they migrate to the bottom of the Controlling scale and corrosion is important in water systems.
fluidized bed from which they are removed. This process has Carbonate and noncarbonate hardness constituents in water
the advantage of requiring short detention times (about 8 s) cause scale. It forms a chalky-white deposit frequently found
and producing no sludge. on teakettle bottoms. When controlled, this scale can be bene-
ficial, forming a protective coating inside tanks and pipelines.
Ion Exchange Softening A problem arises when scale is not controlled. Excessive scal-
Hardness can be removed by ion exchange. In water softening reduces the capacity of pipelines and the efficiency of heat
ing, ion exchange replaces calcium and magnesium with a transfer in boilers. Corrosion is the oxidation of unprotected
nonhardness cation, usually sodium. Calcium and magnesium metal surfaces. Of particular concern in water treatment is
in solution are removed by interchange with sodium within the corrosion of iron and its alloys (i.e., the formation of rust).
a solid interface (matrix) through which the flow is passed. Several factors contribute to the corrosion of iron and steel.
Similar to the filter, the ion exchanger contains a bed of gran- Alkalinity, pH, DO, and carbon dioxide can all cause corro-
ular material, a flow distributor, and an effluent vessel that sion. Along with the corrosion potential of these chemicals,
collects the product. The exchange media include greensand their corrosive tendencies are significantly increased when
(a sand or sediment given a dark greenish color by grains of water temperature and flow are increased.
glauconite), aluminum silicates, synthetic siliceous gels, ben-
tonite clay, sulfonated coal, and synthetic organic resins and
DRINKING WATER PARAMETERS: CHEMICAL
are generally in particle form usually ranging up to a diameter
of 0.5 mm. Modern applications more often employ artificial Water, in any of its forms, also… [has] scant respect for
organic resins. These clear, BB-sized resins are sphere-shaped the laws of chemistry.
and have the advantage of providing a greater number of
Most materials act either as acids or bases, settling on
exchange sites. Each of these resin spheres contains sodium
either side of a natural reactive divided. Not water. It is
ions, which are released into the water in exchange for cal-
one of the few substances that can behave both as an
cium and magnesium. As long as exchange sites are available,
acid and as a base, so that under certain conditions it
the reaction is virtually instantaneous and complete.
is capable of reacting chemically with itself. Or with
When all the exchange sites have been utilized, hard-
anything else.
ness begins to appear in the influent (breakthrough). When
breakthrough occurs, this necessitates the regeneration of Molecules of water are off balance and hard to satisfy.
the medium by contacting it with a concentrated solution of They reach out to interfere with every other molecule
sodium chloride. they meet, pushing its atoms apart, surrounding them,
Ion exchange used in water softening has both advan- and putting them into solution. Water is the ultimate
tages and disadvantages. One of its major advantages is that solvent, wetting everything, setting other elements free
it produces softer water than does chemical precipitation. from the rocks, making them available for life. Nothing
Additionally, ion exchange does not produce the large quan- is safe. There isn’t a container strong enough to hold it.
tity of sludge encountered in the lime-soda process. One dis-
Watson (1988)
advantage is that, although it does not produce sludge, ion
exchange does produce concentrated brine. Moreover, the Water chemical parameters are categorized into two basic
water must be free of turbidity and particulate matter or the groups: Inorganic and organic chemicals. Both groups enter
resin might function as a filter and become plugged. water from natural causes or pollution.
Note: The solvent capabilities of water are directly related
to its chemical parameters.
Recarbonation
In this section, we do not look at each organic/inorganic
Recarbonation(stabilization) is the adjustment of the ionic chemical individually; instead, we look at general chemi-
condition of water so that it will neither corrode pipes nor cal parameter categories such as dissolved oxygen organics
(biochemical oxygen demand [BOD] and chemical oxygen fats, proteins, esters, and aldehydes are the main constituents
demand [COD]),synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), volatile of biodegradable materials. They may result from domestic or
organic chemicals (VOCs), total dissolved solids (TDS), fluo- industrial wastewater discharges, or they may be end products
rides, metals, and nutrients—the major chemical parameters of the initial microbial decomposition of plant or animal tis-
of concern. sue. Biodegradable organics in surface waters cause problems
mainly associated with the effects that result from the action
of microorganisms. As the microbes metabolize organic
Organics
material, they consume oxygen.
Natural organics contain carbon and consist of biodegrad- When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed
able organic matter such as wastes from biological material is DO. If the oxygen is not continually replaced in the water
processing, human sewage, and animal feces. Microbes aero- by artificial means, the DO level will decrease as the organ-
bically break down the complex organic molecules into sim- ics are decomposed by the microbes. This need for oxygen
pler, more stable end products. Microbial degradation yields is called the Biochemical oxygen demand(BOD): the amount
end products such as carbon dioxide, water, phosphate, and of dissolved oxygen demanded by bacteria to break down
nitrate. Organic particles in water may harbor harmful bac- the organic materials during the stabilization action of the
teria and pathogens. Infection by microorganisms may occur decomposable organic matter under aerobic conditions over a
if the water is used for primary contact or as a raw drink- five-day incubation period at 20°C (68°F). This bioassay test
ing water source. Treated drinking water will not present the measures the oxygen consumed by living organisms using the
same health risks. In a potable drinking water plant, all organ- organic matter contained in the sample and dissolved oxygen
ics should be removed in the water before disinfection. in the liquid. The organics are broken down into simpler com-
Organic chemicals also contain carbon; they are sub- pounds and the microbes use the energy released for growth
stances that come directly from, or are manufactured from, and reproduction. A BOD test is not required for monitoring
plant or animal matter. Plastics provide a good example of drinking water.
organic chemicals that are made from petroleum, which Note: The more the organic material in the water, the
originally came from plant and animal matter. Some organic higher the BOD exerted by the microbes will be. Note also
chemicals (like those discussed above) released by decay- that some biodegradable organics can cause color, taste, and
ing vegetation, occur naturally and by themselves tend not to odor problems.
pose health problems when they get in our drinking water. Nonbiodegradable organics are resistant to biological deg-
However, more serious problems are caused by the more than radation. The constituents of woody plants are a good exam-
100,000 different manufactured or synthetic organic chemi- ple. These constituents, including tannin and lignin acids,
cals in commercial use today. They include paints, herbicides, phenols, and cellulose are found in natural water systems, and
synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, fuels, plastics, dyes, preserva- are considered refractory (resistant to biodegradation). Some
tives, flavorings, and pharmaceuticals, to name a few. polysaccharides with exceptionally strong bonds, and ben-
Many organic materials are soluble in water, are toxic, and zene (for example, associated with the refining of petroleum)
many of them are found in public water supplies. According to with its ringed structure are essentially nonbiodegradable.
Tchobanoglous and Schroeder (1987), the presence of organic Certain nonbiodegradable chemicals can react with oxy-
matter in water is troublesome. Organic matter causes: (1) gen dissolved in water. The chemical oxygen demand (COD)
color formation, (2) taste and odor problems, (3) oxygen deple- is a more complete and accurate measurement of the total
tion in streams, (4) interference with water treatment process, depletion of DO in water. Standard Methods defines COD as
and (5) the formation of halogenated compounds when chlo- a test that provides a measure of the oxygen equivalent of that
rine is added to disinfect water. portion of the organic matter in a sample that is susceptible
Remember, organics in natural water systems may come to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant. The procedure is
from natural sources or may result from human activities. detailed in Standard Methods.
Generally, the principal source of organic matter in water is Note: COD is not normally used for monitoring water sup-
from natural sources including decaying leaves, weeds, and plies, but is often used for evaluating contaminated raw water.
trees; the amount of these materials present in natural waters
is usually low. Anthropogenic (man-made) sources of organic
Synthetic organic chemicals
substances come from pesticides and other synthetic organic
compounds. Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) are man-made, and
Again, many organic compounds are soluble in water, and because they don’t occur naturally in the environment, they
surface waters are more prone to contamination by natural are often toxic to humans. More than 50,000 SOCs are in
organic compounds than are groundwaters. In water, dis- commercial production including common pesticides, carbon
solved organics are usually divided into two categories: bio- tetrachloride, chloride, dioxin, xylene, phenols, aldicarb, and
degradable and nonbiodegradable. Biodegradable (able to thousands of other synthetic chemicals. Unfortunately, even
break down) material consists of organics that can be used though they are so prevalent, little data has been collected
for food (nutrients) by naturally occurring microorganisms on these toxic substances. Determining definitively just how
within a reasonable length of time. Alcohols, acids, starches, dangerous many of the SOCs are is rather difficult.
Volatile organic chemicals 12 and 15 years. However, when the concentration of fluo-
rides in untreated natural water supplies is excessive, either
Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) are a type of organic alternative water supply must be used, or treatment to reduce
chemical that is particularly dangerous. VOCs are absorbed the fluoride concentration must be applied, because excessive
through the skin during contact with water—as in the shower amounts of fluoride cause mottled or discolored teeth, a con-
or bath. Hot water exposure allows these chemicals to evapo- dition called dental fluorosis.
rate rapidly, and they are harmful if inhaled. VOCs can be in
any tap water, regardless of what part of the country one lives
and the water supply source. Heavy Metals
Heavy metals are elements with atomic weights between 63.5
Total Dissolved Solids and 200.5, and a specific gravity greater than 4.0. Living organ-
isms require trace amounts of some heavy metals, including
Earlier we pointed out that solids in water occur either in solu- cobalt, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium,
tion or in suspension, and are distinguished by passing the water strontium, and zinc. Excessive levels of essential metals, how-
sample through a glass fiber filter. By definition, the suspended ever, can be detrimental to the organism. Non-essential heavy
solids are retained on top of the filter, and the dissolved solids metals of particular concern to surface water systems are cad-
pass through the filter with the water. When the filtered portion mium, chromium, mercury, lead, arsenic, and antimony.
of the water sample is placed in a small dish and then evapo- Heavy metals in water are classified as either nontoxic or
rated, the solids in the water remain as residue in the evaporat- toxic. Only those metals that are harmful in relatively small
ing dish. This material is called total dissolved solids (TDS). amounts are labeled toxic; other metals fall into the nontoxic
Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic. Water may come group. In natural waters (other than in groundwaters), sources
into contact with these substances within the soil, on surfaces, of metals include dissolution from natural deposits and dis-
and in the atmosphere. The organic dissolved constituents of charges of domestic, agricultural, or industrial wastes.
water are from the decay products of vegetation, from organic All heavy metals exist in surface waters in colloidal, particu-
chemicals, and from organic gases. Removing these dissolved late, and dissolved phases, although dissolved concentrations are
minerals, gases, and organic constituents is desirable, because generally low. The colloidal and particulate metal may be found
they may cause physiological effects and produce aesthetically in (1) hydroxides, oxides, silicates, or sulfides; or (2) adsorbed
displeasing color, taste, and odors. to clay, silica, or organic matter. The soluble forms are gener-
Note: In water distribution systems, a high TDS means ally ions or unionized organometallic chelates or complexes.
high conductivity with consequent higher ionization in corro- The solubility of trace metals in surface waters is predominately
sion control. However, high TDS also means more likelihood controlled by water pH, the type and concentration of liquids
of a protective coating, a positive factor in corrosion control. on which the metal could adsorb, and the oxidation state of the
mineral components and the redox environment of the system.
The behavior of metals in natural waters is a function of the
Fluorides
substrate sediment composition, the suspended sediment com-
According to Phyllis J. Mullenix, Ph.D., water fluoridation is position, and the water chemistry. Sediment composed of fine
not the safe public health measure we have been led to believe. sand and silt will generally have higher levels of adsorbed metal
Concerns about uncontrolled dosage, accumulation in the than will quartz, feldspar, and detrital carbonate-rich sediment.
body over time, and effects beyond the teeth (brain as well The water chemistry of the system controls the rate of
as bones) have not been resolved for fluoride. The health of adsorption and desorption of metals to and from sediment.
citizens necessitates that all the facts be considered, not just Adsorption removes the metal from the water column and
those that are politically expedient (Mullenix, 1997). stores the metal in the substrate. Desorption returns the metal
Most medical authorities would take issue with Ms. to the water column, where recirculation and bioassimilation
Mullenix’s view on the efficacy of fluoride in reducing tooth may take place. Metals may be desorbed from the sediment if
decay. Most authorities seem to hold that a moderate amount the water experiences increases in salinity, decreases in redox
of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good potential, or decreases in pH.
dental health. Fluoride is seldom found in appreciable quanti- Although heavy metals such as iron (Fe) and manganese
ties of surface waters and appears in groundwater in only a (Mn) do not cause health problems, they do impart a notice-
few geographical regions, though it is sometimes found in a able bitter taste to drinking water, even at very low concentra-
few types of igneous or sedimentary rocks. Fluoride is toxic tions. These metals usually occur in groundwater in solution,
to humans in large quantities (the key words are “large quanti- and these and others may cause brown or black stains on laun-
ties” or in Ms. Mullenix’s view “uncontrolled dosages”) and dry and on plumbing fixtures.
also toxic to some animals.
Fluoride used in small concentrations (about 1.0 mg/L in
drinking water) can be beneficial. Experience has shown that
Nutrients
drinking water containing a proper amount of fluoride can Elements in water (such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous,
reduce tooth decay by 65% in children between the ages of sulfur, calcium, iron, potassium, manganese, cobalt, and
boron—all essential to the growth and reproduction of plants cannot yet define for us. Water pollution is an external ele-
and animals) are called nutrients (or biostimulants). The ment that can and does significantly affect our water. But
two nutrients that concern us in this text are nitrogen and what exactly is water pollution? We quickly learn that water
phosphorous. Nitrogen (N2), an extremely stable gas, is the pollution doesn’t always go straight from source to water.
primary component of the earth’s atmosphere (78%). The Controlling what goes into our water is difficult, because the
nitrogen cycle is composed of four processes. Three of the hydrologic cycle carries water (and whatever it picks up along
processes—fixation, ammonification, and nitrification—con- the way) through all of our environment’s media, affecting the
vert gaseous nitrogen into usable chemical forms. The fourth biological, physical, and chemical conditions of the water we
process—denitrification—converts fixed nitrogen back to the must drink to live.
unusable gaseous nitrogen state.
Nitrogen occurs in many forms in the environment and
takes part in many biochemical reactions. Major sources
of nitrogen include runoff from animal feedlots, fertilizer 9.1 The chemical symbol for sodium is ________.
runoff from agricultural fields, from municipal wastewater 9.2 The chemical symbol for sulfuric acid is ________.
discharges, and from certain bacteria and blue-green algae 9.3 Neutrality on the pH scale is _________.
that obtain nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. Certain 9.4 Is NaOH a salt or a base?
forms of acid rain can also contribute nitrogen to surface 9.5 Chemistry is the study of substances and the
waters. _________ they undergo.
Nitrogen in water is commonly found in the form of 9.6 The three stages of matter are ___________,
Nitrate (NO3), which indicates that the water may be contami- ___________, and __________.
nated with sewage. Nitrates can also enter the groundwater 9.7 A basic substance that cannot be broken down any
from chemical fertilizers used in agricultural areas. Excessive further without changing the nature of the substance
nitrate concentrations in drinking water pose an immediate is _____________.
health threat to infants, both human and animal, and which 9.8 A combination of two or more elements is a
can cause death. The bacteria commonly found in the intesti- __________.
nal tract of infants can convert nitrate to highly toxic nitrites 9.9 A table of the basic elements is called the
(NO2). Nitrite can replace oxygen in the bloodstream and __________ table.
results in oxygen starvation that causes a bluish discoloration 9.10 When a substance is mixed into water to form a solu-
of the infant (“blue baby” syndrome). tion the watt is called the ________, and the sub-
Note: Lakes and reservoirs usually have less than 2 mg/L stance is called the __________.
of nitrate measured as nitrogen. Higher nitrate levels are 9.11 Define ion.
found in groundwater ranging up to 20 mg/L, but much higher 9.12 A solid that is less than 1 µm in size is called a
values are detected in shallow aquifers polluted by sewage ___________.
and/or excessive use of fertilizers. 9.13 The property of water that causes light to be scat-
Phosphorous (P) is an essential nutrient that contributes to tered and absorbed is ____________.
the growth of algae and the eutrophication of lakes, though 9.14 What is true color?
its presence in drinking water has little effect on health. In 9.15 What is the main problem with metals found in
aquatic environments, phosphorous is found in the form of water?
phosphate and is a limiting nutrient. If all phosphorous is 9.16 Compounds derived from material that once was
used, plant growth ceases, no matter the amount of nitrogen alive are called ________ chemicals.
available. Many bodies of freshwater currently experience 9.17 pH range is from _________ to _________.
influxes of nitrogen and phosphorous from outside sources. 9.18 What is alkalinity?
The increasing concentration of available phosphorous allows 9.19 The two ions that cause hardness are ___________
plants to assimilate more nitrogen before the phosphorous and __________.
is depleted. If sufficient phosphorous is available, high con- 9.20 What type of substance produces hydroxide ions
centrations of nitrates will lead to phytoplankton (algae) and (OH−) in water?
macrophyte (aquatic plant) production.
Major sources of phosphorous include phosphates in deter-
gents, fertilizer and feedlot runoff, and municipal wastewater
discharges. The 1976 USEPA Water Quality Standards rec- Chien, L., Robertson, H., & Gerrard, U., 1968. Infantile
ommended a phosphorous criterion of 0.10 µg/L (elemental) Gastroenteritis Due to Water with High Sulfate Content.
phosphorus for marine and estuarine waters, but no freshwa- Canadian Medical Association Journal, 99(3), 102–104.
Esteban, E., Rubin, C., McGeehin, M., Flanders, D., Baker, J.J.,
ter criterion. & Sinks, T.H., 1997. Evaluation of Human Health Effects
The biological, physical, and chemical condition of our Associated with Elevated Levels of Sulfate in Drinking
water is of enormous concern to us all, because we must live Water: A Cohort Investigation in South Dakota. International
in such intimate contact with water. When these parameters Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental
shift and change, the changes affect us, often in ways science Health, 3, 171–176.
Gomez, G.G., Sandler, R.S., and Seal, E., Jr., 1995. High Levels of Mullenix, P.J., 1997. In a Letter Sent to Operations and Environmental
Inorganic Sulfate Cause Diarrhea in Neonatal Piglets, J. Nutr., Committee, City of Calgary Canada, 1997.
125(9), 2325–2322. Peterson, N.L., 1951. Sulfates in Drinking Water. Official Bulletin:
Greenberg, A.E. et al., Eds., 1999. Standard Methods for North Dakota Water and Sewage Works Conference, 18, 11.
Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20th ed. Chicago, IL: Smith, R.K., 1993. Water and Wastewater Laboratory Techniques.
American Public Health Association. Alexandria, VA: Water Environment Federation.
Hauser, B.A., 2002. Practical Hydraulics Handbook, 3rd ed. Boca Spellman, F.R., 1997. Wastewater Biosolids to Compost. Boca
Raton, FL: CRC Press. Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Heizer, W.D., Sandler, R.S., Seal, E., Jr., Murray, S.C., Busby, Tchobanoglous, G., and Schroeder, E.D., 1987. Water Quality.
M.G., Schliebe, B.G., & Pusek, S.N., 1997. Intestinal Effects Reading, MA: Addision-Wesley Publishing Company.
of Sulfate on Drinking Water on Normal Human Subjects. USEPA, 1999. Health Effects from Exposure to High Levels
Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 42(5), 10055–11061. of Sulfate in Drinking Water Study. EPA 815-R-99-001.
Jost, N.J., 1992. Surface and Ground Water Pollution Control Washington, DC.
Technology. In: Porter C. Knowles, Ed. Fundamentals of USGS, 2006. Water Science for Schools: Water Measurements.
Environmental Science and Technology. Rockville, MD: Washington, DC: U.S. Geological Survey.
Government Institutes, Inc. Veenhuizen, M.F., 1993. Association between Water Sulfate and
McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed. New York: Diarrhea in Swine on Ohio Farms. JAVMA, 8, 1255–1260.
McGraw-Hill, Inc. Veenhuizen, M.F., Shurson, G.C., and Kohler, E.M., 1991. Effect
Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, of Concentration and Source of Sulfate on Nursery Pig
Disposal, Reuse, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc. Performance and Health. JAVMA, 201(8), 1203–1208.
Moore, F.W., 1952. Physiological Effects of the Consumption Veenhuizen, M.F., Shurson, G.C., & Kohler, E.M., 1992. Effect
of Saline Drinking Water. A Progress Report to the 16th of Concentration and Source of Sulfate on Nursery Pig
Meeting of the Subcommittee on Sanitary Engineering and Performance and Health. JAVMA, 201, 1203–1208.
Environment. Appendix B. January 1952. Washington, DC: Watson, L., 1988. The Water Planet: A Celebration of the Wonder of
National Academy of Sciences. Water. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc.
10 Water Microbiology
Scientists picture the primordial Earth as a planet sufficient water, (4) enough nitrogen and phosphorus (nutri-
washed by a hot sea and bathed in an atmosphere con- ents) to permit oxidation of the available carbon materials, (5)
taining water vapor, ammonia, methane, and hydrogen. proper pH (6.5–9.0), and (6) lack of toxic materials.
Testing this theory, Stanley Miller at the University of
Chicago duplicated these conditions in the laboratory.
He distilled seawater in a special apparatus, passed the MICROBIOLOGY: WHAT IS IT?
vapor with ammonia, methane, and hydrogen through Biology is generally defined as the study of living organisms
an electrical discharge at frequent intervals, and con- (i.e., the study of life). Microbiology is a branch of biology that
densed the “rain” to return to the boiling seawater. deals with the study of microorganisms so small in size that
Within a week, the seawater had turned red. Analysis they must be studied under a microscope. Microorganisms of
showed that it contained amino acids, which are the interest to the water and wastewater operator include bacteria,
building blocks of protein substances. protozoa, viruses, algae, and others.
Whether this is what really happened early in the Note: The science and study of bacteria is known as bacte-
Earth’s history is not important; the experiment dem- riology (discussed later).
onstrated that the basic ingredients of life could have As mentioned, waterworks operators’ primary concern
been made in some such fashion, setting the stage for is how to control microorganisms that cause waterborne
life to come into existence in the sea. The saline fluids diseases—waterborne pathogens—to protect the consumer
in most living things may be an inheritance from such (human and animal). Wastewater operators have the same
early beginnings. microbiological concerns as water operators, but instead of
directly purifying water for consumer consumption, their
—Kemmer (1979) focus is on removing harmful pathogens from the wastes-
tream before outfalling it to the environment. To summarize,
each technical occupation, water and wastewater operator, in
INTRODUCTION regard to its reliance on knowledge of microbiological prin-
Microorganisms are significant in water and wastewater ciples, is described in the following (Spellman, 1996).
because of their role in disease transmission and they are the
primary agents of biological treatment. Thus, water, waste- (1) Water operators are concerned with water supply
water, and other water practitioners must have considerable and water purification through a treatment process.
knowledge of the microbiological characteristics of water and In treating water, the primary concern is producing
wastewater. Simply put, waterworks operators cannot fully potable water that is safe to drink (free of pathogens)
comprehend the principles of effective water treatment with- with no accompanying offensive characteristics such
out knowing the fundamental factors concerning microorgan- as foul taste and odor. The treatment operator must
isms and their relationships to one another, their effect on the possess a wide range of knowledge in order to cor-
treatment process, and their impact on consumers, animals, rectly examine water for pathogenic microorganisms
and the environment. and to determine the type of treatment necessary to
Water/wastewater operators must know the principal ensure the water quality of the end product, potable
groups of microorganisms found in water supplies (surface water, meets regulatory requirements.
and groundwater) and wastewater as well as those that must (2) Wastewater operators are also concerned with
be treated (pathogenic organisms) and/or removed or con- water quality. However, they are not as concerned
trolled for biological treatment processes; they must be able as water specialists are with total removal or reduc-
to identify the organisms used as indicators of pollution and tion of most microorganisms. The wastewater treat-
know their significance, and they must know the methods ment process actually benefits from microorganisms
used to enumerate the indicator organisms. This chapter pro- that act to degrade organic compounds and, thus,
vides microbiology fundamentals specifically targeting the stabilize organic matter in the wastestream. Thus,
needs of water and wastewater specialists. wastewater operators must be trained to operate
Note: To have microbiological activity the body of water or the treatment process in a manner that controls the
wastewater must possess the appropriate environmental con- growth of microorganisms and puts them to work.
ditions. The majority of wastewater treatment processes, for Moreover, to fully understand wastewater treat-
example, are designed to operate using an aerobic process. ment, it is necessary to determine which microor-
The conditions required for aerobic operation are (1) sufficient ganisms are present and how they function to break
free, elemental oxygen, (2) sufficient organic matter (food), (3) down components in the wastewater stream. Then,
301
of course, the operator must ensure that before out- KEY TERMS
falling or dumping treated effluent into the receiv-
ing body the microorganisms that worked so hard Algae : simple plants, many microscopic, containing chloro-
to degrade organic waste products, especially the phyll. Freshwater algae are diverse in shape, color,
pathogenic microorganisms, are not sent from the size, and habitat. They are the basic link in the
plant with effluent as viable organisms. conversion of inorganic constituents in water into
organic constituents.
Algal bloom: sudden spurts of algal growth, which can affect
WATER/WASTEWATER MICROORGANISMS water quality adversely and indicate potentially haz-
As mentioned, microorganisms of interest to water and waste- ardous changes in local water chemistry.
water operators include bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, viruses, Anaerobic: able to live and grow in the absence of free
algae, fungi, and nematodes. These organisms are the most oxygen.
diverse group of living organisms on earth and occupy impor- Autotrophic organisms: produce food from inorganic
tant niches in the ecosystem. Their simplicity and minimal substances.
survival requirements allow them to exist in diverse situations. Bacteria: single-celled, microscopic living organisms that
Because they are a major health concern, water treatment spe- possess rigid cell walls. They may be aerobic, anaer-
cialists are mostly concerned about how to control microor- obic, or facultative; they can cause disease; and some
ganisms that cause waterborne diseases. These waterborne are important in pollution control.
diseases are carried by waterborne pathogens (i.e., bacteria, Biogeochemical cycle: the chemical interactions between the
viruses, protozoa, etc.). The focus of wastewater operators, on atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere.
the other hand, is on the millions of organisms that arrive Coliform organisms: microorganisms found in the intestinal
at the plant with the influent. The majority of these organ- tract of humans and animals. Their presence in water
isms are nonpathogenic and beneficial to plant operations. indicates fecal pollution and potentially adverse con-
From a microbiological standpoint, the predominant species tamination by pathogens.
of microorganisms depend on the characteristics of the influ- Denitrification : the anaerobic biological reduction of nitrate
ent, environmental conditions, process design, and the mode to nitrogen gas.
of plant operation. There are, however, pathogenic organisms Fungi: simple plants lacking in the ability to produce energy
that may be present. These include the organisms responsible through photosynthesis.
for diseases such as typhoid, tetanus, hepatitis, dysentery, gas- Heterotrophic organisms: organisms that are dependent on
troenteritis, and others. organic matter for foods.
To understand how to minimize or maximize the growth Prokaryotic cell: the simple cell type, characterized by the
of microorganisms and control pathogens one must study the lack of a nuclear membrane and the absence of
structure and characteristics of the microorganisms. In the mitochondria.
sections that follow, we will look at each of the major groups Virus: the smallest form of microorganisms capable of caus-
of microorganisms (those important to water/wastewater ing disease.
operators) in relation to their size, shape, types, nutritional
needs, and control. MICROORGANISM CLASSIFICATION
Note: Koren (1991) pointed out that, in a water environ-
AND DIFFERENTIATION
ment, water is not a medium for the growth of microorgan-
isms but is instead a means of transmission (that is, it serves The microorganisms we are concerned with are tiny organ-
as a conduit—hence the name waterborne) of the pathogen isms that make up a large and diverse group of free-living
to the place where an individual is able to consume it, and forms; they exist as single cells, cell bunches, or clusters.
there starts the outbreak of disease. This is contrary to the Found in abundance almost anywhere on earth, the vast
view taken by the average person. That is, when the topic majority of microorganisms are not harmful. Many micro-
of waterborne disease is brought up, we might mistakenly organisms, or microbes, occur as single cells (unicellular);
assume that waterborne diseases are at home in water. others are multicellular; and still others, viruses, do not
Nothing could be further from the truth. A water-filled have a true cellular appearance. A single microbial cell, for
ambiance is not the environment in which the pathogenic the most part, exhibits the characteristic features common
organism would choose to live, that is, if it has such a choice. to other biological systems, such as metabolism, reproduc-
The point is that microorganisms do not normally grow, tion, and growth.
reproduce, languish, and thrive in watery surroundings.
Pathogenic microorganisms temporarily residing in water
Classification
are simply biding their time, going with the flow, waiting
for their opportunity to meet up with their unsuspecting host Greek scholar and philosopher Aristotle classified animals
or hosts. To a degree, when the pathogenic microorganism based on: fly, swim, and walk/crawl/run. For centuries there-
finds its host or hosts, it is finally home or may have found after, scientists simply classified the forms of life visible to
its final resting place (Spellman, 1997). the naked eye as either animal or plant. We started to have
Water Microbiology 303
trouble differentiating microorganisms; so this classification melanogaster (i.e., the fruit fly) and Hexagenia limbota (may-
had to be changed. The Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus fly). As shown, the first letter of the generic name is usually
organized much of the current knowledge about the living capitalized, hence, for example, E. coli indicates that coli is
things in 1735. The importance of organizing or classify- the species and Escherichia (abbreviated to E.) is the genus.
ing organisms cannot be overstated, for without a classifi- The largest, most inclusive category—the kingdom—is plant.
cation scheme, it would be difficult to establish a criteria The names are always in Latin, so they are usually printed in
for identifying organisms and to arrange similar organisms italics or underlined. Some organisms also have English com-
into groups. Probably the most important reason for classi- mon names. Microbe names of particular interest in water/
fying organisms is to make things less confusing (Wistriech wastewater treatment include:
& Lechtman, 1980). Linnaeus was quite innovative in the
classification of organisms. One of his innovations is still • Escherichia coli—a coliform bacterium
with us today: the binomial system of nomenclature. Under • Salmonella typhi—the typhoid bacillus
the binomial system, all organisms are generally described • Giardia lamblia—a protozoan
by a two-word scientific name, the genus and species. Genus • Shigella spp.
and species are groups that are part of hierarchy of groups • Vibrio cholerae
of increasing size, based on their taxonomy. This hierarchy • Campylobacter
follows: • Leptospira spp.
• Entamoeba histolytica
Kingdom • Crytosporidia
Phylum
Class Note: Escherichia coli is commonly known as simply E. coli,
Order while Giardia lamblia is usually referred to by only its genus
Family name, Giardia.
Genus Generally, we use a simplified system of microorganism
Species classification in water science, breaking down classification
into the kingdoms of animal, plant, and protista. As a rule, the
Using this system, a fruit fly might be classified as: animal and plant kingdoms contain all the multicell organ-
isms, and the protists contain all single-celled organisms.
Animalia Along with microorganism classification based on the animal,
Arthropoda plant, and protista kingdoms, microorganisms can be further
Insecta classified as being eukaryotic or prokaryotic (see Table 10.1).
Diptera Note: A eukaryotic organism is characterized by a cellular
Drosophilidae organization that includes a well-defined nuclear membrane.
Drosophila The prokaryotes have a structural organization that sets them
melanogaster off from all other organisms. They are simple cells charac-
terized by a nucleus lacking a limiting membrane, an endo-
This means that this organism is the species melanogaster plasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, and mitochondria. They are
in the genus Drosophila in the Family Drosophilidae in the remarkably adaptable, existing abundantly in the soil, the sea,
Order Diptera in the Class Insecta in the Phylum Arthropoda and freshwater.
in the Kingdom Animalia.
To further illustrate how the hierarchical system is exem-
plified by the classification system, the standard classification
TABLE 10.1
of the mayfly is provided below:
Classification of Microorganisms
Kingdom Animalia Simplified Classification of Microorganisms
Phylum Arthropoda Kingdom Members Cell Classification
Class Insecta
Animal Rotifers
Order Ephermeroptera
Crustaceans
Family Ephemeridae
Worms and larvae Eucaryotic
Genus Hexagenia
Plant Ferns
Species limbata Mosses
Protista Protozoa
Utilizing this hierarchy and Linnaeus’s binomial system of Algae
nomenclature, the scientific name of any organism (as stated Fungi
previously) includes both the generic and specific names. Bacteria Prokaryotic
In the above instances, to uniquely name the species it is Lower Algae Forms
necessary to supply the genus and the species, Drosophila
Differentiation
Capsule
Differentiation among the higher forms of life is based almost
entirely upon morphological (form or structure) differences.
However, differentiation (even among the higher forms) is
Inclusions
not as easily accomplished as you might expect, because nor-
mal variations among individuals of the same species occur
Nuclear Material
frequently. Because of this variation even within a species,
securing accurate classification when dealing with single-
celled microscopic forms that present virtually no visible Cell Membrane
structural differences becomes extremely difficult. Under
these circumstances, considering physiological, cultural, and Cytoplasm
chemical differences is necessary, as well as structure and
form. Differentiation among the smaller groups of bacteria is
based almost wholly upon chemical differences. Mesosome
Ribosomes
THE CELL
The structural and fundamental unit of both plants and ani- Cell Wall
mals, no matter how complex, is the cell. Since the 19th cen-
tury, scientists have known that all living things, whether
animal or plant, are made up of cells. A typical cell is an Flagellum
entity, isolated from other cells by a membrane or cell wall.
The cell membrane contains protoplasm and the nucleus (see
Figure 10.1). The protoplasm within the cell is a living mass
of viscous, transparent material. Within the protoplasm is
FIGURE 10.1 Bacterial cell.
a dense spherical mass called the nucleus or nuclear mate-
rial. In a typical mature plant cell, the cell wall is rigid and is
composed of nonliving material, while in the typical animal (macrocapsule), while thinner capsules (microcapsules) can be
cell, the wall is an elastic living membrane. Cells exist in a detected only by electron microscopy (Singleton & Sainsbury,
very great variety of sizes and shapes, as well as functions. 1994). The production of capsules is determined largely by
Their average size ranges from bacteria too small to be seen genetics as well as environmental conditions, and depends on
with the light microscope to the largest known single cell, the the presence or absence of capsule-degrading enzymes and
ostrich egg. Microbial cells also have an extensive size range, other growth factors. Varying in composition, capsules are
some being larger than human cells (Kordon, 1992). mainly composed of water; the organic contents are made up
Note: The nucleus cannot always be observed in bacteria. of complex polysaccharides, nitrogen-containing substances,
and polypeptides. Capsules confer several advantages when
bacteria grow in their normal habitat. For example, they help
Structure of the Bacterial Cell
to (1) prevent desiccation; (2) resist phagocytosis by host
The structural form and various components of the bacterial phagocytic cells; (3) prevent infection by bacteriophages; and
cell are probably best understood by referring to the simpli- (4) aid bacterial attachment to tissue surfaces in plant and ani-
fied diagram of a rod-form bacterium shown in Figure 10.1. mal hosts or to surfaces of solids objects in aquatic environ-
When studying Figure 10.1, keep in mind that cells of differ- ments. Capsule formation often correlates with pathogenicity.
ent species may differ greatly, both in structure and chemi-
cal composition; for this reason no typical bacterium exists. Flagella
Figure 10.1 shows a generalized bacterium used for the dis- Many bacteria are motile, and this ability to move indepen-
cussion that follows. Not all bacteria have all of the features dently is usually attributed to a special structure, the flagella
shown in the figure, and some bacteria have structures not (singular: flagellum). Depending on species, a cell may have
shown in the figure. a single flagellum (see Figure 10.1) (monotrichous bacteria;
trichous means “hair”); one flagellum at each end (amphit-
Capsules richous bacteria; amphi means “on both sides”); a tuft of
Bacterial capsules (see Figure 10.1) are organized accumula- flagella at one or both ends (lophotrichous bacteria; lopho
tions of gelatinous materials on cell walls, in contrast to slime means “tuft”); or flagella that arise all over the cell surface
layers (a water secretion that adheres loosely to the cell wall (peritrichous bacteria; peri means “around”).
and commonly diffuses into the cell), which are unorganized A flagellum is a threadlike appendage extending outward
accumulations of similar material. The capsule is usually from the plasma membrane and cell wall. Flagella are slen-
thick enough to be seen under the ordinary light microscope der, rigid, locomotor structures, about 20 µm across and up
to 15–20 µm long. Flagellation patterns are very useful in various molecules involved in synthesis, energy metabolism,
identifying bacteria and can be seen by light microscopy, but and cell maintenance.
only after being stained with special techniques designed to
increase their thickness. The detailed structure of flagella can Mesosome
be seen only in the electron microscope. A common intracellular structure found in the bacterial cyto-
Bacterial cells benefit from flagella in several ways. They plasm is the mesosome (see Figure 10.1). Mesosomes are
can increase the concentration of nutrients or decrease the invaginations of the plasma membrane in the shape of tubules,
concentration of toxic materials near the bacterial surfaces vesicles, or lamellae. Their exact function is unknown.
by causing a change in the flow rate of fluids. They can also Currently many bacteriologists believe that mesosomes are
disperse flagellated organisms to areas where colony forma- artifacts generated during the fixation of bacteria for electron
tion can take place. The main benefit of flagella to organ- microscopy.
isms is their increased ability to flee from areas that might
be harmful. Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region)
The nuclear region of the prokaryotic cell is primitive and
Cell Wall a striking contrast to that of the eukaryotic cell (see Figure
The main structural component of most prokaryotes is the 10.1). Prokaryotic cells lack a distinct nucleus, the function of
rigid cell wall (see Figure 10.1). Functions of the cell wall the nucleus being carried out by a single, long, double strand
include (1) providing protection for the delicate protoplast of DNA that is efficiently packaged to fit within the nucleoid.
from osmotic lysis (bursting); (2) determining a cell’s shape; The nucleoid is attached to the plasma membrane. A cell can
(3) acting as a permeability layer that excludes large molecules have more than one nucleoid when cell division occurs after
and various antibiotics and plays an active role in regulating the genetic material has been duplicated.
the cell’s intake of ions; and (4) providing a solid support for
flagella. Cell walls of different species may differ greatly in Ribosomes
structure, thickness, and composition. The cell wall accounts The bacterial cytoplasm is often packed with ribosomes (see
for about 20–40% of the dry weight of a bacterium. Figure 10.1). Ribosomes are minute, rounded bodies made
of RNA and are loosely attached to the plasma membrane.
Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane) Ribosomes are estimated to account for about 40% of a bac-
Surrounded externally by the cell wall and composed of a terium’s dry weight; a single cell may have as many as 10,000
lipoprotein complex, the plasma membrane or cell membrane ribosomes. Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis and are
is the critical barrier, separating the inside from outside the part of the translation process.
cell (see Figure 10.1). About 7–8 µm thick and comprising
10–20% of a bacterium’s dry weight, the plasma membrane Inclusions
controls the passage of all material into and out of the cell. The Inclusions (or storage granules) are often seen within bac-
inner and outer faces of the plasma membrane are embedded terial cells (see Figure 10.1). Some inclusion bodies are not
with water-loving (hydrophilic) lips, whereas the interior is bound by a membrane and lie free in the cytoplasm. A single-
hydrophobic. Control of material into the cell is accomplished layered membrane about 2–4 µm thick encloses other inclu-
by screening, as well as by electric charge. The plasma mem- sion bodies. Many bacteria produce polymers that are stored
brane is the site of the surface charge of the bacteria. as granules in the cytoplasm.
In addition to serving as an osmotic barrier that passively
regulates the passage of material into and out of the cell,
BACTERIA
the plasma membrane participates in the entire active trans-
port of various substances into the bacterial cell. Inside the The simplest wholly contained life systems are bacteria or
membrane, many highly reactive chemical groups guide the prokaryotes, which are the most diverse group of microorgan-
incoming material to the proper points for further reaction. isms. As mentioned, they are among the most common micro-
This active transport system provides bacteria with certain organisms in water, are primitive, unicellular (single-celled)
advantages, including the ability to maintain a fairly constant organisms, possessing no well-defined nucleus, that present
intercellular ionic state in the presence of varying external a variety of shapes and nutritional needs. Bacteria contain
ionic concentrations. In addition to participating in the uptake about 85% water and 15%ash or mineral matter. The ash is
of nutrients, the cell membrane transport system participates largely composed of sulfur, potassium, sodium, calcium, and
in waste excretion and protein secretions. chlorides, with small amounts of iron, silicon, and magne-
sium. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission.
Cytoplasm Note: Binary fission occurs when one organism splits or
Within a cell and bounded by the cell membrane is a com- divides into two or more new organisms.
plicated mixture of substances and structures called the Bacteria, once called the smallest living organisms (now
cytoplasm (see Figure 10.1). The cytoplasm is a water-based it is known that smaller forms of matter exhibit many of the
fluid containing ribosomes, ions, enzymes, nutrients, storage characteristics of life), range in size from 0.5 to 2 μm in diam-
granules (under certain circumstances), waste products, and eter and about 1–10 μm long.
Most bacteria require organic food to survive and multiply.

TABLE 10.2 Plant and animal material that gets into the water provides the
Forms of Bacteria food source for bacteria. Bacteria convert the food to energy
Technical Name and use the energy to make new cells. Some bacteria can use
inorganics (e.g., minerals such as iron) as an energy source
Form Singular Plural Example
and exist and multiply even when organics (pollution) are not
Sphere Coccus Cocci Streptococcus available.
Rod Bacillus Bacilli Bacillus typhosis
Curved or spiral Spirillum Spirilla Spirillum cholera
Bacterial Growth Factors
Several factors affect the rate at which bacteria grow, includ-
Note: A micron is a metric unit of measurement equal to ing temperature, pH, and oxygen levels. The warmer the envi-
one-thousandth of a millimeter. To visualize the size of bac- ronment, the faster the rate of growth. Generally, for each
teria, consider that about 1,000 bacteria lying side-by-side increase of 10°C, the growth rate doubles. Heat can also be
would reach across the head of a straight pin. used to kill bacteria. Most bacteria grow best at neutral pH.
Bacteria are categorized into three general groups based Extreme acidic or basic conditions generally inhibit growth,
on their physical form or shape (though almost every varia- though some bacteria may require acidic and some require
tion has been found; see Table 10.2). The simplest form is alkaline conditions for growth.
the sphere. Spherical shaped bacteria are called cocci (mean- Bacteria are aerobic, anaerobic, or facultative. If aero-
ing “berries”). They are not necessarily perfectly round, but bic, they require free oxygen in the aquatic environment.
may be somewhat elongated, flattened on one side, or oval. Anaerobic bacteria exist and multiply in environments that
Rod shaped bacteria are called bacilli. Spiral shaped bacte- lack dissolved oxygen. Facultative bacteria (e.g., iron bacte-
ria (called Spirilla), which have one or more twists and are ria) can switch from an aerobic to anaerobic growth or grow
never straight, make up the third group (see Figure 10.2). Such in an anaerobic or aerobic environment.
formations are usually characteristic of a particular genus or Under optimum conditions, bacteria grow and repro-
species. Within these three groups are many different arrange- duce very rapidly. As stated previously, bacteria reproduce
ments. Some exist as single cells; others as pairs, as packets of by binary fission. An important point to consider in con-
four or eight, as chains, and as clumps. nection with bacterial reproduction is the rate at which
Cocci (spherical shapes)
Pairs (diplococcus) Tetrad
Singles (random arrangement)
Cubical packets Chains (Streptococcus)

of 8 (sarcina) Grape-like clusters
(Staphylococcus)
Bacilli (Cylindrical or Rod Shaped)

Side-by Side (Palsading)
One-half spiral turn

Vibro Loosely wound Tightly wound
Spiral Spiral
FIGURE 10.2 Bacterial shapes and arrangements.

the process can take place. The total time required for an PROTOZOA
organism to reproduce and the offspring to reach matu-
rity is called generation time. Bacteria growing under Protozoans (or “first animals”) are a large group of eukaryotic
optimal conditions can double their number about every organisms of more than 50,000 known species belonging to
20–30 min. Obviously, this generation time is very short the Kingdom Protista that have adapted a form of cell to serve
compared with that of higher plants and animals. Bacteria as the entire body. In fact, protozoans are one-celled animal-
continue to grow at this rapid rate as long as nutrients hold like organisms with complex cellular structures. In the micro-
out—even the smallest contamination can result in a siz- bial world, protozoans are giants, many times larger than
able growth in a very short time. bacteria. They range in size from 4 microns to 500 microns.
Note: Even though wastewater can contain bacteria counts The largest ones can almost be seen by the naked eye. They
in the millions per ml, in wastewater treatment, under con- can exist as solitary or independent organisms [or example,
trolled conditions, bacteria can help to destroy and to iden- the stalked ciliates (see Figure 10.3) such as Vorticella sp.], or
tify pollutants. In such a process, bacteria stabilize organic they can colonize like the sedentary Carchesium sp. Protozoa
matter (e.g., activated sludge processes), and thereby assist the get their name because they employ the same type of feeding
treatment process in producing effluent that does not impose strategy as animals. That is, they are heterotrophic, meaning
an excessive oxygen demand on the receiving body. Coliform they obtain cellular energy from organic substances such as
bacteria can be used as an indicator of pollution by human or proteins. Most are harmless, but some are parasitic. Some
animal wastes. forms have two life stages: active trophozoites (capable of
feeding) and dormant cysts.
The major groups of protozoans are based on their method
Destruction Of Bacteria of locomotion (motility). For example, the Mastigophora are
In water and wastewater treatment, the destruction of bacteria motile by means of one of more flagella (the whip-like pro-
is usually called disinfection. jection that propels the free-swimming organisms—Giardia
Disinfection does not mean that all microbial forms are lamblia is a flagellated protozoan); the Ciliophora by means of
killed. That would be sterilization. However, disinfection shortened modified flagella called cilia (short hair-like struc-
does reduce the number of disease-causing organisms to an tures that beat rapidly and propel them through the water); the
acceptable number. Growing bacteria are easy to control by Sarcodina by means of amoeboid movement (streaming or
disinfection. Some bacteria, however, form spores—survival gliding action—the shape of amoebae change as they stretch,
structures—which are much more difficult to destroy. then contract, from place to place); and the Sporozoa, which
Note: Inhibiting the growth of microorganisms is termed are nonmotile; they are simply swept along, riding the current
antisepsis, while destroying them is called disinfection. of the water.
Protozoa consume organics to survive; their favorite food
is bacteria. Protozoa are mostly aerobic or facultative in
Waterborne Bacteria regard to oxygen requirements. Toxic materials, pH, and tem-
All surface waters contain bacteria. Waterborne bacteria, as perature affect protozoan rates of growth in the same way as
we have said, are responsible for infectious epidemic diseases. they affect bacteria.
Bacterial numbers increase significantly during storm events Most protozoan life cycles alternate between an active
when streams are high. Heavy rainstorms increase stream growth phase (trophozoites) and a resting stage (cysts). Cysts
contamination by washing material from the ground surface are extremely resistant structures that protect the organism
into the stream. After the initial washing occurs, few impuri- from destruction when it encounters harsh environmental
ties are left to be washed into the stream, which may then conditions—including chlorination.
carry relatively “clean” water. A river of good quality shows Note: Those protozoans not completely resistant to chlo-
its highest bacterial numbers during rainy periods; however, a rination require higher disinfectant concentrations and lon-
much-polluted stream may show the highest numbers during ger contact time for disinfection than normally used in water
low flows, because of the constant influx of pollutants. Water treatment.
and wastewater operators are primarily concerned with bacte- The protozoa and the waterborne diseases associated with
rial pathogens responsible for disease. These pathogens enter them of most concern to the waterworks operator are:
potential drinking water supplies through fecal contamina-
tion and are ingested by humans if the water is not properly • Entamoeba histolytica—Amoebic dysentery
treated and disinfected. • Giardia lamblia—Giardiasis
Note: Regulations require that owners of all public water • Cryptosporidium—Cryptosporidiosis
supplies collect water samples and deliver them to a certified
laboratory for bacteriological examination at least monthly. In wastewater treatment, protozoa are a critical part of the
The number of samples required is usually in accordance with purification process and can be used to indicate the condition
Federal Standards, which generally require that one sample of treatment processes. Protozoa normally associated with
per month be collected for each 1,000 persons served by the wastewater include amoeba, flagellates, free-swimming cili-
waterworks. ates, and stalked ciliates.
Giardia lamblia – Cyst, form Giardia lamblia –Trophozoite, form

Flagellate
Amoeba Free Swimming

Ciliate
Suctoria
oria Stalked - Ciliate
FIGURE 10.3 Protozoa.
Amoebae are associated with poor wastewater treatment of The stalked ciliated protozoan attaches itself to the waste-
a young biosolids mass (see Figure 10.3). They move through water solids and uses its cilia to attract food (see Figure 10.3).
wastewater by a streaming or gliding motion. Moving the liq- The stalked ciliated protozoan is normally associated with a
uids stored within the cell wall effects this movement. They plant effluent that is very clear and contains low amounts of
are normally associated with an effluent high in BOD and sus- both BODs and suspended solids.
pended solids. Rotifers make up a well-defined group of the smallest, sim-
Flagellates (flagellated protozoa) have a single, long hair- plest multicellular microorganisms and are found in nearly
like or whip-like projection (flagella) that is used to propel the all aquatic habitats (see Figure 10.4). Rotifers are a higher
free-swimming organisms through wastewater and to attract life form associated with cleaner waters. Normally found in
food (see Figure 10.3). Flagellated protozoans are normally well-operated wastewater treatment plants, they can be used
associated with poor treatment and young biosolids. When the to indicate the performance of certain types of treatment
free-swimming ciliated protozoan is the predominant organ- processes.
ism, the plant effluent will contain large amounts of BODs
and suspended solids.
MICROSCOPIC CRUSTACEANS
The free-swimming ciliated protozoan uses its tiny, hair-
like projections (cilia) to move itself through the wastewater Because they are important members of freshwater zoo-
and to attract food (see Figure 10.3). The free-swimming cili- plankton, microscopic crustaceans are of interest to water
ated protozoan is normally associated with a moderate biosol- and wastewater operators. These microscopic organisms are
ids age and effluent quality. When the free-swimming ciliated characterized by a rigid shell structure. They are multicellu-
protozoan is the predominant organism, the plant effluent will lar animals that are strict aerobes, and as primary produc-
normally be turbid and contain a high amount of suspended ers, they feed on bacteria and algae. They are important as a
solids. source of food for fish. Additionally, microscopic crustaceans
Elaborate Irregular
Long Slender Rod Geometric Polyhedral
FIGURE 10.5 Virus shapes.

FIGURE 10.4 Philodina, a common rotifer.
Note: Viruses that infect bacterial cells cannot infect and
have been used to clarify algae-laden effluents from oxida- replicate within cells of other organisms. It is possible to uti-
tions ponds. Cyclops and Daphnia are two microscopic crus- lize the specificity to identify bacteria, a procedure called
taceans of interest to water and wastewater operators. phage typing.
VIRUSES ALGAE
Viruses are very different from the other microorganisms. You do not have to be a water/wastewater operator to under-
Consider their size relationship, for example. Relative to stand that algae can be a nuisance. Many ponds and lakes in
size, if protozoans are the Goliaths of microorganisms, then the United States are currently undergoing eutrophication, the
viruses are the Davids. Stated more specifically and accu- enrichment of an environment with inorganic substances (e.g.,
rately, viruses are intercellular parasitic particles that are the phosphorus and nitrogen), causing excessive algae growth
smallest living infectious materials known—the midgets of and premature aging of the water body. When eutrophication
the microbial world. Viruses are very simple life forms con- occurs, especially when filamentous algae like Cladophora
sisting of a central molecule of genetic material surrounded break loose in a pond or lake and wash ashore, algae make
by a protein shell called a capsid and sometimes by a sec- their stinking, noxious presence known.
ond layer called an envelope. They contain no mechanisms Algae are a form of aquatic plants and are classified by
by which to obtain energy or reproduce on their own; thus to color (e.g. green algae, blue-green algae, golden-brown algae,
live, viruses must have a host. After they invade the cells of etc.). Algae come in many shapes and sizes (see Figure 10.6).
their specific host (animal, plant, insect, fish, or even bacte- Although they are not pathogenic, algae do cause problems
ria), they take over the host’s cellular machinery and force it with water/wastewater treatment plant operations. They grow
to make more viruses. In the process, the host cell is destroyed easily on the walls of troughs and basins, and heavy growth
and hundreds of new viruses are released into the environ- can plug intakes and screens. Additionally, some algae release
ment. Viruses occur in many shapes, including long slender chemicals that give off undesirable tastes and odors. Although
rods, elaborate irregular shapes, and geometric polyhedrals algae are usually classified by their color, they are also com-
(see Figure 10.5). monly classified based on their cellular properties or char-
The viruses of most concern to the waterworks operator acteristics. Several characteristics are used to classify algae
are the pathogens that cause hepatitis, viral gastroenteritis, including (1) cellular organization and cell wall structure; (2)
and poliomyelitis. the nature of the chlorophyll(s); (3) the type of motility, if any;
Smaller and different from bacteria, viruses are preva-
lent in water contaminated with sewage. Detecting viruses in
water supplies is a major problem because of the complex-
ity of non-routine procedures involved, although experience
has shown that the normal coliform index can be used as a
rough guide for viruses as for bacteria. More attention must
be paid to viruses, however, whenever surface water supplies
have been used for sewage disposal. Viruses are difficult to
Euglenoids Blue-green
Blue-gr Diatom
destroy by normal disinfection practices, requiring increased
disinfectant concentration and contact time for effective
destruction. FIGURE 10.6 Algae.
(4) the carbon polymers that are produced and stored; and (5) to oxygen by tunneling through slime. In the activated sludge
the reproductive structures and methods. process, the nematodes play important roles as agents of
Many algae (in mass) are easily seen by the naked eye— better oxygen diffusion. They accomplish this by tunneling
others are microscopic. They occur in fresh and polluted through floc particles. They also act as parameters of opera-
water, as well as in salt water. Since they are plants, they are tional conditions in the process, such as low dissolved oxygen
capable of using energy from the sun in photosynthesis. They levels (anoxic conditions) and the presence of toxic wastes.
usually grow near the surface of the water because light can- Environmental conditions have an impact on the growth
not penetrate very far through the water. Algae are controlled of nematodes. For example, in anoxic conditions their swim-
in raw waters with chlorine and potassium permanganate. ming and growth is impaired. The most important condition
Algae blooms in raw water reservoirs are often controlled they indicate is when the wastewater strength and composi-
with copper sulfate. tion has changed. Temperature fluctuations directly affect
Note: By producing oxygen, which is utilized by other their growth and survival; population decreases when tem-
organisms including animals, algae play an important role in peratures increase.
the balance of nature. Aquatic flatworms (improperly named because they are
not all flat) feed primarily on algae. Because of their aver-
sion to light, they are found in the lower depths of pools.
FUNGI
Two varieties of flatworms are seen in wastewater treatment
Fungi are of relatively minor importance in water/wastewater processes: microtubellarians are more than flat and average
operations (except for biosolids composting, where they are about 0.5–5 mm in size, and macrotubellarians (planarians)
critical). Fungi, like bacteria, are also extremely diverse. They are more flat than round and average about 5–20 mm in body
are multicellular, autotrophic, photosynthetic protists. They size. Flatworms are very hardy and can survive in wide varia-
grow as filamentous, mold-like forms or as yeast-like (single- tions in humidity and temperature. As inhabitants of sewage
celled) organisms. They feed on organic material. sludge, they play an important part in sludge stabilization
Note: Aquatic fungi grow as parasites on living plants or and as bioindicators or parameters of process problems. For
animals and as saprophytes on those that are dead. example, their inactivity or sluggishness might indicate a low
dissolved oxygen level or the presence of toxic wastes.
Surface waters grossly polluted with organic matter (espe-
NEMATODES AND FLATWORMS(WORMS)
cially domestic sewage) have a fauna that is capable of thriv-
Along with inhabiting organic mud, worms also inhabit bio- ing in very low concentrations of oxygen. A few species of
logical slimes; they have been found in activated sludge and tubificid worms dominate this environment. Pennak reported
in trickling filter slimes (wastewater treatment processes). (1989) that the bottoms of severely polluted streams can be
Microscopic in size, they range in length from 0.5 to3 mm and literally covered with a “writhing” mass of these tubificids.
in diameter from 0.01 to0.05 mm. Most species have a similar The Tubifex (commonly known as sludge worms) are
appearance. They have a body that is covered by cuticle, are small, slender, reddish worms that normally range in length
cylindrical, nonsegmented, and taper at both ends. from 25 to about 50 mm. They are burrowers; their poste-
These organisms continuously enter wastewater treatment rior end protrudes to obtain nutrients (see Figure 10.7). When
systems, primarily through attachment to soils that reach the found in streams, Tubifex are indicators of pollution.
plant through inflow and infiltration (I & I). They are present
in large, often highly variable numbers, but as strict aerobes, WATER TREATMENT AND
they are found only in aerobic treatment processes where they
MICROBIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
metabolize solid organic matter.
When nematodes are firmly established in the treatment The primary goal in water treatment is to protect the con-
process, they can promote microfloral activity and decomposi- sumer of potable drinking water from disease. Drinking
tion. They crop bacteria in both the activated sludge and trick- water safety is a worldwide concern. Drinking nontreated or
ling filter systems. Their activities in these systems enhance improperly treated water is a major cause of illness in devel-
oxygen penetration by tunneling through floc particles and oping countries. Water contains several biological (as well as
biofilm. In activated sludge processes, they are present in chemical) contaminants that must be removed efficiently in
relatively small numbers because the liquefied environment is order to produce safe drinking water that is also aesthetically
not a suitable habitat for crawling, which they prefer over the pleasing to the consumer. The finished water must be free of
free-swimming mode. In trickling filters where the fine sta- microbial pathogens and parasites, turbidity, color, and taste
tionary substratum is suitable to permit crawling and mating, and odor. To achieve this goal, raw surface water or ground-
nematodes are quite abundant. water is subjected to a series of treatment processes that will
Along with preferring the trickling filter habitat, nematodes be described in detail later. Disinfection alone is sufficient if
play a beneficial role in this habitat; for example, they break the raw water originates form a protected source. More com-
loose portions of the biological slime coating the filter bed. monly, several processes are used to treat water. For example,
This action prevents excessive slime growth and filter clog- disinfection may be combined with coagulation, flocculation,
ging. They also aid in keeping slime porous and accessible and filtration.
FIGURE 10.7 Tubificid worms.
As mentioned, several unit processes are used in the water protozoans have the full attention of water treatment opera-
treatment process to produce microbiologically (and chemi- tors everywhere.
cally) safe drinking water. The extent of treatment depends
on the source of raw water; surface waters generally require
Pathogenic Protozoa
more treatment than groundwaters. With the exception of dis-
infection, the other unit processes in the treatment train do not As mentioned, certain types of protozoans can cause disease.
specifically address the destruction or removal of pathogens. Of particular interest to the drinking water practitioner are
Water treatment unit processes include (1) storage of raw the Entamoeba histolytica (amebic dysentery and amebic
water, (2) prechlorination, (3) coagulation-flocculation, (4) hepatitis), Giardia lamblia (Giardiasis), Cryptosporidium
water softening, (5) filtration, and (6) disinfection. Although (Cryptosporidiosis), and the emerging Cyclospora
filtration and disinfection are the primary means of removing (Cyclosporiasis). Sewage contamination transports eggs,
contaminants and pathogens from drinking water supplies, cysts, and oocysts of parasitic protozoa and helminths (tape-
in each of these unit processes, reduction or destruction of worms, hookworms, etc.) into raw water supplies, leaving
pathogens is accomplished but is variable and is influenced water treatment (in particular filtration) and disinfection as
by a number of factors such as sunlight, sedimentation, and the means by which to diminish the danger of contaminated
temperature. water for the consumer.
The water treatment unit processes mentioned above are To prevent the occurrence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium
important and are described in detail later in this text. For spp. in surface water supplies, and to address increasing
the moment, because of relatively recent events involving problems with waterborne diseases, USEPA implemented
pathogenic protozoans causing adverse reactions, including its Surface Water Treatment Rule in 1989. The rule requires
death, to consumers in various locations in the United States both filtration and disinfection of all surface water sup-
(and elsewhere), it is important to turn our attention to these plies as a means of primarily controlling Giardia spp. and
pathogenic protozoans. One thing is certain, these pathogenic enteric viruses. Since the implementation of its Surface
Water Treatment Rule, USEPA has also recognized that not establish a Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for
Cryptosporidium spp. is an agent of waterborne disease. Giardia, it does specify treatment requirements to achieve at
In 1996, in its next series of surface water regulations, the least 99.9% (3-log) removal and/or inactivation of Giardia.
USEPA included Cryptosporidium. This regulation requires that all drinking water systems using
To test the need for and the effectiveness of USEPA’s surface water or groundwater under the influence of sur-
Surface Water Treatment Rule, LeChevallier et al. (1991) con- face water must disinfect and filter the water. The Enhanced
ducted a study on the occurrence and distribution of Giardia Surface Water Treatment Rule (ESWTR), which includes
and Cryptosporidium organisms in raw water supplies at 66 Cryptosporidium and further regulates Giardia, was estab-
surface water filter plants. These plants were located in 14 lished in December 1996.
states and 1 Canadian province. A combined immunofluores-
cence test indicated that cysts and oocysts were widely dis- Giardiasis
persed in the aquatic environment. Giardia spp. was detected Giardiasis is recognized as one of the most frequently occur-
in more than 80% of the samples. Cryptosporidium spp. was ring waterborne diseases in the United States. Giardia lamblia
found in 85% of the sample locations. Taking into account cysts have been discovered in the United States in places as far
several variables, Giardia or Cryptosporidium spp. was apart as Estes Park, Colorado (near the Continental Divide);
detected in 97% of the raw water samples. After evaluating Missoula, Montana; Wilkes-Barre, Scranton, and Hazleton,
their data, the researchers concluded that the Surface Water Pennsylvania; and Pittsfield and Lawrence, Massachusetts,
Treatment Rule might have to be upgraded (subsequently, it just to name a few (CDC, 1995).
has been) to require additional treatment. Giardiasis is characterized by intestinal symptoms that
usually last one week or more and may be accompanied by
one or more of the following: diarrhea, abdominal cramps,
Giardia
bloating, flatulence, fatigue, and weight loss. Although vom-
Giardia (gee-ar-dee-ah) lamblia (also known as hiker’s/trav- iting and fever are commonly listed as relatively frequent
eler’s scourge or disease) is a microscopic parasite that can symptoms, people involved in waterborne outbreaks in the
infect warm-blooded animals and humans. Although Giardia United States have not commonly reported them.
was discovered in the 19th century, not until 1981 did the While most Giardia infections persist only for one or two
World Health Organization (WHO) classify Giardia as a months, some people undergo a more chronic phase, which
pathogen. An outer shell called a cyst that allows it to survive can follow the acute phase or may become manifest with-
outside the body for long periods protects giardia. If viable out an antecedent acute illness. Loose stools and increased
cysts are ingested, Giardia can cause Giardiasis, an intestinal abdominal gassiness with cramping, flatulence, and burping
illness that can cause nausea, anorexia, fever, and severe diar- characterize the chronic phase. Fever is not common, but
rhea. The symptoms last only for several days, and the body malaise, fatigue, and depression may ensue. For a small num-
can naturally rid itself of the parasite in one to two months. ber of people, the persistence of infection is associated with
However, for individuals with weakened immune systems, the the development of marked malabsorption and weight loss
body often cannot rid itself of the parasite without medical (Weller, 1985). Similarly, lactose (milk) intolerance can be
treatment. a problem for some people. This can develop coincidentally
In the United States, Giardia is the most commonly identi- with the infection or be aggravated by it, causing an increase
fied pathogen in waterborne disease outbreaks. Contamination in intestinal symptoms after the ingestion of milk products.
of a water supply by Giardia can occur in two ways: (1) by Some people may have several of these symptoms without
the activity of animals in the watershed area of the water evidence of diarrhea or have only sporadic episodes of diar-
supply; or (2) by the introduction of sewage into the water rhea every three or four days. Still others may not have any
supply. Wild and domestic animals are major contributors in symptoms at all. Therefore, the problem may not be whether
contaminating water supplies. Studies have also shown that, you are infected with the parasite or not, but how harmoni-
unlike many other pathogens, Giardia is not host-specific. In ously you both can live together or how to get rid of the para-
short, Giardia cysts excreted by animals can infect and cause site (either spontaneously or by treatment) when the harmony
illness in humans. Additionally, in several major outbreaks does not exist or is lost.
of waterborne diseases, the Giardia cyst source was sewage Note: Three prescription drugs are available in the United
contaminated water supplies. States to treat giardiasis: quinacrine, metronidazole, and fura-
Treating the water supply, however, can effectively con- zolidone. In a recent review of drug trials in which the effi-
trol waterborne Giardia. Chlorine and ozone are examples cacies of these drugs were compared, quinacrine produced a
of two disinfectants known to effectively kill Giardia cysts. cure in 93% of patients, metronidazole cured 92%, and fura-
Filtration of the water can also effectively trap and remove the zolidone cured about 84% of patients.
parasite from the water supply. The combination of disinfec- Giardiasis occurs worldwide. In the United States, Giardia
tion and filtration is the most effective water treatment process is the parasite most commonly identified in stool specimens
available today for the prevention of Giardia contamination. submitted to state laboratories for parasitological examination.
In drinking water, Giardia is regulated under the Surface During a three-year period, approximately 4% of one million
Water Treatment Rule (SWTR). Although the SWTR does stool specimens submitted to state laboratories tested positive
for Giardia (CDC, 1979). Other surveys have demonstrated et al., 1981). The highest infection rates are usually observed
Giardia prevalence rates ranging from 1% to 20%, depending in children who wear diapers (one to three years of age). In
on the location and ages of persons studied. Giardiasis ranks a study of 18 randomly selected day-care centers in Atlanta,
among the top 20 infectious diseases that cause the greatest 10% of diapered children were found infected. Transmission
morbidity in Africa, Asia, and Latin America; it has been from this age group to older children, day-care staff, and
estimated that about two million infections occur per year in household contacts is also common. About 20% of parents
these regions. People who are at highest risk for acquiring caring for an infected child become infected.
Giardia infection in the United States may be placed into five Local health officials and managers or water utility com-
major categories: panies need to realize that sources of Giardia infection other
than municipal drinking water exist. Armed with this knowl-
(1) People in cities whose drinking water originates edge, they are less likely to make a quick (and sometimes
from streams or rivers, and whose water treatment wrong) assumption that a cluster of recently diagnosed cases
process does not include filtration, or where filtration in a city is related to municipal drinking water. Of course,
is ineffective because of malfunctioning equipment drinking water must not be ruled out as a source of infection
(2) Hikers/campers/outdoor people when a larger than expected number of cases is recognized in
(3) International travelers a community, but the possibility that the cases are associated
(4) Children who attend day-care centers, day-care cen- with a day-care center outbreak, drinking untreated stream
ter staff, and parents and siblings of children infected water, or international travel should also be entertained.
in day-care centers To understand the finer aspects of Giardia transmission
(5) Homosexual men and strategies for control, the drinking water practitioner
must become familiar with several aspects of the parasite’s
People in categories 1, 2, and 3 have in common the same biology. Two forms of the parasite exist, a trophozoite and a
general source of infection, i.e., they acquire Giardia from cyst, both of which are much larger than bacteria (see Figure
fecally contaminated drinking water. The city resident usu- 10.8). Trophozoites live in the upper small intestine where
ally becomes infected because the municipal water treatment they attach to the intestinal wall by means of a disc-shaped
process does not include the filter necessary to physically suction pad on their ventral surface. Trophozoites actively
remove the parasite from the water. The number of people in feed and reproduce at this location. At some time during the
the United States at risk (i.e., the number who receive munici- trophozoite’s life, it releases its hold on the bowel wall and
pal drinking water from unfiltered surface water) is estimated floats in the fecal stream through the intestine. As it makes
to be 20 million. International travelers may also acquire the this journey, it undergoes a morphologic transformation into
parasite from improperly treated municipal waters in cities or an egg-like structure called a cyst. The cyst (about 6–9 nm
villages in other parts of the world, particularly in develop- in diameter × 8–12 µm—1/100 mm—in length) has a thick
ing countries. In Eurasia, only travelers to Leningrad appear exterior wall that protects the parasite against the harsh ele-
to be at increased risk. In prospective studies, 88% of U.S. ments that it will encounter outside the body. This cyst form
and 35% of Finnish travelers to Leningrad who had nega- of the parasite is infectious to other people or animals. Most
tive stool tests for Giardia on departure to the Soviet Union people become infected either directly (by hand-to-mouth
developed symptoms of giardiasis and had a positive test for transfer of cysts from the feces of an infected individual)
Giardia after they returned home (Brodsky et al., 1974). With or indirectly (by drinking feces-contaminated water). Less
the exception of visitors to Leningrad, however, Giardia has common modes of transmission included ingestion of fecally
not been implicated as a major cause of traveler’s diarrhea—it contaminated food and hand-to-mouth transfer of cysts after
has been detected in fewer than 2% of travelers who develop touching a fecally contaminated surface. After the cyst is
diarrhea. However, hikers and campers risk infection every swallowed, the trophozoite is liberated through the action
time they drink untreated raw water from a stream or river. of stomach acid and digestive enzymes and becomes estab-
Persons in categories 4 and 5 become exposed through more lished in the small intestine.
direct contact with feces or an infected person by exposure to Although infection after ingestion of only one Giardia
soiled diapers of an infected child (day-care center-associated cyst is theoretically possible, the minimum number of cysts
cases), or through direct or indirect anal–oral sexual practices shown to infect a human under experimental conditions is ten
in the case of homosexual men. (Rendtorff, 1954). Trophozoites divide by binary fission about
Although community waterborne outbreaks of giardiasis every 12 hours. What this means in practical terms is that if a
have received the greatest publicity in the United States dur- person swallowed only a single cyst, reproduction at this rate
ing the past decade, about half of the Giardia cases discussed would result in more than one million parasites 10 days later,
with the staff of the Centers for Disease Control over a three- and one billion parasites by day 15.
year period had a day-care exposure as the most likely source The exact mechanism by which Giardia causes illness is
of infection. Numerous outbreaks of Giardia in day-care not yet well understood, but is not necessarily related to the
centers have been reported in recent years. Infection rates for number of organisms present. Nearly all of the symptoms,
children in day-care center outbreaks range from 21% to 44% however, are related to dysfunction of the gastrointestinal
in the United States and from 8% to 27% in Canada (Black tract. The parasite rarely invades other parts of the body, such
Cyst Excystation in duodenum
(infective stage)
External Man
Environment
Multiplication by
Longitudinal
Binary Fission
FIGURE 10.8 Life cycle of Giardia lamblia.
as the gall bladder or pancreatic ducts. Intestinal infection contamination upstream by human residents or visitors, as well
does not result in permanent damage. as by Giardia-infected animals such as beavers, has been well
Note: Giardia has an incubation period of one to eight documented. Water obtained from deep wells is an unlikely
weeks. source of Giardia because of the natural filtration of water as
Data reported by the CDC indicate that Giardia is the most it percolates through the soil to reach underground cisterns.
frequently identified cause of diarrheal outbreaks associated Well-waste sources that pose the greatest risk of fecal con-
with drinking water in the United States. The remainder of tamination are poorly constructed or improperly located. A
this section is devoted specifically to waterborne transmis- few outbreaks have occurred in towns that included filtration
sions of Giardia. Giardia cysts have been detected in 16% in the water treatment process, where the filtration was not
of potable water supplies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers, springs, effective in removing Giardia cysts because of defects in filter
groundwater) in the United States at an average concentration construction, poor maintenance of the filter media, or inad-
of three cysts per 100 liters. Waterborne epidemics of giardia- equate pretreatment of the water before filtration. Occasional
sis are a relatively frequent occurrence. In 1983, for example, outbreaks have also occurred because of accidental cross-
Giardia was identified as the cause of diarrhea in 68% of connections between water and sewage systems.
waterborne outbreaks in which the causal agent was identi- Important Point: From these data, we conclude that two
fied. From 1965 to 1982, more than 50 waterborne outbreaks major ingredients are necessary for waterborne outbreak.
were reported. In 1984, about 250,000 people in Pennsylvania Giardia cysts must be present in untreated source water, and
were advised to boil drinking water for six months because of the water purification process must either fail to kill or to
Giardia-contaminated water. remove Giardia cysts from the water.
Many of the municipal waterborne outbreaks of Giardia Although beavers are often blamed for contaminat-
have been subjected to intense study to determine their cause. ing water with Giardia cysts, it seems unlikely that they
Several general conclusions can be made from data obtained are responsible for introducing the parasite into new areas.
in those studies. Waterborne transmission of Giardia in Far more likely is that they are also victims: Giardia cysts
the United States usually occurs in mountainous regions may be carried in untreated human sewage discharged into
where community drinking water obtained from clear run- the water by small-town sewage disposal plants or originate
ning streams is chlorinated but not filtered before distribu- from cabin toilets that drain directly into streams and riv-
tion. Although mountain streams appear to be clean, fecal ers. Backpackers, campers, and sports enthusiasts may also
deposit Giardia-contaminated feces in the environment, not work at all. It does work under certain favorable condi-
which are subsequently washed into streams by rain. In sup- tions. Without getting too technical, gaining some apprecia-
port of this concept is a growing amount of data that indicates tion of the problem can be achieved by understanding a few
a higher Giardia infection rate in beavers living downstream of the variables that influence the efficacy of chlorine as a
from U.S. National Forest campgrounds when compared with disinfectant:
beavers living in more remote areas that have a near-zero rate
of infection. • Water pH—At pH values above 7.5, the disinfectant
Although beavers may be unwitting victims of the Giardia capability of chlorine is greatly reduced.
story, they still play an important part in the contamination • Water temperature—The warmer the water, the
scheme, because they can (and probably do) serve as ampli- higher the efficacy. Chlorine does not work in ice-
fying hosts. An amplifying host is one that is easy to infect, cold water from mountain streams.
serves as a good habitat for the parasite to reproduce, and in • Organic content of the water—Mud, decayed veg-
the case of Giardia, returns millions of cysts to the water for etation, or other suspended organic debris in water
every one ingested. Beavers are especially important in this chemically combines with chlorine, making it
regard because they tend to defecate in or very near the water, unavailable as a disinfectant.
which ensures that most of the Giardia cysts excreted are • Chlorine contact time—The longer Giardia cysts
returned to the water. are exposed to chlorine, the more likely the chemical
The microbial quality of water resources and the man- will kill them.
agement of the microbially laden wastes generated by the • Chlorine concentration—The higher the chlorine
burgeoning animal agriculture industry are critical local, concentration, the more likely chlorine will kill
regional, and national problems. Animals wastes from cattle, Giardia cysts. Most water treatment facilities try
hogs, sheep, horses, poultry, and other livestock and commer- to add enough chlorine to give a free (unbound)
cial animals can contain high concentrations of microorgan- chlorine residual of 0.5 mg/L of water at the cus-
isms, such as Giardia, that are pathogenic to humans. tomer tap.
The contribution of other animals to waterborne outbreaks
of Giardia is less clear. Muskrats (another semiaquatic ani- These five variables are so closely interrelated that improv-
mal) have been found in several parts of the United States ing another can often compensate for another; for example,
to have high infection rates (30–40%) (Frost et al., 1984). if chlorine efficacy is expected to be low because water is
Recent studies have shown that muskrats can be infected with obtained from an icy stream, the chlorine contact time, chlo-
Giardia cysts from humans and beavers. Occasional Giardia rine concentration, or both could be increased. In the case of
infections have been reported in coyotes, deer, elk, cattle, Giardia-contaminated water, producing safe drinking water
dogs, and cats (but not in horses and sheep) encountered in with a chlorine concentration of 1 mg/L and contact time as
mountainous regions of the United States. Naturally occur- short as 10 min might be possible—if all the other variables
ring Giardia infections have not been found in most other were optimal (i.e., pH of 7.0, water temperature of 25°C, and a
wild animals (bear, nutria, rabbit, squirrel, badger, marmot, total organic content of the water close to zero). On the other
skunk, ferret, porcupine, mink, raccoon, river otter, bobcat, hand, if all of these variables were unfavorable (i.e., pH of 7.9,
lynx, moose, bighorn sheep) (Frost et al., 1984). water temperature of 5°C, and high organic content), chlo-
Scientific knowledge about what is required to kill or rine concentrations in excess of 8 mg/L with several hours
remove Giardia cysts from a contaminated water supply has of contact time may not be consistently effective. Because
increased considerably. For example, we know that cysts can water conditions and water treatment plant operations (espe-
survive in cold water (4°C) for at least two months, and they cially those related to water retention time, and therefore, to
are killed instantaneously by boiling water (100°C) (Frost et chlorine contact time) vary considerably in different parts of
al., 1984). We do not know how long the cysts will remain the United States, neither the USEPA nor the CDC has been
viable at other water temperatures (e.g., at 0°C or in a can- able to identify a chlorine concentration that would be safe
teen at 15–20°C), nor do we know how long the parasite will yet effective against Giardia cysts under all water conditions.
survive on various environment surfaces, e.g., under a pine Therefore, the use of chlorine as a preventive measure against
tree, in the sun, on a diaper-changing table, or in carpets in a waterborne giardiasis generally has been used under outbreak
day-care center. conditions when the amount of chlorine and contact time has
The effect of chemical disinfection (e.g., chlorination) on been tailored to fit specific water conditions and the existing
the viability of Giardia cysts is an even more complex issue. operational design of the water utility.
The number of waterborne outbreaks of Giardia that have In an outbreak, for example, the local health department
occurred in communities where chlorination was employed and water utility may issue an advisory to boil water, may
as a disinfectant process demonstrates that the amount of increase the chlorine residual at the consumer’s tap from 0.5
chlorine used routinely for municipal water treatment is not mg/L to 1–2 mg/L, and if the physical layout and operation
effective against Giardia cysts. These observations have been of the water treatment facility permit, increase the chlorine
confirmed in the laboratory under experimental conditions contact time. These are emergency procedures intended to
(Jarroll et al., 1979). This does not mean that chlorine does reduce the risk of transmission until a filtration device can
be installed or repaired or until an alternative source of safe with water treatment facilities that include filtration cannot
water (a well, for example) can be made operational. afford the services of a full-time engineer. Filter operation or
The long-term solution to the problem of municipal water- maintenance problems in such systems may not be detected
borne outbreaks of giardiasis involves improvements in and until a Giardia outbreak is recognized in the community. The
more widespread use of filters in the municipal water treat- bottom line is that although filtration is the best that water
ment process. The sand filters most commonly used in munic- treatment technology has to offer for municipal water systems
ipal water treatment today cost millions of dollars to install, against waterborne giardiasis, it is not infallible. For munici-
which makes them unattractive for many small communi- pal water filtration facilities to work properly, they must be
ties. The pore sizes in these filters are not sufficiently small properly constructed, operated, and maintained.
to remove a Giardia (6–9 µm× 8–12 µm). For the sand filter Whenever possible, persons in the outdoors should carry
to remove Giardia cysts from the water effectively, the water drinking water of known purity with them. When this is not
must receive some additional treatment before it reaches the practical, when water from streams, lakes, ponds, and other
filter. The flow of water through the filter bed must also be outdoor sources must be used, time should be taken to prop-
carefully regulated. erly disinfect the water before drinking it.
An ideal prefilter treatment for muddy water would include
sedimentation (a holding pond where large suspended particles
Cryptosporidium
are allowed to settle out by the action of gravity) followed by
flocculation or coagulation (the addition of chemicals such as Ernest E. Tyzzer first described the protozoan parasite
alum or ammonium to cause microscopic particles to clump Cryptosporidium in 1907. Tyzzer frequently found a parasite
together). The sand filter easily removes the large particles in the gastric glands of laboratory mice. Tyzzer identified the
resulting from the flocculation/coagulation process, including parasite as a sporozoan, but of uncertain taxonomic status; he
Giardia cysts bound to other microparticulates. Chlorine is then named it Cryptosporidium muris. Later, in 1910, after more
added to kill the bacteria and viruses that may escape the filtra- detailed study, he proposed Cryptosporidium as a new genus
tion process. If the water comes from a relatively clear source, and C. muris as the type of species. Amazingly, except for
chlorine may be added to the water before it reaches the filter. developmental stages, Tyzzer’s original description of the
The successful operation of a complete waterworks opera- life cycle (see Figure 10.9) was later confirmed by electron
tion is a complex process that requires considerable training. microscopy. Later, in 1912, Tyzzer described a new species,
Troubleshooting breakdowns or recognizing the potential Cryptosporidium parvum (Tyzzer, 1912).
problems in the system before they occur often requires the For almost 50 years, Tyzzer’s discovery of the genus
skills of an engineer. Unfortunately, most small water utilities Cryptosporidium remained (like himself) relatively obscure
Sporozoite Trophozoite Type I Meront
Host Epithelial
Cell
Excystation
Ingestion
Auto
infection Merozoite
Thick Walled
Oocysts
Thin Walled Exit From

Oocysts Body
Microgamont
Merozoite Type II Meront
Mature Oocyst Immature Oocyst Macrogamont
FIGURE 10.9 Life cycle of Cryptosporidium parvum.

because it appeared to be of no medical or economic impor-

tance. Slight rumblings of the genus’ importance were felt TABLE 10.3
in the medical community when Slavin (1955) wrote about Valid Named Species of Cryptosporidium (Fayer et al.,
a new species, Cryptosporidium melagridis, associated with 1997)
illness and death in turkeys. Interest remained slight even
Species Host
when Cryptosporidium was found to be associated with
C. baileyi chicken
bovine diarrhea (Panciera et al., 1971).
C. felis domestic cat
Not until 1982 did worldwide interest focus on the study
C. meleagridis turkey
of organisms in the genus Cryptosporidium. During this
C. murishouse house mouse
period, the medical community and other interested parties
C. nasorium Fish
were beginning to attempt a full-scale, frantic effort to find
C. parvum house mouse
out as much as possible about Acquired Immune Deficiency
C. serpentis corn snake
Syndrome (AIDS). The CDC reported that 21 AIDS-infected
C. wrairi guinea pig
males from six large cities in the United States had severe
protracted diarrhea caused by Cryptosporidium. It was
in 1993, though, when the “bug—the pernicious parasite
Cryptosporidium—made [itself and] Milwaukee famous” of Cryptosporidium called an oocyst (O-o-sist) is excreted in
(Mayo Foundation, 1996). the feces (stool) of infected humans and animals. The tough-
Note: The Cryptosporidium outbreak in Milwaukee caused walled oocysts survive under a wide range of environmental
the death of 100 people—the largest episode of waterborne conditions.
disease in the United States in the 70 years since health offi- Several species of Cryptosporidium were incorrectly
cials began tracking such outbreaks. named after the host in which they were found; subsequent
The massive waterborne outbreak in Milwaukee (more than studies have invalidated many species. Now, eight valid
400,000 persons developed acute and often prolonged diar- species of Cryptosporidium (see Table 10.3) have been
rhea or other gastrointestinal symptoms) increased interest named.Upton (1997) reports that C. muris infects the gas-
in Cryptosporidium at an exponential level. The Milwaukee tric glands of laboratory rodents and several other mamma-
incident spurred both public interest and the interest of public lian species, but (even though several texts state otherwise)
health agencies, agricultural agencies and groups, environ- is not known to infect humans. However, C. parvum infects
mental agencies and groups, and suppliers of drinking water. the small intestine of an unusually wide range of mammals,
This increase in interest level and concern has spurred on including humans, and is the zoonotic species responsible for
new studies of Cryptosporidium with emphasis on develop- human cryptosporidiosis. In most mammals, C. parvum is
ing methods for recovery, detection, prevention, and treatment predominately a parasite of neonate (newborn) animals. He
(Fayer et al., 1997). points out that even though exceptions occur, older animals
The USEPA has become particularly interested in this generally develop poor infections, even when unexposed pre-
“new” pathogen. For example, in the re-examination of regu- viously to the parasite. Humans are the one host that can be
lations on water treatment and disinfection, the USEPA issued seriously infected at any time in their lives, and only previous
MCLG and CCL for Cryptosporidium. The similarity to exposure to the parasite results in either full or partial immu-
Giardia lamblia and the necessity to provide an efficient con- nity to challenge infections.
ventional water treatment capable of eliminating viruses at Oocysts are present in most surface bodies of water across
the same time forced the USEPA to regulate the surface water the United States, many of which supply public drinking
supplies in particular. The proposed “Enhanced Surface Water water. Oocysts are more prevalent in surface waters when
Treatment Rule” (ESWTR) included regulations from water- heavy rains increase runoff of wild and domestic animal
shed protection to specialized operation of treatment plants wastes from the land, or when sewage treatment plants are
(certification of operators and state overview) and effective overloaded or break down. Only laboratories with special-
chlorination. Protection against Cryptosporidium included ized capabilities can detect the presence of Cryptosporidium
control of waterborne pathogens such as Giardia and viruses oocysts in water. Unfortunately, present sampling and detec-
(DeZuane, 1997). tion methods are unreliable. Recovering oocysts trapped on
the material used to filter water samples is difficult. Once a
The Basics of Cryptosporidium sample is obtained, however, determining whether the oocyst
Cryptosporidium (crip-toe-spor-ID-ee-um) is one of several is alive or whether it is the species C. parvum that can infect
single-celled protozoan genera in the phylum Apicomplexa humans is easily accomplished by looking at the sample under
(all referred to as coccidian). Cryptosporidium along with a microscope.
other genera in the phylum Apicomplexa develop in the gastro- The number of oocysts detected in raw (untreated) water
intestinal tract of vertebrates through all of their life cycle— varies with location, sampling time, and laboratory meth-
in short, they live in the intestines of animals and people. This ods. Water treatment plants remove most, but not always
microscopic pathogen causes a disease called cryptosporidi- all, oocysts. Low numbers of oocysts are sufficient to cause
osis (crip-toe-spor-id-ee-O-sis). The dormant (inactive) form cryptosporidiosis, but the low numbers of oocysts sometimes
present in drinking water are not considered to be a cause for The parasite is transmitted by ingestion of oocysts excreted
alarm in the public. in the feces of infected humans or animals. The infection
Protecting water supplies from Cryptosporidium demands can therefore be transmitted from person-to-person, through
multiple barriers. Why? Because Cryptosporidium oocysts ingestion of contaminated water (drinking water and water
used for recreational purposes) or food, from animal to per-
have tough walls that can withstand many environmental
son, or by contact with fecally contaminated environmental
stresses and are resistant to the chemical disinfectants such surfaces. Outbreaks associated with all of these modes of
as chlorine that are traditionally used in municipal drinking transmission have been documented. Patients with human
water systems. immunodeficiency virus infection should be made more
Physical removal of particles, including oocysts, from aware of the many ways that Cryptosporidium species are
water by filtration is an important step in the water treatment transmitted, and they should be given guidance on how to
process. Typically, water pumped from rivers or lakes into a reduce their risk of exposure.
treatment plant is mixed with coagulants, which help settle
out particles suspended in the water. If sand filtration is used, Since the Milwaukee outbreak, concern about the safety of
even more particles are removed. Finally, the clarified water drinking water in the United States has increased, and new
is disinfected and piped to customers. Filtration is the only attention has been focused on determining and reducing the
conventional method now in use in the United States for con- risk of cryptosporidiosis from community and municipal
trolling Cryptosporidium. water supplies. Cryptosporidiosis is spread by putting some-
Ozone is a strong disinfectant that kills protozoa if suf- thing in the mouth that has been contaminated with the stool
ficient doses and contact times are used, but ozone leaves no of an infected person or animal. In this way, people swal-
residual for killing microorganisms in the distribution system, low the Cryptosporidium parasite. As previously mentioned,
as does chlorine. The high costs of new filtration or ozone a person can become infected by drinking contaminated
treatment plants must be weighed against the benefits of addi- water or eating raw or undercooked food contaminated with
tional treatment. Even well operated water treatment plants Cryptosporidium oocysts; direct contact with the droppings
cannot ensure that drinking water will be completely free of of infected animals or stools of infected humans; or hand-
Cryptosporidium oocysts. Water treatment methods alone to-mouth transfer of oocysts from surfaces that may have
cannot solve the problem; watershed protection and moni- become contaminated with microscopic amounts of stool
toring of water quality are critical. As mentioned, watershed from an infected person or animal.
protection is another barrier to Cryptosporidium in drinking The symptoms may appear two to ten days after infection by
water. Land use controls such as septic systems’ regulations the parasite. Although some persons may not have symptoms,
and best management practices to control runoff can help others have watery diarrhea, headache, abdominal cramps, nau-
keep human and animal wastes out of water. sea, vomiting, and low-grade fever. These symptoms may lead
Under the Surface Water Treatment Rule of 1989, public to weight loss and dehydration. In otherwise healthy persons,
water systems must filter surface water sources unless water these symptoms usually last one to two weeks, at which time
quality and disinfection requirements are met and a watershed the immune system is able to stop the infection. In persons with
control program is maintained. This rule, however, did not suppressed immune systems, such as persons who have AIDS or
address Cryptosporidium. The USEPA has now set standards who recently have had an organ or bone marrow transplant, the
for turbidity (cloudiness) and coliform bacteria (which indi- infection may continue and become life-threatening.
cate that pathogens are probably present) in drinking water. Currently, no safe and effective cure for cryptosporidiosis
Frequent monitoring must occur to provide officials with early exists. People with normal immune systems improve without
warnings of potential problems to enable them to take steps to taking antibiotic or antiparasitic medications. The treatment
protect public health. Unfortunately, no water quality indica- recommend for this diarrheal illness is to drink plenty of flu-
tors can reliably predict the occurrence of cryptosporidiosis. ids and to get extra rest. Physicians may prescribe medication
More accurate and rapid assays of oocysts will make it pos- to slow the diarrhea during recovery.
sible to notify residents promptly if their water supply is con- The best way to prevent cryptosporidiosis is to:
taminated with Cryptosporidium and thus avert outbreaks.
The bottom line: The collaborative efforts of water utili- • Avoid water or food that may be contaminated.
ties, government agencies, health care providers, and indi- • Wash hands after using the toilet and before han-
viduals are needed to prevent outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. dling food.
• If you work in a childcare center where you change
Cryptosporidiosis diapers, be sure to wash your hands thoroughly with
plenty of soap and warm water after every diaper
Juranek (1995) wrote in the journal Clinical Infectious
change, even if you wear gloves.
Diseases:
Cryptosporidium parvum is an important emerging pathogen During community-wide outbreaks caused by contami-
in the U.S. and a cause of severe, life-threatening disease in nated drinking water, drinking water practitioners should
patients with AIDS. No safe and effective form of specific inform the public to boil drinking water for 1 min to kill the
treatment for Cryptosporidiosis has been identified to date. Cryptosporidium parasite.
Cyclospora risk; but infection can be acquired worldwide, including in

the United States In some countries of the world, infection
Cyclospora organisms, which until recently were considered appears to be seasonal. Based on currently available informa-
blue-green algae, were discovered at the turn of the century. tion, avoiding water or food that may be contaminated with
The first human cases of Cyclospora infection were reported stool is the best way to prevent infection. Re-infection can
in the 1970s. In the early 1980s, Cyclospora was recognized occur.
as a pathogen in patients with AIDS. We now know that Note: De Zuane (1997) points out that pathogenic para-
Cyclospora is endemic in many parts of the world, and appears sites are not easily removed or eliminated by conventional
to be an important cause of traveler’s diarrhea. Cyclospora are treatment and disinfection unit processes. This is particularly
two to three times larger than Cryptosporidium, but otherwise true for Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora.
have similar features. Cyclospora diarrheal illness in patients Filtration facilities can be adjusted in depth, prechlorination,
with healthy immune systems can be cured with a week of filtration rate, and backwashing to become more effective in
therapy with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX). the removal of cysts. The pretreatment of protected watershed
So, exactly what is Cyclospora? In 1998, the CDC described raw water is a major factor in the elimination of pathogenic
Cyclospora cayetanensis as a unicellular parasite previously protozoa.
known as a cyanobacterium-like (blue-green algae-like) or coc-
cidian-like body (CLB). The disease is known as cyclosporia-
sis. Cyclospora infects the small intestine and causes an illness Helminths
characterized by diarrhea with frequent stools. Other symptoms Helminths are parasitic worms that grow and multiply in sew-
can include loss of appetite, bloating, gas, stomach cramps, nau- age (biological slimes) and wet soil (mud). They multiply in
sea, vomiting, fatigue, muscle ache, and fever. Some individu- wastewater treatment plants; strict aerobes, they have been
als infected with Cyclospora may not show symptoms. Since found in activated sludge and particularly in trickling filters,
the first known cases of illness caused by Cyclospora infection and therefore appear in large concentrations in treated domes-
were reported in the medical journals in the 1970s, cases have tic liquid waste. They enter the skin, or by ingestion of the
been reported with increased frequency from various countries worm in one of its many lifecycle phases. Generally, they are
since the mid-1980s (in part because of the availability of better not a problem in drinking water supplies in the United States
techniques for detecting the parasite in stool specimens). because both their egg and larval forms are large enough to
Huang et al. (1995) detailed what they believe is the be trapped during conventional water treatment. In addition,
first known outbreak of diarrheal illness associated with most Helminths are not waterborne, so chances of infection
Cyclospora in the United States. The outbreak, which occurred are minimized.
in 1990, consisted of 21 cases of illness among physicians and
others working at a Chicago hospital. Contaminated tap water
from a physicians’ dormitory at the hospital was the probable
WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND
source of the organisms. The tap water probably picked up the
organism while in a storage tank at the top of the dormitory BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
after the failure of a water pump. Uncontrolled bacteria in industrial water systems produce
The transmission of Cyclospora is not a straightforward an endless variety of problems including disease, equipment
process. When infected persons excrete the oocyst state of damage, and product damage. Unlike the microbiological
Cyclospora in their feces, the oocysts are not infectious and problems that can occur in water systems, in wastewater treat-
may require from days to weeks to become so (i.e., to sporu- ment, microbiology can be applied as a beneficial science for
late). Therefore, transmission of Cyclospora directly from an the destruction of pollutants in wastewater (Kemmer, 1979).
infected person to someone else is unlikely. However, indi- It should be noted that all the biological processes used
rect transmission can occur if an infected person contami- for the treatment of wastewater (in particular) are derived or
nates the environment and oocysts have sufficient time, under modeled from processes occurring naturally in nature. The
appropriate conditions, to become infectious. For example, processes discussed in the following are typical examples.
Cyclospora may be transmitted by ingestion of water or food It also should be noted that “by controlling the environment
contaminated with oocysts. Outbreaks linked to contami- of microorganisms, the decomposition of wastes is speeded
nated water, as well as outbreaks linked to various types of up. Regardless of the type of waste, the biological treatment
fresh produce, have been reported in recent years (Herwaldt process consists of controlling the environment required for
et al., 1997). How common the various modes of transmis- optimum growth of the microorganism involved” (Metcalf &
sion and sources of infection are, is not yet known, nor is it Eddy, Inc., 2003).
known whether animals can be infected and serve as sources
of infection for humans.
Note: Cyclospora organisms have not yet been grown in Aerobic Process
tissue cultures or laboratory animal models. In aerobic treatment processes, organisms use free, elemen-
Persons of all ages are at risk for infection. Persons liv- tal oxygen and organic matter together with nutrients (nitro-
ing or traveling in developing countries may be at increased gen, phosphorus) and trace metals (iron, etc.) to produce more
organisms and stable dissolved and suspended solids and car- Anoxic Process
bon dioxide (see Figure 10.10).
In the anoxic treatment process (anoxic means without oxy-
Oxygen More bacteria gen), microorganisms use the fixed oxygen in nitrate com-
Bacteria ⇒ Stable solids pounds as a source of energy. The process produces more
Organic matter Settleable solids organisms and removes nitrogen from the wastewater by
Nutrients Carbon dioxide converting it to nitrogen gas that is released into the air (see
Figure 10.13).
Anaerobic Process Nitrate oxygen More bacteria

The anaerobic treatment process consists of two steps, occurs Bacteria Stable solids
completely in the absence of oxygen, and produces a useable by- Organic matter ⇒ Settleable solids
product, methane gas. In the first step of the process, facultative Nutrients Nitrogen
microorganisms use the organic matter as food to produce more
organisms, volatile (organic) acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sul- Photosynthesis
fide, and other gases and some stable solids (see Figure 10.11).
Green algae use carbon dioxide and nutrients in the presence
Facultative Bacteria More Bacteria of sunlight and chlorophyll to produce more algae and oxygen
Organic matter ⇒ Volatile solids (see Figure 10.14).
Nutrients Settleable solids
Hydrogen sulfide Sun
Algae ⇒ More algae
In the second step, anaerobic microorganisms use the vola- Carbon dioxide Oxygen
tile acids as their food source. The process produces more Nutrients
organisms, stable solids, and methane gas that can be used to
provide energy for various treatment system components (see Growth Cycles
Figure 10.12).
All organisms follow a basic growth cycle that can be shown
as a growth curve. This curve occurs when the environmental
Anaerobic bacteria More bacteria
conditions required for the particular organism are reached. It
Volatile acids ⇒ Stable solids
is the environmental conditions (i.e., oxygen availability, pH,
Nutrients Settleable solids
temperature, presence or absence of nutrients, presence or
Methane
absence of toxic materials) that determine when a particular
Oxygen More bacteria group of organisms will predominate. Obviously, this infor-
mation can be very useful in operating a biological treatment
Bacteria Þ Stable solids process (see Figure 10.15).
Organic matter Settleable solids
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Nutrients Carbon dioxide
Several chemicals are essential to life and follow pre-
FIGURE 10.10 Aerobic decomposition. dictable cycles through nature. In these natural cycles or
Facultative Bacteria More Bacteria Nitrate oxygen More bacteria
Organic matter Þ Volatile solids Bacteria Stable solids
Nutrients Settleable solids Organic matter Þ Settleable solids
Hydrogen sulfide Nutrients Nitrogen
FIGURE 10.11 Anaerobic decomposition—first step. FIGURE 10.13 Anoxic decomposition.
Anaerobic bacteria More bacteria Sun
Volatile acids Þ Stable solids Algae Þ More algae
Nutrients Settleable solids Carbon dioxide Oxygen
Methane Nutrients
FIGURE 10.12 Anaerobic decomposition—second step. FIGURE 10.14 Photosynthesis.

Lag Log growth Stationary Death as the “most important chemical process on Earth,” it pro-
Phase phase phase phase
duces the food and oxygen that all organisms live on. Part of
9 the carbon produced remains in living matter; the other part
8
is released as CO2 in cellular respiration. Miller (1988) points
Log number of cells
out that the carbon dioxide released by cellular respiration in

7
all living organisms is returned to the atmosphere.
6 Some carbon is contained in buried dead animal and plant
5
materials. Much of these buried animal and plant materi-
4 als were transformed into fossil fuels. Fossil fuels, coal, oil,
3 and natural gas contain large amounts of carbon. When fos-
2
sil fuels are burned, stored carbon combines with oxygen in
12 24 36
Time (in hours)
the air to form carbon dioxide, which enters the atmosphere.
In the atmosphere, carbon dioxide acts as a beneficial heat
FIGURE 10.15 Microorganism growth curve. screen as it does not allow the radiation of earth’s heat into
space. This balance is important. The problem is that as more
biogeochemical cycles, the chemicals are converted from one carbon dioxide from burning is released into the atmosphere,
form to another as they progress through the environment. the balance can and is being altered. Odum (1983) warns that
The water/wastewater operator should be aware of those the recent increase in consumption of fossil fuels “coupled
cycles dealing with the nutrients (e.g., carbon, nitrogen, and with the decrease in ‘removal capacity’ of the green belt is
sulfur) because they have a major impact on the performance beginning to exceed the delicate balance.” Massive increases
of the plant and may require changes in operation at various of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere tend to increase the
times of the year to keep them functioning properly; this is possibility of global warming. The consequences of global
especially the case in wastewater treatment. The microbiol- warming “would be catastrophic … and the resulting climatic
ogy of each cycle deals with the biotransformation and sub- change would be irreversible” (Abrahamson, 1988).
sequent biological removal of these nutrients in wastewater
treatment plants.
Note: Smith categorizes biogeochemical cycles into two
Nitrogen Cycle
types, the gaseous and the sedimentary. Gaseous cycles
include the carbon and nitrogen cycles. The main sink of Nitrogen is an essential element that all organisms need. In
nutrients in the gaseous cycle is the atmosphere and the ocean. animals, nitrogen is a component of crucial organic mole-
Sedimentary cycles include the sulfur cycle. The main sink cules such as proteins and DNA and constitutes 1–3% dry
for sedimentary cycles is soil and rocks of the earth’s crust. weight of cells. Our atmosphere contains 78% by volume of
nitrogen, yet it is not a common element on earth. Although
nitrogen is an essential ingredient for plant growth, it is
Carbon Cycle chemically very inactive, and before the vast majority of the
Carbon, which is an essential ingredient of all living things, is biomass can incorporate it, it must be fixed. Special nitrogen-
the basic building block of the large organic molecules neces- fixing bacteria found in soil and water fix nitrogen. Thus,
sary for life. Carbon is cycled into food chains from the atmo- microorganisms play a major role in nitrogen cycling in the
sphere, as shown in Figure 10.16. From Figure 10.16 it can be environment. These microorganisms (bacteria) have the abil-
seen that green plants obtain carbon dioxide (CO2) from the ity to take nitrogen gas from the air and convert it to nitrate.
air and, through photosynthesis, described by Asimov (1989) This is called nitrogen fixation. Some of these bacteria occur
H2O Atmospheric CO2 H2O
Decaying
and Photosynthesis
Respiration
Burning
O2 Organic C O2
Plants & Animals
FIGURE 10.16 Carbon cycle.

as free-living organisms in the soil. Others live in a symbiotic algae, called algal bloom. If this runoff from fertilizer gets
relationship (a close relationship between two organisms of into a body of water, algae may grow so profusely that they
different species, and one where both partners benefit from form a blanket over the surface. This usually happens in
the association) with plants. An example of a symbiotic rela- summer, when the light levels and warm temperatures favor
tionship, related to nitrogen, can be seen, for example, in the rapid growth.
roots of peas. These roots have small swellings along their In the voluminous and authoritative text, Wastewater
length. These contain millions of symbiotic bacteria, which Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, & Reuse (Metcalf &
have the ability to take nitrogen gas from the atmosphere Eddy, Inc., 2003), it is noted that nitrogen is found in wastewa-
and convert it to nitrates that can be used by the plant. Then ter in the form of urea. During wastewater treatment, the urea
the plant is plowed into the soil after the growing season is transformed into ammonia nitrogen. Since ammonia exerts
to improve the nitrogen content. Price (1984) describes the a BOD and chlorine demand, high quantities of ammonia in
nitrogen cycle as an example “of a largely complete chemical wastewater effluents are undesirable. The process of nitrifica-
cycle in ecosystems with little leaching out of the system.” tion is utilized to convert ammonia to nitrates. Nitrification
Simply, the nitrogen cycle provides various bridges between is a biological process that involves the addition of oxygen
the atmospheric reservoirs and the biological communities to the wastewater. If further treatment is necessary, another
(see Figure 10.17). biological process called denitrification is used. In this pro-
Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed either by natural or indus- cess, nitrate is converted into nitrogen gas, which is lost to the
trial means. For example, nitrogen is fixed by lightning or by atmosphere, as can be seen in Figure 10.17. From the waste-
soil bacteria that convert it to ammonia, then to nitrite, and water operator’s point of view, nitrogen and phosphorus are
finally to nitrates, which plants can use. Nitrifying bacteria both considered limiting factors for productivity. Phosphorus
make nitrogen from animal wastes. Denitrifying bacteria con- discharged into streams contributes to pollution. Of the two,
vert nitrates back to nitrogen and release it as nitrogen gas. nitrogen is harder to control, but is found in smaller quantities
The logical question now is “What does all of this have in wastewater.
to do with water?” The best way to answer this question is to
ask another question. Have you ever dived into a slow-moving
Sulfur Cycle
stream and had the noxious misfortune to surface right in the
middle of an algal bloom? When this happens to you, the first Sulfur, like nitrogen, is characteristic of organic com-
thought that runs through your mind is, “Where is my nose pounds. The sulfur cycle is both sedimentary and gaseous
plug?” Why? Because of the horrendous stench, disablement (see Figure 10.18). The principal forms of sulfur that are
of the olfactory sense is a necessity. of special significance in water quality management are
If too much nitrate, for example, enters the water supply— organic sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, and sul-
as runoff from fertilizers—it produces an overabundance of fate (Tchobanoglous and Schroeder, 1985). Bacteria play
Aerial N2
Lightning
Denitrifying Bacteria
Rock
Dissolution
Organic
Nitrates Plant ‘N’ Organic Nitrogen
as Amino Acids
Decay
Fertilizers Organic
Animal ‘N’
Nitrites Excretion
Loss to Deep
Sediments
NH3
Ammonia
FIGURE 10.17 Nitrogen cycle.

Elementary sulfur
Bacterial photosynthesis Oxidation by bacterium
Bacterial Reduction
FeS H2S Sulfates
Lightning and Rain
Rocks
Decay
Sulfur Dioxide,
Digestion SO2
Plant proteins
Animal proteins
FIGURE 10.18 Sulfur cycle.

a major role in the conversion of sulfur from one form to into sulfates. Other sulfates recontribute by the dissolving
another. In an anaerobic environment, bacteria break down of rocks and some sulfur dioxide. Sulfur is incorporated by
organic matter thereby producing hydrogen sulfide with its plants into proteins. Organisms then consume some of these
characteristic rotten-egg odor. A bacterium called Beggiatoa plants. Many heterotrophic anaerobic bacteria liberate sul-
converts hydrogen sulfide into elemental sulfur and then fur from proteins, as hydrogen sulfide.
Organic ‘P’
Plants Animals
Bacteria
Bones, teeth
Excretion
Protoplasm synthesis
Phosphatizing
Phosphate rocks, Bacteria
guano deposits
and fossil bone
Volcanic
deposits apatite
Erosion
Dissolved Phosphates
Marine birds
and fish
Shallow marine
sediments
Loss to deep sediments
FIGURE 10.19 Phosphorus cycle.

Phosphorus Cycle REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING

Phosphorus is another chemical element that is common Abrahamson, D.E., Ed., 1988. The Challenge of Global Warming.
in the structure of living organisms (see Figure 10.19). Washington, DC: Island Press.
However, the phosphorus cycle is different from the hydro- Asimov, I., 1989. How Did We Find Out about Photosynthesis? New
York: Walker & Company.
logic, carbon, and nitrogen cycles because phosphorus Bingham, A.K., Jarroll, E.L., Meyer, E.A., & Radulescu, S.,
is found in sedimentary rock. These massive deposits are 1979. Introduction to Giardia Excystation and the Effect of
gradually eroding to provide phosphorus to ecosystems. A Temperature on Cyst Viability Compared by Eoxin-Exclusion
large amount of eroded phosphorus ends up in deep sedi- and In Vitro Excystation in Waterborne Transmission of
ments in the oceans and in lesser amounts in shallow sedi- Giardiasis. Jakubowski, J. & Hoff, H.C., Eds. Washington,
ments. Part of the phosphorus comes to land when marine DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
animals surface. Decomposing plant or animal tissue and EPA-600/9-79-001.
Black, R.E., Dykes, A.C., Anderson, K.E., Wells, J.G., Sinclair,
animal droppings return organic forms of phosphorus to the
S.P., Gary, G.W., Hatch, M.H., & Ginagaros, E.J., 1981.
water and soil. For example, fish-eating birds play a role in Handwashing to Prevent Diarrhea in Day-Care Centers.
the recovery of phosphorus. The guano deposits, consist- American Journal of Epidemiology, 113, 445–451.
ing of bird excreta, off the Peruvian coast are an example. Brodsky, R.E., Spencer, H.C., & Schultz, M.G., 1974. Giardiasis
Humans have hastened the rate of phosphorus loss through in American Travelers to the Soviet Union. The Journal of
mining and the production of fertilizers, which is washed Infectious Diseases, 130(3), 319–323.
away and lost. Odum (1983) suggested, however, that there CDC, 1979. Intestinal Parasite Surveillance, Annual Summary
1978. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control.
is no immediate cause for concern, since the known reserves
CDC, 1983. Water-Related Disease Outbreaks Surveillance, Annual
of phosphate are quite large. Summary 1983. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control.
Phosphorus has become very important in water qual- CDC, 1995. Giardiasis. D.D. Juranek. Atlanta, GA: Centers for
ity studies, because it is often found to be a limiting fac- Disease Control.
tor. Metcalf & Eddy Inc. (2003) reported that control of De Zuane, J., 1997. Handbook of Drinking Water Quality. New
phosphorus compounds that enter surface waters and con- York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
tribute to growth of algal blooms is of considerable interest Fayer, R., Speer, C.A., & Dudley, J.P., 1997. The General Biology
Cryptosporidium in Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis.
and has generated much study. Phosphorus upon entering a
Fayer, R., Ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
stream acts as a fertilizer, promoting the growth of undesir- Frost, F., Plan, B., & Liechty, B., 1984. Giardia Prevalence in
able algae populations or alga blooms. As the organic matter Commercially Trapped Mammals. Journal of Environmental
decays, DO levels decrease and fish and other aquatic spe- Health, 42, 245–249.
cies die. Herwaldt, F.L., et al., 1997. An Outbreaking 1996 of Cyclosporasis
Although it is true that phosphorus discharged into streams Associated with Imported Raspberries. The New England
contributes to stream pollution, it is also true that phospho- Journal of Medicine., 336, 1548–1556.
Huang, P., Weber, J.T., Sosin, D.M., et al., 1995. Cyclospora. Annals
rus is not the lone factor. Odum (1975) warns against what
of Internal Medicine, 123, 401–414.
he calls the one-factor control hypothesis, (i.e., one-problem/ Jarroll, E.L., Jr., Gingham, A.K., & Meyer, E.A., 1979. Giardia
one-solution syndrome). He notes that environmentalists in Cyst Destruction; Effectiveness of Six Small-Quantity Water
the past have focused on one of two items, like phosphorus Disinfection Methods. The American Journal of Tropical
contamination, and have failed to understand that the strategy Medicine and Hygiene, 29(1), 8–11.
for pollution control must involve reducing the input of all Juranek, D.D., 1995. Cryptosporidium parvum, Clinical Infectious
enriching and toxic materials. Diseases, 21, S37–61.
Kemmer, F.N., 1979. Water: The Universal Solvent, 2nd ed. Oak
Brook, IL: Nalco Chemical Company.
CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Kordon, C., 1992. The Language of the Cell. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
10.1 The three major groups of microorganisms that
Koren, H., 1991. Handbook of Environmental Health and Safety:
cause disease in water are: Principles and Practices. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
10.2 When does a river of good quality show its highest LeChevallier, M.W., Norton, W.D., & Less, R.G., 1991. Occurrences
bacterial numbers? of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in Surface Water
10.3 Are coliform organisms pathogenic? Supplies, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57(9),
2610–2616.
10.4 How do bacteria reproduce?
Mayo Foundation, 1996. The “Bug” That Made Milwaukee Famous.
10.5 The three common shapes of bacteria are: Rochester, MN: Mayo Foundation.
10.6 Three waterborne diseases caused by bacteria are: Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 2003. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,
10.7 Two protozoa-caused waterborne diseases are: Disposal and Reuse. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc.
10.8 When a protozoon is in a resting phase, it is called a Miller, G.T., 1988. Environmental Science: An Introduction.
________. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
10.9 For a virus to live it must have a _________. Odum, E.P., 1975. Ecology: The Link between the Natural and the
Social Sciences. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
10.10 What problems do algae cause in drinking water?
Odum, E.P., 1983. Basic Ecology. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Spellman, F.R., 1996. Stream Ecology and Self-Purification: An
College Publishing. Introduction for Wastewater and Water Specialists. Boca
Panciera, R.J., Thomassen, R.W., & Garner, R.M., 1971. Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Cryptosporidial infection in a calf. Veterinary Pathology, Spellman, F.R., 1997. Microbiology for Water/Wastewater
8(5–6), 479. Operators. Boca Ration, FL: CRC Press.
Pennak, R.W., 1989. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United States, Tchobanoglous, G. & Schroeder, E.D., 1985. Water Quality.
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Given in Capsules. American Journal of Hygiene, 59(2), Upton, S.J., 1997. Basic Biology of Cryptosporidium. Lawrence,
209–220. KS: Kansas State University.
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Water Supplies for Cryptosporidium and Giardia, Environm. Interim Strategy for Disease Control in Developing Countries.
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& Row. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
11 Water Ecology
Have you ever peered into a microscope at a drop of person to understand, but also to instill the concept of ecology as
pond or stream water and realized that there is more life an asset that can not only be learned but also cherished.
around all of us than just that which is visible to us each
and every day?
WHAT IS ECOLOGY?
—Frank R. Spellman (1996)
Ecology can be defined in various and numerous ways. For
Streams are arteries of earth, beginning in capillary example, ecology, or ecological science, is commonly defined in
creeks, brooks, and rivulets. No matter the source, they the literature as the scientific study of the distribution and abun-
move in only one direction—downhill—the heavy dance of living organisms and how the distribution and abun-
hand of gravity tugs and drags the stream toward the dance are affected by interactions between the organisms and
sea. During its inexorable flow downward, now and their environment. The term ecology was coined in 1866 by the
then there is an abrupt change in geology. Boulders are German biologist Haeckel and it loosely means “the study of the
mowed down by “slumping” (gravity) from their in- household [of nature].”Odum (1983) explains that the word “ecol-
place points high up on canyon walls. ogy” is derived from the Greek oikos, meaning home. Ecology
As stream flow grinds, chisels, and sculpts the land- then means the study of organisms at home. It means the study of
scape, the effort is increased by momentum, augmented an organism at its home. Ecology is the study of the relation of an
by turbulence provided by rapids, cataracts, and water- organism or a group of organisms to their environment.
falls. These falling waters always hypnotize us, just as Important Point: No ecosystem can be studied in isolation.
fire gazing or wave-watching does. If we were to describe ourselves, our histories, and what made
us the way we are, we could not leave the world around us
Before emptying into the sea, streams often pause, form- out of our description! So it is with streams: they are directly
ing lakes. When one stares into a healthy lake, its phantom tied in with the world around them. They take their chemistry
blue-green eye stares right back. Only for a moment— from the rocks and dirt beneath them as well as for a great
relatively speaking, of course, because all lakes are distance around them (Spellman, 1996).
ephemeral, doomed. Eventually the phantom blue-green Charles Darwin (1998) explained ecology in a famous pas-
eye is close lidded by the moist verdant green of landfill. sage in the Origin, a passage that helped establish the sci-
For water that escapes the temporary bounds of a lake, ence of ecology. According to Darwin, a “web of complex
most of it evaporates or moves on to the gigantic sink— relations” binds all living things in any region. Adding or
the sea—where the cycles continues, forever more … it subtracting even a single species causes waves of change that
is hoped. race through the web, “onwards in ever-increasing circles
of complexity.” The simple act of adding cats to an English
—Frank R. Spellman (2017) village would reduce the number of field mice. Killing mice
would benefit the bumblebees, whose nest and honeycombs
INTRODUCTION the mice often devour. Increasing the number of bumblebees
The “control of nature” is a phrase conceived in arro- would benefit the heartsease and red clover, which are fertil-
gance, born of the Neanderthal age of biology and the ized almost exclusively by bumblebees. So adding cats to the
convenience of man. village could end by adding flowers. For Darwin the whole
of the Galapagos archipelago argues this fundamental lesson.
—Rachel Carson (1962) The island volcanoes are much more diverse in their ecology
than their biology. The contrast suggests that in the struggle
What is ecology? Why is ecology important? Why study ecol- for existence, species are shaped at least as much by the local
ogy? These are all simple, straightforward questions; however, flora and fauna as by the local soil and climate. “Why else
providing simple, straightforward answers is not that easy. would the plants and animals differ radically among islands
Notwithstanding the inherent difficulty with explaining any that have the same geological nature, the same height, and
complex science in simple, straightforward terms, that is the climate?” (Darwin, 1998).
purpose, the goal, the mission of this text and this chapter. In Probably the best way to understand ecology—to get a
short, the task of this chapter is to outline basic information that really good “feel” for it or to get to the heart of what ecology
explains the functions and values of ecology and its interrelation- is all about is to read the following by Rachel Carson (1962):
ships with other sciences, including ecology’s direct impact on
our lives. In doing so the author not only hopes to dispel the com- We poison the caddis flies in a stream and the salmon runs
mon misconception that ecology is too difficult for the average dwindle and die. We poison the gnats in a lake and the poison
327
travels from link to link of the food chain and soon the birds WHY IS ECOLOGY IMPORTANT?
of the lake margins become victims. We spray our elms and
the following springs are silent of robin song, not because we Ecology, in its true sense, is a holistic discipline that does
sprayed the robins directly but because the poison traveled, not dictate what is right or wrong. Instead, ecology is impor-
step by step, through the now familiar elm leaf-earthworm- tant to life on Earth simply because it makes us aware, to a
robin cycle. These are matters of record, observable, part of certain degree, of what life on Earth is all about. Ecology
the visible world around us. They reflect the web of life—or shows us that each living organism has an ongoing and con-
death—that scientists know as ecology. tinual relationship with every other element that makes up our
environment. Simply, ecology is all about interrelationships,
As Carson pointed out, what we do to any part of our environ- intraspecific and interspecific, and on how important it is to
ment has an impact upon other parts. In other words, there is maintain these relationships to ensure our very survival.
an interrelationship between the parts that make up our envi- At this point in this discussion, there are literally countless
ronment. Probably the best way to state this interrelationship examples that could be used to point out the importance of
is to define ecology definitively—that is, to define it as it is ecology and interrelationships. However, to demonstrate not
used in this text: “Ecology is the science that deals with the only the importance of ecology but also to point out that an
specific interactions that exist between organisms and their ecological principle can be a double-edged sword, depending
living and nonliving environment” (Tomera, 1989). on point of view (ecological problems along with pollution
When environment was mentioned in the preceding text can be a judgment call—that is, they are a matter of opinion),
and as it is discussed throughout this text, it (the environment) a famous parable (The Keeper of the Spring) adapted from
includes everything important to the organism in its sur- Peter Marshall’s Mr. Jones: Meet the Master is used here to
roundings. The organism’s environment can be divided into demonstrate that many misconceptions exist in ecology.
four parts:
(1) Habitat and distribution—its place to live THE KEEPER OF THE SPRING
(2) Other organisms—whether friendly or hostile This is the story of the keeper of the spring. He lived
(3) Food high in the Alps above an Austrian town and had been
(4) Weather—light, moisture, temperature, soil, etc. hired by the town council to clear debris from the moun-
tain springs that fed the stream that flowed through the
There are four major subdivisions of ecology: town. The man did his work well and the village pros-
pered. Graceful swans floated in the stream. The sur-
• Behavioral ecology rounding countryside was irrigated. Several mills used
• Population ecology (autecology) the water for power. Restaurants flourished for towns-
• Community ecology (synecology) people and for a growing number of tourists.
• Ecosystem ecology Years went by. One evening, at the town council
meeting, someone questioned the money being paid to
Behavioral ecology is the study of the ecological and evolu- the keeper of the spring. No one seemed to know who
tionary basis for animal behavior. Population ecology (or aut- he was or even if he was still on the job high up in the
ecology) is the study of the individual organism or a species. mountains. Before the evening was over, the council
It emphasizes life history, adaptations, and behavior. It is the decided to dispense with the old man’s services.
study of communities, ecosystems, and biosphere. An exam- Weeks went by and nothing seemed to change. Then
ple of autecology would be when biologists spend their entire autumn came. The trees began to shed their leaves.
lifetime studying the ecology of the salmon. Community ecol- Branches broke and fell into the pools high up in the
ogy (or synecology), on the other hand, is the study of groups mountains. Down below the villagers began to notice
of organisms associated together as a unit and deals with the the water becoming darker. A foul odor appeared. The
environmental problems caused by mankind. For example, the swans disappeared. Also, the tourists. Soon disease
effect of discharging phosphorous-laden effluent into a stream spread through the town.
involves several organisms. The activities of human beings have When the town council reassembled, they realized that
become a major component of many natural areas. As a result, they had made a costly error. They found the old keeper
it is important to realize that the study of ecology must involve of the spring and hired him back gain. Within a few
people. Ecosystem ecology is the study of how energy flow and weeks, the stream cleared up and life returned to the
matter interact with biotic elements of ecosystems (Odum, 1971). village as they had known it before (Marshall, 1950).
Important Point: Ecology is generally categorized accord-
ing to complexity; the primary kinds of organisms under study
(plant, animal, insect ecology); the biomes principally studied After reviewing Marshall’s parable, and the restoration of
(forest, desert, benthic zone, grassland, etc.); the climatic or the spring, the average person might say to him/herself “Gee,
geographic area (e.g., artic or tropics); and/or the spatial scale all is well with the town, again.” For swans, irrigation, hydro-
(macro or micro) under consideration. power, and pretty views, residents seem to be pleased that the
Water Ecology 329
stream was restored to its “normal” state. The trained ecolo- absolutely necessary. Why? Consider the following expla-
gist, however, would take a different view of this same stream. nation (Spellman, 1996).
The ecologist would go beyond the hype (as portrayed in the A stream has two possible sources of primary energy: (1)
popular media, including literature) about what a healthy Instream photosynthesis
stream is. For example, the trained ecologist would know that by algae, mosses, and higher aquatic plants, and (2)
a perfectly clean stream, clear of all terrestrial plant debris Imported organic matter from streamside vegetation (e.g.,
(woody debris and leaves) would not be conducive to ensuring leaves and other parts of vegetation). Simply put, a significant
diverse, productive invertebrates and fish, would not preserve portion of the food that is eaten by aquatic organisms grows
natural sediment and water regimes, and would not ensure right in the stream, like algae, diatoms, nymphs and larvae,
overall stream health (Dolloff & Webster, 2000). and fish. This food that originates from within the stream is
called autochthonous (Benfield, 1996).
Most food in a stream, however, comes from outside the
WHY STUDY ECOLOGY?
stream. This is especially the case in small, heavily wooded
Does anyone really need to be an ecologist or a student of streams, where there is normally insufficient light to support
ecology to appreciate the following words of Will Carleton substantial instream photosynthesis so energy pathways are
(1845–1912) from his classic poem, Autumn Days? supported largely by imported energy. A large portion of
this imported energy is provided by leaves. Worms drown in
Sweet and smiling are thy ways, floods and get washed in. Leafhoppers and caterpillars fall
Beauteous, gold Autumn days. from trees. Adult mayflies and other insects mate above the
stream, lay their eggs in it, and then die in it. All of this food
Moreover, does anyone need to study ecology to observe from outside the stream is called allochthonous.
and to relish and to feel and/or to sense the real thing: nature’s
annual color palette in full kaleidoscope display—where Little brook, sing a song of leaf that sailed along.
those “yellow, mellow, ripened days are sheltered in a golden Down the golden braided center of your current
coating?” It is those clear and sunny days and cool and crisp swift and strong.
nights of autumn that provide an almost irresistible lure to
those of us (ecologist and nonecologist alike) who enjoy the James Whitcomb Riley (“The Brook Song”)
outdoors. To take in the splendor and delight of autumn’s color
display, many head for the hills, the mountains, countryside,
Leaf Processing In Streams
lakes, streams, and recreation areas of the National Forests.
The more adventurous horseback ride or backpack through Autumn leaves entering streams are nutrition-poor because
nature’s glory and solitude on trails winding deep into for- trees absorb most of the sugars and amino acids (nutrients)
est tranquility—just being out-of-doors in those golden days that were present in the green leaves. Leaves falling into
rivals any thrill in life. Even those of us fettered to the chains streams may be transported short distances but usually are
of city life are often exposed to city streets with those col- caught by structures in the streambed to form leaf packs.
umns of life ablaze in color. These leaf packs are then processed in place by components
No, one needs not to study ecology to witness, appreciate, of the stream communities in a series of well documented
and/or understand the enchantment of autumn’s annual color steps (Figure 11.1) (Peterson & Cummins, 1974).
display—summer extinguished in a blaze of color. It is a differ- Within 24–48 h of entering a stream many of the remain-
ent story, however, for those involved in trying to understand ing nutrients in leaves
all of the complicated actions—and even more complicated leach into the water. After leaching, leaves are composed
interactions—involving pigments, sunlight, moisture, chemi- mostly of structural materials like non-digestible cellulose and
cals, temperatures, site, hormones, length of daylight, genetic lignin. Within a few days, fungi (especially Hyphomycetes),
traits, and so on that make for a perfect autumn color display protozoa, and bacteria process the leaves by microbial pro-
(USDA, 1999). This is the work of the ecologist—to probe cessing (see Figure 11.1) (Barlocher & Kendrick, 1975). Two
deeper and deeper into the basics of nature, constantly seek- weeks later, microbial conditioning leads to structural soft-
ing answers. To find the answers, the ecologist must be a syn- ening of the leaf and, among some species, fragmentation.
thesis scientist; that is, he/she must be a generalist well versed Reduction in particle size from whole leaves (coarse particu-
in botany, zoology, physiology, genetics, and other disciplines late organic matter, CPOM) to fine particulate organic matter
like geology, physics, and chemistry. (FPOM) is accomplished mainly through the feeding activi-
Earlier, we used Marshall’s parable to make the point ties of a variety of aquatic invertebrates collectively known
that a clean stream and other downstream water bodies can as “shredders” (Cummins, 1974; Cummins & Klug, 1979).
be a good thing, depending on one’s point of view—pol- Shredders (stoneflies, for example) help to produce fragments
lution is a judgment call. It was also pointed out that this shredded from leaves but not ingested, and fecal pellets,
view may not be shared by a trained ecologist, especially which reduce the particle size of organic matter. The particles
a stream ecologist. The ecologist knows, for example, that then are collected (by mayflies, for example) and serve as a
terrestrial plant debris is not only a good thing but that it is food resource for a variety of micro- and macroconsumers.
Invertebrate colonization
continued microbial
Wetting activity and breakdown
in stream
Conversion to
Leaf fall and Microbial colonization
FPOM
blow in physical abrasion
and softening
FIGURE 11.1 Leaf processing in streams.
Collectors eat what they want and send even smaller frag- several complaints about the polluted stream were filed with
ments downstream. These tiny fragments may be filtered out the County Health Department. The Health Department
of the water by a true fly larva (i.e., a filterer). Leaves may finally took action to restore the stream to a relatively clean
also be fragmented by a combination of microbial activity and condition: sanitation workers removed debris, old tires,
physical factors such as current and abrasion (Benfield et al., and plugged or diverted end-of-pipe industrial outfalls
1977; Paul et al., 1978). upstream of the picnic area. After two years of continu-
Leafpack processing by all the elements mentioned above ous worker-aided stream clean-up and the stream’s natural
(i.e., leaf species, microbial activity, physical and chemi- self-purification process, the stream was given a clean bill
cal features of the stream) is important. However, the most of health by the Health Department. The danger postings
important point is that these integrated ecosystem processes were removed.
convert whole leaves into fine particles which are then dis- When the stream had been declared clean, fit for use by
tributed downstream and used as an energy source by various swimmer and fisher, with postings removed, it did not take
consumers. long for the word to get out. Local folks and others alike made
The bottom line on allochthonous material in a stream: certain, at first opportunity, that they flocked to the restored
Insects that have fallen into a stream are ready-to-eat, and picnic and swimming and fishing site alongside the stream.
may join leaves, exuviae (castoff coverings, as crab shells or During most visits to the restored picnic-stream area, visi-
the skins of snakes, etc.), copepods, dead and dying animals, tors, campers, fishermen, and others were pleased with their
rotifers, bacteria, and dislodged algae and immature insects cleaned-up surroundings. However, during late summer,
in their float (drift) downstream to a waiting hungry mouth. when the family of 18 and several others visited the restored
Note: Anytime the author, a stream ecologist, thinks or picnic-stream area they found themselves swarmed over by
writes about streams and allochthonous inputs, haunting wet thousands of speedy dragonflies and damselflies, especially
refrains mingle with his thoughts. For example, consider the near the bank of the stream. Soon they found the insects too
following by Henry David Thoreau (Walking: Winter Walk, much to deal with so they stayed clear of the stream. To them-
1862): selves and to anyone that would listen the same complaint
was heard over and over again: “What happened to our nice
When every stream in its penthouse clean stream? With all those nasty bugs the stream is polluted
Goes gurgling on its way, again.” So, when August arrived with its hordes of dragonfly-
And in his gallery the mouse type insects, the picnickers, campers, swimmers, and fisher-
Nibbleth the meadow of hay. men avoided the place until the insects departed; until the
human visitors thought the stream was clean again.
Another important reason to study and learn ecology can One local family does not avoid the picnic-stream area in
be garnered from another simple stream ecology example. August; on the contrary, August is one of their favorite times
Consider the following, example: to visit, camp, swim, take in nature, and fish—they usually
have most of the site to themselves. The family is led by a
local university professor of ecology and she knows the truth
FAMILY PICNIC HOSTS INSECT INTRUDERS
about the picnic-stream area and the dragonflies and other
On one of their late August holiday outings, a family of 18pic- insects. She knows that dragonflies and damselflies are mac-
nickers from a couple of small rural towns visited a local roinvertebrates indicator organisms; they only inhabit, grow,
stream that coursed its way alongside and/or through one of and thrive in and around streams that are clean and healthy—
the towns. This annual outing was looked upon with great when dragonflies and damselflies are around they indicate
anticipation for it was that one time each year when aunts, non-polluted water. Further, the ecology professor knows that
uncles, and cousins came together as one big family. The dragonflies are valued as predators, friends, and allies in wag-
streamside setting was perfect for such an outing, but his- ing war against flies and controlling populations of harmful
torically, until quite recently, the stream had a post stating: insects, such as mosquitoes. In regard to mosquitoes, dragon-
“Danger—No Swimming—Camping Or Fishing!” flies take the wrigglers in the water, and the adults, on swiftest
Because the picnic area was such a popular location wings (25–35 mph) that are hovering over streams and ponds
for picnickers, swimmers, and fishermen, over the years laying their eggs.
Water Ecology 331
The ecology professor’s husband, an amateur poet, also to von Humboldt. Willdenow, for whom the perennial vine
understood the significance of the presence of the indicator Willdenow’s spikemoss (Selaginella willdenowii) is named,
insects and had no problem sharing the same area with them. developed the notion, among many others, that plant distribu-
He also viewed the winged insects differently with the eye of tion patterns changed over time. Von Humboldt, considered
a poet. He knew that the poets have been lavish in their atten- by many to be the father of ecology, further developed many
tion to the dragonflies and have paid them delightful tributes. of Willdenow’s notions, including the notion that barriers to
James Witcomb Riley (1849–1916) wrote: plant dispersion were not absolute (Smith, 2007).
Another scientist who is considered a founder of plant
Till the dragon fly, in light gauzy armor ecology was Johannes E.B. Warming (1841–1924). Warming
burnished bright, studied the tropical vegetation of Brazil. He is best known for
Came tilting down the waters in a wild, working on the relations between living plants and their sur-
bewildered flight. roundings. He is also recognized for his flagship text on plant
ecology, Plantesamfund (1895). He also wrote A Handbook of
Alfred, Lord Tennyson, drew inspiration for one of his Systematic Botany (1878).
most beautiful poems from the two stages of dragonfly life, Meanwhile, other naturalists were assuming impor-
but perhaps James Russell Lowell’s (1819–1891) poem “The tant roles in the development of ecology. First and foremost
Fountain of Youth” gives us the perfect description of these amongst the naturalists was Charles Darwin. While working
insects: on his origin of species, Darwin came across the writings of
Thomas Malthus (1766–1834). Malthus advanced the prin-
In summer-noon flushes ciple that populations grow in a geometric fashion, doubling
When all the wood hushes, at regular intervals until they outstrip the food supply—ulti-
Blue dragon-flies knitting mately resulting in death and thus restraining population
To and fro in the sun, growth (Smith & Smith, 2006). In his autobiography written
With sidelong jerk flitting, in 1876, Darwin wrote:
Sink down on the rushes.
And, motionless sitting, In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun
Hear it bubble and run, my systematic inquiry, I happened to read for amusement
Hear its low inward singing Malthus on Population and being well prepared to appreci-
ate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from
With level wings swinging
long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants
On green tasseled rushes, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favorable
To dream in the sun. variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavorable ones
to be destroyed. The results of this would be the formation of
a new species. Here, then I had at last got a theory by which
HISTORY OF ECOLOGY
to work.
The chronological development of most sciences is clear and
direct. Listing the progressive stages in the development of During the period Darwin was formulating his origin of spe-
biology, math, chemistry, and physics is a relatively easy, cies, Gregor Mendel (1822–1884) was studying the transmis-
straightforward process. The science of ecology is differ- sion of characteristics from one generation of pea plants to
ent. Having only gained prominence in the latter part of the another. Mendel’s plus Darwin’s work provided the foundation
20th century, ecology is generally spoken of as a new science. for population genetics, the study of evolution and adaptation.
However, ecological thinking at some level has been around Time marched on and the preceding work of chemists
for a long time, and the principles of ecology have developed Lavoisier (he lost his head during the French Revolution) and
gradually and more like a multi-stemmed bush than a tree Horace B. de Saussure, and the Austrian geologist Eduard
with a single trunk (Smith, 1996). Suess, who proposed the term biosphere in 1875, all set the
Smith and Smith (2006) point out that one can argue that foundations of the advanced work that followed.
ecology goes back to Aristotle or perhaps his friend and asso- Important Point: The Russian geologist, Vladimir
ciate, Theophrastus, both of whom had an interest in the rela- Vernadsky, detailed the idea of biosphere in 1926.
tions between organisms and the environment and in many Several forward strides in animal ecology, independent of
species of animals. Theophrastus described interrelationships plant ecology, were made during the 19thcentury that enabled
between animals and between animals and their environment the 20th-century scientists R. Hesse, Charles Elton, Charles
as early as the 4th century BCE (Ramalay, 1940). Adams, and Victor Shelford to refine the discipline. Smith
Modern ecology has its early roots in plant geography & Smith (2006) point out that many early plant ecologists
(i.e., plant ecology, which developed earlier than animal ecol- were “concerned with observing the patterns of organisms in
ogy) and natural history. The early plant geographers (ecolo- nature, attempting to understand how patters were formed and
gists) included Carl Ludwig Willdenow (1765–1812) and maintained by interactions with the physical environment.”
Friedrich Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859). Willdenow Instead of looking for patterns, Frederic E. Clements (1874–
was one of the first phytogeographers; he was also a mentor 1945) sought a system of organizing nature. Conducting his
studies on vegetation in Nebraska, he postulated that the plant to this primary concept because of the human element that
community behaves as a complex organism that grows and is so closely involved with agroecosystem creation and
develops through stages, resembling the development of an maintenance.
individual organism, to a mature (climax) stage. Clements’s
theory of vegetation was criticized significantly by Arthur Agroecosystem Characteristics
Tansley, a British ecologist, and others. Agricultural ecosystems (referred to as agroecosystems) have
Ecology (2007) points out that in 1935, Tansley coined the been described by Odum (1984) as domesticated ecosystems.
term ecosystem—the interactive system established between He states that they are in many ways intermediate between
the group of living creatures (biocoenosis), and the environ- natural ecosystems (such as grasslands and forests) and fabri-
ment in which they live (biotype). Tansley’s ecosystem con- cated ecosystems (cities). Agroecosystems are solar powered
cept was adopted by the well-known and influential biology (as are natural systems) but differ from natural systems in that:
educator Eugene P. Odum. Along with his brother, Howard
Odum, Eugene P. Odum wrote a textbook which (starting in • Auxiliary energy sources that are used to enhance
1953) educated multiple generations of biologists and ecolo- productivity; these sources are processed fuels along
gists in North America (including the author of this text). with animal and human labor.
Eugene P. Odum is often called the “father of modern eco- • Species diversity is reduced by human management
system ecology.” in order to maximize the yield of specific foodstuffs
A new direction in ecology was given a boost in 1913 (plant or animal).
when Victor Shelford stressed the interrelationship of plants • Dominant plant and animal species are under artifi-
and animals. He conducted early studies on succession in the cial rather than natural selection.
Indiana Dunes and on experimental physiological ecology. • Control is external and goal-oriented rather than
Because of his work, ecology became a science of communi- internal via subsystem feedback as in natural
ties. His Animal Communities in Temperate America (1913) ecosystems.
was one of the first books to treat ecology as a separate sci-
ence. Eugene P. Odum was one of Shelford’s students. Agroecosystems do not happen without human intervention
Human ecology began in the 1920s. At about the same in the landscape. Therefore, the creation of these ecosystems
time, the study of populations split into two fields, population (and maintenance of them as well) is necessarily concerned
ecology and evolutionary ecology. Closely associated with with the (human) economic goals of production, productivity,
population ecology and evolutionary ecology is community and conservation. Agroecosystems are controlled, by defini-
ecology. At the same time, physiological ecology arose. Later, tion, by the management of ecological processes.
natural history observations spawned behavioral ecology Crossley et al. (1984) addressed the possible use of agro-
(Smith & Smith, 2006). ecosystem as a unifying and, in many ways, clarifying con-
The history of ecology has been tied to advances in biol- cept for proper management of managed landscape units. All
ogy, physics, and chemistry that have spawned new areas of ecosystems are open, that is, they exchange biotic and abi-
study in ecology, such as landscape, conservation, restoration, otic elements with other ecosystems. Agroecosystems are
and global ecology. At the same time, ecology was ripe with extremely open—with major exports of primary and sec-
conflicts and opposing camps. Smith (1996) notes that the first ondary production (plant and animal production) as well as
major split in ecology was between plant ecology and animal increased opportunity for loss of nutrient elements. Because
ecology, which even led to a controversy over the term ecol- modern agroecosystems are entirely dependent on human
ogy, with botanists dropping the initial “o” from oecology, the intervention, they would not persist but for that intervention. It
spelling in use at the time, and zoologists refusing to use the is for this reason that they are sometimes referred to as artifi-
term ecology at all, because of its perceived affiliation with cial systems as opposed to natural systems that do not require
botany. Other historical schisms were between organismal intervention to persist.
and individualist ecology, holism versus reductionism, and Definitions of agroecosystems often include the entire
theoretical versus applied ecology (Ecology, 2007). support base of energy and material subsidies, seeds, and
To illustrate one way in which the ecosystem classifica- chemicals, and even a sociopolitical-economic matrix in
tion is used, a real world example from the United States which management decisions are made. Crossley et al. (1984)
Department of Agriculture is provided below (USDA, 2007). stated that while this is logical, he preferred to designate the
individual field as the agroecosystem because it is consistent
with designating an individual forest catchment or lake as an
Example Ecosystem: Agroecosystem Model
ecosystem. He envisions the farm system as consisting of a
What are the basic components of agroecosystems? Just set of agroecosystems—field with similar or different crops—
as natural ecosystems they can be thought of as includ- together with support mechanisms and socioeconomic factors
ing the processes of primary production, consumption, and contributing to their management. Agroecosystems retain
decomposition interacting with abiotic environmental com- most if not all the functional properties of natural ecosys-
ponents and resulting in energy flow and nutrient cycling. tems—nutrient conservation mechanisms, energy storage and
Economic, social, and environmental factors must be added use patterns, and regulation of biotic diversity.
Water Ecology 333
Ecosystem Pattern and Process separation based on food habits” differentiates between two
Throughout the United States, the landscape consists of species (Odum, 1983). Such niche separation can be seen
patches of natural ecosystems scattered (or embedded) in a when comparing the niches of the water backswimmer and
matrix of different agroecosystems and fabricated ecosys- the water boatman. The backswimmer is an active predator,
tems. In fact, about three-quarters of the land area of the while the water boatman feeds largely on decaying vegeta-
United States (USDA, 1982) is occupied by agroecosystems. tion (McCafferty, 1981).
The pattern created by this interspersion incorporates
elements of the variability of structure and separation of ECOSYSTEMS
functions among the various ecosystems. Pattern variables
quantify the structure and relationships between systems; pro- An ecosystem denotes an area that includes all organisms
cess implies functional relationships between and within the therein and their physical environment. The ecosystem is
biotic and abiotic ecosystem components. Within agroecosys- the major ecological unit in nature. Living organisms and
tems, processes include: their nonliving environment are inseparably interrelated and
interact upon each other to create a self-regulating and self-
• Enhanced productivity of producers through maintaining system. To create a self-regulating and self-main-
fertilization taining system, ecosystems are homeostatic, i.e.; they resist
• Improved productivity through selective breeding any change through natural controls. These natural controls
• Management of pests with various control methods are important in ecology. This is especially the case because it
• Management of various aspects of the hydrologic is people through their complex activities who tend to disrupt
cycle natural controls.
• Landforming. As stated earlier, the ecosystem encompasses both the
living and nonliving factors in a particular environment.
The living or biotic part of the ecosystem is formed by two
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
components: autotrophic and heterotrophic. The autotro-
Odum (1983) suggested that the best way to delimit modern phic (self-nourishing) component does not require food from
ecology is to consider the concept of levels of organization. its environment but can manufacture food from inorganic
Levels of organization can be simplified as shown in Figure substances. For example, some autotrophic components
11.2. In this relationship, organs form an organism; organ- (plants) manufacture needed energy through photosynthesis.
isms of a particular species form a population; populations Heterotrophic components, on the other hand, depend upon
occupying a particular area form a community. Communities, autotrophic components for food.
interacting with nonliving or abiotic factors, separate in a The nonliving or abiotic part of the ecosystem is formed by
natural unit to create a stable system known as the ecosystem three components: inorganic substances, organic compounds
(the major ecological unit); and the part of the earth in which (link biotic and abiotic parts), and climate regime. Figure 11.4
ecosystem operates is known as the biosphere. Tomera points is a simplified diagram showing a few of the living and nonliv-
out “every community is influenced by a particular set of abi- ing components of an ecosystem found in a freshwater pond.
otic factors” (Tomera, 1989). Inorganic substances such as An ecosystem is a cyclic mechanism in which biotic and
oxygen, carbon dioxide, several other inorganic substances, abiotic materials are constantly exchanged through biogeo-
and some organic substances represent the abiotic part of the chemical cycles. Biogeochemical cycles are defined as fol-
ecosystem. lows: bio refers to living organisms and geo to water, air,
The physical and biological environment in which an rocks, or solids. Chemical is concerned with the chemical
organism lives is referred to as its habitat. For example, the composition of the earth. Biogeochemical cycles are driven
habitat of two common aquatic insects, the “backswimmer” by energy, directly or indirectly, from the sun.
(Notonecta) and the “water boatman” (Corixa) is the lit- Figure 11.4 depicts an ecosystem where biotic and abi-
toral zone of ponds and lakes (shallow, vegetation-choked otic materials are constantly exchanged. Producers construct
areas) (See Figure 11.3) (Odum, 1983). Within each level organic substances through photosynthesis and chemosyn-
of organization of a particular habitat, each organism has thesis. Consumers and decomposers use organic matter as
a special role. The role the organism plays in the environ- their food and convert it into abiotic components. That is,
ment is referred to as its niche. A niche might be that the they dissipate energy fixed by producers through food chains.
organism is food for some other organism or is a predator The abiotic part of the pond in Figure 11.4 is formed of inor-
of other organisms. Odum refers to an organism’s niche as ganic and organic compounds dissolved and in sediments
its “profession” (Odum, 1971). In other words, each organ- such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, calcium, hydrogen,
ism has a job or role to fulfill in its environment. Although and humic acids. Producers such as rooted plants and phy-
two different species might occupy the same habitat, “niche toplankton represent the biotic part. Fish, crustaceans, and
insect larvae make up the consumers. Mayfly nymphs repre-
Organs → Organism → Population → Communities → Ecosystem → Biosphere sent detrivores, which feed on organic detritus. Decomposers
make up the final biotic part. They include aquatic bacteria
FIGURE 11.2 Levels of organization. and fungi, which are distributed throughout the pond.
FIGURE 11.3 Notonecta (left) and Corixa (right). (Source: Adapted from Odum, E.P., Basic Ecology, Saunders, Philadelphia, PA, 1983,
p. 42.)
Sun
Freshwater Pond
Producers (rooted plants)
Producerss (phy
Producer (phytoplankton)
p ytoplankton)
p
Primary Consumers (zooplankton)
Secondary Consumer (fis

(fish)
f h)
Tertiary Consumer (turtle)
Dissolved
Chemicals
Sediment
Decomposers (bacteria and fungi)
FIGURE 11.4 Major components of a freshwater pond ecosystem.
As stated earlier, an ecosystem is a cyclic mechanism. The interaction of energy and materials in the ecosystem
From a functional viewpoint, an ecosystem can be analyzed is important. Energy drives the biogeochemical cycles. Note
in terms of several factors. The factors important in this study that energy does not cycle as nutrients do in biogeochemi-
include biogeochemical cycles and energy and food chains. cal cycles. For example, when food passes from one organ-
ism to another, the energy contained in the food is reduced
systematically until all the energy in the system is dissipated
ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM
as heat. Price (1984) refers to this process as “a unidirectional
Simply defined, energy is the ability or capacity to do work. flow of energy through the system, with no possibility for
For an ecosystem to exist, it must have energy. All activities recycling of energy.” When water or nutrients are recycled,
of living organisms involve work, which is the expenditure of energy is required. The energy expended in this recycling is
energy. This means the degradation of a higher state of energy not recyclable.
to a lower state. Two laws govern the flow of energy through an As mentioned, the principal source of energy for any
ecosystem: The First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics. ecosystem is sunlight. Green plants, through the process
The first law sometimes called the conservation law, states of photosynthesis, transform the sun’s energy into carbo-
that energy may not be created or destroyed. The second law hydrates, which are consumed by animals. This transfer of
states that no energy transformation is 100% efficient. That energy, again, is unidirectional—from producers to con-
is, in every energy transformation, some energy is dissipated sumers. Often this transfer of energy to different organisms
as heat. The term entropy is used as a measure of the non- is called a food chain. Figure 11.5 shows a simple aquatic
availability of energy to a system. Entropy increases with food chain.
an increase in dissipation. Because of entropy, the input of All organisms, alive or dead, are potential sources of food
energy in any system is higher than the output or the work for other organisms. All organisms that share the same general
done; thus, the resultant efficiency is less than 100%. type of food in a food chain are said to be at the same trophic
Water Ecology 335
Algae Zooplankton Perch Bass An important trophic level of the food web is comprised
of the decomposers. The decomposers feed on dead plants or
FIGURE 11.5 Aquatic food chain. animals and play an important role in recycling nutrients in
the ecosystem. Simply, there is no waste in ecosystems. All
organisms, dead or alive, are potential sources of food for
tape grass mullet bacteria other organisms. An example of an aquatic food web is shown
in Figure 11.6.
algae midge larvae bream bass FOOD CHAIN EFFICIENCY

Earlier, we pointed out that energy from the sun is captured
(via photosynthesis) by green plants and used to make food.
Most of this energy is used to carry on the plant’s life activi-
snails caddisfly larvae water beetles
ties. The rest of the energy is passed on as food to the next
level of the food chain. Nature limits the amount of energy
FIGURE 11.6 Aquatic food web. that is accessible to organisms within each food chain. Not
all food energy is transferred from one trophic level to the
level (nourishment or feeding level). Since green plants use next. Only about 10% (10% rule) of the amount of energy is
sunlight to produce food for animals, they are called the pro- actually transferred through a food chain. For example, if
ducers, or the first trophic level. The herbivores, which eat we apply the 10% rule to the diatoms-copepods-minnows-
plants directly, are called the second trophic level or the pri- medium fish-large fish food chain shown in Figure 11.7, we
mary consumers. The carnivores are flesh-eating consumers; can predict that 1000 grams of diatoms produce 100 grams of
they include several trophic levels from the third on up. At copepods, which will produce 10 grams of minnows, which
each transfer, a large amount of energy (about 80–90%) is lost will produce 1 gram of medium fish, which, in turn, will
as heat and wastes. Thus, nature normally limits food chains produce 0.1 gram of large fish. Thus, only about 10% of the
to four or five links. In aquatic ecosystems, however, food chemical energy available at each trophic level is transferred
chains are commonly longer than those on land. The aquatic and stored in usable form at the next level. The other 90% is
food chain is longer because several predatory fish may be lost to the environment as low quality heat in accordance with
feeding on the plant consumers. Even so, the built-in ineffi- the second law of thermodynamics.
ciency of the energy transfer process prevents development of
extremely long food chains.
Only a few simple food chains are found in nature. Most ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
simple food chains are interlocked. This interlocking of food In the food chain, from the producer to the final consumer, it
chains forms a food web. Most ecosystems support a complex is clear that a particular community in nature often consists of
food web. A food web involves animals that do not feed on several small organisms associated with a smaller and smaller
one trophic level. For example, humans feed on both plants and number of larger organisms. A grassy field, for example, has
animals. An organism in a food web may occupy one or more a larger number of grasses and other small plants, a smaller
trophic levels. Trophic level is determined by an organism’s role number of herbivores like rabbits, and an even smaller num-
in its particular community, not by its species. Food chains and ber of carnivores like foxes. The practical significance of this
webs help to explain how energy moves through an ecosystem. is that we must have several more producers than consumers.
HEAT
90% 90%
Diatoms Large fish
90% 90%
90%
10%
10%
Medium
Copepods
fish
10% 10%
Minnows
FIGURE 11.7 Simple food chain.

This pound-for-pound relationship, where it takes more (2) Net primary productivity—the rate of energy stor-
producers than consumers, can be demonstrated graphically age in plant tissues in excess of the rate of aerobic
by building an ecological pyramid. In an ecological pyramid, respiration by primary producers
separate levels represent the number of organisms at various (3) Net community productivity—the rate of storage of
trophic levels in a food chain or bars placed one above the organic matter not used
other with a base formed by producers and the apex formed (4) Secondary productivity—the rate of energy storage
by the final consumer. The pyramid shape is formed due to a at consumer levels.
great amount of energy loss at each trophic level. The same is
true if the corresponding biomass or energy substitutes num- When attempting to comprehend the significance of the term
bers. Ecologists generally use three types of ecological pyra- productivity as it relates to ecosystems, it is wise to consider
mids: pyramids of number, biomass, and energy. Obviously, an example. Consider the productivity of an agricultural
there will be differences among them. Some generalizations: ecosystem such as a wheat field. Often its productivity is
expressed as the number of bushels produced per acre. This
1. Energy pyramids must always be larger at the base is an example of the harvest method for measuring productiv-
than at the top (because of the Second Law of ity. For a natural ecosystem, several 1 m2 plots are marked
Thermodynamics, and has to do with dissipation of off, and the entire area is harvested and weighed to give an
energy as it moves from one trophic level to another). estimate of productivity as grams of biomass per square meter
2. Likewise, biomass pyramids (in which biomass is per given time interval. From this method, a measure of net
used as an indicator of production) are usually pyr- primary production (net yield) can be measured.
amid-shaped. This is particularly true of terrestrial Productivity, both in the natural and cultured ecosystem,
systems and aquatic ones dominated by large plants may vary considerably, not only between types of ecosystems,
(marshes), in which consumption by heterotroph is but also within the same ecosystem. Several factors influence
low and organic matter accumulates with time. year-to-year productivity within an ecosystem. Such factors
However, biomass pyramids can sometimes be as temperature, availability of nutrients, fire, animal graz-
inverted. This is common in aquatic ecosystems, in ing, and human cultivation activities are directly or indirectly
which the primary producers are microscopic plank- related to the productivity of a particular ecosystem.
tonic organisms that multiply very rapidly, have very Productivity can be measured in several different ways in
short lifespans, and heavy grazing by herbivores. At the aquatic ecosystem. For example, the production of oxygen
any single point in time, the amount of biomass in may be used to determine productivity. Oxygen content may
primary producers is less than that in larger, long- be measured in several ways. One way is to measure it in the
lived animals that consume primary producers. water every few hours for a period of 24 h. During daylight,
3. A number of pyramids can have various shapes (and when photosynthesis is occurring, the oxygen concentration
not be pyramids at all) depending on the sizes of the should rise. At night the oxygen level should drop. The oxygen
organisms that make up the trophic levels. In forests, level can be measured by using a simple x-y graph. The oxy-
the primary producers are large trees and the herbi- gen level can be plotted on the y-axis with time plotted on the
vore level usually consists of insects, so the base of the x-axis, as shown in Figure 11.8.
pyramid is smaller than the herbivore level above it. In Another method of measuring oxygen production in aquatic
grasslands, the number of primary producers (grasses) ecosystems is to use light and dark bottles. Biochemical oxy-
is much larger than that of the herbivores above (large gen demand (BOD) bottles (300 ml) are filled with water to
grazing animals) (Ecosystems Topics, 2000). a particular height. One of the bottles is tested for the initial
dissolved oxygen (DO), and then the other two bottles (one
clear, one dark) are suspended in the water at the depth they
PRODUCTIVITY
were taken from. After a 12-h period, the bottles are collected
As mentioned, the flow of energy through an ecosystem starts and the DO value for each bottle is recorded. Once the oxygen
with the fixation of sunlight by plants through photosynthesis. production is known, the productivity in terms of grams/m/
In evaluating an ecosystem, the measurement of photosynthe- day can be calculated.
sis is important. Ecosystems may be classified into highly pro-
ductive or less productive. Therefore, the study of ecosystems
OXYGEN (mg/L)
must involve some measure of the productivity of that eco- 10

system. Primary production is the rate at which the ecosys-
tem’s primary producers capture and store a given amount of 5
energy, in a specified time interval. In simpler terms, primary
productivity is a measure of the rate at which photosynthesis
occurs. Four successive steps in the production process are: 6:00 a.m. 12:00 p.m. 6:00 p.m.
TIME
(1) Gross primary productivity—the total rate of photo-
synthesis in an ecosystem during a specified interval FIGURE 11.8 Diurnal oxygen curve for an aquatic ecosystem.
Water Ecology 337
In the aquatic ecosystem, pollution can have a profound

impact upon the system’s productivity.
POPULATION ECOLOGY
Random Uniform Clumped
Webster’s Third New International Dictionary defines pop-
ulation as “the total number or amount of things especially FIGURE 11.9 Basic patterns of distribution. (Adapted from
within a given area; the organisms inhabiting a particular area Odum, E.P., Fundamentals of Ecology, Saunders, Philadelphia, PA.
or biotype; and a group of interbreeding biotypes that repre- 1971, p. 205.)
sents the level of organization at which speciation begins.”
The concept of population is interpreted differently in vari- How a particular population distributed within a given area
ous sciences. In human demography a population is a set of has considerable influence on density. As shown in Figure
humans in a given area. In genetics a population is a group of 11.9, organisms in nature may be distributed in three ways.
interbreeding individuals of the same species, which is iso- In random distribution, there is an equal probability of an
lated from other groups. In population ecology a population organism occupying any point in space, and “each individual
is a group of individuals of the same species inhabiting the is independent of the others.” In regular or uniform distri-
same area. bution, in turn, organisms are spaced more evenly; they are
If we wanted to study the organisms in a slow-moving not distributed by chance. Animals compete with each other
stream or stream pond, we would have two options. We could and effectively defend a specific territory, excluding other
study each fish, aquatic plant, crustacean, and insect one by individuals of the same species. In regular or uniform dis-
one. In that case, we would be studying individuals. It would tribution, the competition between individuals can be quite
be easier to do this if the subject were trout, but it would be severe and antagonistic to the point where spacing generated
difficult to separate and study each aquatic plant. The second is quite even. The most common distribution is the contagious
option would be to study all of the trout, all of the insects of or clumped distribution where organisms are found in groups;
each specific kind, all of a certain aquatic plant type in the this may reflect the heterogeneity of the habitat. Organisms
stream or pond at the time of the study. When ecologists study that exhibit contagious or clumped distribution may develop
a group of the same kind of individuals in a given location social hierarchies in order to live together more effectively.
at a given time, they are investigating a population. When Animals within the same species have evolved many sym-
attempting to determine the population of a particular spe- bolic aggressive displays that carry meanings that are not only
cies, it is important to remember that time is a factor. Time is mutually understood but also prevent injury or death within
important because populations change, whether it is at various the same species.
times during the day, during the different seasons, or from The size of animal populations is constantly changing due
year to year. to natality, mortality, emigration, and immigration. As men-
Population density may change dramatically. For example, tioned, the population size will increase if the natality and
if a dam is closed off in a river midway through spawning sea- immigration rates are high. On the other hand, it will decrease
son, with no provision allowed for fish movement upstream if the mortality and emigration rates are high. Each population
(a fish ladder), it would drastically decrease the density of has an upper limit on size, often called the carrying capacity.
spawning salmon upstream. Along with the swift and some- Carrying capacity is the optimum number of species’ indi-
times unpredictable consequences of change, it can be dif- viduals that can survive in a specific area over time. Stated
ficult to draw exact boundaries between various populations. differently, the carrying capacity is the maximum number
The population density or level of a species depends on natal- of species that can be supported in a bioregion. A pond may
ity, mortality, immigration, and emigration. Changes in popu- be able to support only a dozen frogs depending on the food
lation density are the result of both births and deaths. The resources for the frogs in the pond. If there were 30 frogs
birth rate of a population is called natality and the death rate in the same pond, at least half of them would probably die
mortality. In aquatic populations, two factors besides natal- because the pond environment would not have enough food
ity and mortality can affect density. For example, in a run of for them to live. Carrying capacity is based on the quantity
returning salmon to their spawning grounds, the density could of food supplies, the physical space available, the degree of
vary as more salmon migrated in or as others left the run for predation, and several other environmental factors.
their own spawning grounds. The arrival of new salmon to a The carrying capacity is of two types: ultimate and envi-
population from other places is termed immigration (ingress). ronmental. Ultimate carrying capacity is the theoretical
The departure of salmon from a population is called emigra- maximum density; that is, it is the maximum number of indi-
tion (egress). Thus, natality and immigration increase popu- viduals of a species in a place that can support itself without
lation density, whereas mortality and emigration decrease it. rendering the place uninhabitable. The environmental carry-
The net increase in population is the difference between these ing capacity is the actual maximum population density that
two sets of factors. a species maintains in an area. Ultimate carrying capacity
Each organism occupies only those areas that can provide is always higher than environmental. Ecologists have con-
for its requirements, resulting in an irregular distribution. cluded that a major factor that affects population stability or
persistence is species diversity. Species diversity is a measure

of the number of species and their relative abundance. Bare rocks exposed
If the stress on an ecosystem is small, the ecosystem can to the elements
usually adapt quite easily. Moreover, even when severe stress
occurs, ecosystems have a way of adapting. Severe environ-
mental change to an ecosystem can result from such natural
occurrences as fires, earthquakes, and floods and from peo-
ple-induced changes such as land clearing, surface mining, Rocks become
colonized by lichens
and pollution. One of the most important applications of spe-
cies diversity is in the evaluation of pollution. Stress of any
kind will reduce the species diversity of an ecosystem to a
significant degree. In the case of domestic sewage pollution,
for example, the stress is caused by a lack of DO for aquatic Mosses replace
Hundreds of years
organisms. the lichens
Ecosystems can and do change; for example, if a fire dev-
astates a forest, it will grow back, eventually, because of
ecological succession. Ecological succession is the observed
process of change (a normal occurrence in nature) in the spe- Grasses and
cies structure of an ecological community over flowering plants
time. Succession usually occurs in an orderly, predictable replace the mosses
manner. It involves the entire system. The science of ecology
has developed to such a point that ecologists are now able to
predict several years in advance what will occur in a given
ecosystem. For example, scientists know that if a burned-out Woody shrubs begin
replacing the grasses
forest region receives light, water, nutrients, and an influx or and flowering plants
immigration of animals and seeds, it will eventually develop
into another forest through a sequence of steps or stages.
Ecologists recognize two types of ecological succession:
primary and secondary. The particular type that takes place A forest eventually
depends on the condition at a particular site at the beginning grows where bare
of the process. rock once existed
Primary succession, sometimes called bare-rock succes-
sion, occurs on surfaces such as hardened volcanic lava, bare
rock, and sand dunes, where no soil exists, and where noth- FIGURE 11.10 Bare-rock succession. (Source: Adapted from
Tomera, A.N., Understanding Basic Ecological Concepts, J. Weston
ing has ever grown before (see Figure 11.10). Obviously, in
Walch, Publisher, Portland, ME, 1989, p. 67.)
order to grow, plants need soil. Thus, soil must form on the
bare rock before succession can begin. Usually this soil for- or climax ecosystem is developed, several decades later. In
mation process results from weathering. Atmospheric expo- bare-rock succession, each stage in the complex succession
sure—weathering, wind, rain, and frost—forms tiny cracks pattern dooms the stage that existed before it. Secondary suc-
and holes in rock surfaces. Water collects in the rock fissures cession is the most common type of succession. Secondary
and slowly dissolves the minerals out of the rock’s surface. A succession occurs in an area where the natural vegetation has
pioneer soil layer is formed from the dissolved minerals and been removed or destroyed but the soil is not destroyed. For
supports such plants as lichens. Lichens gradually cover the example, the succession that occurs in abandoned farm fields,
rock surface and secrete carbonic acid, which dissolves addi- known as old-field succession, illustrates secondary succes-
tional minerals from the rock. Eventually, mosses replace the sion. An example of secondary succession can be seen in the
lichens. Organisms called decomposers move in and feed on Piedmont region of North Carolina. Early settlers of the area
dead lichen and moss. A few small animals such as mites and cleared away the native oak-hickory forests and cultivated the
spiders arrive next. The result is what is known as a pioneer land. In the ensuing years, the soil became depleted of nutri-
community. The pioneer community is defined as the first ents, reducing the soil’s fertility. As a result, farming ceased
successful integration of plants, animals, and decomposers in the region a few generations later, and the fields were aban-
into a bare-rock community. doned. Some 150–200 years after abandonment, the climax
After several years, the pioneer community builds up oak-hickory forest was restored.
enough organic matter in its soil to be able to support rooted In a stream ecosystem, growth is enhanced by biotic and
plants like herbs and shrubs. Eventually, the pioneer commu- abiotic factors, including:
nity is crowded out and is replaced by a different environment.
This, in turn, works to thicken the upper soil layers. The pro- • Ability to produce offspring
gression continues through several other stages until a mature • Ability to adapt to new environments
Water Ecology 339
• Ability to migrate to new territories thing; otherwise, long ago there would have been few streams
• Ability to compete with species for food and space on Earth suitable for much more than the dumping of garbage.
to live In summary, through research and observation, ecologists
• Ability to blend into the environment so as not to be have found that the succession patterns in different ecosys-
eaten tems usually display common characteristics. First, succes-
• Ability to find food sion brings about changes in the plant and animal members
• Ability to defend itself from enemies present. Second, organic matter increases from stage to stage.
• Favorable light Finally, as each stage progresses, there is a tendency toward
• Favorable temperature greater stability or persistence. Remember, succession is usu-
• Favorable DO content ally predictable—this is the case, unless humans interfere.
• Sufficient water level.
STREAM GENESIS AND STRUCTURE
The biotic and abiotic factors in an aquatic ecosystem that
reduce growth include: Consider the following time and place: Early in the spring on
a snow and ice-covered high alpine meadow the water cycle
• Predators continues. The cycle’s main component, water, has been held
• Disease in reserve—literally frozen for the long dark winter months
• Parasites but with longer, warmer spring days the sun is higher, more
• Pollution direct, and of longer duration, and the frozen masses of water
• Competition for space and food respond to the increased warmth. The melt begins with a sin-
• Unfavorable stream conditions (i.e., low water levels) gle drop, then two, then increasingly. As the snow and ice melt,
• Lack of food. the drops join a chorus that continues unending; they fall from
their ice-bound lip to the bare rock and soil terrain below.
With regard to stability in a freshwater ecosystem, the higher The terrain on which the snow melt falls is not like gla-
the species diversity the greater the inertia and resilience of the cial till, which is an unconsolidated, heterogeneous mixture
ecosystem is. At the same time, when the species diversity is of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders, dug-out, ground-out, and
high within a stream ecosystem, a population within the stream exposed by the force of a huge, slow and inexorably moving
can be out of control because of an imbalance between growth glacier. Instead, this soil and rock ground is exposed to the
and reduction factors, with the ecosystem at the same time still falling drops of snowmelt because of a combination of the
remaining stable. In regards to instability in a freshwater eco- wind and the tiny, enduring force exerted by drops of water as
system, recall that imbalance occurs when growth and reduc- over season after season they collide with the thin soil cover,
tion factors are out of balance. For example, when sewage is exposing the intimate bones of the earth.
accidentally dumped into a stream, the stream ecosystem, via Gradually, the single drops increase to a small rush—they
the self-purification process (discussed later) responds and join to form a splashing, rebounding, helter-skelter cascade,
returns to normal. This process can be described as follows: and many separate rivulets that trickle and then run their
way down the face of the granite mountain. At an indented
• Raw sewage is dumped into the stream ledge halfway down the mountain slope, a pool forms whose
• Decreases the oxygen available as the detritus food beauty, clarity, and sweet iciness provides the visitor with an
chain breaks down the sewage incomprehensible, incomparable gift—a blessing from earth.
• Some fish die at the pollution site and downstream The mountain pool fills slowly, tranquil under the blue sky,
• Sewage is broken down and washes out to sea and is reflecting the pines, snow, and sky around and above it, an
finally broken down in the ocean open invitation to lie down and drink, and to peer into the
• Oxygen levels return to normal glass-clear, deep phantom blue-green eye, so clear that it
• Fish populations that were deleted are restored as seems possible to reach down 50ft below and touch the very
fish about the spill reproduce and the young occupy bowels of the mountain. The pool has no transition from shal-
the real estate formerly occupied by the dead fish low margin to depth; it is simply deep and pure. As the pool
• Populations all return to “normal.” fills with more melt water, we wish to freeze time, to hold this
place and this pool in its perfect state forever; it is such a rarity
A shift in balance in a stream’s ecosystem (or in any ecosys- to us in our modern world. However, this cannot be—Mother
tem) similar to the one just described is a common occurrence. Nature calls, prodding, urging—and for a brief instant, the
In this particular case, the stream responded (on its own) to water laps in the breeze against the outermost edge of the
the imbalance the sewage caused and through the self-purifi- ridge, then a trickle flows over the rim. The giant hand of
cation process returned to normal. Recall that succession is gravity reaches out and tips the overflowing melt onward and
the method by which an ecosystem either forms itself or heals it continues the downward journey, following the path of least
itself. Thus, we can say that a type of succession has occurred resistance to its next destination, several thousand feet below.
in the polluted stream described above, because, in the end, it When the overflow, still high in altitude, but its rock-strewn
healed itself. More importantly, this healing process is a good bed bent downward, toward the sea, meets the angled, broken
rocks below, it bounces, bursts, and mists its way against Physical processes involved in the formation of a stream
steep, V-shaped walls that form a small valley, carved out are important to the ecology of the stream, because stream
over time by water and the forces of the earth. Within the val- channel and flow characteristics directly influence the func-
ley confines, the melt water has grown from drops to rivulets tioning of the stream’s ecosystem, and the biota found therein.
to a small mass of flowing water. It flows through what is at Thus, in this section, we discuss the pathways of water flow
first a narrow opening, gaining strength, speed, and power as contributing to stream flow; namely, we discuss precipitation
the V-shaped valley widens to form a U-shape. The journey inputs as they contribute to flow. We also discuss stream flow
continues as the water mass picks up speed and tumbles over discharge, transport of material, characteristics of stream
massive boulders, and then slows again. channels, stream profile, sinuosity, the floodplain, riffle-pool
At a larger but shallower pool, waters from higher eleva- sequences, and depositional features—all of which directly or
tions have joined the main body—from the hillsides, crev- indirectly impact the ecology of the stream.
ices, springs, rills, mountain creeks. At the influent poolsides
all appears peaceful, quiet, and restful, but not far away, at
Water-flow in a Stream
the effluent end of the pool gravity takes control again. The
overflow is flung over the jagged lip, and cascades downward Most elementary students learn early in their education pro-
several hundred feet, where the waterfall again brings its load cess that water on Earth flows downhill—from land to the
to a violent, mist-filled meeting. sea. However, they may or may not be told that water flows
The water separates and joins repeatedly, forming a deep, downhill toward the sea by various routes. The route (or
furious, wild stream that calms gradually as it continues to pathway) that we are primarily concerned with is the surface
flow over lands that are less steep. The waters widen into water route taken by the surface water runoff. Surface runoff
pools overhung by vegetation, surrounded by tall trees. The is dependent on various factors. For example, climate, vegeta-
pure, crystalline waters have become progressively discolored tion, topography, geology, soil characteristics, and land-use
on their downward journey, stained brown-black with humic determine how much surface runoff occurs compared with
acid, and literally filled with suspended sediments; the once- other pathways.
pure stream is now muddy. The primary source (input) of water to total surface run-
The mass divides and flows in different directions, over off, of course, is precipitation. This is the case even though a
different landscapes. Small streams divert and flow into substantial portion of all precipitation input returns directly to
open country. Different soils work to retain or speed the the atmosphere by evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is
waters, and in some places, the waters spread out into shal- a combination process, as the name suggests whereby water in
low swamps, bogs, marshes, fens, or mires. Other streams plant tissue and in the soil evaporates and transpires to water
pause long enough to fill deep depressions in the land and vapor in the atmosphere. A substantial portion of precipitation
form lakes. For a time, the water remains and pauses in input returns directly to the atmosphere by evapotranspira-
its journey to the sea. However, this is only a short-term tion. It is also important to point out that when precipitation
pause, because lakes are only a short-term resting place occurs, some rainwater is intercepted by vegetation where
in the water cycle. The water will eventually move on, by it evaporates, never reaching the ground or being absorbed
evaporation, or seepage into groundwater. Other portions by plants. A large portion of the rainwater that reaches the
of the water mass stay with the main flow, and the speed of surface on the ground, in lakes, and streams also evaporates
flow changes to form a river, which braids its way through directly back to the atmosphere.
the landscape, heading for the sea. As it changes speed and Although plants display a special adaptation to mini-
slows, the river bottom changes from rock and stone to silt mize transpiration, plants still lose water to the atmosphere
and clay. Plants begin to grow, stems thicken, and leaves during the exchange of gases necessary for photosynthesis.
broaden. The river is now full of life and the nutrients Notwithstanding the large percentage of precipitation that
needed to sustain life. However, the river courses onward, evaporates, rainwater or meltwater that reaches the ground
its destiny met when the flowing rich mass slows at last and surface follows several pathways in reaching a stream chan-
finally spills into the sea. nel or groundwater.
Freshwater systems are divided into two broad catego- Soil can absorb rainfall to its infiltration capacity (i.e., to its
ries—running waters (lotic systems) and standing waters (len- maximum rate). During a rain event, this capacity decreases.
tic systems). We concentrate on lotic systems (although many Any rainfall in excess of infiltration capacity accumulates on
of the principles described herein apply to other freshwater the surface. When this surface water exceeds the depression
surface bodies as well, which are known by common names. storage capacity of the surface, it moves as an irregular sheet
Some examples include seeps, springs, brooks, branches, of overland flow. In arid areas, overland flow is likely because
creeks, streams, and rivers. Again, because it is the best term of the low permeability of the soil. Overland flow is also likely
to use in freshwater ecology, it is the stream we are concerned when the surface is frozen and/or when human activities have
with here. Although there is no standard scientific definition rendered the land surface less permeable. In humid areas,
of a stream, it is usually distinguished subjectively as follows: where infiltration capacities are high, overland flow is rare.
a stream is of intermediate size that can be waded from one In rain events, where the infiltration capacity of the soil is
side to the other. not exceeded, rain penetrates the soil and eventually reaches
Water Ecology 341
the groundwater—from which it discharges to the stream Velocity decreases as a function of depth, approaching zero at
slowly and over a long period. This phenomenon helps to the substrate surface.
explain why stream flow through a dry weather region remains
constant; the flow is continuously augmented by groundwa-
Transport of Material
ter. This type of stream is known as a perennial stream, as
opposed to an intermittent one because the flow continues Water flowing in a channel may exhibit laminar flow (par-
during periods of no rainfall. allel layers of water shear over one another vertically), or
When a stream courses through a humid region, it is fed turbulent flow (complex mixing). In streams, laminar flow
water via the water table, which slopes toward the stream is uncommon, except at boundaries where flow is very low
channel. Discharge from the water table into the stream and in groundwater. Thus, the flow in streams generally is
accounts for flow during periods without precipitation, and turbulent. Turbulence exerts a shearing force that causes par-
explains why this flow increases, even without tributary input, ticles to move along the streambed by pushing, rolling, and
as one proceeds downstream. Such streams are called gaining skipping referred to as bed load. This same shear causes tur-
or effluent, as opposed to losing or influent streams that lose bulent eddies that entrain particles in suspension (called the
water into the ground (see Figure 11.11). The same stream can suspended load—particle size under 0.06 mm).
shift between gaining and losing conditions along its course Entrainment is the incorporation of particles when stream
because of changes in the underlying strata and local climate. velocity exceeds the entraining velocity for a particular par-
ticle size. The entrained particles in suspension (suspended
load) also include fine sediment, primarily clays, silts, and
Stream Water Discharge
fine sands that require only low velocities and minor turbu-
The current velocity (speed) of water (driven by gravitational lence to remain in suspension. These are referred to as wash
energy) in a channel varies considerably within a stream’s load (under 0.002 mm). Thus, the suspended load includes the
cross-section owing to friction with the bottom and sides, wash load and coarser materials (at lower flows). Together, the
with sediment, and the atmosphere, and to sinuosity (bending suspended load and bed load constitutes the solid load. It is
or curving) and obstructions. Highest velocities, obviously, important to note that in bedrock streams the bed load will be
are found where friction is least, generally at or near the sur- a lower fraction than in alluvial streams where channels are
face and near the center of the channel. In deeper streams, composed of easily transported material.
current velocity is greatest just below the surface due to the A substantial amount of material is also transported as the
friction with the atmosphere; in shallower streams, current dissolved load. Solutes are generally derived from chemi-
velocity is greatest at the surface due to friction with the bed. cal weathering of bedrock and soils, and their contribution
is greatest in sub-surface flows, and in regions of limestone
geology. The relative amount of material transported as solute
rather than solid load depends on basin characteristics, lithol-
ogy (i.e., the physical character of rock), and hydrologic path-
Baseflow
Stage ways. In areas of very high runoff, the contribution of solutes
Water Table
approaches or exceeds sediment load, whereas, in dry regions,
sediments make up as much as 90% of the total load.
Deposition occurs when stream competence (i.e., the larg-
est particle that can be moved as bedload, and the critical
erosion—competent—velocity is the lowest velocity at which
a particle resting on the streambed will move) falls below a
(a) given velocity. Simply stated, the size of the particle that can
be eroded and transported is a function of current velocity.
Sand particles are the most easily eroded. The greater the
mass of the larger particles (e.g., coarse gravel) the higher
the initial current velocities must be for movement. However,
Stream smaller particles (silts and clays) require even greater ini-
tial velocities because of their cohesiveness and because
they present smaller, streamlined surfaces to the flow. Once
in transport, particles will continue in motion at somewhat
slower velocities than initially required to initiate movement,
Water Table and will settle at still lower velocities.
Particle movement is determined by size, flow conditions,
(b) and mode of entrainment. Particles over 0.02 mm (medium-
coarse sand size) tend to move by rolling or sliding along the
FIGURE 11.11 (A) Cross-section of a gaining stream; (B) cross- channel bed as traction load. When sand particles fall out of
section of a losing stream. the flow, they move by saltation or repeated bouncing. Particles
under 0.06 mm (silt) move as suspended load and particles transition from a shallow stream with large boulders and a
under 0.002 mm (clay), indefinitely, as wash load. Unless the stony substrate to a deep stream with a sandy substrate. The
supply of sediments becomes depleted, the concentration and particle size of bed material at various locations is also vari-
amount of transported solids increases. However, discharge able along the stream’s course. The particle size usually shifts
is usually too low, throughout most of the year, to scrape or from an abundance of coarser material upstream to mainly
scour, shape channels, or move significant quantities of sedi- finer material in downstream areas.
ment in all but sand-bed streams, which can experience change
more rapidly. During extreme events the greatest scour occurs,
Sinuosity
and the amount of material removed increases dramatically.
Sediment inflow into streams can both be increased and Unless forced by man in the form of heavily regulated and
decreased because of human activities. For example, poor channelized streams, straight channels are uncommon. Stream
agricultural practices and deforestation greatly increase ero- flow creates distinctive landforms composed of straight (usually
sion. Fabricated structures such as dams and channel diver- in appearance only), meandering, and braided channels, chan-
sions can, on the other hand, greatly reduce sediment inflow. nel networks, and flood plains. Simply put, flowing water will
follow a sinuous course. The most commonly used measure is
the sinuosity index (SI). Sinuosity equals 1 in straight channels
Characteristics of Stream Channels
and more than 1 in sinuous channels. Meandering is the natural
Flowing waters (rivers and streams) determine their own chan- tendency for alluvial channels and is usually defined as an arbi-
nels, and these channels exhibit relationships attesting to the trarily extreme level of sinuosity, typically an SI greater than
operation of physical laws—laws that are not, as yet, fully 1.5. Many variables affect the degree of sinuosity.
understood. The development of stream channels and entire Even in many natural channel sections of a stream course
drainage networks, and the existence of various regular patterns that appear straight, meandering occurs in the line of maxi-
in the shape of channels, indicate that streams are in a state of mum water or channel depth (known as the thalweg). Keep
dynamic equilibrium between erosion (sediment loading) and in mind that a stream has to meander, that is how they renew
deposition (sediment deposit), and are governed by common themselves. By meandering, they wash plants and soil from
hydraulic processes. However, because channel geometry is the land into their waters, and these serve as nutrients for the
four-dimensional with a long profile, cross-section, depth, and plants in the rivers. If rivers are not allowed to meander, if
slope profile, and because these mutually adjust over a time they are channelized, the amount of life they can support will
scale as short as years and as long as centuries or more, cause gradually decrease. That means less fish, ultimately—and less
and effect relationships are difficult to establish. Other vari- bald eagles, herons, and other fishing birds (Spellman, 1996).
ables that are presumed to interact as the stream achieves its Meander flow follows a predictable pattern and causes
graded state include width and depth, velocity, size of sediment regular regions of erosion and deposition (see Figure 11.12).
load, bed roughness, and the degree of braiding (sinuosity). The streamlines of maximum velocity and the deepest part of
the channel lie close to the outer side of each bend and cross
over near the point of inflection between the banks (see Figure
Stream Profiles
11.12). A huge elevation of water at the outside of a bend causes
Mainly because of gravity, most streams exhibit a downstream a helical flow of water toward the opposite bank. In addition,
decrease in gradient along their length. Beginning at the head- a separation of surface flow causes a back eddy. The result is
waters, the steep gradient becomes less as one proceeds down- zones of erosion and deposition, and explains why point bars
stream, resulting in a concave longitudinal profile. Though develop in a downstream direction in depositional zones.
diverse geography provides for almost unlimited variation, a
lengthy stream that originates in a mountainous area typically
Bars, Riffles, and Pools
comes into existence as a series of springs and rivulets; these
coalesce into a fast-flowing, turbulent mountain stream, and Implicit in the morphology and formation of meanders are
the addition of tributaries results in a large and smoothly flow- bars, riffles, and pools. Bars develop by deposition in slower,
ing river that winds through the lowlands to the sea. less competent flow on either side of the sinuous mainstream.
When studying a stream system of any length, it becomes Onward moving water, depleted of bed load, regains compe-
readily apparent (almost from the start) that what we are tence and shears a pool in the meander—reloading the stream
studying is a body of flowing water that varies considerably for the next bar. Alternating bars migrate to form riffles (see
from place to place along its length. For example, a common Figure 11.13). As stream flow continues along its course, a
variable—the results of which can be readily seen—is when- riffle-pool sequence is formed. The riffle is a mound or hill-
ever discharge increases, causing corresponding changes in ock and the pool is a depression.
the stream’s width, depth, and velocity. In addition to physical
changes that occur from location to location along a stream’s
The Flood Plain
course, there is a legion of biological variables that correlate
with stream size and distance downstream. The most appar- A stream channel influences the shape of the valley floor
ent and striking changes are in steepness of slope and in the through which it courses. The self-formed, self-adjusted
Water Ecology 343
characteristics. The aquatic community operates under the

Line of maximum same ecologic principles as terrestrial ecosystems, but the
velocity physical structure of the community is more isolated and
exhibits limiting factors that are very different than the limit-
ing factors of a terrestrial ecosystem. Certain materials and
conditions are necessary for the growth and reproduction of
organisms. If, for instance, a farmer plants wheat in a field
containing too little nitrogen, it will stop growing when it has
Deposition used up the available nitrogen, even if the wheat’s require-
ments for oxygen, water, potassium, and other nutrients are
Erosion met. In this particular case, nitrogen is said to be the limit-
ing factor. A limiting factor is a condition or a substance (the
resource in shortest supply), which limits the presence and
success of an organism or a group of organisms in an area.
Even the smallest mountain stream provides an astonish-
ing number of different places for aquatic organisms to live,
or habitats. If it is a rocky stream, every rock of the substrate
provides several different habitats. Organisms with special
adaptations, that are very good at clinging to rock, do well
on the side facing upriver. On the side that faces downriver,
a certain degree of shelter is provided from the current, but
organisms can still hunt for food. The top of a rock, if it con-
tacts air, is a good place for organisms that cannot breathe
FIGURE 11.12 A meandering reach. underwater and need to surface now and then. Underneath
flat area near to the stream is the flood plain, which loosely the rock is a popular place for organisms that hide to prevent
describes the valley floor prone to periodic inundation dur- predation. Normal stream life can be compared to that of a
ing over-bank discharges. What is not commonly known is “balanced aquarium” (ASTM, 1969); that is, nature continu-
that valley flooding is a regular and natural behavior of the ously strives to provide clean, healthy, normal streams. This is
stream. A stream’s aquatic community has several unique accomplished by maintaining the stream’s flora and fauna in
(a)
High Flow
Intermediate Water surface
flow
Low flow
Riffle Pool
Riffle Pool
Riffle Pool
(b)
Pool Riffle
Pool
Riffle Pool
FIGURE 11.13 (A) Longitudinal profile of a riffle-pool sequence; (B) plain view of a riffle-pool sequence.
a balanced state. Nature balances stream life by maintaining (3) Planktons (drifters): They are small, mostly micro-
both the number and the type of species present in any one scopic plants and animals that are suspended in the
part of the stream. Such balance ensures that there is never an water column; movement depends on water currents.
overabundance of one species compared to another. Nature They mostly float in the direction of the current. There
structures the stream environment so that both plant and ani- are two types of planktons: (1) Phytoplankton are
mal life is dependent upon the existence of others within the assemblages of small plants (algae) and have limited
stream. locomotion abilities; they are subject to movement and
As mentioned, lotic (washed) habitats are characterized distribution by water movements. (2) Zooplankton are
by continuously running water of current flow. These run- animals that are suspended in water and have lim-
ning water bodies, have typically three zones: riffle, run, and ited means of locomotion. Examples of zooplankton
pool. The riffle zone contains faster flowing, well-oxygenated include crustaceans, protozoans, and rotifers.
water, with coarse sediments. In the riffle zone, the velocity of (4) Nektons or Pelagic Organisms (capable of living in
the current is great enough to keep the bottom clear of silt and open waters): They are distinct from other planktons
sludge, thus providing a firm bottom for organisms. This zone in that they are capable of swimming independently
contains specialized organisms, which are adapted to live in of turbulence. They are swimmers, which can navi-
running water. For example, organisms adapted to live in fast gate against the current. Examples of nektons include
streams or rapids (trout) have streamlined bodies, which aid in fish, snakes, diving beetles, newts, turtles, birds, and
their respiration and in obtaining food (Smith, 1996). Stream large crayfish.
organisms that live under rocks to avoid the strong current (5) Neustons: They are organisms that float or rest on
have flat or streamlined bodies. Others have hooks or suckers the surface of the water (never breakwater tension).
to cling or attach to a firm substrate to avoid the washing- Some varieties can spread out their legs so that the
away effect of the strong current. The run zone (or intermedi- surface tension of the water is not broken; for exam-
ate zone) is the slow-moving, relatively shallow part of the ple, water striders (see Figure 11.14).
stream with moderately low velocities and little or no surface (6) Madricoles: Organisms that live on rock faces in
turbulence. The pool zone of the stream is usually a deeper waterfalls or seepages.
water region where the velocity of water is reduced and silt
and other settling solids provide a soft bottom (more homo- In a stream, the rocky substrate is the home for many organ-
geneous sediments), which is unfavorable for sensitive bottom isms. Thus, we need to know something about the particles
dwellers. The decomposition of some of these solids causes a that make up the substrate. Namely, we need to know how to
lower amount of DO. Some stream organisms spend some of measure the particles so we can classify them by size.
their time in the rapids part of the stream and other times can Substrate particles are measured with a metric ruler, in
be found in the pool zone (trout, for example). Trout typically centimeters (cm). Because rocks can be long and narrow, we
spend about the same amount of time in the rapids zone pur- measure them twice: first the width, then the length. By add-
suing food as they do in the pool zone pursuing shelter. ing the width to the length and dividing by two, we obtain the
Organisms are sometimes classified based on their mode average size of the rock.
of life: It is important to randomly select the rocks we wish to
measure. Otherwise, we would tend to select larger rocks, or
(1) Benthos (mud dwellers): the term originates from more colorful rocks, or those with unusual shapes. Instead, we
the Greek word for bottom and broadly includes should just reach down and collect those rocks in front of us,
aquatic organisms living on the bottom or on sub-
merged vegetation. They live under and on rocks
and in the sediments. A shallow sandy bottom has
sponges, snails, earthworms, and some insects. A
deep, muddy bottom will support clams, crayfish,
and nymphs of damselflies, dragonflies, and may-
flies. A firm, shallow, rocky bottom has nymphs of
mayflies, stoneflies, and larvae of water beetles.
(2) Periphytons or Aufwuchs: The first term usually
refers to microfloral growth upon substrata (i.e.,
benthic-attached algae). The second term, aufwuchs
(pronounced: OWF-vooks; German: “growth upon”)
refers to the fuzzy, sort of furry-looking, slimy green
coating that attaches or clings to stems and leaves of
rooted plants or other objects projecting above the FIGURE 11.14 Water strider. (Source: Adapted from Standard
bottom without penetrating the surface. It consists Methods, 15th Edition. Copyright © 1981 by the American Public
not only of algae-like Chlorophyta, but also diatoms, Health Association, the American Water Works Association, and
protozoans, bacteria, and fungi. the Water Pollution Control Federation.)
Water Ecology 345
within easy reach. Then measure each rock. Upon completion and isopods (small crustaceans including sow bugs and grib-
of measurement, each rock should be classified. Ecologists bles) have also been reported in the drift.
have developed a standard scale (Wentworth scale) for size
categories of substrate rock and other mineral materials,
Adaptations to Stream Current
along with the different sizes. These are:
Current in streams is the outstanding feature of streams and
Boulder >256 mm the major factor limiting the distribution of organisms. The
Cobble 64–256 mm current is determined by the steepness of the bottom gradient,
Pebble 16–64 mm the roughness of the streambed, and the depth and width of
Gravel 2–16 mm the streambed. The current in streams has promoted many
Sand 0.0625–2 mm special adaptations by stream organisms. Odum (1971) listed
Silt 0.0039–0.0625 mm these adaptations as follows (see Figure 11.15):
Clay <0.0039 mm
(1) Attachment to a firm substrate: Attachment is to
Organisms that live in/on/under rocks or small spaces occupy stones, logs, leaves, and other underwater objects
what is known as a microhabitat. Some organisms make their such as discarded tires, bottles, pipes, etc. Organisms
own microhabitats: many of the caddisflies build a case about in this group are primarily composed of the primary
themselves and use it for their shelter. producer plants and animals, such as green algae,
Rocks are not the only physical features of streams where diatoms, aquatic mosses, caddisfly larvae, and fresh-
aquatic organisms can be found. For example, fallen logs and water sponges.
branches (commonly referred to as large woody debris, or (2) The use of hooks and suckers: These organisms have
LWD), provide an excellent place for some aquatic organisms the unusual ability to remain attached and with-
to burrow into and surfaces for others to attach themselves, stand even the strongest rapids. Two Diptera larvae,
as they might to a rock. They also create areas where small Simulium and Blepharocera are examples.
detritus such as leaf litter can pile up underwater. These piles (3) A sticky undersurface: Snails and flatworms are
of leaf litter are excellent shelters for many organisms, includ- examples of organisms that are able to use their sticky
ing large, fiercely predaceous larvae of dobsonflies. undersurfaces to adhere to underwater surfaces.
Another important aquatic organism habitat is found in the (4) Flattened and streamlined bodies: All macrocon-
matter, or drift, that floats along downstream. Drift is impor- sumers have streamlined bodies, i.e., the body is
tant because it is the main source of food for many fish. It broad in front and tapers posteriorly to offer mini-
may include insects such as mayflies (Ephemeroptera), some mum resistance to the current. All nektons such
true flies (Diptera) and some stoneflies (Plecoptera) and cad- as fish, amphibians, and insect larvae exhibit this
disflies (Trichoptera). In addition, dead or dying insects and adaptation. Some organisms have flattened bodies,
other small organisms, terrestrial insects that fall from the which enable them to stay under rocks and in narrow
trees, leaves, and other matter are common components of places. Examples are water penny, a beetle larva,
drift. Among the crustaceans, amphipods (small crustaceans) mayfly, and stonefly nymphs.
Attachment to firm
substrate
Use of hooks
Positive thigmotaxis
or suckers
Adaptations
to
Stream Current
Sticky undersurface Positive rheotaxis
Flattened and
streamlines bodies
FIGURE 11.15 Adaptations to stream current.

(5) Positive rheotaxis (rheo: current; taxis: arrange- shapes that push them down in the water, against
ment): An inherent behavioral trait of stream animals the substrate, and allow them to hold their place
(especially those capable of swimming) is to orient against even strong current (e.g., chubs, catfish, dace,
themselves upstream and swim against the current. and sculpins). Other organisms, especially preda-
(6) Positive thigmotaxis (thigmo: touch, contact): tors, have evolved an arrangement and shape of fins
Another inherent behavior pattern for many stream that allow them to lurk without moving; they lunge
animals is to cling close to a surface or keep the body suddenly to catch their prey (e.g., bass, perch, pike,
in close contact with the surface. This is the reason trout, and sunfish).
that stonefly nymphs (when removed from one envi- (3) Color: May change within hours, to camouflage, or
ronment and placed into another) will attempt to within days, or may be genetically predetermined.
cling to just about anything, including each other. Fish tend to turn dark in clear water, and pale in
muddy water.
It would take an entire text to describe the great number of (4) Aestivation: Helps fishes survive in arid desert cli-
adaptations made by aquatic organisms to their surroundings mates, where streams may dry up from time to time.
in streams. For our purposes, instead, we cover those special Aestivation refers to the ability of some fishes to bur-
adaptations that are germane to this discussion. The impor- row into the mud and wait out the dry period.
tant thing to remember is that an aquatic organism can adapt (5) Schooling: Serves as protection for many fish, par-
to its environment in several basic ways. ticularly those that are subject to predation.
Types of Adaptive Changes BENTHIC LIFE

Adaptive changes are classed as genotypic, phenotypic, The benthic habitat is found in the streambed, or benthos. As
behavioral, or ontogenic: mentioned, the streambed is comprised of various physical
and organic materials where erosion and/or deposition are a
(1) Genotypic changes: Tend to be great enough to continuous characteristic. Erosion and deposition may occur
separate closely related animals into species, such simultaneously and alternately at different locations in the
as mutations or recombination of genes. A salmo- same streambed. Where channels are exceptionally deep and
nid is an example that has evolved a subterminal taper slowly to meet the relatively flattened streambed, habi-
mouth (i.e., below the snout) in order to eat from the tats may form on the slopes of the channel. These habitats are
benthos. referred to as littoral habitats. Shallow channels may dry up
(2) Phenotypic changes: Are the changes that an organ- periodically in accordance with weather changes. The stream-
ism might make during its lifetime to better utilize bed is then exposed to open air and may take on the charac-
its environment (e.g., a fish that changes sex from teristics of a wetland.
female to male because of an absence of males). Silt and organic materials settle and accumulate in the
(3) Behavioral changes: Have little to do with body streambed of slowly flowing streams. These materials decay
structure or type: a fish might spend more time under and become the primary food resource for the inverte-
an overhang to hide from predators. brates inhabiting the streambed. Productivity in this habitat
(4) Ontogenetic change: That which takes place as an depends upon the breakdown of these organic materials by
organism grows and matures (e.g., a coho salmon herbivores. Bottom dwelling organisms use not all-organic
that inhabits streams when young, and migrates to materials; a substantial amount becomes part of the stream-
the sea when older, changing its body chemistry to bed in the form of peat.
allow it to tolerate saltwater). In faster-moving streams, organic materials do not accumu-
late so easily. Primary production occurs in a different type of
habitat found in the riffle regions where there are shoals and
Specific Adaptations
rocky regions for organisms to adhere to. Therefore, plants that
Specific adaptations observed in aquatic organisms include can root themselves into the streambed dominate these regions.
mouths, shape, color, aestivation, and schooling. By plants, we are referring mostly to forms of algae, often
microscopic and filamentous, that can cover rocks and debris
(1) Mouths: Aquatic organisms such as fish change that have settled into the streambed during summer months.
mouth shape (morphology) depending on the food Note: If you have ever stepped into a stream, the green,
the fish eats. The arrangement of the jawbones and slippery slime on the rocks in the streambed is representative
even other head bones, the length and width of gill of this type of algae.
rakers, the number, shape, and location of teeth, and Although the filamentous algae seem well anchored,
barbels all change to allow fish to eat just about any- strong currents can easily lift it from the streambed and carry
thing found in a stream. it downstream where it becomes a food resource for low-level
(2) Shape: Shape changes to allow fish to do differ- consumers. One factor that greatly influences the productivity
ent things in the water. Some organisms have body of a stream is the width of the channel; a direct relationship
Water Ecology 347
exists between stream width and richness of bottom organ- (1) They are ubiquitous, so they are affected by pertur-
isms. Bottom dwelling organisms are very important to the bations in many different habitats.
ecosystem as they provide food for other, larger benthic (2) They are species rich, so the large number of species
organisms through consuming detritus. produces a range of responses.
(3) They are sedentary, so they stay put, which allows
determination of the spatial extent of a perturbation.
Benthic Plants and Animals
(4) They are long-lived, which allows temporal changes
Vegetation is not common in the streambed of slow-moving in abundance and age structure to be followed.
streams, however, they may anchor themselves along the (5) They integrate conditions temporally, so like any
banks. Alga (mainly green and blue-green), as well as com- biotic group, they provide evidence of conditions
mon types of water moss, attaches themselves to rocks in fast- over long periods.
moving streams. Mosses and liverworts often climb up the
sides of the channel onto the banks as well. Some plants simi- In addition, benthic macroinvertebrates are preferred as bio-
lar to the reeds of wetlands with long stems and narrow leaves indicators because they are easily collected and handled by
are able to maintain roots and withstand the current. Aquatic samplers; they require no special culture protocols. They are
insects and invertebrates dominate slow-moving streams. visible to the naked eye and samplers easily distinguish their
Most aquatic insects are in their larval and nymph forms such characteristics. They have a variety of fascinating adaptations
as the blackfly, caddisfly, and stonefly. Adult water beetles and to stream life. Certain benthic macroinvertebrates have very
waterbugs are also abundant. Insect larvae and nymphs pro- special tolerances and thus are excellent specific indicators of
vide the primary food source for many fish species, including water quality. Useful benthic macroinvertebrate data is easy
American eel and brown bullhead catfish. Representatives of to collect without expensive equipment. The data obtained by
crustaceans, rotifers, and nematodes (flat worms) are some- macroinvertebrate sampling can serve to indicate the need for
times present. Leech, worm, and mollusk (especially fresh- additional data collection, possibly including water analysis
water mussels) abundance varies with stream conditions but and fish sampling.
generally favors low phosphate conditions. Larger animals In short, we base the focus of this discussion on benthic
found in slow-moving streams and rivers include newts, tad- macroinvertebrates (in regard to water quality in streams and
poles, and frogs. As mentioned, the important characteristic lakes) simply because some cannot survive in polluted water
of all life in streams is adaptability to withstand currents. while others can survive or even thrive in polluted water. In
a healthy stream, the benthic community includes a variety
of pollution-sensitive macroinvertebrates. In an unhealthy
BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATES
stream or lake, there may be only a few types of nonsensitive
The emphasis on aquatic insect studies, which has expanded macroinvertebrates present. Thus, the presence or absence of
exponentially in the last three decades, has been largely eco- certain benthic macroinvertebrates is an excellent indicator of
logical. Freshwater macroinvertebrates are ubiquitous; even water quality.
polluted waters contain some representative of this diverse Moreover, it may be difficult to identify stream or lake pol-
and ecologically important group of organisms. lution with water analysis, which can only provide informa-
Benthic macroinvertebrates are aquatic organisms with- tion for the time of sampling (a snapshot of time). Even the
out backbones that spend at least a part of their life cycle on presence of fish may not provide information about a polluted
the stream bottom. Examples include aquatic insects—such stream because fish can move away to avoid polluted water
as stoneflies, mayflies, caddisflies, midges, and beetles—as and then return when conditions improve. However, most ben-
well as crayfish, worms, clams, and snails. Most hatch from thic macroinvertebrates cannot move to avoid pollution. Thus,
eggs, and mature from larvae to adults. The majority of the a macroinvertebrate sample may provide information about
insects spend their larval phase on the river bottom and, after pollution that is not present at the time of sample collection.
a few weeks to several years, emerges as winged adults. The Obviously, before we can use benthic macroinvertebrates
aquatic beetles, true bugs, and other groups remain in the to gauge water quality in a stream (or for any other reason), we
water as adults. Macroinvertebrates typically collected from must be familiar with the macroinvertebrates that are com-
the stream substrate are either aquatic larvae or adults. monly used as bioindicators. Samplers need to be aware of
In practice, stream ecologists observe indicator organisms basic insect structures before they can classify the macroin-
and their responses to determine the quality of the stream vertebrates they collect. Structures, which need to be stressed,
environment. There are a number of methods for determin- include head, eyes (compound and simple), antennae, mouth
ing water quality based on biological characteristics. A wide (no emphasis on parts), segments, thorax, legs and leg parts,
variety of indicator organisms (biotic groups) are used for bio- gills, abdomen, etc. Samplers also need to be familiar with
monitoring. The most often used include algae, bacteria, fish, insect metamorphosis—both complete and incomplete—as
and macroinvertebrates. most of the macroinvertebrates collected are larval or nymph
Notwithstanding their popularity, in this text, we use ben- stages.
thic macroinvertebrates for a number of other reasons. Simply, Note: Information on basic insect structures is beyond the
they offer a number of advantages: scope of this text. Thus, we highly recommend “the” standard
guide to aquatic insects of North America: An Introduction Planktonic—Inhabiting the open water limnetic zone
to the Aquatic Insects of North America, 3rd ed., Merritt, of standing waters (lentic; lakes, bogs, ponds).
R.W., & Cummins, K.W. (eds.). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Representatives may float and swim about in the
Publishing Company, 1996. open water, but usually exhibit a diurnal vertical
migration pattern (example: phantom midges) or
float at the surface to obtain oxygen and food,
Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates
diving when alarmed (example: mosquitoes).
Before identifying and describing the key benthic macroin- Divers—Adapted for swimming by “rowing” with
vertebrates significant to water and wastewater operators, it the hindlegs in lentic habitats and lotic pools.
is important first to provide foundational information. We Representatives come to the surface to obtain
characterize benthic macroinvertebrates using two important oxygen, dive and swim when feeding or alarmed;
descriptive classifications: trophic groups and mode of exis- may cling to or crawl on submerged objects such
tence. In addition, we discuss their relationship in the food as vascular plants (examples: water boatmen;
web; that is, what, or whom, they eat. predaceous diving beetle).
Swimmers—Adapted for “fishlike” swimming in
(1) Trophic groups: Of the trophic groups (i.e., feeding lotic or lentic habitats. Individuals usually cling
groups) that Merritt and Cummins have identified to submerged objects, such as rocks (lotic riffles)
for aquatic insects, only five are likely to be found in or vascular plants (lentic), between short bursts
a stream using typical collection and sorting meth- of swimming (example: mayflies).
ods (Merritt & Cummins, 1996): Clingers—Representatives have behavioral (e.g.,
Shredders—These have strong, sharp mouthparts fixed retreat construction) and morphological
that allow them to shred and chew coarse organic (e.g., long, curved tarsal claws, dorsoventral flat-
material such as leaves, algae, and rooted aquatic tening, and ventral gills arranged as a sucker)
plants. These organisms play an important role adaptations for attachment to surfaces in stream
in breaking down leaves or larger pieces of riffles and wave-swept rocky littoral zones of
organic material to a size that can be used by lakes (examples: mayflies and caddisflies).
other macroinvertebrates. Shredders include Sprawlers—Inhabiting the surface of floating leaves
certain stonefly and caddisfly larvae, sowbugs, of vascular hydrophytes or fine sediments, usu-
scuds, and others. ally with modifications for staying on top of the
Collectors—These gather the very finest suspended substrate and maintaining the respiratory sur-
matter in the water. To do this, they often sieve faces free of silt (examples: mayflies, dobson-
the water through rows of tiny hairs. These sieves flies, and damselflies).
of hairs may be displayed in fans on their heads Climbers—Adapted for living on vascular hydro-
(blackfly larvae) or on their forelegs (some may- phytes or detrital debris (e.g., overhanging
flies). Some caddisflies and midges spin nets and branches, roots, and vegetation along streams,
catch their food in them as the water flows through. and submerged brush in lakes) with modifica-
Scrapers—These scrape the algae and diatoms off tions for moving vertically on stem-type sur-
surfaces of rocks and debris, using their mouth- faces (examples: dragonflies and damselflies).
parts. Many of these organisms are flattened to Burrowers—Inhabiting the fine sediments of
hold onto surfaces while feeding. Scrapers include streams (pools) and lakes. Some construct dis-
water pennies, limpets and snails, netwinged crete burrows, which may have sand grain tubes
midge larvae, certain mayfly larvae, and others. extending above the surface of the substrate or
Piercers—These herbivores pierce plant tissues or the individuals, may ingest their way through the
cells and suck the fluids out. Some caddisflies do sediments (examples: mayflies and midges).
this.
Predators—Predators eat other living creatures.
Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web
Some of these are engulfers; that is, they eat
their prey completely or in parts. This is very In a stream or lake, the two possible sources of primary energy
common in stoneflies and dragonflies, as well as are: (1) photosynthesis by algae, mosses, and higher aquatic
caddisflies. Others are piercers, which are like plants, and (2) imported organic matter from streamside/
herbivorous piercers except that they are eating lakeside vegetation (e.g., leaves and other parts of vegetation).
live animal tissues. Simply put, a significant portion of the food that is eaten grows
(2) Mode of Existence (habit, locomotion, attachment, right in the stream or lake, like algae, diatoms, nymphs and
concealment): larvae, and fish. Food that originates from within the stream is
Skaters—Adapted for “skating” on the surface where called autochthonous. Most food in a stream, however, comes
they feed as scavengers on organisms trapped in from outside the stream—this is especially the case in small,
the surface film (example: water striders). heavily wooded streams, where there is normally insufficient
Water Ecology 349
light to support substantial instream photosynthesis, so energy Carapace The hardened part of some arthropods that
pathways are supported largely by imported energy. Leaves spreads like a shield over several segments of the
provide a large portion of this imported energy. Worms drown head and thorax.
in floods and are washed in. Leafhoppers and caterpillars fall Caudal filament Threadlike projection at the end of the
from trees. Adult mayflies and other insects mate above the abdomen, like a tail.
stream, lay their eggs in it, and then die in it. All of this food Clinger Animal that uses claws or hooks to cling to the
from outside the stream is called allochthonous. surfaces of rocks, plants, or other hard surfaces and
often moves slowly along these surfaces.
Concentric A growth pattern on the opercula of some
Units of Organization
gastropods, marked by a series of circles that lie
Macroinvertebrates, like all other organisms, are classified entirely within each other; compare multi-spiral and
and named. Macroinvertebrates are classified and named pauci-spiral.
using a taxonomic hierarchy. The taxonomic hierarchy for Crawler An animal, whose main means of locomotion is
the caddisfly (a macroinvertebrate insect commonly found in moving slowly along the bottom, usually has some
streams) is shown below. type of hooks, claws, or specially designed feet to
help hold them to surfaces.
Kingdom: Animalia (animals) Detritus Disintegrated or broken up mineral or organic
Phylum: Arthropoda (“jointed legs”) material.
Class: Insecta (insect) Dextral The curvature of a gastropod shell where the open-
Order: Trichoptera (caddisfly) ing is visible on the right when the spire is pointed up.
Family: Hydropsychidae Distal Near or toward the free end of any appendage; that
(net-spinning caddis) part farthest from the body.
Genus species: Hydropsyche Dorsal Pertaining to or situated on the back or top, espe-
cially of the thorax and abdomen.
Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters Elytra Hardened shell-like mesothoracic wings of adult
beetles (Coleoptera).
As mentioned, the macroinvertebrates are the best-studied
Femur The leg section between the tibia and coxa of
and most diverse animals in streams. We therefore devote
Arthropoda, comparable to an upper arm or thigh.
our discussion to the various macroinvertebrate groups.
Flagellum A small fingerlike or whip-like projection.
While it is true that non-insect macroinvertebrates, such as
Gill Any structure especially adapted for the exchange of
Oligochaeta (worms), Hirudinea (leeches), and Acari (water
dissolved gases between an animal and a surround-
mites), are frequently encountered groups in lotic environ-
ing liquid.
ments, the insects are among the most conspicuous inhabit-
Glossae A lobe or lobes front and center on the labium; in
ants of streams. In most cases, it is the larval stages of these
Plecoptera, the lobes are between the paraglossae.
insects that are aquatic, whereas the adults are terrestrial.
Hemimetabolism Incomplete metamorphosis.
Typically, the larval stage is much extended, while the adult
Holometabolism Complete metamorphosis.
lifespan is short. Lotic insects are found among many differ-
Labium Lower mouthpart of an arthropod, like a jaw or lip.
ent orders and brief accounts of their biology are presented
Labrum Upper mouthpart of an arthropod consisting of a
in the following sections. First, however, we present a brief
single usually hinged plate above the mandibles.
glossary that includes select terminology used below, and it
Lateral Feature or marking located on the side of a body or
also includes other important terms mentioned earlier often
other structure.
associated with the description of aquatic macroinvertebrates.
Ligula Forming the ventral wall of an arthropod’s oral cavity.
The source of most these definitions is F.R. Spellman’s (1996)
Lobe A rounded projection or protuberance.
Stream Ecology and Self Purification (Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Mandibles The first pair of jaws in insects.
Press; Merritt and Cummins, 1996).
Maxillae The second pair of jaws in insects.
Multi-spiral The growth pattern on the opercula of some
MACROINVERTEBRATE GLOSSARY
gastropods marked by several turns from the center
Abdomen The third main division of the body; behind the to the edge.
head and thorax. Operculum A lid or covering structure, like a door to an
Anterior In front (before). opening.
Apical Near or pertaining to the end of any structure, part of Palpal lobes The grasping pinchers at the end of the
the structure that is farthest from the body. Odonata lower jaw.
Basal Pertaining to the end of any structure that is nearest Pauci-spiral A growth pattern on the opercula of some gas-
to the body. tropods marked by a few turns from the center to
Burrower An animal that uses a variety of structures the edge.
designed for moving and burrowing into sand and Periphyton Algae and associated organisms that live
silt, or building tubes within the loose substrate. attached to underwater surfaces.
Posterior Behind; opposite of anterior.

Proleg Any projection appendage that serves to support
locomotion or attachment.
Prothorax The first thoracic segment closest to the head.
Rostrum A beak or beak-like mouthpart.
Sclerite A hardened area of an insect body wall, usually
surrounded by softer membranes.
Seta (pl. setae)—Hair-like projection.
Sinistral The curvature of a gastropod shell where the
opening is seen on the left with the spire pointing
upwards.
Insect Macroinvertebrates
The most important insect groups in streams are Ephemeroptera
(mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), Trichoptera (caddisflies),
Diptera (true flies), Coleoptera (beetles), Hemiptera (bugs),
FIGURE 11.16 Mayfly (order: Ephemeroptera).
Megaloptera (alderflies and dobsonflies), and Odonata (drag-
onflies and damselflies). The identification of these different unpolluted streams, where with densities of up to 10,000/m2,
orders is usually easy and there are many keys and special- they contribute substantially to secondary producers.
ized references (e.g., Merritt and Cummins, An Introduction Adult mayflies resemble nymphs, but usually possess two
to the Aquatic Insects of North America, 1996) available to pairs of long, lacy wings folded upright; adults usually have
help in the identification to species. In contrast, some genera only two cerci. The adult lifespan is short, ranging from a few
and species, specialist taxonomists can often only diagnose hours to a few days, rarely up to two weeks, and the adults do
particularly the Diptera. As mentioned, insect macroinverte- not feed. Mayflies are unique among insects in having two
brates are ubiquitous in streams and are often represented by winged stages, the subimago and the imago. The emergence
many species. Although the numbers refer to aquatic species, of adults tends to be synchronous, thus ensuring the survival
a majority is to be found in streams. of enough adults to continue the species.
Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera) Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera)

Description: Wing pads may be present on the thorax; Description: Long thin antenna project in front of the head;
three pairs of segmented legs attach to the thorax; one claw wing pads are usually present on the thorax but may only
is at the end of the segmented legs; gills are on the abdomi- be visible in older larvae; three pairs of segmented legs are
nal segments and are attached mainly to the sides of the attached to the thorax; two claws are located at the end of the
abdomen, but sometimes extend over the top and bottom of segmented legs; gills are present in the thorax region, usually
the abdomen; gills consist of either flat plates or filaments; on the legs or the bottom of the thorax, or there may be no vis-
there long thin caudal (tail filaments) usually occur at the ible gills (usually there are none or very few gills on the abdo-
end of the abdomen, but there may only be two in some men); gills are either single or branched filaments; two long
kinds. thin tails project from the rear of the abdomen. Stoneflies have
Streams and rivers are generally inhabited by many spe- very low tolerance to many insults; however, several families
cies of mayflies and, in fact, most species are restricted to are tolerant of slightly acidic conditions.
streams. For the experienced freshwater ecologist who looks Although many freshwater ecologists would maintain
upon a mayfly nymph, recognition is obtained through trained that the stonefly is a well-studied group of insects, this is not
observation: abdomen with leaf-like or feather-like gills, legs exactly the case. Despite their importance, less than 5–10%
with a single tarsal claw, generally (but not always) with three of stonefly species are well known with respect to life history,
cerci (three “tails”; two cerci, and between them usually a ter- trophic interactions, growth, development, spatial distribu-
minal filament; see Figure 11.16). The experienced ecologist tion, and nymphal behavior. Notwithstanding our lacking of
knows that mayflies are hemimetabolous insects (i.e., where extensive knowledge in regard to stoneflies, enough is known
larvae or nymphs resemble wingless adults) that go through to provide an accurate characterization of these aquatic
many postembryonic molts, often in the range between 20 and insects. We know, for example, that stonefly larvae are char-
30. For some species, body length increases by about 15% for acteristic inhabitants of cool, clean streams (i.e., most nymphs
each instar. occur under stones in well-aerated streams). While they are
Mayfly nymphs are mainly grazers or collector-gatherers sensitive to organic pollution, or more precisely to low oxygen
feeding on algae and fine detritus, although a few genera are concentrations accompanying organic breakdown processes,
predatory. Some members filter particles from the water using stoneflies seem rather tolerant to acidic conditions. Lack of
hair-fringed legs or maxillary palps. Shredders are rare among extensive gills at least partly explains their relative intolerance
mayflies. In general, mayfly nymphs tend to live mostly in of low oxygen levels.
Water Ecology 351
(the exception: Antarctica). Caddisflies may be categorized

broadly into free-living (roving and net-spinning) and case-
building species.
Caddisflies are described as medium-sized insects with
bristle-like and often long antennae. They have membranous
hairy wings (which explains the Latin name “Trichos”), which
are held tent-like over the body when at rest, most are weak
fliers. They have greatly reduced mouthparts and five tarsi.
The larvae are mostly caterpillar-like and have a strongly
sclerotized (hardened) head with very short antennae and bit-
ing mouthparts. They have well-developed legs with a single
tarsi. The abdomen is usually 10-segmented; in case-bearing
species the first segment bears three papillae, one dorsally and
the other two laterally which help hold the insect centrally in
its case allowing a good flow of water to pass the cuticle and
gills; the last or anal segment bears a pair of grappling hooks.
FIGURE 11.17 Stonefly (order Plecoptera). In addition to being aquatic insects, caddisflies are superb
architects. Most caddisfly larvae (see Figure 11.18) live in self-
Stoneflies are drab-colored, small- to medium-sized 1/6 to designed, self-built houses, called cases. They spin out silk,
2 ¼ in. (4–60 mm), rather flattened insects. Stoneflies have and either live in silk nets or use the silk to stick together bits
long, slender, many-segmented antennae and two long nar- of whatever is lying on the stream bottom. These houses are
row antenna-like structures (cerci) on the tip of the abdomen so specialized, that you can usually identify a caddisfly larva
(see Figure 11.17). The cerci may be long or short. At rest, to genus if you can see its house (case). With nearly 1,400
the wings are held flat over the abdomen, giving a “square- species of caddisfly in North America (north of Mexico), this
shouldered” look compared to the roof-like position of most is a good thing!
caddisflies and vertical position of the mayflies. Stoneflies Caddisflies are closely related to butterflies and moths
have two pairs of wings. The hindwings are slightly shorter (Order: Lepidoptera). They live in most stream habitats and
than the forewings and much wider, having a large anal lobe that is why they are so diverse (have so many species). Each
that is folded fanwise when the wings are at rest. This fanlike species has special adaptations that allow it to live in the envi-
folding of the wings gives the order its name: “pleco” (folded ronment it is found in.
or plaited) and “-ptera” (wings). The aquatic nymphs are gen- Mostly herbivorous, most caddisflies feed on decaying
erally very similar to mayfly nymphs except that they have plant tissue and algae. Their favorite algae are diatoms, which
only two cerci at the tip of the abdomen. The stoneflies have they scrape off rocks. Some of them, though, are predacious.
chewing mouthparts. They may be found anywhere in a non- Caddisfly larvae can take a year or two to change into
polluted stream where food is available. Many adults, how- adults. They then change into pupae (the inactive stage in the
ever, do not feed and have reduced or vestigial mouthparts. metamorphosis of many insects, following the larval stage
Stoneflies have a specific niche in high quality streams and preceding the adult form) while still inside their cases
where they are very important as a fish food source at specific for their metamorphosis. It is interesting to note that caddis-
times of the year (winter to spring, especially) and of the day. flies, unlike stoneflies and mayflies, go through a “complete”
They complement other important food sources, such as cad- metamorphosis.
disflies, mayflies, and midges. Caddisflies remain as pupae for two to three weeks and
then emerge as adults. When they leave their pupae, split-
Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera) ting their case, they must swim to the surface of the water to
Description: The head has a thick hardened skin; antennae are escape it. The winged adults fly evening and night, and some
very short, usually not visible; there are no wing pads on the are known to feed on plant nectar. Most of them will live less
thorax; the top of the first thorax always has a hardened plate than a month: like many other winged stream insects, their
and in several families the second and third sections of the
thorax have a hardened plate; three pairs of segmented legs
are attached to the thorax; the abdomen has a thin soft skin;
singe of branched gills on the abdomen in many families, but
some have no visible gills; a pair of prolegs, with one claw
on each, is situated at the end of the abdomen; most families
construct various kinds of retreats consisting of a wide variety
of materials collected from the streambed.
Trichoptera (Greek: trichos, a hair; ptera, wing), is one of
the most diverse insect orders living in the stream environ-
ment, and caddisflies have nearly a worldwide distribution FIGURE 11.18 Caddis (Hydropsyche) larvae.
adult lives are brief compared to the time they spend in the
water as larvae.
Caddisflies are sometimes grouped by the kinds of cases
they make into five main groups: free-living forms that
do not make cases, saddle-case makers, purse-case mak- FIGURE 11.20 Cranefly larvae.
ers, net-spinners and retreat-makers, and tube-case makers.
Caddisflies demonstrate their architectural talents in the cases Antarctica and deserts where there is no running water. They
they design and make. For example, a caddisfly might make a may live in a variety of places within a stream: buried in sedi-
perfect, four-sided box case of bits of leaves and bark, or tiny ments, attached to rocks, beneath stones, in saturated wood or
bits of twigs. It may make a clumsy dome of large pebbles. moss, or in silken tubes, attached to the stream bottom. Some
Others make rounded tubes out of twigs or very small peb- even live below the stream bottom.
bles. In our experience in gathering caddisflies, we have come True fly larvae may eat almost anything, depending on
to appreciate not only their architectural ability but also their their species. Those with brushes on their heads use them to
flare in the selection of construction materials. For example, strain food out of the water that passes through. Others may
we have found many caddisfly cases constructed of silk, emit- eat algae, detritus, plants, and even other fly larvae.
ted through an opening at the tip of the labium, used together The longest part of the true fly’s life cycle, like that of
with bits of ordinary rock mixed with sparkling quartz and mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies, is the larval stage. It may
red garnet, green peridot, and bright fool’s gold. remain an underwater larva anywhere from a few hours to
In addition to the protection their cases provide them, the five years. The colder the environment, the longer it takes to
cases provide another advantage. The cases actually help mature. It pupates and emerges, then, and becomes a winged
caddisflies breathe. They move their bodies up and down, adult. The adult may live four months—or it may only live for
back and forth inside their cases, and this makes a current a few days. While reproducing, it will often eat plant nectar
that brings them fresh oxygen. The less oxygen there is in for the energy it needs to make its eggs. Mating sometimes
the water, the faster they have to move. It has been seen that takes place in aerial swarms. The eggs are deposited back in
caddisflies inside their cases get more oxygen than those that the stream; some females will crawl along the stream bottom,
are outside of their cases—and this is why stream ecologists losing their wings, to search for the perfect place to put their
think that caddisflies can often be found even in still waters, eggs. Once they lay them, they die.
where dissolved oxygen is low, in contrast to stoneflies and Diptera serve an important role in cleaning water and
mayflies. breaking down decaying material, and they are a vital food
source (i.e., they play pivotal roles in the processing of food
True Flies (Order: Diptera) energy) for many of the animals living in and around streams.
Description: Head may be a capsule-like structure with thick However, the true flies most familiar to us are the midges,
hard skin; head may be partially reduced so that it appears mosquitoes, and the craneflies, because they are pests. Some
to be part of the thorax, or it may be greatly reduced with midge flies and mosquitoes bite; the cranefly, however, does
only the mouthparts visible; no wing pads occur on the tho- not bite but looks like a giant mosquito.
rax; falselegs (pseudo-legs) may extend from various sections Like mayflies, stoneflies, and caddisflies, true flies are
of the thorax and abdomen composed entirely of soft skin, mostly in larval form. Like caddisflies, you can also find their
but some families have hardened plates scattered on various pupae, because they are holometabolous insects (go through
body features. The larval states do not have segmented legs complete metamorphosis). Most of them are free-living; that
features. is, they can travel around. Although none of the true fly larvae
True or two- (Di-) winged (ptera) flies not only include the have the six, jointed legs we see on the other insects in the
flies that we are most familiar with, like fruit flies and house- stream, they sometimes have strange little almost-legs (pro-
flies, they also include midges (see Figure 11.19), mosquitoes, legs) to move around with. Others may move somewhat like
craneflies (see Figure 11.20), and others. Houseflies and fruit- worms do, and some—the ones who live in waterfalls and
flies live only on land, and we do not concern ourselves with rapids—have a row of six suction discs that they use to move
them. Some, however, spend nearly their whole lives in water; much like a caterpillar does. Many use silk pads and hooks at
they contribute to the ecology of streams. the ends of their abdomens to hold them fast to smooth rock
True flies are in the order Diptera, and are one of the most surfaces.
diverse orders of the class Insecta, with about 120,000 species
worldwide. Dipteran larvae occur almost everywhere except Beetles (Order: Coleoptera)
Description: The head has thick hardened skin; thorax and
abdomen of most adult families have moderately hardened
skin, several larvae have a soft-skinned abdomen; there are
no wing pads on the thorax in most larvae, but wing pads
are usually visible in adults; three pairs of segmented legs are
attached to the thorax; there are no structures. Projections
FIGURE 11.19 Midge larvae. extend from the sides of the abdomen in most adult families,
Water Ecology 353
but some larval stages have flat plates or filaments; there are
no prolegs or long tapering filaments at the end of the abdo-
men. Beetles are one of the most diverse insect groups, but are
not as common in aquatic environments.
Of the more than one million described species of insects,
at least one-third are beetles, making the Coleoptera not only
the largest order of insects but also the most diverse order
of living organisms. Even though the most speciose order of
terrestrial insects, surprisingly their diversity is not so appar-
ent in running waters. Coleoptera belongs to the infraclass
Neoptera, division Endpterygota. Members of this order have
an anterior pair of wings (the elytra) that are hard and leathery
and not used in flight; the membranous hindwings, which are FIGURE 11.22 Riffle beetle adult.
used for flight, are concealed under the elytra when the organ-
isms are at rest. Only 10% of the 350,000 described species of and segmented. They have six long segmented legs on the
beetles are aquatic. upper middle section of the body; the back end has two tiny
Beetles are holometabolous. Eggs of aquatic coleopterans hooks and short hairs. Larvae may take three years to mature
hatch in one or two weeks, with diapause occurring rarely. before they leave the water to form a pupa; adults return to the
Larvae undergo from three to eight molts. The pupal phase stream. Riffle beetle adults are considered better indicators of
of all coleopternas is technically terrestrial, making this life water quality than larvae because they have been subjected
stage of beetles the only one that has not successfully invaded to water quality conditions over a longer period. They walk
the aquatic habitat. A few species have diapausing prepupae, very slowly under the water (on the stream bottom), and do
but most complete transformation to adults in two to three not swim on the surface. They have small oval-shaped bod-
weeks. Terrestrial adults of aquatic beetles are typically short- ies (see Figure 11.22) and are typically about ¼ in.in length.
lived and sometimes nonfeeding, like those of the other orders Both adults and larvae of most species feed on fine detritus
of aquatic insects. The larvae of Coleoptera are morphologi- with associated microorganisms that is scraped from the sub-
cally and behaviorally different from the adults, and their strate, although others may be xylophagous, that is, wood eat-
diversity is high. ing (e.g., Lara, Elmidae). Predators do not seem to include
Aquatic species occur in two major suborders, the riffle beetles in their diet, except perhaps for eggs, which are
Adephaga and the Polyphaga. Both larvae and adults of six sometimes attacked by flatworms.
beetle families are aquatic. Dytiscidae (predaceous div- The adult water penny is inconspicuous and often found
ing beetles), Elmidae (riffle beetles), Gyrinidae (whirligig clinging tightly in a sucker-like fashion to the undersides of
beetles), Haliplidae (crawling water beetles), Hydrophilidae submerged rocks, where they feed on attached algae. The body
(water scavenger beetles), and Noteridae (burrowing water is broad, slightly oval, and flat in shape, ranging from 4 to 6
beetles). Five families, Chrysomelidae (leaf beetles), mm (1/4 in.) in length. The body is covered with segmented
Limnichidae (marsh-loving beetles), Psephenidae (water plates and looks like a tiny round leaf (see Figure 11.23). It
pennies), Ptilodactylidae (toe-winged beetles), and scirtidae has six tiny jointed legs (underneath). The color ranges from
(marsh beetles) have aquatic larvae and terrestrial adults, as light brown to almost black. There are 14 water penny species
do most of the other orders of aquatic insects; adult limnich- in the United States. They live predominately in clean, fast-
ids, however, readily submerge when disturbed. Three fami- moving streams. Aquatic larvae live one year or more (they
lies have species that are terrestrial as larvae and aquatic as are aquatic); adults (they are terrestrial) live on land for only a
adults, Curculionidae (weevils), Dryopidae (long-toed water few days. They scrape algae and plants from surfaces.
beetles), and Hydraenidae (moss beetles), a highly unusual Whirligig beetles are common inhabitants of streams and
combination among insects. Because they provide a greater normally are found on the surface of quiet pools. The body
understanding of a freshwater body’s condition (i.e., they are has pincher-like mouthparts. There are six segmented legs in
useful indicators of water quality), we focus our discussion on
the riffle beetle, water penny, and whirligig beetle.
Riffle beetle larvae (most commonly found in running
waters, hence the name riffle beetle) are up to ¾ in.long (see
Figure 11.21). Their body is not only long but also hard, stiff,
FIGURE 11.21 Riffle beetle larvae. FIGURE 11.23 Water penny larvae.
Head
Antenna
Short front legs used Compound eye
for getting prey
Middle legs used Thorax

like paddles
FIGURE 11.24 Whirligig beetle larva.
the middle of the body and the legs end in tiny claws. Many
filaments extend from the sides of the abdomen. They have
four hooks at the end of the body and no tail (see Figure 11.24).
Abdomen Rear legs used
Note: When disturbed, whirligig beetles swim erratically for steering
or dive while emitting defensive secretions.
As larvae, they are benthic predators, whereas the adults FIGURE 11.25 Water strider.
live on the water surface, attacking dead and living organ-
isms trapped in the surface film. They occur on the surface the water’s surface, and larvae. Water striders are very sensi-
in aggregations of up to thousands of individuals. Unlike the tive to motion and vibrations on the water’s surface. It uses
mating swarms of mayflies, these aggregations serve primar- this ability in order to locate prey. It pushes its mouth into its
ily to confuse predators. Whirligig beetles have other inter- prey, paralyzes it, and sucks the insect dry. Predators of the
esting defensive adaptations. For example, the Johnston’s water strider, like birds, fish, water beetles, backswimmers,
organ at the base of the antennae enables them to echolocate dragonflies and spiders, take advantage of the fact that water
using surface wave signals; their compound eyes are divided striders cannot detect motion above or below the surface of
into two pairs, one above and one below the water surface, the water.
enabling them to detect both aerial and aquatic predators; and
they produce noxious chemicals that are highly effective at Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera)
deterring predatory fish. Description: The head and thorax have thick hardened skin,
while the abdomen has thin soft skin; prominent chewing
Water Strider (“Jesus bugs”) (Order: Hemiptera) mouthparts project in front of the head; there are no wing
Description: The most distinguishing characteristic of the pads on the thorax; three pairs of segmented legs are attached
order is the mouthparts that are modified into an elongated, to the thorax; seven or eight pairs of stout tapering filaments
sucking beak. Most adults have hemelytra, which are modi- extend from the abdomen; the end of the abdomen has either a
fied leathery forewings. Some adults and all larvae lack wings; pair of prolegs with two claws on each proleg, or a single long
most mature larvae possess wing pads. Both adults and larvae tapering filaments with no prolegs.
have three pairs of segmented legs with two tarsal claws at Larvae of all species of Megaloptera (“large wing”) are
the end of each leg. Many families are able to also utilize aquatic and attain the largest size of all aquatic insects.
atmospheric oxygen. This order is generally not usedfor the Megaloptera is a medium-sized order with less than 5,000
biological assessment of flowing waters, due to their ability to species worldwide. Most species are terrestrial; there are 64
use atmospheric oxygen. aquatic species in North America. In running waters, alder-
It is fascinating to sit on a log at the edge of a stream pool flies (Family: Sialidae) and dobsonflies (Family: Corydalidae;
and watch the drama that unfolds among the small water ani- sometimes called hellgrammites or toe biters) are particularly
mals. Among the star performers in small streams are the important, as they are voracious predators, having large man-
water bugs. These are aquatic members of that large group dibles with sharp teeth.
of insects called the “true bugs,” most of which live on land. Alderfly brownish-colored larvae possess a single tail fila-
Moreover, unlike many other types of water insects, they do ment with distinct hairs. The body is thick-skinned with six to
not have gills but get their oxygen directly from the air. Most eight filaments on each side of the abdomen; gills are located
conspicuous and commonly known are the water striders or near the base of each filament. Mature body size: 0.5–1.25 in.
water skaters. These ride the top of the water, with only their (see Figure 11.26). Larvae are aggressive predators, feeding
feet making dimples in the surface film. Like all insects, on other adult aquatic macroinvertebrates (they swallow their
the water striders have a three-part body (head, thorax, and prey without chewing); as secondary consumers, other larger
abdomen), six jointed legs, and two antennae. It has a long, predators eat them. Female alderflies deposit eggs on vegeta-
dark, narrow body (see Figure 11.25). The underside of the tion that overhangs water, larvae hatch and fall directly into
body is covered with water-repellent hair. Some water strid- water (i.e., into quiet but moving water). Adult alderflies are
ers have wings, others do not. Most water striders are over 5 dark with long wings folded back over the body; they only live
mm (0.2 in.) long. Water striders eat small insects, that fall on a few days.
Water Ecology 355
• Large scoop-like lower lip that covers the bottom of

the mouth
• No gills on the sides of or underneath the abdomen.
Note: Dragonflies and damselflies are unable to fold their four

elongated wings back over the abdomen when at rest.
Dragonflies and damselflies are medium to large insects
with two pairs of long equal-sized wings. The body is long
FIGURE 11.26 Alderfly larva. and slender, with short antennae. Immature stages are aquatic
and development occurs in three stages (egg, nymph, adult).
Dobsonfly larvae are extremely ugly (thus, they are rather Dragonflies are also known as darning needles. Myths
easy to identify) and can be rather large, anywhere from 25 to about dragonflies warned children to keep quiet or less the
90 mm (1–3.5 in.) in length. The body is stout, with eight pairs dragonfly’s “darning needles” would sew the child’s mouth
of appendages on the abdomen. Brush-like gills at the base of shut. The nymphal stage of dragonflies is grotesque creatures,
each appendage look like “hairy armpits” (see Figure 11.27). robust and stoutly elongated. They do not have long “tails” (see
The elongated body has spiracles (spines) and has three pairs Figure 11.28). They are commonly gray, greenish, or brown to
of walking legs near the upper body and one pair of hooked black in color. They are medium to large aquatic insects, rang-
legs at the rear. The head bears four segmented antennae, ing in size from 15 to 45 mm. The legs are short and used for
small compound eyes, and strong mouthparts (large chew- perching. They are often found on submerged vegetation and at
ing pinchers). Coloration varies from yellowish, brown, gray, the bottom of streams in the shallows. They are rarely found in
and black, often mottled. Dobsonfly larvae, commonly known polluted waters. Food consists of other aquatic insects, anne-
as hellgrammites, are customarily found along stream banks lids, small crustacea, and mollusks. Transformation occurs
under and between stones. As indicated by the mouthparts, when the nymph crawls out of the water, usually onto the veg-
they are predators and feed on all kinds of aquatic organisms. etation. There it splits its skin and emerges prepared for flight.
The adult dragonfly is a strong flier, capable of great speed
Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata) (>60 mph) and maneuverability (fly backward, stop on a dime,
Description: Dragonflies: Lower lip (labium) is long and zip 20 ft straight up, and slip sideways in the blink of an eye!).
elbowed to fold back against the head when not feeding, thus When at rest the wings remain open and out to the sides of
concealing other mouthparts; wing pads are present on the the body. A dragonfly’s freely movable head has large, hemi-
thorax; three pairs of segmented legs are attached to the tho- spherical eyes (nearly 30,000 facets each), which the insects
rax; there are no gills on the sides of the abdomen. Dragonflies use to locate prey with their excellent vision. Dragonflies eat
have three-pointed structures that may occur at the end of the small insects, mainly mosquitoes (large numbers of mosqui-
abdomen forming a pyramid-shaped opening; bodies are long toes), while in flight. Depending on the species, dragonflies lay
and stout or somewhat oval. Damselflies have three flat gills at hundreds of eggs by dropping them into the water and leaving
the end of the abdomen forming a tail-like structure and their them to hatch or by inserting eggs singly into a slit in the stem
bodies are long and slender. of a submerged plant. The incomplete metamorphosis (egg,
The Odonata (dragonflies, suborder Anisoptera; and dam- nymph, mature nymph, and adult) can take two to three years.
selflies, suborder Zygoptera) is a small order of conspicu- Nymphs are often covered by algal growth.
ous, hemimetabolous insects (lack a pupal stage) of about Note: Adult dragonflies are sometimes called “mosquito
5,000 named species and 23 families worldwide. Odonata is hawks” because they eat a large number of mosquitoes that
a Greek word meaning toothed one. It refers to the serrated they catch while they are flying.
teeth located on the insect’s chewing mouthparts (mandibles). Damselflies are smaller and more slender than dragonflies.
Characteristics of dragonfly and damselfly larvae include: They have three long, oar-shaped feathery tails, which are
• Large eyes
• Three pairs of long segmented legs on the upper
middle section (thorax) of body
FIGURE 11.27 Dobsonfly larva. FIGURE 11.28 Dragonfly nymph.

yellow, often with a brilliant pattern of stripes or diamonds

on the upper body. Their size varies within species but gen-
erally ranges from 5 mm to 45 cm when extended. Leeches
are very good swimmers, but they typically move in an inch-
worm fashion. They are carnivorous and feed on other organ-
isms ranging from snails to warm-blooded animals. Leeches
are found in warm protected shallows under rocks and other
debris.
Gastropoda (Lung-breathing Snail)

FIGURE 11.29 Damselfly nymph. Lung-breathing snails (pulmonates) may be found in streams
that are clean. However, their dominance may indicate that
actually gills, and long slender legs (see Figure 11.29). They dissolved oxygen levels are low. These snails are different
are gray, greenish, or brown to black in color. Their habits are from right-handed snails because they do not breathe under
similar to those of dragonfly nymphs and emerge from the water by the use of gills but instead have a lung-like sac called
water as adults in the same manner. The adult damselflies are a pulmonary cavity, which they fill with air at the surface
slow and seem uncertain in flight. Wings are commonly black of the water. When the snail takes in air from the surface, it
or clear, and the body is often brilliantly colored. When at makes a clicking sound. The air taken in can enable the snail
rest, they perch on vegetation with their wings closed upright. to breathe under water for long periods, sometimes hours.
Damselflies mature in one to four years. Adults live for a few Lung-breathing snails have two characteristics that help
weeks or months. Unlike the dragonflies, adult damselflies us to identify them. First, it has no operculum or hard cover
rest with their wings held vertically over their backs. They over the opening to its body cavity. Second, snails are either
mostly feed on live insect larvae. “right-handed” or “left-handed,” and the lung-breathing snails
Note: Relatives of the dragonflies and damselflies are some are “left-handed.” We can tell the difference by holding the
of the most ancient of the flying insects. Fossils have been shell so that its tip is upward and the opening toward us. If the
found of giant dragonflies with wingspans up to 720 mm (28.4 opening is to the left of the axis of the shell, the snail is termed
in.) that lived long before the dinosaurs! sinistral—that is it is left-handed. If the opening is to the right
of the axis of the shell, the snail is termed dextral—that is it is
right-handed, and it breathers with gills. Snails are animals of
NoN-iNsect MacroiNvertebrates
the substrate and are often found creeping along on all types
Non-insect macroinvertebrates are important to our discussion of submerged surfaces in water from 10 cm to 2 m deep.
of stream and freshwater ecology because many of them are Before the Industrial Revolution of the 1800s, metropoli-
used as bioindicators of stream quality. Three frequently encoun- tan areas were small and sparsely populated. Thus, river and
tered groups in running water systems are Oligochaeta (worms), stream systems within or next to early communities received
Hirudinea (leeches), and Gastropoda (lung-breathing snails). insignificant quantities of discarded waste. Early on, these
They are by no means restricted to running water conditions and river and stream systems were able to compensate for the
the great majority of them occupy slow-flowing marginal habitats small amount of wastes they received; when wounded (pol-
where the sedimentation of fine organic materials takes place. luted), nature has a way of fighting back. In the case of rivers
and streams, nature provides its flowing waters with the abil-
Oligochaeta (Family Tuificidae, Genus: Tubifex) ity to restore themselves through their own self-purification
Tubifex worms (commonly known as sludge worms) are process. It was only when humans gathered in great numbers
unique in the fact that they build tubes. Sometimes there are to form great cities that the stream systems were not always
as many as 8,000 individuals per square meter. They attach able to recover from having received great quantities of refuse
themselves within the tube and wave their posterior end in the and other wastes. What exactly is it that man does to rivers
water to circulate the water and make more oxygen available and streams? What man does to rivers and streams is to upset
to their body surface. These worms are commonly red, since the delicate balance between pollution and the purification
their blood contains hemoglobin. Tubifex worms may be very process. That is, we tend to unbalance the aquarium.
abundant in situations when other macroinvertebrates are
absent; they can survive in very low oxygen levels and can live
SUMMARY OF KEY TERMS
with no oxygen at all for short periods. They are commonly
found in polluted streams, and feed on sewage or detritus. • Abiotic factor—the nonliving part of the environ-
ment composed of sunlight, soil, mineral elements,
Hirudinea (Leeches) moisture, temperature, topography, minerals, humid-
Despite the many different families of leeches, they all have ity, tide, wave action, wind, and elevation.
common characteristics. They are soft-bodied worm-like
creatures that are flattened when extended. Their bodies are Important Note: Every community is influenced by a particu-
dull in color, ranging from black to brown and reddish to lar set of abiotic factors. While it is true that the abiotic facts
Water Ecology 357
affect the community members, it is also true that the living 11.5 Free-swimming organisms belong to which group of
(biotic factors) may influence the abiotic factors. For example, aquatic organisms?
the amount of water lost through the leaves of plants may add 11.6 Organisms that live on the surface of the water are
to the moisture content of the air. Also, the foliage of a for- ___________.
est reduces the amount of sunlight that penetrates the lower 11.7 Movement of new individuals into a natural area is
regions of the forest. The air temperature is therefore much referred to as ___________.
lower than in non-shaded areas (Tomera, 1989). 11.8 Fixes energy of the sun and makes food from simple
inorganic substances _________.
• Autotrophs—(green plants) fix energy of the sun and 11.9 The freshwater habitat that is characterized by nor-
manufacture food from simple, inorganic substances. mally calm water is _________.
• Biogeochemical cycles—are cyclic mechanisms in 11.10 The amount of oxygen dissolved in water and avail-
all ecosystems by which biotic and abiotic materials able for organisms is the __________.
are constantly exchanged.
• Biotic factor (community)—the living part of the
environment composed of organisms that share the REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING
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• Community—in an ecological sense, community Microorganisms. Oecologia, 20(4): 359–362.
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• Consumers and decomposers—dissipate energy Hauer, F.R., &Lambertic, G.A., Eds. Methods in Stream
fixed by the producers through food chains or webs. Ecology. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 579–590.
Benfield, E.F., Jones, D.R., &Patterson, M.F., 1977. Leaf Pack
The available energy decreases by 80–90% during
Processing in a Pastureland Stream. Oikos, 29(1): 99–103.
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system. R. Lowrance, B.R. Stinner, and G.J. House, Eds. Agricultural
Ecosystems. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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• Heterotrophs—(animals) use food stored by the Cummins, K.W., &Klug, M.J., 1979. Feeding Ecology of Stream
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bivorous (plant-eaters), or omnivorous (plant- and Grammercy.
Dolloff, C.A., &Webster, J.R., 2000. Particulate Organic
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Colorado Studies, pp. 3–14.
12 Water Quality
INTRODUCTION water, and the atmosphere (see Figure 12.1). As illustrated,

water is taken from the earth’s surface to the atmosphere by
The quality of water, whether it is used for drinking, irri- evaporation from the surface of lakes, rivers, streams, and
gation, or recreational purposes, is significant for heath in oceans. This evaporation process occurs when the sun heats
both developing and developed countries worldwide. The water. The sun’s heat energizes surface molecules, allow-
first problem with water is rather obvious: a source of water ing them to break free of the attractive force binding them
must be found. Secondly, when accessible water is found it together, and then evaporate and rise as invisible vapor in the
must be suitable for human consumption. Meeting the water atmosphere. Water vapor is also emitted from plant leaves by
needs of those that populate earth is an on-going challenge. a process called transpiration. Every day, an actively grow-
New approaches to meeting these water needs will not be ing plant transpires five to ten times as much water as it can
easy to implement: economic and institutional structures still hold at once. As water vapor rises, it cools and eventually
encourage the wasting of water and the destruction of eco- condenses, usually on tiny particles of dust in the air. When
systems (Gleick, 2001). Again, finding a water source is the it condenses, it becomes a liquid again or turns directly into
first problem. Finding a source of water that is safe to drink a solid (ice, hail, or snow). These water particles then collect
is the other problem. and form clouds. The atmospheric water formed in clouds
Water quality is important; it can have a major impact on eventually falls to earth as precipitation. The precipitation
health, both through outbreaks of waterborne disease and by can contain contaminants from air pollution. The precipita-
contributing to the background rates of disease. Accordingly, tion may fall directly onto surface waters, be intercepted by
water quality standards are important to protect public health. plants or structures, or fall onto the ground. Most precipita-
In this text, water quality refers to those characteristics or tion falls in coastal areas or in high elevations. Some of the
range of characteristics that make water appealing and useful. water that falls in high elevations becomes runoff water, the
Keep in mind that useful also means nonharmful or nondis- water that runs over the ground (sometimes collecting nutri-
ruptive to either ecology or the human condition within the ents from the soil) to lower elevations to form streams, lakes,
very broad spectrum of possible uses of water. For example, and fertile valleys.
the absences of odor, turbidity, or color are desirable immedi- The water we see is known as surface water. Surface water
ate qualities. However, there are imperceptible qualities that can be broken down into five categories: oceans, lakes, rivers
are also important; that is, the chemical qualities. The fact is and streams, estuaries, and wetlands.
the presence of materials such as toxic metals, (e.g., mercury Because the amount of rain and snow remains almost con-
and lead), excessive nitrogen and phosphorous, or dissolved stant, but population and usage per person are both increasing
organic material may not be readily perceived by the senses, rapidly, water is in short supply. In the United States alone,
but may exert substantial negative impacts on the health of water usage is four times greater today than it was in 1900. In
a stream and/or on human health. The ultimate impact of the home, this increased use is directly related to an increase
these imperceptible qualities of water (chemicals) on the user in the number of bathrooms, garbage disposals, home laun-
may be nothing more than the loss of aesthetic values. On the dries, and lawn sprinklers. In industry, usage has increased 13
other hand, water-containing chemicals could also lead to a times since 1900.
reduction in biological health or to an outright degradation of A hundred and seventy thousand small-scale suppli-
human health. ers provide drinking water to approximately 200 + million
Simply stated, the importance of water quality cannot be Americans by 60,000 community water supply systems, and
overstated. to nonresidential locations, such as schools, factories, and
With regard to water/wastewater treatment operations, campgrounds. The rest of the Americans are served by private
water quality management begins with a basic understand- wells. The majority of the drinking water used in the United
ing of how water moves through the environment, is exposed States is supplied from groundwater. Untreated water drawn
to pollutants, and transports and deposits pollutants. The from groundwater and surface waters, and used as a drinking
Hydrologic (Water) Cycle depicted by Figure 12.1 illustrates water supply, can contain contaminants that pose a threat to
the general links between the atmosphere, soil, surface waters, human health.
groundwaters, and plants. Note: The United States Environmental Protection Agency
(USEPA, 2002) has reported that American households use
approximately 146,000 gallons of freshwater annually and
THE WATER CYCLE
that Americans drink 1 billion glasses of tap water per day.
The water cycle describes how water moves through the envi- Obviously, with a limited amount of drinking water avail-
ronment and identifies the links between groundwater, surface able for use, water that is available must be reused or we will be
359
14
14
13
13
1. Rain cloud 8. Transpiration from plants

2. Precipitation 9. Return to ocean
3. Ground water 10. Evaporation from soil
4. Animal water intake 11. Evaporation from ponds
5. Respiration 12. Evaporation from ocean 12
8 5 6. Excretion 13. Water vapor
10 7. Plant Absorption 14. Cloud formation 11
4
6
FIGURE 12.1 Hydrologic (water) cycle.
faced with an inadequate supply to meet the needs of all users. environmental regulations, hasn’t water quality in the United
Water use/reuse is complicated by water pollution. Pollution States improved recently? Answer: With the recent pace of
is relative and hard to define. For example, floods and ani- achieving fishable-swimmable waters under the Clean Water
mals (dead or alive) are polluters, but their effects are local Act (CWA), one might think so. In 1994, the National Water
and tend to be temporary. Today, water is polluted in many Quality Inventory Report to Congress indicated that 63%
sources, and pollution exists in many forms. It may appear of the nations’ lakes, rivers, and estuaries meet designated
as excess aquatic weeds, oil slicks, a decline in sport fishing, uses—only a slight increase over that reported in 1992.
and an increase in carp, sludge worms, and other forms of life The main culprit is Nonpoint source pollution (NPS) (to be
that readily tolerate pollution. Maintaining water quality is discussed in detail later). NPS is the leading cause of impair-
important because water pollution is not only detrimental to ment for rivers, lakes, and estuaries. Impaired sources are
health but also to recreation, commercial fishing, aesthetics, those that do not fully support designated uses, such as fish
and private, industrial, and municipal water supplies. consumption, drinking water supply, groundwater recharge,
At this point, the reader might be asking: With all the aquatic life support, or recreation. According to Fornter &
recent publicity about pollution and the enactment of new Schechter (1996), the five leading sources of water quality
Water Quality 361
impairment in rivers are agriculture, municipal wastewa- fish, shellfish, and wildlife and provides for recreation in and
ter treatment plants, habitat and hydrologic modification, on the water.” These goals are referred to as the “fishable and
resource extraction, and urban runoff and storm sewers. swimmable” goals of the Act.
The health of rivers and streams is directly linked to the Before the CWA, there were no specific national water
integrity of the habitat along the river corridor and in adjacent pollution control goals or objectives. Current standards
wetlands. Stream quality will deteriorate if activities damage require that municipal wastewater be given secondary treat-
vegetation along riverbanks and in nearby wetlands. Trees, ment (to be discussed in detail later) and that most effluents
shrubs, and grasses filter pollutants from runoff and reduce meet the conditions shown in Table 12.1. The goal, via sec-
soil erosion. Removal of vegetation also eliminates shade that ondary treatment (i.e., the biological treatment component of
moderates stream temperature. Stream temperature, in turn, a municipal treatment plant), was set in order that the princi-
affects the availability of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water pal components of municipal wastewater, suspended solids,
column for fish and other aquatic organisms. Lakes, reser- biodegradable material, and pathogens could be reduced to
voirs, and ponds may receive water-carrying pollutants from acceptable levels. Industrial dischargers are required to treat
rivers and streams, melting snow, runoff, or groundwater. their wastewater to the level obtainable by the best available
Lakes may also receive pollution directly from the air. technology (BAT) for wastewater treatment in that particu-
Thus, in attempting to answer the original question— lar type of industry.
hasn’t water quality in the United States improved recently? Moreover, a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
—the best answer probably is: We are holding our own in System (NPDES) program was established based on uni-
controlling water pollution, but we need to make more prog- form technological minimums with which each point source
ress. This understates an important point; that is, when it discharger has to comply. Under NPDES, each municipality
comes to water quality, we need to make more progress on and industry discharging effluent into streams is assigned
a continuing basis. discharge permits. These permits reflect the secondary
treatment and BAT standards. Water quality standards are
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS the benchmark against which monitoring data are compared
to assess the health of waters to develop Total Maximum
The effort to regulate drinking water and wastewater effluent Daily Loads in impaired waters. They are also used to calcu-
has increased since the early 1900s. Beginning with an effort late water quality–based discharge limits in permits issued
to control the discharge of wastewater into the environment, under the NPDES.
preliminary regulatory efforts focused on protecting public
health. The goal of this early wastewater treatment program
was to remove suspended and floatable material, treat biode- Safe Drinking Water Act
gradable organics, and eliminate pathogenic organisms. Thus, The SDWA of 1974 mandated the USEPA to establish drink-
regulatory efforts were pointed toward constructing wastewa- ing water standards for all public water systems serving 25
ter treatment plants in an effort to alleviate the problem. Then or more people or having 15 or more connections. Pursuant
a problem soon developed: progress. Progress in the sense that to this mandate, EPA has established maximum contaminant
time marched on and with it so did the proliferation of city levels (MCLs) for drinking water delivered through public
growth in the United States where it became increasingly dif- water distribution systems. The MCLs of inorganics, organic
ficult to find land required for wastewater treatment and dis- chemicals, turbidity, and microbiological contaminants are
posal. Wastewater professionals soon recognized the need to shown in Table 12.2. The EPA’s primary regulations are man-
develop methods of treatment that would accelerate “nature’s datory and must be complied with by all public water systems
way” (the natural purification of water) under controlled con- to which they apply. If an analysis of the water produced by
ditions in treatment facilities of a comparatively smaller size. a water system indicates that an MCL for a contaminant is
Regulatory influence on water quality improvements in being exceeded, the system must take steps to stop providing
both wastewater and drinking water took a giant step forward
in the 1970s. The Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
of 1972 (CWA), established national water pollution control TABLE 12.1
goals. At about the same time, the Safe Drinking Water Act
Minimum National Standards for Secondary Treatment
(SDWA) passed by Congress (1974) started a new era in the
field of drinking water supply to the public. Unit of Average Average
Characteristic of Discharge Measure 30-day 7-day
Biochemical oxygen demand mg/l 30 45
Clean Water Act (BOD)5
In 1972, Congress adopted the CWA, which establishes a Suspended Solids mg/l 30 45
framework for achieving its national objective “to restore and Concentration pH units 6.0 to 9.0 –
maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of Source: Federal Register, Secondary Treatment Regulations, 40 CFR Part
the nation’s waters.” Congress decreed that, where attainable, 133, 1988.
water quality “provides for the protection and propagation of
TABLE 12.2
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Primary Drinking Water Standards
1. Inorganic Contaminant Levels
Contaminants Level (mg/L)
Arsenic 0.05
Barium 1.00
Cadmium 0.010
Chromium 0.05
Lead 0.05
Mercury 0.002
Nitrate 10.00
Selenium 0.01
Silver 0.05
2. Organic Contaminant Levels
Chemical Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) mg/L
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Endrin 0.0002
Lindane 0.004
Mexthoxychlor 0.1
Toxaphene 0.005
Chlorophenoxys
2,4-D 0.1
2, 4, 5-TP silvex 0.01
3. Maximum Levels of Turbidity
Reading Basis Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) Turbidity Units
Turbidity reading (monthly average) 1 TU or up to 5 TUs if the water supplier can demonstrate to the state that the higher
turbidity does not interfere with disinfection maintenance of an effective disinfection agent
throughout the distribution system, or microbiological determinants.
Turbidity reading (based on the average of two consecutive 5 TUs
days)
4. Microbiological Contaminants
Test Method Used Monthly Basis Individual Sample Basis
Fewer than 20 Samples/month More than 20 Samples/month
Membrane filter technique 1/100 mL average daily Number of coliform bacteria not to exceed:
4/100 mL in more than 1 sample 4/100 mL in more than 5% of samples
Fermentation Coliform bacteria shall not be present in:
10 mL standard portions More than 10% of the portions 3 or more portions in more than 1 sample 3 or more portions in more than 5% of samples
100 mL standard portions More than 60% of the portions 5 portions in more than 1 sample 5 portions in more than 20% of the samples
Source: Adapted from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA): National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Federal Register,
Part IV, 1975.
the water to the public or initiate treatment to reduce the con- problem until customers complain. One thing is certain, they
taminant concentration to below the MCL. will complain.
The USEPA has also issued guidelines to the states with
regard to secondary drinking water standards. These appear
Implementing the SDWA*
in Table 12.3. These guidelines apply to drinking water con-
taminants that may adversely affect the aesthetic qualities of On December 3, 1998 at the oceanfront of Fort Adams State
the water (i.e., those qualities that make water appealing and Park, Newport, Rhode Island, in remarks by President Clinton
useful), such as odor and appearance. These qualities have no to the community of Newport, a significant part of the 1996
known adverse health effects, and thus secondary regulations SDWA and amendments were announced—the expectation
are not mandatory. However, most drinking water systems
comply with the limits; they have learned through experi- * Information from this section is from Spellman & Drinan (2012) The
ence that the odor and appearance of drinking water is not a Drinking Water Handbook, 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Water Quality 363
The third thing we are doing today is to help communities

TABLE 12.3 meet higher standards, releasing almost $800 million to
Secondary Maximum Contaminant Levels help communities in all 50 states to upgrade their drink-
ing water systems … to give 140 million Americans safer
Contaminant Level Adverse Effect drinking water.
Chloride 250 mg/L Causes taste
Color 15 cu Appearance problems Consumer Confidence Report Rule
Copper 1 mg/L Tastes and odors
The comments above by President Clinton about the require-
Corrosivity noncorrosive Tastes and odors
ment of community water systems to put Annual Drinking
Fluoride 2 mg/L Dental fluorosis
Foaming agents 0.5 mg/L Appearance problems
Water Quality Reports (consumer right-to-know information)
Iron 0.3 mg/L Appearance problems
into the hands of customers was mentioned. While water sys-
Manganese 0.05 mg/L Discolors laundry tems are free to enhance their reports in any useful way, each
Odor 3 TON Unappealing to drink report must provide consumers with the following fundamen-
pH 6.5–8.5 Corrosion or scaling tal information about their drinking water:
Sulfate 250 mg/L Has laxative effect
Total dissolved solids 500 mg/L Taste, corrosive • The lake, river, aquifer, or other source of the drink-
Zinc 5 mg/L Taste, appearance ing water. Consider the following actual provided by
city XXXXX:
Source: Adapted from McGhee, p. 161, 1991.
The City of XXXXX receives its raw (untreated)
Cu = color unit
TON = threshold odor number
water from eight reservoirs, two rivers and four deep
wells. From these sources, raw water is pumped to
one of the Department of Utilities’ two water treat-
ment plants, where it is filtered and disinfected. Once
being that the new requirements will protect most of the tested for top quality, XXXXX drinking water is
nation from dangerous contaminants while adding only about pumped on demand to your tap.
US$2 to many monthly water bills. • A brief summary of the susceptibility to contami-
The rules require approximately 13,000 municipal nation of the local drinking water source, based on
water suppliers to use better filtering systems to screen the source water assessments by states. Consider
out Cryptosporidium and other microbes, ensuring that the following actual information provided by City
U.S. community water supplies are safe from microbial XXXXX.
contamination. Contaminants that may be present in source (raw)
In his speech, President Clinton said: water include:
• Microbial contaminants, such as viruses and
This past summer I announced a new rule requiring utilities bacteria, which may come from sewage treat-
across the country to provide their customers regular reports ment plants, septic systems, agricultural live-
on the quality of their drinking water. When it comes to the stock operations, wildlife
water our children drink, Americans cannot be too vigilant. • Inorganic contaminants, such as salts and met-
Today I want to announce three other actions I am taking. als, which can be naturally-occurring or result
First, we’re escalating our attack on the invisible microbes from urban storm water runoff, industrial or
that sometimes creep into the water supply … domestic. Wastewater discharges, oil and gas
Today, the new standards we put in place will significantly production, mining, or farming.
reduce the risk from Cryptosporidium and other microbes, to • Pesticides and herbicides, which may come
ensure that no community ever has to endure an outbreak like from a variety of sources such as agriculture,
the one Milwaukee suffered. urban storm water runoff, and residential uses.
Second, we are taking steps to ensure that when we treat our • Radioactive contaminants, which can be natu-
water, we do it as safely as possible. One of the great health rally occurring or be the result of oil and gas pro-
advances to the 20th century is the control of typhoid, chol- duction and mining activities.
era, and other diseases with disinfectants. Most of the chil- • How to get a copy of the water system’s complete
dren in this audience have never heard of typhoid and cholera, source water assessment. Consider the following
but their grandparents cowered in fear of it, and their great- taken from city XXXXX’s Consumer Confidence
grandparents took it as a fact of life that it would take away Report (annual drinking water quality report):
significant numbers of the young people of their generation. For a copy of the water system’s complete source
But as with so many advances, there are trade-offs. We now
water assessment and questions regarding this report
see that some of the disinfectants we use to protect our water
can actually combine with natural substances to create harm- contact XXXXX’s Water Quality Lab at xxx-xxx-
ful compounds. So today I’m announcing standards to sig- xxxx. For more information about decisions affect-
nificantly reduce our exposure to these harmful byproducts, ing your drinking water quality, you may attend
to give our families greater peace of mind with their water. XXXXX City Council meetings. For times and
agendas, call the XXXXX Clerk’s office at xxx-xxx. characteristics of water, those that are apparent to the senses
xxxx. of smell, taste, sight, and touch. Solids, turbidity, color, taste
• The level (or range of levels) of any contaminant and odor, and temperature also fall into this category.
found in local drinking water, as well as EPA’s
health-based standard (maximum contaminant level) Solids
for comparison; Other than gases, all contaminants of water contribute to
• The likely source of that contaminant in the local the solids content. Classified by their size and state, by their
drinking water supply; chemical characteristics, and by their size distribution, solids
• The potential health effects of any contaminant can be dispersed in water in both suspended and dissolved
detected in violation of an EPA health standard, and forms. In regard to size, solids in water and wastewater can
an accounting of the system’s actions to restore safe be classified as suspended, settleable, colloidal, or dissolved.
drinking water; Solids are also characterized as being volatile or nonvolatile.
• The water system’s compliance with other drinking The distribution of solids is determined by computing the
water-related rules; percentage of filterable solids by size range. Solids typically
• An educational statement for vulnerable populations include inorganic solids such as silt, sand, gravel, and clay
about avoiding Cryptosporidium; from riverbanks and organic matter such as plant fibers and
• Educational information on nitrate, arsenic, or lead microorganisms from natural or human-made sources. We
in areas where these contaminants may be a concern. use the term “siltation” to describe the suspension and depo-
In regard to the levels of contaminants, their possible sition of small sediment particles in waterbodies. In flowing
sources, and the levels detected in local drinking water, many of these contaminants result from the erosive
water supplies, consider the information provided by action of water flowing over surfaces.
City XXXXX to its ratepayers in the annual drink- Sedimentation and siltation can severely alter aquatic
ing water quality report for 2011: communities. Sedimentation may clog and abrade fish gills,
phone numbers of additional sources of infor- suffocate eggs and aquatic insect larvae on the bottom, and
mation, including the water system and EPA’s Safe fill in the pore space between bottom cobbles where fish lay
Drinking Water Hotline (800-426-4791). eggs. Suspended silt and sediment interfere with recreational
activities and aesthetic enjoyment at streams and lakes by
This information supplements public notification that water reducing water clarity and filling in lakes. Sediment may also
systems must provide to their customers upon discovering carry other pollutants into surface waters. Nutrients and toxic
any violation of a contaminant standard. This annual report chemicals may attach to sediment particles on land and ride
should not be the primary notification of potential health risks the particles into surface waters where the pollutants may
posed by drinking water; instead, it provides customers with settle with the sediment or detach and become soluble in the
water quality information from the previous year. water column.
Suspended solids are a measure of the weight of relatively
Water Quality Characteristics of insoluble materials in the ambient water. These materials
enter the water column as soil particles from land surfaces
Water and Wastewater
or sand, silt, and clay from stream bank erosion of channel
In this section, individual pollutants and stressors that affect scour. Suspended solids can include both organic (detritus and
water quality are described. biosolids) and inorganic (sand or finer colloids) constituents.
Knowledge of the parameters/characteristics most com- In water, suspended material is objectionable because it
monly associated with water and wastewater treatment pro- provides adsorption sites for biological and chemical agents.
cesses is essential to the water/wastewater operator. Water These adsorption sites provide attached microorganisms a
and wastewater practitioners are encouraged to use a holistic protective barrier against the chemical action of chlorine.
approach to managing water quality problems. It is impor- In addition, suspended solids in water may be degraded bio-
tant to point out that when this text refers to water quality, logically resulting in objectionable by-products. Thus, the
the definition used is predicated on the intended use of the removal of these solids is of great concern in the production
water. Many parameters have evolved that qualitatively reflect of clean, safe drinking water and wastewater effluent.
the impact that various contaminants (impurities) have on In water treatment, the most effective means of remov-
selected water uses; the following sections provide a brief dis- ing solids from water is by filtration. It should be pointed
cussion of these parameters. out, however, that not all solids, such as colloids and other
dissolved solids, can be removed by filtration. In wastewater
treatment, the presence of suspended solids is an important
Physical Characteristics of Water/Wastewater
water quality parameter and is used to measure the quality of
The physical characteristics of water/wastewater we are inter- the wastewater influent, to monitor the performance of several
ested in are more germane to the discussion at hand; namely, processes, and to measure the quality of effluent. Wastewater
a category of parameters/characteristics that can be used to is normally 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. If a wastewater sam-
describe water quality. One such category is the physical ple is evaporated, the solids remaining are called total solids
Water Quality 365
(TS). As shown in Table 12.1, USEPA has set a maximum has a profound impact on its marketability for both domestic
suspended solids standard of 30 mg/L for most treated waste- and industrial use.
water discharges. In water treatment, color is not usually considered unsafe
or unsanitary, but is a treatment problem in regard to exert-
Turbidity ing a chlorine demand, which reduces the effectiveness of
One of the first things noticed about water is its clarity. The chlorine as a disinfectant. In wastewater treatment, color is
clarity of water is usually measured by its turbidity. Turbidity not necessarily a problem, but instead is an indicator of the
is a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or condition of the wastewater. Condition refers to the age of
scattered by suspended material in water. Both the size and the wastewater, which, along with odor, provides a qualita-
surface characteristics of the suspended material influence tive indication of its age. Early in the flow, wastewater is a
absorption and scattering. Although algal blooms can make light brownish-gray color. The color of wastewater contain-
waters turbid, in surface water, most turbidity is related to the ing DO is normally gray. Black-colored wastewater usually
smaller inorganic components of the suspended solids bur- accompanied by foul odors, containing little or no DO, is said
den, primarily the clay particles. Microorganisms and veg- to be septic. Table 12.4 provides wastewater color informa-
etable material may also contribute to turbidity. Wastewaters tion. As the travel time in the collection system increases
from industry and households usually contain a wide variety (flow becomes increasingly more septic), and more anaerobic
of turbidity-producing materials. Detergents, soaps, and vari- conditions develop, the color of the wastewater changes from
ous emulsifying agents contribute to turbidity. gray to dark gray and ultimately to black.
In water treatment, turbidity is useful in defining drink-
ing water quality. In wastewater treatment, turbidity mea- Taste and Odor
surements are particularly important whenever ultraviolet Taste and odor are used jointly in the vernacular of water sci-
radiation (UV) is used in the disinfection process. For UV to ence. The term “odor” is used in wastewater; taste, obviously,
be effective in disinfecting wastewater effluent, UV light must is not a consideration. Domestic sewage should have a musty
be able to penetrate the stream flow. Obviously, stream flow odor. Bubbling gas and/or foul odor may indicate industrial
that is turbid works to reduce the effectiveness of irradiation wastes, anaerobic (septic) conditions, and operational prob-
(penetration of light). lems. Refer to Table 12.5 for typical wastewater odors, pos-
The colloidal material associated with turbidity provides sible problems, and solutions.
absorption sites for microorganisms and chemicals that may In wastewater, odors are of major concern, especially to
be harmful or cause undesirable tastes and odors. Moreover, those who reside in close proximity to a wastewater treatment
the adsorptive characteristics of many colloids work to pro- plant. These odors are generated by gases produced by the
vide protection sites for microorganisms from disinfection decomposition of organic matter or by substances added to
processes. Turbidity in running waters interferes with light the wastewater. Because these substances are volatile, they
penetration and photosynthetic reactions. are readily released to the atmosphere at any point where the
waste stream is exposed, particularly if there is turbulence at
Color the surface.
Color is another physical characteristic by which the quality Most people would argue that all wastewater is the same;
of water can be judged. Pure water is colorless. Water takes it has a disagreeable odor. It is hard to argue against the dis-
on color when foreign substances such as organic matter from agreeable odor. However, one wastewater operator told us that
soils, vegetation, minerals, and aquatic organisms are pres- wastewater “smelled great—smells just like money to me—
ent. Color can also be contributed to water by municipal and money in the bank,” she said.
industrial wastes. Color in water is classified as either true This was an operator’s view. We also received another
color or apparent color. Water whose color is partly due to opinion of odor problems resulting from wastewater opera-
dissolved solids that remain after removal of suspended mat- tions. This particular opinion, given by an odor control man-
ter is known as true color. Color contributed by suspended ager, was quite different. His statement was “that odor control
matter is said to have apparent color. In water treatment, true is a never-ending problem.” She also pointed out that to com-
color is the most difficult to remove. bat this difficult problem, odors must be contained. In most
Note: Water has an intrinsic color, and this color has a
unique origin. Intrinsic color is easy to discern, as can be seen
TABLE 12.4
in Crater Lake, Oregon, which is known for its intense blue
color. The appearance of the lake varies from turquoise to Significance of Color in Wastewater
deep navy blue depending on whether the sky is hazy or clear. Color Problem Indicated
Pure water and ice have a pale blue color. Gray None
The obvious problem with colored water is that it is not Red Blood or other industrial wastes
acceptable to the public. That is, given a choice, the public Green, Yellow, Industrial wastes not pretreated (paints, etc.)
prefers clear, uncolored water. Another problem with colored Red or other soil Surface runoff into influent, also industrial flows
water is the effect it has on laundering, papermaking, manu- Black Septic conditions or industrial flows
facturing, textiles, and food processing. The color of water
known best for its characteristic “rotten-egg” taste and odor.

TABLE 12.5 Certain species of algae also secrete an oily substance that
Odors in Wastewater Treatment Plant may produce both taste and odor. When certain substances
Odor Location Problem Possible Solution combine (such as organics and chlorine), the synergistic effect
produces taste and odor.
Earthy, Primary & No problem None required
Musty Secondary
In water treatment, one of the common methods used
units to remove taste and odor is to oxidize the materials that
Hydrogen Influent Septic Aerate
cause the problem. Oxidants, such as potassium perman-
Sulfide ganate and chlorine, are used. Another common treatment
Primary clarifier Septic sludge Remove sludge method is to feed powdered activated carbon before the
Activated sludge Septic sludge Remove sludge filter. The activated carbon has numerous small openings
Trickling filters Septic More air/less that absorb the components that cause odors and tastes.
conditions biochemical oxygen These contained spaces must then be positively vented to
demand (BOD) wet-chemical scrubbers to prevent the buildup of toxic con-
Secondary Septic Remove sludge centrations of gas.
Clarifiers conditions
Chlorine contact Septic Remove sludge Temperature
tank conditions Heat is added to surface and groundwater in many ways.
General plant Septic Good house-keeping Some of these are natural, some artificial. For example, heat
conditions
is added by natural means to Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming.
Chlorine Chlorine Contact Improper Adjust chlorine dosage
The lake, one of the world’s largest freshwater lakes, resides
Tank chlorine
dosage
in a caldera, situated at more than 7,700 ft (the largest high
altitude lake in North America). When one attempts to swim
Industrial General Plant Inadequate Enforce sewer use
Odors pretreatment regulation
in Yellowstone Lake (without a wetsuit), the bitter cold of the
water literally takes one’s breath away. However, if it were not
for the hydrothermal discharges that occur in Yellowstone, the
water would be even colder. In regard to human heated water,
urban plants, it has become necessary to physically cover this most commonly occurs whenever a raw water source is
all source areas such as treatment basins, clarifiers, aeration used for cooling water in industrial operations. The influ-
basins, and contact tanks to prevent odors from leaving the ent to industrial facilities is at normal ambient temperature.
processes. These contained spaces must then be positively When it is used to cool machinery and industrial processes,
vented to wet-chemical scrubbers to prevent the buildup of a however, and then discharged back to the receiving body, it is
toxic concentration of gas. often heated. The problem with heat or temperature increases
As mentioned, in drinking water, taste and odor are not in surface waters is that it affects the solubility of oxygen in
normally a problem until the consumer complains. The prob- water, the rate of bacterial activity, and the rate at which gases
lem is, of course, that most consumers find taste and odor in are transferred to and from the water.
water aesthetically displeasing. As mentioned, taste and odor Note: It is important to point out that in the examination of
do not directly present a health hazard, but they can cause the water or wastewater, temperature is not normally used to eval-
customer to seek water that tastes and smells good, but may uate either. However, temperature is one of the most important
not be safe to drink. Most consumers consider water tasteless parameters in natural surface water systems. Surface waters
and odorless. Thus, when consumers find that their drinking are subject to great temperature variations.
water has a taste or odor, or both, they automatically associate Water temperature does determine, in part, how efficiently
the drinking water with contamination. certain water treatment processes operate. For example, tem-
Water contaminants are attributable to contact with nature perature has an effect on the rate at which chemicals dissolve
or human use. Taste and odor in water are caused by a vari- and react. When water is cold, more chemicals are required
ety of substances such as minerals, metals, and salts from the for efficient coagulation and flocculation to take place. When
soil, constituents of wastewater, and end products produced water temperature is high, the result may be a higher chlorine
in biological reactions. When water has a taste but no accom- demand because of the increased reactivity and there is often
panying odor, the cause is usually inorganic contamination. an increased level of algae and other organic matter in raw
Water that tastes bitter is usually alkaline, while salty water is water. Temperature also has a pronounced effect on the solu-
commonly the result of metallic salts. However, when water bility of gases in water.
has both taste and odor, the likely cause is organic materi- Ambient temperature (temperature of the surrounding
als. The list of possible organic contaminants is too long to atmosphere) has the most profound and universal effect on
record here, however petroleum-based products lead the list temperature of shallow natural water systems. When water
of offenders. Taste- and odor-producing liquids and gases in is used by industry to dissipate process waste heat, the dis-
water are produced by the biological decomposition of organ- charge locations into surface waters may experience localized
ics. A prime example of one of these is hydrogen sulfide (H2S); temperature changes that are quite dramatic. Other sources
Water Quality 367
of increased temperatures in running water systems result cause. It should be pointed out that not all carbonate salts have
because of clear-cutting practices in forests (where protective a negative effect on their surroundings. Consider, for example,
canopies are removed) and from irrigation flows returned to a the case of blue marl lakes; they owe their unusually clear,
body of running water. attractive appearance to carbonate salts.
In wastewater treatment, the temperature of wastewater Water has been called the universal solvent. This is, of
varies greatly, depending upon the type of operations being course, a fitting description. The solvent capabilities of water
conducted at a particular installation. However, wastewater is are directly related to its chemical characteristics or parame-
generally warmer than that of the water supply, because of the ters. As mentioned, in water quality management, TDS, alka-
addition of warm water from industrial activities and house- linity, hardness, fluorides, metals, organics, and nutrients are
holds. Wide variation in the wastewater temperature indicates the major chemical parameters of concern.
heated or cooled discharges, often of substantial volume. They
have any number of sources. For example, decreased tempera- Total Dissolved Solids
tures after a snowmelt or rain event may indicate serious infil- Because of water’s solvent properties, minerals dissolved
tration. In the treatment process itself, temperature not only from rocks and soil as water passes over and through them
influences the metabolic activities of the microbial population produce TDS (comprised of any minerals, salts, metals, cat-
but also has a profound effect on such factors as gas-transfer ions, or anions dissolved in water). TDS constitutes a part of
rates and the settling characteristics of the biological solids. TS in water; it is the material remaining in water after filtra-
tion. Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic. Water may
be exposed to these substances within the soil, on surfaces,
Chemical Characteristics of Water
and in the atmosphere. The organic dissolved constituents
Another category used to define or describe water quality is of water come from the decay products of vegetation, from
its chemical characteristics. The most important chemical organic chemicals, and from organic gases.
characteristics are total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity, Dissolved solids can be removed from water by distillation,
hardness, fluoride, metals, organics, and nutrients. Chemical electro-dialysis, reverse osmosis, or ion exchange. It is desir-
impurities can be either natural, human-made (industrial), able to remove these dissolved minerals, gases, and organic
or be deployed in raw water sources by enemy forces. Some constituents because they may cause psychological effects
chemical impurities cause water to behave as either an acid and produce aesthetically displeasing color, taste, and odors.
or a base. Because either condition has an important bearing While it is desirable to remove many of these dissolved sub-
on the water treatment process, the pH value must be deter- stances from water, it is not prudent to remove them all. This
mined. Generally, the pH influences the corrosiveness of the is the case, for example, because pure, distilled water has a
water, chemical dosages necessary for proper disinfection, flat taste. Further, water has an equilibrium state with respect
and the ability to detect contaminants. The principal contami- to dissolved constituents. Thus, if water is out of equilibrium
nants found in water are shown in Table 12.6. These chemical or undersaturated, it will aggressively dissolve materials it
constituents are important because each one affects water use comes into contact with. Because of this problem, substances
in some manner; each one either restricts or enhances specific that are readily dissolvable are sometimes added to pure water
uses. The pH of water is important. As pH rises, for example, to reduce its tendency to dissolve plumbing.
the equilibrium (between bicarbonate and carbonate) increas-
ingly favors the formation of carbonate, which often results Alkalinity
in the precipitation of carbonate salts. If you have ever had Another important characteristic of water is its alkalinity,
flow in a pipe system interrupted or a heat-transfer problem which is a measure of the water’s ability to neutralize acid or
in your water heater system, then carbonate salts that formed really an expression of buffering capacity. The major chemi-
a hard-to-dissolve scale within the system are most likely the cal constituents of alkalinity in natural water supplies are the
bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxyl ions. These compounds
are mostly the carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium, potas-
TABLE 12.6 sium, magnesium, and calcium. These constituents originate
Chemical Constituents Commonly Found in Water from carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere and as a by-product
Calcium Fluorine
of microbial decomposition of organic material) and from their
Magnesium Nitrate
mineral origin (primarily from chemical compounds dissolved
Sodium Silica
from rocks and soil). Highly alkaline waters are unpalatable;
Potassium Silica however, this condition has little known significance for human
Potassium Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) health. The principal problem with alkaline water is the reac-
Iron Hardness tions that occur between alkalinity and certain substances in the
Manganese Color water. Alkalinity is important for fish and aquatic life because
Bicarbonate pH it protects or buffers against rapid pH changes. Moreover, the
Carbonate Turbidity resultant precipitate can foul water system appurtenances. In
Sulfate Chloride Temperature addition, alkalinity levels affect the efficiency of certain water
treatment processes, especially the coagulation process.
Hardness hard water reduces toxicity to many by poisoning with lead

Hardness is due to the presence of multivalent metal ions, oxide from lead pipelines; and (3) soft waters are suspected to
which come from minerals dissolved in water. Hardness is be associated with cardiovascular diseases (Rowe & Abdel-
based on the ability of these ions to react with soap to form Magid, 1995).
a precipitate or soap scum. In freshwater, the primary ions
are calcium and magnesium; however, iron and manganese Fluoride
may also contribute. Hardness is classified as carbonate hard- We purposely fluoridate a range of everyday products, notably
ness or noncarbonate hardness. Carbonate hardness is equal toothpaste and drinking water, because for decades we have
to alkalinity but a noncarbonate fraction may include nitrates believed that fluoride in small doses has no adverse effects on
and chlorides. Hardness is either temporary or permanent. health to offset its proven benefits in preventing dental decay.
Carbonate hardness (temporary hardness) can be removed by The jury is still out, however, on the real benefits of fluoride,
boiling. Noncarbonate hardness cannot be removed by boil- even in small amounts. Fluoride is seldom found in apprecia-
ing and is classified as permanent. ble quantities in surface waters and appears in groundwater in
Hardness values are expressed as an equivalent amount only a few geographical regions. However, fluoride is some-
or equivalent weight of calcium carbonate (equivalent weight times found in a few types of igneous or sedimentary rocks.
of a substance is its atomic or molecular weight divided by Fluoride is toxic to humans in large quantities. Fluoride is
n). Water with a hardness of less than 50 ppm is soft. Above also toxic to some animals. For example, certain plants used
200 ppm, domestic supplies are usually blended to reduce the for fodder have the ability to store and concentrate fluoride.
hardness value (see Table 12.7). The U.S. Geological Survey When animals consume this forage, they ingest an enormous
uses the classification shown in Table 12.7: overdose of fluoride. Animals’ teeth become mottled, they
The impact of hardness can be measured in economic lose weight, give less milk, grow spurs on their bones, and
terms. Soap consumption points this out; that is, soap con- become so crippled they must be destroyed (Koren, 1991).
sumption represents an economic loss to the water user. When Fluoride used in small concentrations (about 1.0 mg/L in
washing with a bar of soap, there is a need to use more soap drinking water) can be beneficial. Experience has shown that
to “get a lather,” whenever washing in hard water. There is drinking water containing a proper amount of fluoride can
another problem with soap and hardness. When using a bar of reduce tooth decay by 65% in children between ages 12 and
soap in hard water, when a lather is finally built up, the water 15. When large concentrations are used (>2.0 mg/L), discol-
has been “softened” by the soap. The precipitate formed by the oration of teeth may result. Adult teeth are not affected by
hardness and soap (soap curd) adheres to just about anything fluoride. EPA sets the upper limits for fluoride based on ambi-
(tubs, sinks, dishwashers) and may stain clothing, dishes, and ent temperatures, because people drink more water in warmer
other items. There also is a personal problem: the residues of climates; therefore, fluoride concentrations should be lower in
the hardness-soap precipitate may precipitate into the pores, these areas.
causing skin to feel rough and uncomfortable. Today these Note: How does fluoridization of a drinking water sup-
problems have been largely reduced by the development of ply actually work to reduce tooth decay? Fluoride combines
synthetic soaps and detergents that do not react with hardness. chemically with tooth enamel when permanent teeth are
However, hardness still leads to other problems, scaling and forming. The result is teeth that are harder, stronger, and more
laxative effects. Scaling occurs when carbonate hard water resistant to decay.
is heated and calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide
Metals
are precipitated out of solution, forming a rock-hard scale that
clogs hot water pipes and reduces the efficiency of boilers, Although iron and manganese are most commonly found in
water heaters, and heat exchangers. Hardness, especially with groundwaters, surface waters may also contain significant
the presence of magnesium sulfates, can lead to the develop- amounts at times. Metal ions are dissolved in groundwater
ment of a laxative effect on new consumers. and surface water when the water is exposed to rock or soil
The use of hard water does offer some advantages, though, containing metals, usually in the form of metal salts. Metals
in that: (1) hard water aids in growth of teeth and bones; (2) can also enter with discharges from sewage treatment plants,
industrial plants, and other sources. The metals most often
found in the highest concentrations in natural waters are cal-
cium and magnesium. These are usually associated with a
TABLE 12.7
carbonate anion and come from the dissolution of limestone
Classification of Hardness rock. As mentioned under the discussion of hardness, the
Range of Hardness [mg/ higher the concentration of these metal ions, the harder the
liter (ppm) as CaCO3] Descriptive Classification water; however, in some waters other metals can contribute to
1 to 50 Soft hardness. Calcium and magnesium are nontoxic and normally
51 to 150 Moderately hard absorbed by living organisms more readily than the other
151 to 300 Hard metals. Therefore, if the water is hard, the toxicity of a given
Above 300 Very hard concentration of a toxic metal is reduced. Conversely, in soft,
acidic water the same concentrations of metals may be more
Water Quality 369
toxic. In natural water systems, other nontoxic metals are is predominant when oxygen is available. In oxygen-present
generally found in very small quantities. Most of these met- (aerobic) environments, the end products of microbial decom-
als cause taste problems well before they reach toxic levels. position of organics are stable and acceptable compounds.
Fortunately, toxic metals are present in only minute quantities On the other hand, oxygen-absent (anaerobic) decomposition
in most natural water systems. However, even in small quanti- results in unstable and objectionable end products.
ties, toxic metals in drinking water are harmful to humans and The quantity of oxygen-consuming organics in water is
other organisms. Arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, usually determined by measuring the biochemical oxygen
mercury, and silver are toxic metals that may be dissolved in demand (BOD): the amount of dissolved oxygen needed by
water. Arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury, all cumulative aerobic decomposers to break down the organic materials in
toxins, are particularly hazardous. These particular metals are a given volume of water over a five-day incubation period at
concentrated by the food chain, thereby posing the greatest 20°C (68°F).
danger to organisms near the top of the chain. Nonbiodegradable organics are resistant to biological deg-
radation. For example, constituents of woody plants such as
Organics tannin and lignin acids, phenols, and cellulose are found in
Organic chemicals in water primarily emanate from synthetic natural water systems and are considered refractory (resistant
compounds that contain carbon, such as PCBs, dioxin, and to biodegradation). In addition, some polysaccharides with
DDT (all toxic organic chemicals). These synthesized com- exceptionally strong bonds and benzene with its ringed struc-
pounds often persist and accumulate in the environment ture are essentially nonbiodegradable. An example is benzene
because they do not readily breakdown in natural ecosystems. associated with the refining of petroleum. Some organics are
Many of these compounds can cause cancer in people and toxic to organisms and thus are nonbiodegradable. These
birth defects in other predators near the top of the food chain, include the organic pesticides and compounds that have com-
such as birds and fish. The presence of organic matter in water bined with chlorine. Pesticides and herbicides have found
is troublesome for the following reasons: “(1) color formation, widespread use in agriculture, forestry (silviculture), and mos-
(2) taste and odor problems, (3) oxygen depletion in streams, quito control. Surface streams are contaminated via runoff
(4) interference with water treatment processes, and (5) the and wash off by rainfall. These toxic substances are harmful
formation of halogenated compounds when chlorine is added to some fish, shellfish, predatory birds, and mammals. Some
to disinfect water” (Tchobanoglous & Schroeder, 1985). compounds are toxic to humans.
Generally, the source of organic matter in water is from
decaying leaves, weeds, and trees; the amount of these materi- Nutrients
als present in natural waters is usually low. The general cat- Nutrients (biostimulants) are essential building blocks for
egory of “organics” in natural waters includes organic matter healthy aquatic communities, but excess nutrients (espe-
whose origins could be from both natural sources and from cially nitrogen and phosphorous compounds) overstimulate
human activities. It is important to distinguish natural organic the growth of aquatic weeds and algae. Excessive growth of
compounds from organic compounds that are solely man- these organisms, in turn, can clog navigable waters, interfere
made (anthropogenic), such as pesticides and other synthetic with swimming and boating, out-compete native submerged
organic compounds. aquatic vegetation, and, with excessive decomposition, lead
Many organic compounds are soluble in water, and surface to oxygen depletion. Oxygen concentrations can fluctuate
waters are more prone to contamination by natural organic daily during algae blooms, rising during the day as algae per-
compounds that are groundwaters. In water, dissolved organ- form photosynthesis and falling at night as algae continue to
ics are usually divided into two categories: biodegradable respire, which consumes oxygen. Beneficial bacteria also con-
and nonbiodegradable. Biodegradable (break down) material sume oxygen as they decompose the abundant organic food
consists of organics that can be utilized for nutrients (food) supply in dying algae cells.
by naturally occurring microorganisms within a reasonable Plants require large amounts of the nutrients carbon, nitro-
length of time. These materials usually consist of alcohols, gen, and phosphorus, otherwise growth will be limited.
acids, starches, fats, proteins, esters, and aldehydes. They may Carbon is readily available from a number of natural
result from domestic or industrial wastewater discharges, or sources including alkalinity, decaying products of organic
they may be end products of the initial microbial decomposi- matter, and from dissolved carbon dioxide from the atmo-
tion of plant or animal tissue. The principal problem associ- sphere. Since carbon is readily available, it is seldom the
ated with biodegradable organics is the effect resulting from limiting nutrient. This is an important point because it sug-
the action of microorganisms. Moreover, some biodegradable gests that identifying and reducing the supply of a particular
organics can cause color, taste, and odor problems. nutrient can control algal growth. In most cases, nitrogen and
Oxidation and reduction play an important accompanying phosphorous are essential growth factors and are the limiting
role in the microbial utilization of dissolved organics. In oxi- factors in aquatic plant growth. Freshwater systems are most
dation, oxygen is added, or hydrogen is deleted from elements often limited by phosphorus.
of the organic molecule. Reduction occurs when hydrogen is Nitrogen gas (N2),which is extremely stable, is the pri-
added to or oxygen is deleted from elements of the organic mary component of the earth’s atmosphere. Major sources
molecule. The oxidation process is by far more efficient and of nitrogen include runoff from animal feedlots, fertilizer
runoff from agricultural fields, from municipal wastewater disposal in storm drains of motor oil. They are insoluble in
discharges, and from certain bacteria and blue-green algae water but dissolve in organic solvents such as petroleum, chlo-
that can obtain nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. In roform, and ether. Fats, oils, waxes, and other related con-
addition, certain forms of acid rain can also contribute nitro- stituents found in wastewater are commonly grouped under
gen to surface waters. the term “grease.” Fats and oils are contributed in domestic
Nitrogen in water is commonly found in the form of nitrate wastewater in butter, lard, margarine, and vegetable fats and
(NO3). Nitrate in drinking water can lead to a serious problem. oils. Fats, which are compounds of alcohol and glycerol, are
Specifically, nitrate poisoning in infant humans, including among the more stable of organic compounds and are not
animals, can cause serious problems and even death. Bacteria easily decomposed by bacteria. However, they can be broken
commonly found in the intestinal tract of infants can con- down by mineral acids resulting in the formation of fatty acid
vert nitrate to highly toxic nitrites (NO)2. Nitrite can replace and glycerin. When these glycerides of fatty acids are liquid
oxygen in the bloodstream and result in oxygen starvation at ordinary temperature they are called oils, and those that are
that causes a bluish discoloration of the infant (“blue baby” solids are called fats.
syndrome). The grease content of wastewater can cause many prob-
In aquatic environments, phosphorus is found in the form lems in wastewater treatment unit processes. For example,
of phosphate. Major sources of phosphorus include phos- high grease content can cause clogging of filters, nozzles, and
phates in detergents, fertilizer and feedlot runoff, and munici- sand beds (Gilcreas et al., 1975). Moreover, grease can coat
pal wastewater discharges. the walls of sedimentation tanks and decompose and increase
the amount of scum. Additionally, if grease is not removed
before the discharge of the effluent, it can interfere with the
Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater
biological processes in the surface waters and create unsightly
The chemical characteristics of wastewater consist of three floating matter and films (Rowe & Abdel-Magid, 1995). In the
parts: (1) organic matter, (2) inorganic matter, and (3) gases. treatment process, grease can coat trickling filters and inter-
Metcalf & Eddy (2003) point out that in “wastewater of fere with the activated sludge process, which, in turn, inter-
medium strength, about 75% of the suspended solids and 40% feres with the transfer of oxygen from the liquid to the interior
of the filterable solids are organic in nature.” The organic sub- of living cells (Sawyer et al., 1994).
stances of interest in this discussion include proteins, oil and Carbohydrates, which are widely distributed in nature
grease, carbohydrates, and detergents (surfactants). and found in wastewater, are organic substances that include
starch, cellulose, sugars, and wood fibers; they contain car-
Organic Substances bon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Sugars are soluble while starches
Proteins are nitrogenous organic substances of high molecular are insoluble in water. The primary function of carbohydrates
weight found in the animal kingdom and to a lesser extent in in higher animals is to serve as a source of energy. In lower
the plant kingdom. The amount present varies from a small organisms, e.g., bacteria, carbohydrates are utilized to syn-
percentage found in tomatoes and other watery fruits and in thesize fats and proteins as well as energy. In the absence of
the fatty tissues of meat, to a high percentage in lean meats and oxygen, the end products of decomposition of carbohydrates
beans. All raw foodstuffs, plant and animal, contain proteins. are organic acids, alcohols, as well as gases such as carbon
Proteins consist wholly or partially of very large numbers of dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. The formation of large quanti-
amino acids. They also contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sul- ties of organic acids can affect the treatment process by over-
fur, phosphorous, and a fairly high and constant proportion of taxing the buffering capacity of the wastewater resulting in a
nitrogen. The molecular weight of proteins is quite high. drop in pH and a cessation of biological activity.
Proteinaceous materials constitute a large part of the Detergents (surfactants) are large organic molecules that
wastewater biosolids; biosolids particles that do not consist of are slightly soluble in water and cause foaming in wastewa-
pure protein will be covered with a layer of protein that will ter treatment plants and in the surface waters into which the
govern their chemical and physical behavior (Coakley, 1975). effluent is discharged. Probably the most serious effect deter-
Moreover, the protein content ranges between 15% and 30% gents can have on wastewater treatment processes is in their
of the organic matter present for digested biosolids, and 28% tendency to reduce the oxygen uptake in biological processes.
and 50% in the case of activated biosolids. Proteins and urea According to Rowe and Abdel-Magid (1995):
are the chief sources of nitrogen in wastewater. When proteins
are present in large quantities, microorganisms decompose Detergents affect wastewater treatment processes by (1) low-
them producing end products that have objectionable foul ering the surface, or interfacial, tension of water and increase
its ability to wet surfaces with which they come in contact;
odors. During this decomposition process, proteins are hydro-
(2) emulsify grease and oil, deflocculate colloids; (3) induce
lyzed to amino acids and then further degraded to ammonia, flotation of solids and give rise to foams; and (4) may kill use-
hydrogen sulfide, and to simple organic compounds. ful bacteria and other living organisms.
Oils and grease are other major components of foodstuffs.
They are also usually related to spills or other releases of Since the development and increasing use of synthetic
petroleum products. Minor oil and grease problems can result detergents, many of these problems have been reduced or
from wet weather runoff from highways or the improper eliminated.
Water Quality 371
Inorganic Substances magnesium, and sodium. Wastewater is usually alkaline.

Several inorganic components are common to both waste- Alkalinity is important in wastewater treatment because
water and natural waters and are important in establishing anaerobic digestion requires sufficient alkalinity to ensure
and controlling water quality. Inorganic load in water is the that the pH will not drop below 6.2; if alkalinity does drop
result of discharges of treated and untreated wastewater, vari- below this level, the methane bacteria cannot function. For
ous geologic formations, and inorganic substances left in the the digestion process to operate successfully the alkalin-
water after evaporation. Natural waters dissolve rocks and ity must range from about 1,000 to 5,000 mg/L as calcium
minerals with which they come in contact. As mentioned, carbonate. Alkalinity in wastewater is also important when
many of the inorganic constituents found in natural waters chemical treatment is used, in biological nutrient removal,
are also found in wastewater. Many of these constituents are and whenever ammonia is removed by air stripping.
added via human use. These inorganic constituents include In domestic wastewater, “nitrogen compounds result from
pH, chlorides, alkalinity, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, toxic the biological decomposition of proteins and form urea dis-
inorganic compounds, and heavy metals. charged in body waste” (Peavy et al., 1987). In wastewater
When the pH of a water or wastewater is considered, we are treatment, biological treatment cannot proceed unless nitro-
simply referring to the hydrogen ion concentration. Acidity, gen, in some form, is present. Nitrogen must be present in
the concentration of hydrogen ions, drives many chemical the form of organic nitrogen (N), ammonia (NH3), nitrite
reactions in living organisms. A pH value of 7 represents (NO2), or nitrate (NO3). Organic nitrogen includes such natu-
a neutral condition. A low pH value (less than 5) indicates ral constituents as peptides, proteins, urea, nucleic acids, and
acidic conditions; a high pH (greater than 9) indicates alkaline numerous synthetic organic materials. Ammonia is present
conditions. Many biological processes, such as reproduction, naturally in wastewaters. It is produced primarily by the de-
cannot function in acidic or alkaline waters. Acidic conditions aeration of organic nitrogen-containing compounds and by
also aggravate toxic contamination problems because sedi- hydrolysis of area. Nitrite, an intermediate oxidation state of
ments release toxicants in acidic waters. nitrogen, can enter a water system through use as a corrosion
Many of the important properties of wastewater are due inhibitor in industrial applications. Nitrate is derived from
to the presence of weak acids and bases and their salts. The the oxidation of ammonia.
wastewater treatment process is made up of several different Nitrogen data is essential in evaluating the treatability of
unit processes (these are discussed later). It can be safely stated wastewater by biological processes. If nitrogen is not pres-
that one of the most important unit processes in the overall ent in sufficient amounts, it may be necessary to add it to
wastewater treatment process is disinfection. pH has an effect the waste to make it treatable. When the treatment process
on disinfection. This is particularly the case in regard to disin- is complete, it is important to determine how much nitrogen
fection using chlorine. For example, with increases in pH, the is in the effluent. This is important because the discharge of
amount of contact time needed for disinfection using chlorine nitrogen into receiving waters may stimulate algal and aquatic
increases. Common sources of acidity include mine drainage, plant growth. These, of course, exert a high oxygen demand at
runoff from mine tailings, and atmospheric deposition. nighttime, which adversely affects aquatic life and has a nega-
In the form of the Cl− ion, chloride is one of the major inor- tive impact on the beneficial use of water resources.
ganic constituents in water and wastewater. Sources of chlo- Phosphorus (P) is a macronutrient that is necessary to all
rides in natural waters are (1) leaching of chloride form rocks living cells and is a ubiquitous constituent of wastewater. It
and soils; (2) in coastal areas, salt-water intrusion; (3) from is primarily present in the form of phosphates—the salts of
agricultural, industrial, domestic, and human wastewater; and phosphoric acid. Municipal wastewaters may contain 10–20
(4) from infiltration of groundwater into sewers adjacent to mg/L phosphorus as P, much of which comes from phosphate
salt water. The salty taste produced by chloride concentration builders in detergents. Because of noxious algal blooms that
in potable water is variable and depends on the chemical com- occur in surface waters, there is much interest in control-
position of the water. In wastewater, the chloride concentra- ling the amount of phosphorus compounds that enter surface
tion is higher than in raw water because sodium chloride (salt) waters in domestic and industrial waste discharges and natu-
is a common part of the diet and passes unchanged through ral runoff. This is particularly the case in the United States
the digestive system. Because conventional methods of waste because approximately 15% of the population contributes
treatment do not remove chloride to any significant extent, wastewater effluents to lakes, resulting in eutrophication (or
higher than usual chloride concentrations can be taken as an cultural enrichment) of these water bodies. Eutrophication
indication that the body of water is being used for waste dis- occurs when the nutrient levels exceed the affected water-
posal (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). body’s ability to assimilate them. Eutrophication leads to sig-
As mentioned earlier, alkalinity is a measure of the buff- nificant changes in water quality. Reducing phosphorus inputs
ering capacity of water and in wastewater helps to resist to receiving waters can control this problem.
changes in pH caused by the addition of acids. Alkalinity Sulfur (S) is required for the synthesis of proteins and is
is caused by chemical compounds dissolved from soil and released in their degradation. The sulfate ion occurs naturally
geologic formations and is mainly due to the presence of in most water supplies and is present in wastewater as well.
hydroxyl and bicarbonate ions. These compounds are mostly Sulfate is reduced biologically to sulfide, which in turn can
the carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium, potassium, combine with hydrogen to form hydrogen sulfide (H2S). H2S
is toxic to animals and plants. H2S in interceptor systems can organisms that multiply by splitting in two (binary fission).
cause severe corrosion to pipes and appurtenances. Moreover, In order to multiply they need carbon dioxide if they are
in certain concentrations, H2S is a deadly toxin. autographs, from organic compounds (dead vegetation, meat,
Toxic inorganic compounds such as copper, lead, silver, sewage) if they are heterotrophs. Their energy comes either
arsenic, boron, and chromium are classified as priority pol- from sunlight if they are photosynthetic or from chemical
lutants and are toxic to microorganisms. Thus, they must be reactions if they are chemosynthetic. Bacteria are present in
taken into consideration in the design and operation of a bio- air, water, earth, rotting vegetation, and the intestines of ani-
logical treatment process. When introduced into a treatment mals. Human and animal wastes are the primary sources of
process, these contaminants can kill off the microorganisms bacteria in water. These sources of bacterial contamination
needed for treatment and thus stop the treatment process. include runoff from feedlots, pastures, dog runs, and other
Heavy metals are major toxicants found in industrial waste- land areas where animal wastes are deposited. Additional
waters; they may adversely affect the biological treatment of sources include seepage or discharge form septic tanks and
wastewater. Mercury, lead, cadmium, zinc, chromium, and sewage treatment facilities. Bacteria from these sources can
plutonium are among the so-called heavy metals—those with enter wells that are either open at the land surface, or do not
a high atomic mass. (It should be noted that the term, heavy have watertight casings or caps. Gastrointestinal disorders are
metals, is rather loose and is taken by some to include arsenic, common symptoms of most diseases transmitted by water-
beryllium, and selenium, which are not really metals and are borne pathogenic bacteria. In wastewater treatment processes,
better termed toxic metals). The presence of any of these met- bacteria are fundamental, especially in the degradation of
als in excessive quantities will interfere with many beneficial organic matter, which takes place in trickling filters, activated
uses of water because of their toxicity. Urban runoff is a major biosolids processes, and biosolids digestion.
source of lead and zinc in many water bodies.
Note: Lead is a toxic metal that is harmful to human health; Viruses
there is no safe level for lead exposure. It is estimated that up A virus is an entity that carries the information needed for its
to 20% of the total lead exposure in children can be attributed replication but does not possess the machinery for such repli-
to a waterborne route (i.e., consuming contaminated water). cation (Sterritt & Lester, 1988). Thus, they are obligate para-
The lead comes from the exhaust of automobiles using leaded sites that require a host in which to live. They are the smallest
gasoline, while zinc comes from tire wear. biological structures known, so they can only be seen with the
aid of an electron microscope. Waterborne viral infections are
usually indicated by disorders with the nervous system rather
Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater
than of the gastrointestinal tract. Viruses that are excreted by
Specialists or practitioners who work in the water or wastewa- human beings may become a major health hazard to public
ter treatment field must not only have a general understanding health. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause polio-
of the microbiological principles presented in Chapter 11, but myelitis and infectious hepatitis. Testing for viruses in water
also must have some knowledge of the biological characteris difficult because: (1) they are small; (2) they are of low con-
istics of water and wastewater. This knowledge begins with centrations in natural waters; (3) there are numerous varieties;
an understanding that water may serve as a medium in which (4) they are unstable; and (5) there are limited identification
thousands of biological species spend part, if not all, of their methods available. Because of these testing problems and the
life cycles. It is important to understand that, to some extent, uncertainty of viral disinfection, direct recycling of waste-
all members of the biological community are water quality water and the practice of land application of wastewater is a
parameters, because their presence or absence may indicate cause of concern (Peavy et al., 1987).
in general terms the characteristics of a given body of water.
The presence or absence of certain biological organisms Protozoa
is of primary importance to the water/wastewater specialist. Protozoa (singular: protozoan) are mobile, single-celled,
These are, of course, the pathogens. Pathogens are organ- complete, self-contained organisms that can be free-living or
isms that are capable of infecting or transmitting diseases in parasitic, pathogenic or nonpathogenic, microscopic or mac-
humans and animals. It should be pointed out that these organ- roscopic. Protozoa range in size from two to several hundred
isms are not native to aquatic systems and usually require an microns in length. They are highly adaptable and widely
animal host for growth and reproduction. They can, however, distributed in natural waters, although only a few are para-
be transported by natural water systems. These waterborne sitic. Most protozoa are harmless, only a few cause illness in
pathogens include species of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and humans—Entamoeba histolytica (amebiasis) being two of
parasitic worms (helminths). In the following sections, a brief the exceptions. Because aquatic protozoa form cysts during
review of each of these species is provided. adverse environmental conditions, they are difficult to deacti-
vate by disinfection and must undergo filtration to be removed.
Bacteria
The word bacteria (singular: bacterium) comes from the Greek Worms (helminths)
word meaning “rod” or” staff,” a shape characteristic of many Worms are the normal inhabitants in organic mud and organic
bacteria. Recall that bacteria are single-celled microscopic slime. They have aerobic requirements but can metabolize
Water Quality 373
solid organic matter not readily degraded by other microor- Gilcreas, F.W., Sanderson, W.W., & Elmer, R.P., 1953. Two Methods
ganisms. Water contamination may result from human and for the Determination of Grease in Sewage. Sewage and
animal waste that contains worms. Worms pose hazards pri- Industrial Wastes, 25, 1379.
Gilcreas, E.B., Winn-Stapley, D.A., Hewitt, F.C., Joss, L., & Cajens,
marily to those persons who come into direct contact with
S.R., 1975. Nucleotide sequence of head assembly cluster of
untreated water. Thus, swimmers in surface water polluted by bacteriophage. Journal of Bacteriology, 181, 2050–2057.
sewage or stormwater runoff from cattle feedlots and sewage Gleick, P.H., 2001. Freshwater Forum. U.S. Water News, 18(6).
plant operators are at particular risk. Ingram, C., 1991. The Drinking Water Book. Berkeley, CA: Ten
Speed Press.
Koren, H., 1991. Handbook of Environmental Health and Safety:
CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Principles and Practices. Chelsea, MI: Lewis Publishers.
Lewis, S.A., 1996. Safe Drinking Water. San Francisco, CA: Sierra
12.1 Those characteristics or range of character-

Club Books.
istics that make water appealing and useful: Masters, G.M., 1991. Introduction to Environmental Engineering
________________. and Science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
12.2 Process by which water vapor is emitted by leaves: McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Supply and Sewerage, 6th ed. New York:
_______________ McGraw-Hill.
12.3 Water we see: ________________ Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., 2003. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment,
12.4 Leading cause of impairment for rivers, lakes, and Disposal, Reuse, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
estuaries: ___________ Morrison, A., October 1983. In Third World Villages, a Simple
Handpump Saves Lives. Civil Engineering/ASCE: 68–72.
12.5 All contaminants of water contribute to the
Nathanson, J.A., 1997. Basic Environmental Technology: Water
________________. Supply, Waste Management, and Pollution Control. Upper
12.6 The clarity of water is usually measured by its:
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
_____________ Norse, E.A., 1985. Animal extinctions. In: Hoage, R. J., Ed.
12.7 Water has been called the: ____________________ Extinctions: What Everyone Should Know. Washington, DC:
12.8 A measure of water’s ability to neutralize acid:
Smithsonian Institution Press. Chapter 5, pp. 45–60.
__________________ Peavy, H.S., Rowe, D.R., & Tchobanoglous, G., 1987. Environmental
12.9 A pH value of 7 represents a: ________________
Rowe, D.R. & Abdel-Magid, I.M., 1995. Handbook of Wastewater
12.10 There is no safe level for ___________ exposure. Reclamation and Reuse. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
Sawyer, C.N., McCarty, A.L., & Parking, G.F., 1994. Chemistry for
Environmental Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill.
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING Spellman, F.R., 1996. Stream Ecology and Self-Purification: An
American Water Works Association, 1995. Water Quality, 2nd ed. Introduction for Wastewater and Water Specialists. Lancaster,
Denver, CO: American Water Works Association. PA: Technomic Publishing Company.
Bangs, R. & Kallen, C., 1985. Rivergods, Exploring the World’s Sterritt, R.M. & Lester, J.M., 1988. Microbiology for Environmental
Great Wild Rivers. Pittsburg, PA: Sierra Club Books. and Public Health Engineers. London: E. and F.N. Spoon.
Boyce, A., 1997. Introduction to Environmental Technology. New Tchobanoglous, G. & Schroder, E.D., 1985. Water Quality
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Characteristics Modeling and Modifications. New York:
Clark, W.C., in a speech given at Racine, Wisconsin, April 1988. Prentice Hall.
Coakley, P., 1975. Developments in Our Knowledge of Sludge Tchobanoglous, G. & Schroeder, E.D., 2003. Water Quality.
Dewatering Behavior. 8th Public Health Engineering Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Conference held in the Department of Civil Engineering, USEPA, 2002. National Recommended Health Criteria. Accessed
University of Technology, Loughborough. 09/09/2019@www.epa.gov/wgc/2002-national-recommended-.
Fortner, B. & Schechter, D., 1996. U.S. Water Quality Shows Little USEPA, 2007. Protecting America’s Public Health. Accessed
Improvement Over 1992 Inventory. Water Environment and 11/07/19 @ www.epa.gov/safewater/public outreach.html.
Technology, 8, 2.
13 Biomonitoring, Monitoring,
Sampling, and Testing
In January, we take our nets to a no-name stream in the foot- biosurveys. In selecting the appropriate organisms for a par-
hills of the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia to do a special ticular biomonitoring situation, the advantages of using each
kind of macroinvertebrate monitoring—looking for “winter assemblage must be considered along with the objectives of
stoneflies.” Winter stoneflies have an unusual life cycle. Soon the program. Some of the advantages of using periphytons
after hatching in early spring, the larvae bury themselves in (algae), benthic macroinvertebrates, and fish in a biomonitor-
the streambed. They spend the summer lying dormant in the ing program are presented in this section.
mud, thereby avoiding problems like overheated streams, Important Note: Periphytons are a complex matrix of ben-
low oxygen concentrations, fluctuating flows, and heavy pre- thic attached algae, cyanobacteria, heterotrophic microbes,
dation. In later November, they emerge, grow quickly for a and detritus that is attached to submerged surfaces in most
couple of months, and then lay their eggs in January. aquatic ecosystems.
January monitoring of winter stoneflies helps in inter-
preting the results of spring and fall macroinvertebrate Advantages of Using Periphyton
surveys. In spring and fall, a thorough benthic survey is 1. Algae generally have rapid reproduction rates and
conducted, based on Protocol II of the USEPA’s Rapid very short life cycles, making them valuable indica-
Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Rivers. tors of short-term impacts.
Some sites on various rural streams have poor diversity 2. As primary producers, algae are most directly
and sensitive families. Is the lack of macroinvertebrate affected by physical and chemical factors.
diversity because of specific warm-weather conditions, 3. Sampling is easy, is inexpensive, requires few peo-
high water temperature, low oxygen, or fluctuating flows, ple, and creates minimal impact on resident biota.
or is some toxic contamination present? In the January 4. Relatively standard methods exist for revaluation of
screening, if winter stoneflies are plentiful, seasonal con- functional and non-taxonomic structural (biomass
ditions were probably to blame for the earlier results; if and chlorophyll measurements) characteristics of
winter stoneflies are absent, the site probably suffers from algal communities.
toxic contamination (based on our rural location, probably 5. Algal assemblages are sensitive to some pollut-
emanating from non-point sources) that is present year- ants which may not visibly affect other aquatic
round. Though different genera of winter stoneflies are assemblages, or may only affect other organisms at
found in our region (southwestern Virginia), Allocapnia is higher concentrations (i.e., herbicides) (Cairns and
sought because it is present even in the smallest streams. Dickson, 1971; American Public Health Association
et al.,1971; Patrick, 1973; Rodgers et al., 1979;
Weitzel, 1979; Karr, 1981; USEPA, 1983).
WHAT IS BIOMONITORING?
Advantages of Using Fish
The life in, and physical characteristics of, a stream ecosystem
provide insight into the historical and current status of its quality. 1. Fish are good indicators of long-term (several years)
The assessment of a water body ecosystem based on organisms effects and broad habitat conditions because they are
living in it is called biomonitoring. The assessment of the system relatively long-lived and mobile (Karr et al., 1986).
based on its physical characteristics is called a habitat assess- 2. Fish assemblages include a range of species that rep-
ment. Biomonitoring and habitat assessments are two tools that resent a variety of trophic levels (omnivores, herbi-
stream ecologists use to assess the water quality of a stream. vores, insectivores, planktivores, piscivores). They
Biological monitoring involves the use of organisms tend to integrate the effects of lower trophic levels;
(called assemblages)—periphytons, fish, and macroinverte- thus, fish assemblage structure is reflective of inte-
brates—to assess environmental conditions. Biological obser- grated environmental health.
vation is more representative as it reveals cumulative effects 3. Fish are at the top of the aquatic food web and are
as opposed to chemical observation, which is representative consumed by humans, making them important for
only at the actual time of sampling. assessing contamination.
Again, the presence of different assemblages of organ- 4. Fish are relatively easy to collect and identify to the
isms is used in conducting biological assessments and/or species level. Most specimens can be sorted and
375
identified in the field by experienced fisheries profes- canary died, the miners knew the air was bad and they had to
sionals, and subsequently released unharmed. leave the mine. Biomonitoring a water body ecosystem uses
5. Environmental requirements of most fish are com- the same theoretical approach. Aquatic macroinvertebrates
paratively well known. Life history information is are subject to pollutants in the water body. Consequently, the
extensive for many species, and information on fish health of the organisms reflects the quality of the water they
distributions is commonly available. live in. If the pollution levels reach a critical concentration,
6. Aquatic life uses (water quality standards) are typi- certain organisms will migrate away, fail to reproduce, or die,
cally characterized in terms of fisheries (coldwater, eventually leading to the disappearance of those species at the
coolwater, warmwater, sport, forage). Monitoring polluted site. Normally, these organisms will return if condi-
fish provides direct evaluation of “fishability” and tions improve in the system (Bly & Smith, 1994).
fish “propagation,” which emphasizes the impor- Biomonitoring (and the related term, bioassessment) sur-
tance of fish to anglers and commercial fishermen. veys are conducted before and after an anticipated impact to
7. Fish account for nearly half of the endangered ver- determine the effect of the activity on the water body habi-
tebrate species and subspecies in the United States tat. Moreover, surveys are performed periodically to moni-
(Warren and Burr, 1994). tor water body habitats and watch for unanticipated impacts.
Finally, biomonitoring surveys are designed to reference con-
Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates ditions or to set biocriteria (serve as monitoring thresholds to
As discussed earlier, benthic macroinvertebrates are the larger signal future impacts, regulatory actions, etc.) for determining
organisms such as aquatic insects, insect larvae, and crusta- that an impact has occurred (Camann, 1996).
ceans that live in the bottom portions of a waterway for part Note: The primary justification for bioassessment and
of their life cycle. They are ideal for use in biomonitoring, as monitoring is that degradation of water body habitats affects
they are ubiquitous, relatively sedentary, and long-lived. They the biota using those habitats. Therefore, the living organisms
provide a cross-section of the situation, as some species are themselves provide the most direct means of assessing real
extremely sensitive to pollution, while others are more toler- environmental impacts. Although the focus of this text is on
ant. However, like toxicity testing, biomonitoring does not tell macroinvertebrate protocols, the periphyton and fish proto-
you why animals are present or absent. As mentioned, benthic cols are discussed briefly in the following before an in-depth
macroinvertebrates are excellent indicators for several reasons: discussion of the macroinvertebrate protocols.
1. Biological communities reflect overall ecologi-

PERIPHYTON PROTOCOLS
cal integrity (i.e., chemical, physical, and biologi-
cal integrity). Therefore, biosurvey results directly Benthic algae (periphyton or phytobenthos) are primary pro-
assess the status of a waterbody relative to the pri- ducers and an important foundation of many stream food webs
mary goal of the Clean Water Act (CWA). (Bahls, 1993; Stevenson, 1996). These organisms also stabi-
2. Biological communities integrate the effects of dif- lize substrata and serve as habitat for many other organisms.
ferent stressors and thus provide a broad measure of Because benthic algal assemblages are attached to substrates,
their aggregate impact. their characteristics are affected by physical, chemical, and
3. Because they are ubiquitous, communities integrate biological disturbances that occur in the stream reach during
the stressors over time and provide an ecological the time in which assemblage developed.
measure of fluctuating environmental conditions. Diatoms in particular are useful ecological indicators
4. Routine monitoring of biological communities can because they are found in abundance in most lotic ecosystems.
be relatively inexpensive, because they are easy to Diatoms and many other algae can be identified to species by
collect and identify. experienced algologists. The great numbers of species provide
5. The status of biological communities is of direct multiple, sensitive indicators of environmental change and the
interest to the public as a measure of a particular specific conditions of their habitat. Diatom species are dif-
environment. ferentially adapted to a wide range of ecological conditions.
6. Where criteria for specific ambient impacts do not Periphyton indices of biotic integrity have been developed and
exist (e.g., nonpoint-sources that degrade habitats), tested in several regions (Kentucky Department of Environmental
biological communities may be the only practical Protection, 1993; Hill, 1997). Because the ecological tolerances
means of evaluation. for many species are known, changes in community composition
can be used to diagnose the environmental stressors affecting
Benthic macroinvertebrates act as continuous monitors of ecological health as well as to assess biotic integrity (Stevenson,
the water they live in. Unlike chemical monitoring, which 1998; Stevenson and Pan, 1999). Periphyton protocols may be
provides information about water quality at the time of mea- used by themselves, but they are most effective when used with
surement (a snapshot), biological monitoring can provide one or more of the other assemblages and protocols. They should
information about past and/or episodic pollution (a video- be used with habitat and benthic macroinvertebrate assessments
tape). This concept is analogous to miners who took canar- particularly because of the close relation between periphyton and
ies into deep mines with them to test for air quality. If the these elements of stream ecosystems.
(Bio)monitoring, Sampling, and Testing 377
Presently, few states have developed protocols for periphy- MACROINVERTEBRATE PROTOCOLS
ton assessment. Montana, Kentucky, and Oklahoma have
developed periphyton bioassessment programs. Otherstates Benthic macroinvertebrates, by indicating the extent of oxy-
are exploring the possibility of developing periphyton pro- genation of a stream, may be regarded as indicators of the
grams. Algae have been widely used to monitor water quality intensity of pollution from organic waste. The responses
in rivers of Europe, where many different approaches have of aquatic organisms in water bodies to large quantities of
been used for sampling and data analysis. organic wastes are well documented. They occur in a predict-
able cyclical manner. For example, upstream from the dis-
charge point, a stream can support a wide variety of algae,
FISH PROTOCOLS fish, and other organisms, but in the section of the water body
Monitoring of the fish assemblage is an integral component where oxygen levels are low (below 5 ppm), only a few types
of many water quality management programs, and its impor- of worms survive. As stream flow courses downstream, oxy-
tance is reflected in the aquatic life use-support designations gen levels recover, and those species that can tolerate low
of many states. Assessments of the fish assemblage must mea- rates of oxygen (such as gar, catfish, and carp) begin to appear.
sure the overall structure and function of the ichthyofaunal In a stream, eventually, at some further point downstream, a
community to adequately evaluate biological integrity and clean water zone reestablishes itself, and a more diverse and
protect surface water resource quality. Fish bioassessment desirable community of organisms returns. Due to this char-
data quality and comparability are assured through the uti- acteristics pattern of alternating levels of dissolved oxygen (in
lization of qualified fisheries professionals and consistent response to the dumping of large amounts of biodegradable
methods. organic material), a stream, as stated above, goes through a
In the fish protocol, the principal evaluation mecha- cycle called an oxygen sag curve. Its state can be determined
nism utilizes the technical framework of the Index of Biotic using the biotic index as an indicator of oxygen content.
Integrity (IBI)—a fish assemblage assessment approach
developed by Karr (1981). The IBI incorporates the zoogeo-
The Biotic Index
graphic, ecosystem, community, and population aspects of
the fish assemblage into a single ecologicallybased index. The biotic index is a systematic survey of macroinvertebrates
Calculation and interpretation of the IBI involve a sequence organisms. Because the diversity of species in a stream is often
of activities including fish sample collection; data tabula- a good indicator of the presence of pollution, the biotic index
tion; and regional modification and calibration of metrics and can be used to correlate with stream quality. Observation of
expectation values. types of species present or missing is used as an indicator of
The fish protocol involves careful, standardized field col- stream pollution. The biotic index, used in the determination
lection, species identification and enumeration, and analyses of the types, species, and numbers of biological organisms
using aggregated biological attributes or quantification of present in a stream, is commonly used as an auxiliary to BOD
numbers of key species. The role of experienced fisheries sci- determination in determining stream pollution. The biotic
entists in the adaptation and application of the bioassessment index is based on two principles:
protocol and the taxonomic identification of fishes cannot be
overemphasized. The fish bioassessment protocols survey 1. A large dumping of organic waste into a stream tends
yields an objective discrete measure of the condition of the to restrict the variety of organisms at a certain point
fish assemblage. Although the fish survey can usually be com- in the stream.
pleted in the field by qualified fish biologists, difficult species 2. As the degree of pollution in a stream increases, key
identifications will require laboratory confirmation. Data pro- organisms tend to disappear in a predictable order.
vided by the fish bioassessment protocols can serve to assess The disappearance of particular organisms tends to
use attainment, develop biological criteria, prioritize sites for indicate the water quality of the stream.
further evaluation, provide a reproducible impact assessment,
and devaluate the status and trends of the fish assemblage. Several different forms of the biotic index are available. In
Fish collection procedures must focus on a multi-habitat Great Britain, for example, the Trent Biotic Index (TBI), the
approach—sampling habitats in relative proportion to their Chandler score, the Biological Monitoring Working Party
local representation (as determined during site reconnais- (BMWP) score, and the Lincoln Quality Index (LQI) are
sance). Each sample reach should contain riffle, run, and pool widely used. Most of the forms use a biotic index that ranges
habitat, when available. Whenever possible, the reach should from 0 to 10. The most polluted stream, which therefore con-
be sampled sufficiently upstream of any bridge or road cross- tains the smallest variety of organisms, is at the lowest end of
ing to minimize the hydrological effects on overall habitat the scale (0); the clean streams are at the highest end (10). A
quality. Wadeability and accessibility may ultimately govern stream with a biotic index of greater than 5 will support game
the exact placement of the sample reach. A habitat assessment fish; on the other hand, a stream with a biotic index of less
is performed and physical/chemical parameters measured than 4 will not support game fish.
concurrently with fish sampling to document and characterize As mentioned, because they are easy to sample, macro-
available habitat specifics within the sample reach. invertebrates have predominated in biological monitoring.
Macroinvertebrates are a diverse group. They demonstrate family scores. The site score or total score is then divided by
tolerances that vary between species. Thus, discrete differ- the number of families recorded to derive the Average Score
ences tend to show up, containing both tolerant and sensitive Per Taxon (ASPT). High ASPT scores result due to such taxa
indicators. Macroinvertebrates can be easily identified using as stoneflies, mayflies, and caddisflies being present in the
identification keys that are portable and easily used in field stream. A low ASPT score is obtained from streams that are
settings. Present knowledge of macroinvertebrate tolerances heavily polluted and dominated by tubificid worms and other
and response to stream pollution is well documented. In the pollution-tolerant organisms. From Table 13.1, it can be seen
United States, for example, the Environmental Protection that those organisms having high scores, especially mayflies
Agency (EPA) has required states to incorporate narrative and stoneflies, are the most sensitive, and others, such as
biological criteria into its water quality standards by 1993. dragonflies and caddisflies, are very sensitive to any pollution
The National Park Service (NPS) has collected macroinver- (deoxygenation) of their aquatic environment.
tebrate samples from American streams since 1984. Through As noted earlier, the benthic macroinvertebrate biotic
its sampling effort, NPS has been able to derive quantitative index employs the use of certain benthic macroinvertebrates
biological standards (Huff, 1993). to determine (to gauge) the water quality (relative health) of a
The biotic index provides a valuable measure of pollution. water body (stream or river). Benthic macroinvertebrates are
This is especially the case for species that are very sensitive to classified into three groups based on their sensitivity to pol-
lack of oxygen. An example of an organism that is commonly lution. The number of taxa in each of these groups is tallied
used in biological monitoring is the stonefly. Stonefly larvae and assigned a score. The scores are then summed to yield
live underwater and survive best in well-aerated, unpolluted a score that can be used as an estimate of the quality of the
waters with clean gravel bottoms. When stream water quality water body life.
deteriorates due to organic pollution, stonefly larvae cannot
survive. The degradation of stonefly larvae has an exponen-
Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates
tial effect upon other insects and fish that feed off the larvae;
when the stonefly larvae disappear, so in turn do many insects Table 13.2 provides a sample index of macroinvertebrates and
and fish (O’Toole, 1986). their sensitivity to pollution. The three groups based on their
Table 13.1 shows a modified version of the BMWP biotic sensitivity to pollution are:
index. Considering that the BMWP biotic index indicates
ideal stream conditions, it takes into account the sensitivi- Group One—Indicators of Poor Water Quality
ties of different macroinvertebrate species are represented Group Two—Indicators of Moderate Water Quality
by diverse populations and are excellent indicators of pollu- Group Three—Indicators of Good Water Quality
tion. These aquatic macroinvertebrates are organisms that are
large enough to be seen by the unaided eye. Moreover, most In summary, it can be said that unpolluted streams normally
aquatic macroinvertebrates species live for at least a year; and support a wide variety of macroinvertebrates and other aquatic
they are sensitive to stream water quality both on a short-term organisms with relatively few of any one kind. Any significant
basis and over the long term. For example, mayflies, stone- change in the normal population usually indicates pollution.
flies, and caddisflies are aquatic macroinvertebrates that are
considered cleanwater organisms; they are generally the first
BIOLOGICAL SAMPLING IN STREAMS
to disappear from a stream if water quality declines and are,
therefore, given a high score. On the other hand, tubificid A few years ago, we were preparing to perform benthic mac-
worms (which are tolerant ofpollution) are given a low score. roinvertebrate sampling protocols in a wadable section in one
In Table 13.1, a score from 1 to 10 is given for each family of the countless reaches of the Yellowstone River, Wyoming.
present. A site score is calculated by adding the individual It was autumn, windy, and cold. Before we stepped into the
slow-moving frigid waters, we stood for a moment at the
TABLE 13.1
BMWP Score System (Modified for illustrative
TABLE 13.2
purposes)
Sample Index of Macroinvertebrates
Families Common-Name Examples Score
Group One Group Two Group Three
Heptageniidae Mayflies 10
Leuctridae Stoneflies 9–10 (Sensitive) (Somewhat Sensitive) (Tolerant)
Aeshnidae Dragonflies 8 Stonefly larva Alderfly larva Aquatic worm
Polycentropodidae Caddisflies 7 Caddisfly larva Damselfly larva Midgefly larva
Hydrometridae Water Strider 6–7 Water penny larva Cranefly larva Blackfly larva
Gyrinidae Whirligig beetle 5 Riffle Beetle adult Beetle adult Leech
Chironomidae Mosquitoes 2 Mayfly larva Dragonfly larva Snails
Oligochaeta Worms 1 Gilled snail Sowbugs
bank and took in the surroundings. The pallet of autumn is Habitat assessment consistency
austere in Yellowstone. The coniferous forests east of the A USGS topographical map
Mississippi lack the bronzes, the coppers, the peach-tinted Familiarity with safety procedures
yellows, and the livid scarlets that set the mixed stands of the
East aflame. All we could see in that line was the quaking When the initial objectives (issues) have been determined and
aspen and its gold. This autumnal gold, which provides the the plan devised, then the sampler can move to other impor-
closest thing to eastern autumn in the West, is mined from the tant aspects of the sampling procedure. Along with the items
narrow, rounded crowns of Populus tremuloides. The aspen just mentioned, it is imperative that the sampler understands
trunks stand stark white and antithetical against the darkness what biological sampling is all about.
of the firs and pines, the shiny pale gold leaves sensitive to Sampling is one of the most basic and important aspects
the slightest rumor of wind. Agitated by the slightest hint of of water quality management (Tchobanoglous & Schroeder,
a breeze, the gleaming upper surfaces bounced the sun into 1985). Biological sampling allows for rapid and general water
our eyes. Each tree scintillated, like a show of gold coins in quality classification. Rapid classification is possible because
free fall. The aspens’ bright, metallic flash seemed, in all their quick and easy cross-checking between stream biota and a
glittering motion, to make a valiant dying attempt to fill the standard stream biotic index is possible. Biological sampling
spectrum of fall. is typically used for general water quality classification in the
Because they were bright and glorious, we did not care field because a sophisticated laboratory apparatus is usually
that they could not approach the colors of an eastern autumn. not available. Additionally, stream communities often show a
While nothing is comparable to experiencing leaf-fall in great deal of variation in basic water quality parameters such
autumn along the Appalachian Trail, which this autumn was as DO BOD, suspended solids, and coliform bacteria. This
not the same simply did not matter. This spirited display of occurrence can be observed in eutrophic lakes that may vary
gold against dark green lightened our hearts and eased the task from oxygen saturation to less than 0.5 mg/L in a single day,
that was before us, warming the thought of the bone-chilling and the concentration of suspended solids may double imme-
water and all. With the aspens gleaming gold against the pines diately after a heavy rain. Moreover, the sampling method
and firs, it simply did not seem to matter. Notwithstanding the chosen must take into account the differences in the habits
glories of nature alluded to above, one should not be deceived. and habitats of the aquatic organisms.
Conducting biological sampling in a water body is not only The first step toward accurate measurement of a stream’s
the nuts and bolts of biological sampling, but also very hard water quality is to make sure that the sampling targets those
and important work. organisms (i.e., macroinvertebrates) that are most likely to
provide the information that is being sought. Second, it is
essential that representative samples be collected. Laboratory
Biological Sampling: Planning
analysis is meaningless if the sample collected was not rep-
When planning a biological sampling outing, it is important resentative of the aquatic environment being analyzed. As
to determine the precise objectives. One important consider- a rule, samples should be taken at many locations, as often
ation is to determine whether sampling will be accomplished as possible. If, for example, you are studying the effects of
at a single point or at isolated points. Additionally, the fre- sewage discharge into a stream, you should first take at least
quency of sampling must be determined. That is, will sam- six samples upstream of the discharge, six samples at the dis-
pling be accomplished at hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, or charge, and at least six samples at several points below the
even longer intervals? Whatever sampling frequency of sam- discharge for two to three days (the six-six sampling rule).
pling is chosen, the entire process will probably continue over If these samples show wide variability, then the number of
a protracted period (i.e., preparing for biological sampling in samples should be increased. On the other hand, if the initial
the field might take several months from the initial planning samples exhibit little variation, then a reduction in the number
stages to the time when actual sampling occurs). An experi- of samples may be appropriate (Kittrell, 1969).
enced freshwater ecologist should be centrally involved in all When planning the biological sampling protocol (using
aspects of planning. biotic indices as the standards) remember that when the sam-
In Monitoring Water Quality: Intensive Stream Bioassay, pling is to be conducted in a stream, findings are based on the
08/18/2000, the USEPA recommends that the following issues presence or absence of certain organisms. Thus, the absence
should be considered in planning the sampling program: of these organisms must be a function of pollution and not of
some other ecological problem. The preferred (favored in this
Availability of reference conditions for the chosen area text) aquatic group for biological monitoring in stream is the
Appropriate dates to sample in each season macroinvertebrates, which are usually retained by 30 mesh
Appropriate sampling gear sieves (pond nets).
Availability of laboratory facilities
Sample storage
Sampling Stations
Data management
Appropriate taxonomic keys, metrics, or measurement After determining the number of samples to be taken, sam-
for macroinvertebrate analysis pling stations (locations) must be determined. Several factors
determine where the sampling stations should be set up. the net along the surface of the substrate rather than
These factors include stream habitat types, the position of dragging the net through soft substrate; this reduces
the wastewater effluent outfalls, the stream characteristics, the amount of debris in the sample.
stream developments (dams, bridges, navigation locks, and
other man-made structures), the self-purification characteris- It is usually impossible to go out and count each and every
tics of the stream, and the nature of the objectives of the study macroinvertebrate present in a waterway. This would be com-
(Velz, 1970). The stream habitat types used in this discussion parable to counting different sizes of grains of sand on the
are those that are macroinvertebrate assemblage in stream beach. Thus, in a biological sampling program (i.e., based
ecosystems. Some combination of these habitats would be on our experience), the most common sampling methods are
sampled in a multi-habitat approach to benthic sampling the transect and the grid. Transect samplinginvolves taking
(Barbour et al., 1997): samples along a straight line either at uniform or at random
intervals (see Figure 13.1). The transect involves the cross-
1. Cobble (hard substrate)—Cobble is prevalent in section of a lake or stream or the longitudinal section of a
the riffles (and runs), which are a common feature river or stream. The transect sampling method allows for a
throughout most mountain and piedmont streams. In more complete analysis by including variations in habitat.
many high-gradient streams, this habitat type will be In grid sampling, an imaginary grid system is placed over
dominant. However, riffles are not a common fea- the study area. The grids may be numbered, and random num-
ture of most coastal or other low-gradient streams. bers are generated to determine which grids should be sam-
Sample shallow areas with coarse substrates (mixed pled (see Figure 13.2). This type of sampling method allows
gravel, cobble, or larger stones) by holding the bot- for quantitative analysis because the grids are all of a certain
tom of the dip net against the substrate and dislodging size. For example, to sample a stream for benthic macroin-
organisms by kicking (this is where the “designated vertebrates, grids that are 0.25 m2 may be used. Then, the
kicker,” your sampling partner, comes into play) the weight or number of benthic macroinvertebrates per square
substrate for 0.5 m upstream of the net. meter can be determined.
2. Snags—Snags and other woody debris that have Random sampling requires that each possible sampling
been submerged for a relatively long period (not location has an equal chance of being selected. Numbering all
recent deadfall) provides excellent colonization habi- sampling locations, and then using a computer, a calculator, or
tat. Sample submerged woody debris by jabbing in a random numbers table to collect a series of random numbers
medium-sized snag material (sticks and branches). can do this. An illustration of how to put the random numbers
The snag habitat may be kicked first to help to dis- to work is provided in the following example. Given a pond
lodge organisms, but only after placing the net that has 300 grid units, find eight random sampling locations
downstream of the snag. Accumulated woody mate- using the following sequence of random numbers taken from
rial in pool areas is considered snag habitat. Large a standard random numbers table: 101, 209, 007, 018, 099,
logs should be avoided because they are generally 100, 017, 069, 096, 033, 041, 011. The first eight numbers of
difficult to sample adequately. the sequence could be selected and only grids would be sam-
3. Vegetated banks—When lower banks are submerged pled to obtain a random sample.
and have roots and emergent plants associated with
them, they are sampled in a fashion similar to snags.
Sampling Frequency and Notes
Submerged areas of undercut banks are good habi-
tats to sample. Sample banks with protruding roots (The sampling procedures that follow have been suggested by
and plants by jabbing into the habitat. Bank habitat USEPA, 1997.) After establishing the sampling methodology
can be kicked first to help dislodge organisms, but
only after placing the net downstream. Lake or Reservoir
4. Submerged macrophytes—Submerged macrophytes Stream or River
are seasonal in their occurrence and may not be a
common feature of many streams, particularly those
that are high gradient. Sample aquatic plants that are
rooted on the bottom of the stream in deep water by
drawing the net through the vegetation from the bot-
tom to the surface of the water (maximum of 0.5 m Cross-sectional Transects
each jab). In shallow water, sample by bumping or
jabbing the net along the bottom in the rooted area,
avoiding sediments where possible.
5. Sand (and other fine sediments)—Usually the least Longitudinal Transect
productive macroinvertebrate habitat in streams, this Cross-sectional Transects
habitat may be the most prevalent in some streams.
Sample banks of unvegetated or soft soil by bumping FIGURE 13.1 Transect sampling.
Lake or Reservoir
1 2 3 4
Stream or 5 6 7 8 9
River 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Most professional biological monitoring programs employ sieve buckets as
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
a holding container for composited samples. These buckets have a mesh
1 2 3 bottom that allows water to drain out while the organisms and debris remain.
73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84
4 5 6 This material can then be easily transferred to the alcohol-filled jars.
85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 However, sieve buckets can be expensive. Many volunteer programs
7 8 9
97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 employ alternative equipment, such as the two regular buckets described in
10 11 12
108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 this section. Regardless of the equipment, the process for compositing and
transferring the sample is basically the same. The decision is one of cost
119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129
and convenience.
130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141
142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152
FIGURE 13.3 Sieve bucket.
153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162
163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172
1. Jars (two, at least quart size), plastic, wide-mouth
173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182
183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192
with tight cap (one should be empty and the other
193 194 195 196 197 198 199
filled about two-thirds with 70% ethyl alcohol)
200 201 202 203
2. Hand lens, magnifying glass, or field microscope
3. Fine-point forceps
4. Heavy-duty rubber gloves
FIGURE 13.2 Grid sampling. 5. Plastic sugar scoop or ice-cream scoop
6. Kink net (rocky-bottom stream) or dip net (muddy-
and the sampling locations, the frequency of sampling must bottom stream)
be determined. The more samples collected, the more reli- 7. Buckets (two; see Figure 13.3)
able the data will be. A frequency of once a week or once a 8. String or twine (50 yards) and tape measure
month will be adequate for most aquatic studies. Usually, the 9. Stakes (four)
sampling period covers an entire year so that yearly variations 10. Orange (a stick, an apple, or a fish float may also be
may be included. The details of sample collection will depend used in place of an orange) to measure velocity
on the type of problem that is being solved and will vary with 11. Reference maps indicating general information per-
each study. When a sample is collected, it must be carefully tinent to the sampling area, including the surround-
identified with the following information: ing roadways, as well as a hand-draw station map
12. Station ID tags
1. Location—name of water body and place of study 13. Spray water bottle
(longitude and latitude) 14. Pencils (at least 2)
2. Date and time
3. Site—point of sampling (sampling location)
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams
4. Name of collector
5. Weather—temperature, precipitation, humidity, Rocky-bottom streams are defined as those with bottoms
wind, etc. made up of gravel, cobbles, and boulders in any combination.
6. Miscellaneous—any other important information, They usually have definite riffle areas. As mentioned, riffle
such as observations areas are fairly well oxygenated and, therefore, are prime hab-
7. Field notebook—notes on field conditions of each itats for benthic macroinvertebrates. In these streams, we use
sampling day (For example, miscellaneous notes the rocky-bottom sampling method. This method of macro-
and weather conditions can be entered. Additionally, invertebrate sampling is used in streams that have riffles and
notes that describe the condition of the water are gravel/cobble substrates. Three samples are to be collected at
also helpful—color, turbidity, odor, algae, etc. All each site, and a composite sample is obtained (i.e., one large
unusual findings and conditions should also be total sample).
entered.)
Step 1—A site should have already been located on a
map, with its latitude and longitude indicated.
Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment
A. Samples will be taken in three different spots
In addition to the appropriate sampling equipment described within a 100-yard stream site. These spots may
in the “Sampling Devices” section, assemble the following be three separate riffles—one large riffle with
equipment. different current velocities, or, if no riffles are
present, three run areas with gravel or cobble Step 4—Remove the net.
substrate. Combinations are also possible (if, for A. Next,removethenetwithoutallowinganyoftheorgan-
example, your site has only one small riffle and isms it contains to wash away. While the net holder
several run areas). Mark off the 100-yard stream grabs the top of the net handles, the kicker grabs
site. If possible, it should begin at least 50 yards the bottom of the net handles and the net’s bottom
upstream of any human-made modification of edge. Remove the net from the stream with a for-
the channel, such as a bridge, dam, or pipeline ward scooping motion.
crossing. Avoid walking in the stream, because B. Roll the kick net into a cylinder shape and place
this might dislodge macroinvertebrates and later it vertically in the partially filled bucket. Pour or
sampling results. spray water down the net to flush its contents into
B. Sketch the 100-yard sampling area. Indicate the bucket. If necessary, pick debris and organ-
the location of the three sampling spots on the isms from the net by hand. Release back into the
sketch. Mark the most downstream site as Site 1, stream any fish, amphibians, or reptiles caught in
the middle site as Site 2, and the upstream site as the net.
Site 3. Step 5—Collect the second and third samples.
Step 2—Get into place. A. Once all of the organisms have been removed
A. Always approach sampling locations from the from the net, repeat the steps above at Sites 2 and
downstream end and sample the site farthest 3. Put the samples from all three sites into the
downstream first (Site 1). This prevents biasing same bucket. Combining the debris and organ-
of the second and third collections with dis- isms from all three sites into the same bucket is
lodged sediment of macroinvertebrates. Always called compositing.
use a clean kick-seine, relatively free of mud and Note: If your bucket is nearly full of water
debris from previous uses. Fill a bucket about after you have washed the net clean, let the
one-third full with stream water, and fill your debris and organisms settle to the bottom. Then,
spray bottle. cup the net over the bucket and pour the water
B. Select a 3-ft by 3-ft riffle area for sampling at Site 1. through the net into a second bucket. Inspect the
One member of the team, the net holder, should water in the second bucket to be sure no organ-
position the net at the downstream end of this isms came through.
sampling area. Hold the net handles at a 45-degree Step 6—Preserve the sample.
angle to the water’s surface. Be sure that the bot- A. After collecting and compositing all three sam-
tom of the net fits tightly against the streambed ples, it is time to preserve the sample. All team
so that no macroinvertebrates escape under the members should leave the stream and return to
net. You may use rocks from the sampling area to a relatively flat section of the stream bank with
anchor the net against the stream bottom. Do not their equipment. The next step will be to remove
allow any water to flow over the net. large pieces of debris (leaves, twigs, and rocks)
Step 3—Dislodge the macroinvertebrates. from the sample. Carefully remove the debris
A. Pick up any large rocks in the 3-ft by 3-ft sam- one piece at a time. While holding the material
pling area and rub them thoroughly over the over the bucket, use the forceps, spray bottle,
partially filled bucket so that any macroinver- and your hands to pick, rub, and rinse the leaves,
tebrates clinging to the rocks will be dislodged twigs, and rocks to remove any attached organ-
into the bucket. Then place each cleaned rock isms. Use a magnifying lens and forceps to find
outside of the sampling area. After sampling is and remove small organisms clinging to the
completed, rocks can be returned to the stretch debris. When satisfied that the material is clean,
of stream they came from. discard it back into the stream.
B. The member of the team designated as the B. The water will have to be drained before transfer-
“kicker” should thoroughly stir up the sampling ring material to the jar. This process will require
areas with their feet, starting at the upstream two team members. Place the kick net over the
edge of the 3-ft by 3-ft sampling area and work- second bucket, which has not yet been used and
ing downstream, moving toward the net. All dis- should be completely empty. One team member
lodged organisms will be carried by the stream should push the center of the net into bucket #2,
flow into the net. Be sure to disturb the first few creating a small indentation or depression. Then,
inches of stream sediment to dislodge burrow- hold the sides of the net closely over the mouth
ing organisms. As a guide, disturb the sampling of the bucket. The second person can now care-
area for about three minutes, or until the area is fully pour the remaining contents of bucket #1
thoroughly worked over. onto a small area of the net to drain the water
C. Any large rocks used to anchor the net should be and concentrate the organisms. Use care when
thoroughly rubbed into the bucket as above. pouring so that organisms are not lost over the
1. For safety reasons as well as to protect the stream

habitat, it is best to estimate the following char-
acteristics rather than actually wading into the
stream to measure them.
A. Water appearance can be a physical indica-
tor of water pollution.
1. Clear—colorless, transparent
2. Milky—cloudy-white or gray, not
transparent; might be natural or due to
FIGURE 13.4 Pouring sample water through the net. pollution
3. Foamy—might be natural or due to pol-
side of the net (see Figure 13.4). Use the spray lution, generally detergents or nutrients
bottle, forceps, sugar scoop, and gloved hands to (foam that is several inches high and
remove all material from bucket #1 onto the net. does not brush apart easily is generally
When you are satisfied that bucket #1 is empty, due to pollution)
use your hands and the sugar scoop to transfer 4. Turbid—cloudy brown due to sus-
the material from the net into the empty jar. pended silt or organic material
Bucket #2 captured the water and any organisms 5. Dark brown—might indicate that acids
that might have fallen through the netting dur- are being released into the stream due to
ing pouring. As a final check, repeat the process decaying plants
above, but this time, pour bucket #2 over the net, 6. Oily sheen—multicolored reflection
into bucket #1. Transfer any organisms on the net might indicate oil floating in the stream,
into the jar. although some sheens are natural
C. Now, fill the jar (so that all material is sub- 7. Orange—might indicate acid drainage
merged) with the alcohol from the second jar. 8. Green—might indicate that excess
Put the lid tightly back onto the jar and gently nutrients are being released into the
turn the jar upside down two or three times to stream
distribute the alcohol and remove air bubbles. B. Water odor can be a physical indicator of water
D. Complete the sampling station ID tag. Be sure pollution
to use a pencil, not a pen, because the ink will 1. None or natural smell
run in the alcohol! The tag includes your station 2. Sewage—might indicate the release of
number, the stream, and location (e.g., upstream human waste material
from a road crossing), date, time, and the names 3. Chlorine—might indicate that a sewage
of the members of the collecting team. Place the treatment plant is over-chlorinating its
ID tag into the sample container, writing side effluent
facing out, so that identification can be seen 4. Fishy—might indicate the presence of exces-
clearly. sive algal growth or dead fish
5. Rotten eggs—might indicate sewage pollu-
tion (the presence of natural gas)
Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment C. Water temperature can be particularly important
The habitat assessment (including measuring general charac- for determining whether the stream is suitable as
teristics and local land use) for a rocky-bottom stream is con- habitat for some species of fish and macroinver-
ducted in a 100-yard section of stream that includes the riffles tebrates that have distinct temperature require-
from which organisms were collected. ments. Temperature also has a direct effect on
the amount of dissolved oxygen available to
Step 1—Delineate the habitat assessment boundaries. aquatic organisms. Measure temperature by sub-
A. Begin by identifying the most downstream riffle merging a thermometer for at least two minutes
that was sampled for macroinvertebrates. Using in a typical stream run. Repeat once and average
tape measure or twine, mark off a 100-yard sec- the results.
tion extending 25 yards below the downstream D. The width of the stream channel can be deter-
riffle and about 75 yards upstream. mined by estimating the width of the streambed
B. Complete the identifying information on the that is covered by water from bank to bank. If it
field data sheet for the habitat assessment site. varies widely along the stream, estimate an aver-
On the stream sketch, be as detailed as possible, age width.
and be sure to note which riffles were sampled. E. Local land userefers to the part of the watershed
Step 2—Describe the general characteristics and local within one-quarter mile upstream of and adja-
land use on the field sheet. cent to the site. Note which land uses are present,
as well as which ones seem to be having a nega- than do naturally meandering streams. Channel
tive impact on the stream. Base observations on alteration is present when the stream runs through
what can be seen, what was passed on the way to a concrete channel, when artificial embankments,
the stream, and, if possible, what is noticed when riprap, and other forms of artificial bank stabiliza-
leaving the stream. tion or structures are present; when the stream is
Step 3—Conduct the habitat assessment. The follow- very straight for significant distances; when dams,
ing information describes the parameters that will bridges, and flow-altering structures such as com-
be evaluated for rocky-bottom habitats. Use these bined sewer overflow (CSO) are present; when the
definitions when completing the habitat assessment stream is of uniform depth due to dredging; and
field data sheet. The first two parameters should be when other such changes have occurred. Signs
assessed directly at the riffle(s) or run(s) that were that indicate the occurrence of dredging include
used for the macroinvertebrate sampling. The last straightened, deepened, and otherwise uniform
eight parameters should be assessed in the entire stream channels, as well as the removal of stream-
100-yard section of the stream. side vegetation to provide dredging equipment
A. Attachment sites for macroinvertebratesare access to the stream.
essentially the amount of living space or hard E. Sediment deposition is a measure of the amount
substrates (rocks and snags) available for ade- of sediment that has been deposited in the stream
quate insects and snails. Many insects begin channel and the changes to the stream bottom
their life underwater in streams and need to that have occurred as a result of the deposition.
attach themselves to rocks, logs, branches, or High levels of sediment deposition create an
other submerged substrates. The greater the unstable and continually changing environment
variety and number of available living spaces that is unsuitable for many aquatic organisms.
or attachment sites, the greater the variety of Sediments are naturally deposited in areas where
insects in the stream. Optimally, cobble should the stream flow is reduced, such as in pools and
predominate, and boulders and gravel should bends, or where flow is obstructed. These depos-
be common. The availability of suitable living its can lead to the formation of islands, shoals,
spaces for macroinvertebrates decreases as cob- or point bars (sediments that build up in the
ble becomes less abundant and boulders, gravel, stream, usually at the beginning of a meander)
or bedrock become more prevalent. or can result in the complete filling of pools. To
B. Embeddedness refers to the extent to which rocks determine whether these sediment deposits are
(gravel, cobble, and boulders) are surrounded by, new, look for vegetation growing on them: new
covered, or sunken into the silt, sand, or mud of sediments will not yet have been colonized by
the stream bottom. Generally, as rocks become vegetation.
embedded, fewer living spaces are available to F. Stream velocity and depth combinationsare
macroinvertebrates and fish for shelter, spawn- important to the maintenance of healthy aquatic
ing, and egg incubation. communities. Fast water increases the amount of
Note: To estimate the percent of embedded- dissolved oxygen in the water, keeps pools from
ness, observe the amount of silt or finer sedi- being filled with sediment; and helps food items
ments overlaying and surrounding the rocks. If like leaves, twigs, and algae move more quickly
kicking does not dislodge the rocks or cobbles, through the aquatic system. Slow water provides
they might be greatly embedded. spawning areas for fish and shelters macroin-
C. Shelter for fish includes the relative quantity vertebrates that might be washed downstream
and variety of natural structures in stream, such in higher stream velocities. Similarly, shallow
as fallen trees, logs, and branches; cobble and water tends to be more easily aerated (i.e., it holds
large rock; and undercut banks that are available more oxygen), but deeper water stays cooler lon-
to fish for hiding, sleeping, or feeding. A wide ger. Thus, the best stream habitat includes all of
variety of submerged structures in the stream the following velocity/depth combinations and
provide fish with many living spaces; the more can maintain a wide variety of organisms.
living spaces in a stream, the more types of fish slow (<1 ft/sec), shallow (<1.5 ft)
the stream can support. slow, deep
D. Channel alteration is a measure of large-scale fast, deep
changes in the shape of the stream channel. Many fast, shallow
streams in urban and agricultural areas have been Measure stream velocity by marking off a 10-ft
straightened, deepened (e.g., dredged), or diverted section of stream run and measuring the time it takes
into concrete channels, often for flood control an orange, stick, or other floating biodegradable
purposes. Such streams have far fewer natural object floats the 10 ft. Repeat five times, in the same
habitats for fish, macroinvertebrates, and plants 10-ft section, and determine the average time. Divide
the distance (10 ft) by the average time (seconds) to continuous or periodic use. In arid areas, the
determine the velocity in feet per second. riparian vegetative zone can be measured by
Measure the stream depth by using a stick observing the width of the area dominated by
of known length and taking readings at various riparian or water-loving plants, such as willows,
points within your stream site, including riffles, marsh grasses, and cottonwood trees.
runs, and pools. Compare velocity and depth at
various points within the 100-yard site to see
Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams
how many of the combinations are present.
G. Channel flow statusis the percent of the existing In muddy-bottom streams, as in rocky-bottom streams, the
channel that is filled with water. The flow sta- goal is to sample the most productive habitat available and
tus changes as the channel enlarges or as flow look for the widest variety of organisms. The most productive
decreases because of dams and other obstruc- habitat is the one that harbors a diverse population of pollu-
tions, diversions for irrigation, or drought. When tion-sensitive macroinvertebrates. Samples should sample by
water does not cover much of the streambed, the using a D-frame net (see Figure 13.5) to jab at the habitat and
living area for aquatic organisms is limited. scoop up the organisms that are dislodged. The idea is to col-
Note: For the following parameters, evaluate lect a total sample that consists of 20 jabs taken from a variety
the conditions of the left and right stream banks of habitats. Use the following method of macroinvertebrate
separately. Define the “left” and “right” banks sampling in streams that have muddy-bottom substrates.
by standing at the downstream end of the study
stretch and look upstream. Each bank is evalu- Step 1—Determine which habitats are present.
ated on a scale of 0–10. 1. Muddy-bottom streams usually have four habi-
H. Bank vegetation protection measures the amount tats: vegetated bank margins, snags and logs,
of the stream bank that is covered by natural aquatic vegetation beds and decaying organic
(i.e., growing wild and not obviously planted) matter, and silt/sand/gravel substrate. It is gener-
vegetation. The root system of plants grow- ally best to concentrate sampling efforts on the
ing on stream banks helps hold soil in place, most productive habitat available, yet to sample
reducing erosion. Vegetation on banks provides other principal habitats if they are present. This
shade for fish and macroinvertebrates and serves ensures that you will secure as wide a variety of
as a food source by dropping leaves and other organisms as possible. Not all habitats are pres-
organic matter into the stream. Ideally, a variety ent in all streams or are present in significant
of vegetation should be present, including trees, amounts. If the sampling areas have not been
shrubs, and grasses. Vegetation disruption can
occur when the grasses and plants on the stream
banks are mowed or grazed, or when the trees
and shrubs are cut back or cleared.
I. Condition of banks measures erosion potential
and whether the stream banks are eroded. Steep
banks are more likely to collapse and suffer from
erosion than are gently sloping banks and are,
therefore, considered to have erosion potential.
Signs of erosion include crumbling, unvegetated
banks, exposed tree roots, and exposed soil.
J. The riparian vegetative zone is defined as the
width of natural vegetation from the edge of
the stream bank. The riparian vegetative zone
is a buffer zone to pollutants entering a stream
from runoff. It also controls erosion and provides
stream habitat and nutrient input into the stream.
Note: A wide, relatively undisturbed riparian
vegetative zone reflects a healthy stream sys-
tem; narrow, far less useful riparian zones occur
when roads, parking lots, fields, lawns, and other
artificially cultivated areas, bare soil, rock, or
buildings are near the stream bank. The pres-
ence of “old fields” (i.e., previously developed
agricultural fields allowed to revert to natu-
ral conditions) should rate higher than fields in FIGURE 13.5 D-frame aquatic net.
preselected, determine which of the following Note: Because the sampler might need to
habitats are present. make an educated guess to decide how many jabs
Note: Avoid standing in the stream while mak- to take in each habitat type, it is critical that eh
ing habitat determinations. sampler note, on the field data sheet, how many
A. Vegetated bank margins consist of over- jabs were taken in each habitat. This information
hanging bank vegetation and submerged root can be used to help characterize the findings.
mats attached to banks. The bank margins Step 3—Get into place.
may also contain submerged, decomposing 1. Outside and downstream of the first sampling
leaf packs trapped in root wads or lining the location (first habitat), rinse the dip net and
streambanks. This is generally a highly pro- check to make sure it does not contain any mac-
ductive habitat in a muddy stream, and it is roinvertebrates or debris from the last time it was
often the most abundant type of habitat. used. Fill a bucket approximately one-third with
B. Snags and logsconsist of submerged wood, clean stream water. Also, fill the spray bottle
primarily dead trees, logs, branches, roots, with clean stream water. This bottle will be used
cypress knees, and leaf packs lodged to wash the net between jabs and after sampling
between rocks or logs. This is also a very is completed.
productive muddy-bottom stream habitat. Note: This method of sampling requires only
C. Aquatic vegetation beds and decaying organic one person to disturb the stream habitats. While
matterconsist of beds of submerged, green/ one person is sampling, a second person should
leafy plants that are attached to the stream stand outside the sampling area, holding the
bottom. This habitat can be as productive as bucket and the spray bottle. After every few jabs,
vegetated bank margins and snags and logs. the sampler should hand the net to the second
D. Silt/sand/gravel substrateincludes sandy, person, who then can rinse the contents of the
silty, or muddy stream bottoms; rocks along net into the bucket.
the stream bottom; and/or wetted gravel Step 4—Dislodge the macroinvertebrates.
bars. This habitat may also contain algae- 1. Approach the first sample site from downstream,
covered rocks (Aufwuchs).This is the least and sample while walking upstream. Sample in
productive of the four muddy-bottom stream the four habitat types as follows:
habitats, and it is always present in one form A. Sample vegetated bank margins by jabbing
or another (e.g., silt, sand, mud, or gravel vigorously, with an upward motion, brushing
might predominate). the net against vegetation and roots along the
Step 2—Determine how many times to jab in each hab- bank. The entire jab motion should occur
itat type. The sampler’s goal is to jab 20 times. The underwater.
D-frame net (see Figure 13.5) is 1 ft wide, and a jab B. To sample snags and logs, hold the net
should be approximately 1 ft in length. Thus, 20 jabs with one hand under the section of sub-
equal 20 square feet of combined habitat. merged wood being sampled. With the
A. If all four habitats are present in plentiful other hand (which should be gloved), rub
amounts, jab the vegetated banks ten times and about 1 square foot of area on the snag or
divide the remaining ten jabs among the remain- log. Scoop organisms, bark, twigs, or other
ing 3 habitats. organic matter dislodged into the net. Each
B. If three habitats are present in plentiful amounts, combination of log rubbing and net scoop-
and one is absent, jab the silt/sand/gravel sub- ing is one jab.
strate, the least productive habitat, five times and C. To sample aquatic vegetation beds, jab vig-
divide the remaining 15 jabs between the other orously, with an upward motion, against or
two more productive habitats. through the plant bed. The entire jab motion
C. If only two habitats are preset in plentiful should occur underwater.
amounts, the silt/sand/gravel substrate will most D. To sample a silt/sand/gravel substrate, place
likely be one of those habitats. Jab the silt/sand/ the net with one edge against the stream bot-
gravel substrate five times and the more produc- tom and push it forward about a foot (in an
tive habitat 15 times. upstream direction) to dislodge the first few
D. If some habitats are plentiful and others are inches of silt, sand, gravel, or rocks. To avoid
sparse, sample the sparse habitats to the extent gathering a net full of mud, periodically
possible, even if you can take only one or two sweep the mesh bottom of the net back and
jabs. Take the remaining jabs from the plentiful forth in the water, making sure that the water
habitat(s). This rule also applies if you cannot does not run over the top of the net. This will
reach a habitat because of unsafe stream condi- allow fine silt to rinse out of the net. When
tions. Jab 20 times. 20 jabs have been completed, rinse the net
thoroughly in the bucket. If necessary, pick Station ID Tag

any clinging organisms from the net by
Station # ________________________________________________________
hand, and put them in the bucket.
Step 5—Preserve the sample.
Stream ________________________________________________________
1. Look through the material in the bucket, and
immediately return any fish, amphibians, or
Location ________________________________________________________
reptiles to the stream. Carefully remove large
pieces of debris (leaves, twigs, and rocks) from
the sample. While holding the material over the Date/Time _______________________________________________________
bucket, use the forceps, spray bottle, and your

hands to pick, rub, and rinse the leaves, twigs, Team Members: __________________________________________________
and rocks to remove any attached organisms. ________________________________________________________________
Use the magnifying lens and forceps to find and
________________________________________________________________
remove small organisms clinging to the debris.
When satisfied that the material is clean, discard
FIGURE 13.6 Station ID tag.
it back into the stream.
2. Drain the water before transferring mate-
rial to the jar. This process will require two Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment
people. One person should place the net into The muddy-bottom stream habitat assessment (which includes
the second bucket, like a sieve (this bucket, measuring general characteristics and local land use) is con-
which has not yet been used, should be com- ducted in a 100-yard section of the stream that includes the
pletely empty) and hold it securely. The second habitat areas from which organisms were collected.
person can now carefully pour the remaining Note: Reference made previously, and in the following sec-
contents of bucket #1 onto the center of the net tions, about a field data sheet (habitat assessment field data
to drain the water and concentrate the organ- sheet) assumes that the sampling team is using either the stan-
isms. Use care when pouring so that organisms dard forms provided by the USEPA, the USGS, State Water
are not lost over the side of the net. Use the Control Authorities, or the generic forms put together by the
spray bottle, forceps, sugar scoop, and gloved sampling team. The source of the form and the exact type
hands to remove all the material from bucket of form are not important. Some type of data recording field
#1 onto the net. When satisfied that bucket #1 sheet should be employed to record pertinent data.
is empty, use your hands and the sugar scoop
to transfer all the material from the net into the Step 1—Delineate the habitat assessment boundaries.
empty jar. The contents of the net can also be 1. Begin by identifying the most downstream
emptied directly into the jar by turning the net point that was sampled for macroinvertebrates.
inside out into the jar. Bucket #2 captured the Using your tape measure or twine, mark off a
water and any organisms that might have fallen 100-yard section extending 25 yards below the
through the netting. As a final check, repeat downstream sampling point and about 75 yards
the process above, but this time, pour bucket upstream.
#2 over the net, into bucket #1. Transfer any 2. Complete the identifying information on the
organisms on the net into the jar. field data sheet for the habitat assessment site.
3. Fill the jar (so that all material is submerged) On the stream sketch, be as detailed as possible,
with alcohol. Put the lid tightly back onto the jar and be sure to note which habitats were sampled.
and gently turn the jar upside down two or three Step 2—Record General Characteristics and Local
times to distribute the alcohol and remove air Land Use on the data field sheet.
bubbles. 1. For safety reasons as well as to protect the stream
4. Complete the sampling station ID tag (see habitat, it is best to estimate these characteris-
Figure 13.6). Be sure to use a pencil, not a pen, tics rather than to actually wade into the stream
because the ink will run in the alcohol. The tag to measure them. For instructions on complet-
should include your station number, the stream, ing these sections of the field data sheet, see the
and location (e.g., upstream form a road cross- rocky-bottom habitat assessment instructions.
ing), date, time, and the names of the members Step 3—Conduct the habitat assessment.
of the collecting crew. Place the ID tag into the 1. The following information describes the parameters
sample container, writing side facing out, so that to be evaluated for muddy-bottom habitats. Use these
identification can be seen clearly. definitions when completing the habitat assessment
Note: To prevent samples from being mixed up, field data sheet.
samplers should place the ID tag inside the sam- A. Shelter for fish and attachment sites for macro-
ple jar. invertebrates is essentially the amount of living
space and shelter (rocks, snags, and undercut J. Riparian vegetative zone width
banks) available for fish, insects, and snails. Note: Whenever stream sampling is to be con-
Many insects attach themselves to rocks, logs, ducted, it is a good idea to have a reference
branches, or other submerged substrates. Fish collection on hand. A reference collection is a
can hide or feed in these areas. The greater the sample of locally found macroinvertebrates that
variety and number of available shelter sites or have been identified, labeled, and preserved in
attachment sites, the greater the variety of fish alcohol. The program advisor, along with a pro-
and insects in the stream. fessional biologist/entomologist, should assem-
Note: Many of the attachment sites result ble the reference collection, properly identify all
from debris falling into the stream from the sur- samples, preserve them in vials, and label them.
rounding vegetation. When debris first falls into This collection may then be used as a training
the water, it is termed new fall, and it has not yet tool and, in the field, as an aid in macroinverte-
been “broken down” by microbes (conditioned) brate identification.
for macroinvertebrate colonization. Leaf mate-
rial or debris that is conditioned is called old fall.
Post-Sampling Routine
Leaves that have been in the stream for some
time lose their color, turn brown or dull yellow, After completing the stream characterization and habitat
become soft and supple with age, and might be assessment, make sure that all of the field data sheets have
slimy to the touch. Woody debris becomes black- been completed properly and that the information is legible.
ened or dark in color; smooth bark becomes Be sure to include the site’s identifying name and the sampling
coarse and partially disintegrated, creating holes date on each sheet. This information will function as a qual-
and crevices. It might also be slimy to the touch. ity control element. Before leaving the stream location, make
B. Poor substrate characterization evaluates the sure that all sampling equipment/devices have been collected
type and condition of bottom substrates found and rinsed properly. Double-check to see that sample jars
in pools. Pools with firmer sediment types (e.g., are tightly closed and properly identified. All samples, field
gravel, sand) and rooted aquatic plants support sheets, and equipment should be returned to the team leader at
a wider variety of organisms than do pools with this point. Keep a copy of the field data sheet(s) for compari-
substrates dominated by mud or bedrock and son with future monitoring trips and for personal records. The
no plants. In addition, a pool with one uniform next step is to prepare for macroinvertebrate laboratory work.
substrate type will support far fewer types of This step includes all the work needed to set up a laboratory
organisms than will a pool with a wide variety for processing samples into subsamples and identifying mac-
of substrate types. roinvertebrates to the family level. A professional biologist/
C. Pool Variability rates the overall mixture of entomologist/freshwater ecologist or the professional advisor
pool types found in the stream according to size should supervise the identification procedure. (The actual
and depth. The four basic types of pools are laboratory procedures after the sampling and collecting phase
large-shallow, large-deep, small-shallow, and are beyond the scope of this text.)
small-deep. A stream with many pool types will
support a wide variety of aquatic species. Rivers
Sampling Devices
with low sinuosity (few bends) and monotonous
pool characteristics do not have sufficient quan- In addition to the sampling equipment mentioned previously,
tities and types of habitats to support a diverse it may be desirable to employ, depending on stream condi-
aquatic community. tions, the use of other sampling devices. Additional sampling
D. Channel alteration devices commonly used and discussed in the following sec-
E. Sediment deposition tions include dissolved oxygen and temperature monitors,
F. Channel sinuosity evaluates the sinuosity or sampling nets (including the D-frame aquatic net), sediment
meandering of the stream. Streams that mean- samplers (dredges), plankton samplers, and Secchi disks.
der provide a variety of habitats (such as pools The methods described below are approved by the USEPA.
and runs) and stream velocities and reduce the Coverage that is more detailed is available in APHA (1998).
energy from current surges during storm events.
Straight stream segments are characterized by Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor
even stream depth and unvarying velocity, and As mentioned, the dissolved oxygen (DO) content of a stream
they are prone to flooding. To evaluate this sample can provide the investigator with vital information, as
parameter, imagine how much longer the stream DO content reflects the stream’s ability to maintain aquatic life.
would be if it were straightened out.
G. Channel flow status The Winkler DO with Azide Modification Method
H. Bank vegetative protection The Winkler DO with azide modification method is com-
I. Condition of banks monly used to measure DO content. The Winkler Method is
best suited for clean waters. The Winkler Method can be used
in the field but is better suited for laboratory work where bet-
ter accuracy may be achieved. The Winkler Method adds a
divalent manganese solution followed by a strong alkali to a
300 mL BOD bottle of stream water sample. Any DO rapidly
oxidizes an equivalent amount of divalent manganese to basic
hydroxides of higher balance states. When the solution is
acidified in the presence of iodide, oxidized manganese again
reverts to the divalent state, and iodine, equivalent to the orig- FIGURE 13.8 Surber sampler.
inal DO content of the sample, is liberated. The amount of
iodine is then determined by titration with a standard, usually the bottom; see Figure 13.8) can be used to obtain a quantita-
thiosulfate, solution. tive sample (number of organisms/square feet). It is designed
Fortunately for the field biologist, this is the age of min- for sampling riffle areas in streams and rivers up to a depth of
iaturized electronic circuit components and devices; thus, it about 450 mm (18 in.). It consists of two folding stainless steel
is not too difficult to obtain portable electronic measuring frames set at right angles to each other. The frame is placed
devices for DO and temperature that are of quality construc- on the bottom, with the net extending downstream. Using
tion and have better than moderate accuracy. These modern your hand or a rake, all sediment enclosed by the frame is
electronic devices are usually suitable for laboratory and dislodged. All organisms are caught in the net and transferred
field use. The device may be subjected to severe abuse in the to another vessel for counting.
field; therefore, the instrument must be durable, accurate, The D-frame aquatic dip net (see Figure 13.5) is ideal for
and easy to use. Several quality DO monitors are available sweeping over vegetation or for use in shallow streams.
commercially.
When using a DO monitor, it is important to calibrate (stan- Sediment Samplers (Dredges)
dardize) the meter prior to use. Calibration procedures can be A sediment sampler or dredge is designed to obtain a sam-
found in Standard Methods (latest edition) or in the manufac- ple of the bottom material in a slow-moving stream and the
turer’s instructions for the meter to be used. Determining the organisms in it. The simple homemade dredge shown in
air temperature, the DO at saturation for that temperature, and Figure 13.9 works well in water too deep to sample effectively
then adjusting the meter so that it reads the saturation value with handheld tools. The homemade dredge is fashioned from
usually accomplish meter calibration. After calibration, the a #3 coffee can and a smaller can with a tight fitting plastic
monitor is ready for use. As mentioned, all recorded measure- lid (peanut cans work well). To use the homemade dredge,
ments, including water temperatures and DO readings, should first invert it under water so it can fill with water and no air
be entered in a field notebook. is trapped. Then, lower the dredge as quickly as possible with
the “down” line. The idea is to bury the open end of the coffee
Sampling Nets
A variety of sampling nets are available for use in the field.
The two-person seine net shown in Figure 13.7 is 20 ft long
× 4 ft deep with 1/8 in. mesh and is utilized to collect a vari-
ety of organisms. Two people, each holding one end, walk Up line Down line
upstream, and small organisms are gathered in the net. Dip
nets are used to collect organisms in shallow streams. The
Surber sampler (collects macroinvertebrates stirred up from
Cork Floaters
Lead Sinkers
FIGURE 13.7 Two-person seine net. FIGURE 13.9 Homemade dredge.

can in the bottom. Then, quickly pull the “up” line to bring
the can to the surface with a minimum loss of material. Dump
the contents into a sieve or observation pan to sort. It works
best in bottoms composed of sediment, mud, sand, and small
gravel. The bottom sampling dredge can be used for a number
of different analyses. Because the bottom sediments represent
a good area in which to find macroinvertebrates and benthic
algae, the communities of organisms living on or in the bot-
tom can be easily studied quantitatively and qualitatively. A
chemical analysis of the bottom sediment can be conducted to
determine what chemicals are available to organisms living in
the bottom habitat.
Plankton Sampler
(More detailed information on plankton sampling can be found
in AWRI, 2000.) Plankton (meaning “to drift”) are distributed
through the stream and, in particular, in pool areas. They are
found at all depths and are comprised of plant (phytoplankton)
and animal (zooplankton) forms. Plankton show a distribution
pattern that can be associated with the time of day and seasons.
The three fundamental sizes of plankton are nanoplankton,
microplankton, and macroplankton. The smallest are nano-
plankton that ranges in size from 5–60 microns (millionth of
a meter). Because of their small size, most nanoplankton will
pass through the pores of a standard sampling net. Special fine
mesh nets can be used to capture the larger nanoplankton. Most FIGURE 13.10 Plankton net.
planktonic organisms fall into the microplankton or net plank-
Secchi Disk
ton category. The sizes range from the largest nanoplankton
to about 2 mm (thousandths of a meter). Nets of various sizes For determining water turbidity or degree of visibility in a
and shapes are used to collect microplankton. The nets collect stream, a Secchi disk is often used (Figure 13.11). The Secchi
the organism by filtering water through fine meshed cloth. The disk originated with Father Pietro Secchi, an astrophysicist
plankton nets on the vessels are used to collect microplankton. and scientific advisor to the Pope, who was requested to mea-
The third group of plankton, as associated with size, is called sure transparency in the Mediterranean Sea by the head of
macroplankton. They are visible to the naked eye. The largest the Papal Navy. Secchi used some white disks to measure the
can be several meters long. clarity of the water in the Mediterranean in April of 1865.
The plankton net or sampler (see Figure 13.10) is a device Various sizes of disks have been used since that time, but the
that makes it possible to collect phytoplankton and zoo- most frequently used disk is an 8-inch diameter metal disk
plankton samples. For quantitative comparisons of different painted in alternate black and white quadrants. The disk
samples, some nets have a flow meter used to determine the shown in Figure 13.11 is 20 cm in diameter; it is lowered into
amount of water passing through the collecting net. the stream using the calibrated line. To use the Secchi disk
The plankton net or sampler provides a means of obtaining
samples of plankton from various depths so that distribution
patterns can be studied. Considering the death of the water
column that is sampled can make quantitative determinations.
The net can be towed to sample plankton at a single depth
(horizontal tow) or lowered into the water to sample the water
column (vertical tow). Another possibility is oblique tows
where the net is lowered to a predetermined depth and raised
at a constant rate as the vessel moves forward.
After towing and removal from the stream, the sides of the
net are rinsed to dislodge the collected plankton. If a quan-
titative sample is desired, a certain quantity of water is col-
lected. If the plankton density is low, then the sample may
be concentrated using a low-speed centrifuge or some other
filtering device. A definite volume of the sample is studied
under the compound microscope for counting and identifica-
tion of plankton. FIGURE 13.11 Secchi disk.
properly, it should be lowered into the stream water until no protecting biological conditions as a central respon-
longer visible. At the point where it is no longer visible, a sibility or water resource management. One thing is
measurement of the depth is taken. This depth is called the certain: Until biological monitoring is seen as essen-
Secchi disk transparency light extinction coefficient. The best tial to tracking attainment of that goal and biological
results are usually obtained after early morning and before criteria as enforceable standards mandated by the
late afternoon. Clean Water Act, life in the nation’s freshwater sys-
tems will continue to decline.
Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment
Several other sampling tools/devices are available for use in Biomonitoring is only one of several tools available to the
sampling a stream. For example, consider the standard sand- water practitioner. No matter the tool employed, all results
mud sieve. Generally made of heavy-duty galvanized 1/8” depend upon proper biomonitoring techniques. Biological
mesh screen supported by a water-sealed 24 × 15 × 3-inch monitoring must be designed to obtain accurate results—
wood frame, this device is useful for collecting burrowing present approaches need to be strengthened. In addition, “the
organisms found in soft bottom sediments. Moreover, no way it’s always been done” must be reexamined and efforts
stream sampling kit would be complete without a collecting must be undertaken to do what works to keep freshwater sys-
tray, collecting jars of assorted sizes, heavy-duty plastic bags, tems alive. We can afford nothing less.
small pipettes, large two-ounce pipettes, fine mesh straining
net, and black china marking pencil. In addition, depending
upon the quantity of material to be sampled, it is prudent to DID YOU KNOW?
include several three- and five-gallon collection buckets in the
There is increasing, and for some parameters manda-
stream sampling filed kit.
tory, use of automatic on line sampling and monitoring.
It has the advantage of yielding constant and immedi-
The Bottom Line on Biological Sampling ate results. Time is saved, and problems due to carriage
to the laboratory are eliminated. Meters are installed
This discussion has stressed the practice of biological moni-
directly into the process flow, and the water is moni-
toring, employing the use of biotic indices as key measuring
tored as it flows by. Typical tests that are performed this
tools. We emphasized biotic indices not only for their sim-
way are pH, DO, temperature, turbidity, and chlorine
plicity of use, but also for the relative accuracy they provide,
residue. The signal may be read on site, or transmitted
although their development and use can sometimes be derailed.
to the lab or control room for remote readout. Frequent
The failure of a monitoring protocol to assess environmental
cleaning and calibration of the monitoring instruments
conditions accurately or to protect running waters usually
are essential (Hauser, 2002).
stems from conceptual, sampling, or analytical pitfalls. Biotic
indices can be combined with other tools for measuring the
condition of ecological systems in ways that enhance or hin-
der their effectiveness. The point is, like any other tool, they
DRINKING WATER QUALITY MONITORING
can be misused. However, that biotic indices can be, and are,
misused does not mean that the indices’ approach itself is use- When we speak of water quality monitoring, we refer monitor-
less. Thus, to ensure that the biotic indices approach is not ing practice based on three criteria: (1) to ensure to the extent
useless, it is important for the practicing freshwater ecologist possible that the water is not a danger to public health; (2) to
and water sampler to remember a few key guidelines: ensure that the water provided at the tap is as aesthetically
pleasing as possible; and (3) to ensure compliance with appli-
1. Sampling everything is not the goal. As Botkin cable regulations. To meet these goals, all public systems must
(1990) note, biological systems are complex and monitor water quality to some extent. The degree of monitor-
unstable in space and time, and samplers often feel ing employed is dependent on local needs and requirements,
compelled to study all components of this variation. and on the type of water system; small water systems using
Complex sampling programs proliferate. However, good-quality water from deep wells may only need to pro-
every study need not explore everything. Freshwater vide occasional monitoring, but systems using surface water
samplers and monitors should avoid the tempta- sources must test water quality frequently (AWWA, 1995).
tion to sample all the unique habitats and phenom- Drinking water must be monitored to provide adequate
ena that make freshwater monitoring so interesting. control of the entire water drawing/treatment/conveyance sys-
Concentration should be placed on the central tem. Adequate control is defined as monitoring employed to
components of a clearly defined research agenda assess the present level of water quality, so action can be taken
(a sampling/monitoring protocol)—detecting and to maintain the required level (whatever that might be). We
measuring the influences of human activities on the define water quality monitoring as the sampling and analysis
water body’s ecological system. of water constituents and conditions. When we monitor, we
2. In regard to the influence of human activities on collect data. As a monitoring program is developed, deciding
the water body’s ecological system, we must see the reasons for collecting the information is important. The
reasons are defined by establishing a set of objectives, which primary way of identifying water pollution problems. Today,
includes a description of who will collect the information. professional water quality practitioners and volunteer pro-
It may come as a surprise to know that today the majority gram coordinators alike are moving toward approaches that
of people collecting data are not water and wastewater opera- combine chemical, physical, and biological monitoring meth-
tors; instead, many are volunteers. These volunteers have a ods to achieve the best picture of water quality conditions.
stake in their local stream, lake, or other water body and, in Water quality monitoring can be used for many purposes:
many cases, are proving that they can successfully carry out a
water quality-monitoring program. 1. To identify whether waters are meeting designated
uses. All states have established specific criteria
(limits on pollutants) identifying what concentrations
Is the Water Good or Bad?
of chemical pollutants are allowable in their waters.
(Much of the information presented in the following sections When chemical pollutants exceed maximum or
is based on our personal experience and on USEPA,1997.) To minimum allowable concentrations, waters may no
answer the question of whether the water is good or bad we longer be able to support the beneficial uses—such
must consider two factors. First, we return to the basic prin- as fishing, swimming, and drinking—for which they
ciples of water quality monitoring—sampling and analyzing have been designated (see Table 13.4). Designated or
water constituents and conditions. These constituents include: intended uses and the specific criteria that protect
them (along with antidegradation statements that say
1. Introduced pollutants, such as pesticides, metals, waters should not be allowed to deteriorate below
and oil existing or anticipated uses) together form water
2. Constituents found naturally in water that can nev- quality standards. State water quality professionals
ertheless be affected by human sources, such as dis- assess water quality by comparing the concentra-
solved oxygen, bacteria, and nutrients tions of chemical pollutants found in streams to the
criteria in the state’s standards, and so judge whether
The magnitude of their effects is influenced by properties streams are meeting their designated uses. Water
such as pH and temperature. For example, temperature influ- quality monitoring, however, might be inadequate
ences the quantity of dissolved oxygen that water is able to for determining whether aquatic life needs are being
contain, and pH affects the toxicity of ammonia, for example. met in a stream. While some constituents (such as
The second factor to be considered is that the only valid dissolved oxygen and temperature) are important to
way to answer this question is to conduct a test that must be maintaining healthy fish and aquatic insect popula-
compared to some form of water quality standards. If simply tions, other factors (such as the physical structure of
assigning a “good” and “bad” value to each test factor was the stream and the condition of the habitat) play an
possible, the meters and measuring devices in water quality equal or greater role. Biological monitoring methods
test kits would be much easier to make. Instead of fine gradu- are generally better suited to determining whether
ations, they could simply have a “good” and a “bad” zone. aquatic life is supported.
Water quality—the difference between “good” and “bad” 2. To identify specific pollutants and sources of
water—must be interpreted according to the intended use of pollution.Water quality monitoring helps link
the water. For example, the perfect balance of water chemistry sources of pollution to water body quality prob-
that assures a sparkling clear, sanitary swimming pool would lems because it identifies specific problem pol-
not be acceptable as drinking water and would be a deadly lutants. Since certain activities tend to generate
environment for many biota (Table 13.3). In another example, certain pollutants (bacteria and nutrients are more
widely different levels of fecal coliform bacteria are consid- likely to come from an animal feedlot than an
ered acceptable, depending on the intended use of the water. automotive repair shop), a tentative link to what
State and local water quality practitioners, as well as vol- would warrant further investigation or monitoring
unteers, have been monitoring water quality conditions for can be formed.
many years. In fact, until the past decade or so (until biologi- 3. To determine trends. Chemical constituents that are
cal monitoring protocols were developed and began to take properly monitored (i.e., using consistent time of day
hold), water quality monitoring was generally considered the
TABLE 13.4
TABLE 13.3
Fecal Coliform Bacteria per 100 mL of Water
Total Residual Chlorine (TRC) mg/L
0.06 Toxic to striped bass larvae Desirable Permissible Type of Water Use
0.31 Toxic to white perch larvae 0 0 Potable and well water (for drinking)
0.5–1.0 Typical drinking water residual <200 <1,000 Primary contact water (for swimming)
1.0–3.0 Recommended for swimming pools <1,000 <5,000 Secondary contact water (boating and fishing)
and on a regular basis using consistent methods) can

be analyzed for trends over time. TABLE 13.5
4. To screen for impairment.Finding excessive levels Water Quality Problems and Pollution Sources
of one or more chemical constituents can serve as Source Common Associated Chemical Pollutants
an early warning “screen” for potential pollution
Cropland Turbidity, phosphorus, nitrates, temperature, and total solids
problems.
Forestry Turbidity, temperature, total solids
harvest
State Water Quality Standards Programs Grazing land Fecal bacteria, turbidity, phosphorus
Industrial Temperature, conductivity, total solids, toxins, pH
Each state has a program to set standards for the protection of discharge
each body of water within its boundaries. Standards for each Mining pH, alkalinity, total dissolved solids
body of water are developed that: Septic Fecal bacteria, (i.e., Escherichia coli, enterococcus),
systems nitrates, dissolved oxygen/biochemical oxygen demand,
1. Depend on the water’s designated use conductivity, temperature
2. Are based on USEPA national water quality criteria Sewage Dissolved oxygen and BOD, turbidity, conductivity,
and other scientific research into the effects of spe- treatment phosphorus, nitrates, fecal bacteria, temperature, total
cific pollutants on different types of aquatic life and solids, pH
on human health Construction Turbidity, temperature, dissolved oxygen and BOD, total
solids, toxics
3. May include limits based on the biological diversity
of the body of water (the presence of food and prey Urban Turbidity, phosphorus, nitrates, temperature, conductivity,
runoff dissolved oxygen, BOD
species)
State water quality standards set limits on pollutants and

establish water quality levels that must be maintained for each
type of water body, based on its designated use. Resources for under the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) or the National
this type of information include: Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), utilities
must follow test procedures approved by the USEPA for these
1. USEPA Water Quality Criteria Program purposes. Additional testing requirements under these and
2. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Habitat Suitability other federal programs are published as amendments in the
Index Models (for specific species of local interest) Federal Register.
Except when monitoring discharges for specific compli-
Monitoring test results can be plotted against these standards ance purposes, a large number of approximate measure-
to provide a focused, relevant, required assessment of water ments can provide more useful information than one or two
quality. accurate analyses. Because water quality and chemistry
continually change, making periodic, representative mea-
surements and observations that indicate the range of water
Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program quality is necessary, rather than testing the quality at any
The first step in designing a water quality-monitoring program single moment. The more complex a water system, the more
is to determine the purpose for the monitoring. This aids in time is required to observe, understand, and draw conclu-
selection of parameters to monitor. This decision should be sions regarding the cause and effect of changes in the par-
based on factors, including: ticular system.
1. Types of water quality problems and pollution sources GENERAL PREPARATION AND
that will likely be encountered (see Table 13.5)
SAMPLING CONSIDERATIONS
2. Cost of available monitoring equipment
3. Precision and accuracy of available monitoring The sections that follow detail specific equipment consider-
equipment ations and analytical procedures for each of the most com-
4. Capabilities of monitors mon water quality parameters. Sampling devices should be
corrosion-resistant, easily cleaned, and capable of collecting
Note: We discuss the parameters most commonly monitored desired samples safely and in accordance with test require-
by drinking water practitioners in streams (i.e., we assume, ments. Whenever possible, assign a sampling device to each
for illustration and discussion purposes, that our water source sampling point. Sampling equipment must be cleaned on a
is a surface water stream) in detail in this section. They regular schedule to avoid contamination.
include dissolved oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, tem- Note: Some tests require special equipment to ensure the
perature, pH, turbidity, total orthophosphate, nitrates, total sample is representative. Dissolved oxygen and fecal bacteria
solids, conductivity, total alkalinity, fecal bacteria, apparent sampling require special equipment and/or procedures to pre-
color, odor, and hardness. When monitoring water supplies vent collection of non-representative samples.
Cleaning Procedures wade into the center current to collect the sample. A boat is
required for deep sites. Try to maneuver the boat into the cen-
Reused sample containers and glassware must be cleaned and ter of the main current to collect the water sample. When col-
rinsed before the first sampling run and after each run by fol- lecting a water sample for analysis in the field or at the lab,
lowing Method A or Method B described below. The most follow the steps below.
suitable method depends on the parameter being measured.
Whirl-pak® Bags
Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers To collect water samples using Whirl-pak bags, use the fol-
Use the following method when preparing all sample contain- lowing procedures:
ers and glassware for monitoring conductivity, total solids,
turbidity, pH, and total alkalinity. Wearing latex gloves: 1. Label the bag with the site number, date, and time.
2. Tear off the top of the bag along the perforation above
1. Wash each sample bottle or piece of glassware with the wire tab just before sampling. Avoid touching the
a brush and phosphate-free detergent. inside of the bag. If you accidentally touch the inside
2. Rinse three times with cold tap water. of the bag, use another one.
3. Rinse three times with distilled or deionized water. 3. Wading—Try to disturb as little bottom sediment
as possible. In any case, be careful not to collect
Method B: Acid Wash Procedures water that contains bottom sediment. Stand facing
Use this method when preparing all sample containers and upstream. Collect the water samples in front of you.
glassware for monitoring nitrates and phosphorus. Wearing Boat—Carefully reach over the side and collect
latex gloves: the water sample on the upstream side of the boat.
4. Hold the two white pull-tabs in each hand and lower
1. Wash each sample bottle or piece of glassware with the bag into the water on your upstream side with
a brush and phosphate-free detergent. the opening facing upstream. Open the bag midway,
2. Rinse three times with cold tap water. between the surface and the bottom by pulling the
3. Rinse with 10% hydrochloric acid. white pull-tabs. The bag should begin to fill with
4. Rinse three times with deionized water. water. You may need to “scoop” water into the bag
by drawing it through the water upstream and away
from you. Fill the bag no more than ¾ full!
Sample Types
5. Lift the bag out of the water. Pour out excess water.
Two types of samples are commonly used for water qual- Pull on the wire tabs to close the bag. Continue hold-
ity monitoring: grab samples and composite samples. The ing the wire tabs and flip the bag over at least four
type of sample used depends on the specific test, the reason to five times quickly to seal the bag. Do not try to
the sample is being collected, and the applicable regulatory squeeze the air out of the top of the bag. Fold the
requirements. ends of the bag, being careful not to puncture the
Grab samples are taken all at once, at a specific time and bag. Twist them together, forming a loop.
place. They are representative only of the conditions at the 6. Fill in the bag number and/or site number on the
time of collection. Grab samples must be used to determine appropriate field data sheet. This is important. It is
pH, total residual chlorine (TRC), dissolved oxygen (DO), and the only way the lab specialist will know which bag
fecal coliform concentrations. Grab samples may also be sued goes with which site.
for any test, which does not specifically prohibit their use. 7. If samples are to be analyzed in a lab, place the
Note: Before collecting samples for any test procedure, it is sample in the cooler with ice or cold packs. Take all
best to review the sampling requirements of the test. samples to the lab.
Composite samplesconsist of a series of individual grab
samples collected over a specified period in proportion to Screw-Cap Bottles
flow. The individual grab samples are mixed together in pro- To collect water samples using screw-cap bottles, use the fol-
portion to the flow rate at the time the sample was collected lowing procedures (see Figure 13.12).
to form the composite sample. This type of sample is taken
to determine average conditions in a large volume of water 1. Label the bottle with the site number, date, and time.
whose properties vary significantly over the course of a day. 2. Remove the cap from the bottle just before sampling.
Avoid touching the inside of the bottle or the cap. If
you accidentally touch the inside of the bottle, use
Collecting Samples from a Stream
another one.
In general, sample away from the stream bank in the main 3. Wading—Try not to disturb the bottom sediment.
current. Never sample stagnant water. The outside curve of In any case, be careful not to collect water that has
the stream is often a good place to sample, because the main sediment from bottom disturbance. Stand facing
current tends to hug this bank. In shallow stretches, carefully upstream. Collect the water sample on your upstream
TABLE 13.6
Recommended Sample Storage and Preservation
Fill bottle to
Techniques
shoulder Preservation Recommended/
Test Factor Container Type Or Required
Alkalinity P, G Refrigerate
BOD P, G Refrigerate
Conductivity P, G Refrigerate
Hardness P, G Lower pH to <2
Nitrate P, G Analyze ASAP
Nitrite P, G Analyze ASAP
Odor G Analyze ASAP
FIGURE 13.12 Sampling bottle; filling to shoulder ensures col- Oxygen, dissolved
lecting enough samples—do not overfill. Electrode G Immediately analyze
Winkler G “Fix” Immediately
side, in front of you. You may also tape your bottle to pH P, G Immediately analyze
an extension pole to sample from deeper water. Phosphate G(A) Filter immediately
Boat—Carefully reach over the side and col- Salinity G, wax seal Immediately analyze or use wax
lect the water sample on the upstream side of the seal
boat. Temperature P, G Immediately analyze
4. Hold the bottle near its base and plunge it (opening Turbidity P, G Analyze same day or 24 h/48 h
downward) below the water surface. If you are using store in dark up to 24 h,
an extension pole, remove the cap, turn the bottle refrigerate
upside down, and plunge it into the water, facing
upstream. Collect a water sample 8–12 in. beneath
the surface, or midway between the surface and the
bottom if the stream reach is shallow. and lead and suspended particles may adsorb onto container
5. Turn your bottle underwater into the current and surfaces during storage.
away from you. In slow-moving stream reaches, push
the bottle underneath the surface and away from you Standardization Methods
in the upstream direction.
6. Leave a 1-inch air space (except for DO and BOD References used for sampling and testing must correspond
samples). Do not fill the bottle completely (so that to those listed in the most current federal regulation. For the
the sample can be shaken just before analysis). majority of tests, to compare the results of either different
Recap the bottle carefully, remembering not to water quality monitors or the same monitors over the course
touch the inside. of time requires some form of standardization of the methods.
7. Fill in the bottle number and/or site number on The American Public Health Association (APHA) recognized
the appropriate field data sheet. This is important this requirement when in 1899 the Association appointed a
because it tells the lab specialist which bottle goes committee to draw up standard procedures for the analysis
with which site. of water. The report (published in 1905) constituted the first
8. If the samples are to be analyzed in the lab, place edition of what is now known as Standard Methods for the
them in the cooler for transport to the lab. Examination of Water and Wastewater or Standard Methods.
This book is now in its 20th edition and serves as the primary
reference for water testing methods, and as the basis for most
Sample Preservation and Storage
USEPA-approved methods.
Samples can change very rapidly. However, no single preser-
vation method will serve for all samples and constituents. If
Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater
analysis must be delayed, follow the instructions for sample
preservation and storage listed in Standard Methods, or those The material presented in this section is based on per-
specified by the laboratory that will eventually process the sonal experience and adaptations from Standard Methods,
samples (see Table 13.6). In general, handle the sample in a Federal Register, and The Monitor’s Handbook, LaMotte
way that prevents changes from biological activity, physical Company, Chestertown, Maryland, 1992. Descriptions of
alterations, or chemical reactions. Cool the sample to reduce general methods to help you understand how each works in
biological and chemical reactions. Store in darkness to sus- specific test kits follow. Always use the specific instructions
pend photosynthesis. Fill the sample container completely to included with the equipment and individual test kits. Most
prevent the loss of dissolved gases. Metal cations such as iron water analyses are conducted by either titrimetric analyses
or colorimetric analyses. Both methods are easy to use and water operations. We do not discuss the actual test procedures
provide accurate results. to analyze each water quality factor; we refer the reader to the
latest edition of Standard Methods for the correct procedure
to use in conducting these tests.
Titrimetric Methods
A stream system used as a source of water produces and
Titrimetric analyses are based on adding a solution of known consumes oxygen. It gains oxygen from the atmosphere and
strength (the titrant, which must have an exact known concen- from plants because of photosynthesis. Because of running
tration) to a specific volume of a treated sample in the pres- water’s churning, it dissolves more oxygen than does still
ence of an indicator. The indicator produces a color change water, such as in a reservoir behind a dam. Respiration by
indicating the reaction is complete. Titrants are generally aquatic animals, decomposition, and various chemical reac-
added by a titrator (microburette) or a precise glass pipette. tions consume oxygen.
Oxygen is actually poorly soluble in water. Its solubility is
related to pressure and temperature. In water supply systems,
Colorimetric Methods
dissolved oxygen (DO) in raw water is considered the neces-
Colorimetric standards are prepared as a series of solutions sary element to support the life of many aquatic organisms.
with increasing known concentrations of the constituent to be From the drinking water practitioner’s point of view, DO is
analyzed. Two basic types of colorimetric tests are commonly an important indicator of the water treatment process, and an
used: important factor in corrosivity.
Wastewater from sewage treatment plants often contains
1. The pH is a measure of the concentration of hydro- organic materials that are decomposed by microorganisms,
gen ions (the acidity of a solution) determined by the which use oxygen in the process. (The amount of oxygen
reaction of an indicator that varies in color, depend- consumed by these organisms in breaking down the waste is
ing on the hydrogen ion levels in the water. known as the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). We include
2. Tests that determine the concentration of an ele- a discussion of BOD and how to monitor it later). Other sources
ment or compound are based on Beer’s Law. Simply, of oxygen-consuming waste include stormwater runoff from
this law states that the higher the concentration of farmland or urban streets, feedlots, and failing septic systems.
a substance, the darker the color produced in the Oxygen is measured in its dissolved form as dissolved oxy-
test reaction, and therefore the more light absorbed. gen (DO). If more oxygen is consumed than produced, dis-
Assuming a constant view path, the absorption solved oxygen levels decline and some sensitive animals may
increases exponentially with concentration. move away, weaken, or die. DO levels fluctuate over a 24-h
period and seasonally. They vary with water temperature and
altitude. Coldwater holds more oxygen than warm water (see
Visual Methods
Table 13.7), and water holds less oxygen at higher altitudes.
The Octet Comparator uses standards that are mounted in a Thermal discharges (such as water used to cool machinery in
plastic comparator block. It employs eight permanent trans- a manufacturing plant or a power plant) raise the temperature
lucent color standards and built-in filters to eliminate opti- of water and lower its oxygen content. Aquatic animals are
cal distortion. The sample is compared using either of two most vulnerable to lowered DO levels in the early morning on
viewing windows. Two devices that can be used with the com- hot summer days when stream flows are low, water tempera-
parator are the B-color Reader, which neutralizes color or tur- tures are high, and aquatic plants have not been producing
bidity in water samples, and view path, which intensifies faint oxygen since sunset.
colors of low concentrations for easy distinction.
Sampling and Equipment Considerations
In contrast to lakes, where DO levels are most likely to vary
Electronic Methods
vertically in the water column, changes in DO in rivers and
Although the human eye is capable of differentiating color streams move horizontally along the course of the waterway.
intensity, interpretation is quite subjective. Electronic colorime- This is especially true in smaller, shallow streams. In larger,
ters consist of a light source that passes through a sample and is deeper rivers, some vertical stratification of dissolved oxygen
measuredon a photodetector with an analog or digital readout. might occur. The DO levels in and below riffle areas, water-
Besides electronic colorimeters, specific electronic instruments falls, or dam spillways are typically higher than those in pools
are manufactured for lab and field determination of many water and slower-moving stretches. If you wanted to measure the
quality factors, including pH, total dissolved solids (TDS)/con- effect of a dam, sampling for DO behind the dam, imme-
ductivity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, and turbidity. diately below the spillway, and upstream of the dam would
be important. Because DO levels are critical to fish, a good
place to sample is in the pools that fish tend to favor, or in the
Dissolved Oxygen Testing
spawning areas they use.
In this section and the sections that follow, we discuss several An hourly time profile of DO levels at a sampling site is a
water quality factors that are routinely monitored in drinking valuable set of data, because it shows the change in DO levels
the field at the sample site. Preparing the sample in the field
TABLE 13.7 and delivering it to a lab for titration is possible. The azide
Maximum DO Concentrations vs. Temperature modification method is best suited for relatively clean waters;
Variations otherwise, substances such as color, organics, suspended sol-
ids, sulfide, chlorine, and ferrous and ferric iron can interfere
Temperature °C DO (mg/L) Temperature °C DO (mg/L)
with test results. If fresh azide is used, nitrite will not inter-
0 14.60 23 8.56
fere with the test.
1 14.19 24 8.40
In testing, iodine is released in proportion to the amount of
2 13.81 25 8.24
DO present in the sample. By using sodium thiosulfate with
3 13.44 26 8.09
starch as the indicator, the sample can be titrated to determine
4 13.09 27 7.95
the amount of DO present. The chemicals used include:
5 12.75 28 7.81
6 12.43 29 7.67
7 12.12 30 7.54
1. Manganese sulfate solution
8 11.83 31 7.41
2. Alkaline azide-iodide solution
9 11.55 32 7.28 3. Sulfuric acid—concentrated
10 11.27 33 7.16 4. Starch indicator
11 11.01 34 7.05 5. Sodium thiosulfate solution 0.025 N, or phenylarsine
12 10.76 35 6.93 solution 0.025 N, or potassium biniodate solution
13 10.52 36 6.82 0.025 N
14 10.29 37 6.71 6. Distilled or deionized water
15 10.07 38 6.61
16 9.85 39 6.51 The equipment used includes:
17 9.65 40 6.41
18 9.45 41 6.31 1. Burette, graduated to 0.1 mL
19 9.26 42 6.22 2. Burette stand
20 9.07 43 6.13 3. 300 mL BOD bottles
21 8.90 44 6.04 4. 500 mL Erlenmeyer flasks
22 8.72 45 5.95 5. 1.0 mL pipettes with elongated tips
6. Pipette bulb
7. 250 mL graduated cylinder
from the low point (just before sunrise) to the high point 8. Laboratory-grade water rinse bottle
(sometime near midday). However, this might not be practical 9. Magnetic stirrer and stir bars (optional)
for a volunteer monitoring program. Note the time of your DO
sampling to help judge when in the daily cycle the data were Procedure
collected. The procedure for the Winkler method is:
Dissolved oxygen is measured either in milligrams per
liter (mg/L) or as “percent saturation.” Milligrams per liter 1. Collect sample in a 300 mL BOD bottle.
are the amount of oxygen in a liter of water. Percent saturation 2. Add 1 mL manganous sulfate solution at the surface
is the amount of oxygen in a liter of water relative to the total of the liquid.
amount of oxygen that the water can hold at that temperature. 3. Add 1 mL alkaline-iodide-azide solution at the sur-
DO samples are collected using a special BOD bottle: a glass face of the liquid.
bottle with a “turtleneck” and a ground stopper. You can bill 4. Stopper bottle, and mix by inverting the bottle.
the bottle directly in the stream if the stream is wadeable or 5. Allow the floc to settle halfway in the bottle, remix,
boatable, or you can use a sampler dropped from a bridge or and allow to settle again.
boat into water deep enough to submerge it. Samplers can be 6. Add 1 mL concentrated sulfuric acid at the surface
made or purchased. of the liquid.
7. Restopper bottle, rinse top with laboratory-grade
Winkler Method (Azide Modification) water, and mix until precipitate is dissolved.
The Winkler Method (azide modification) involves filling 8. The liquid in the bottle should appear clear and have
a sample bottle completely with water (no air is left to bias an amber color.
the test). The dissolved oxygen is then “fixed” using a series 9. Measure 201 mL from the BOD bottle into an
of reagents that form a titrated acid compound. Titration Erlenmeyer flask.
involves the drop-by-drop addition of a reagent that neutral- 10. Titrate with 0.025 N PAO or thiosulfate to a pale yel-
izes the acid compound, causing a change in the color of the low color, and note the amount of titrant.
solution. The point at which the color changes is the “end- 11. Add 1 mL of starch indicator solution.
point” and is equivalent to the amount of oxygen dissolved 12. Titrate until blue color first disappears.
in the sample. The sample is usually fixed and titrated in 13. Record total amount of titrant.
Calculation milligrams per liter. Most meters and probes also measure
To calculate the DO concentration when the modified Winkler temperature. The probe is filled with a salt solution and has a
titration method is used: selectively permeable membrane that allows DO to pass from
the stream water into the salt solution. The DO that has dif-
(Buret Final , mL - Buret start ) ´ N ´ 8,000
fused into the salt solution changes the electric potential of
DO, mg /L = - (13.1) the salt solution, and this change is sent by electric cable to
Sample Volume, mL
the meter, which converts the signal to milligrams per liter on
a scale that the user can read.
Note: Using a 200-mL sample and a 0.025 N (N = Normality
of the solution used to titrate the sample) titrant reduces this Methodology
calculation to
If samples are to be collected for analysis in the laboratory, a
special APHA sampler, or the equivalent must be used. This
DO, mg/L = mL Titrant Used
is the case because, if the sample is exposed or mixed with
air during collection, test results can change dramatically.
Example 13.1 Therefore, the sampling device must allow collection of a
sample that is not mixed with atmospheric air and allows for
Problem:The operator titrates a 200-mL DO sample. The at least 3× bottle overflow (see Figure 13.13). Again, because
burette reading at the start of the titration was 0.0 mL. At the DO level in a sample can change quickly, only grab sam-
the end of the titration, the burette read 7.1 mL. The con- ples should be used for dissolved oxygen testing. Samples
centration of the titrating solution was 0.025 N. What is
must be tested immediately (within 15 min) after collection.
the DO concentration in mg/L?
Note: Samples collected for analysis using the modified
SOLUTION:
Winkler titration method may be preserved for up to 8 h by
adding 0.7 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid or by adding all
(7.1mL - 0.0 mL) ´ 0.025 ´ 8, 000 the chemicals required by the procedure. Samples collected
DO, mg/L =
200 mL from the aeration tank of the activated sludge process must be
preserved using a solution of copper sulfate-sulfamic acid to
= 7.1mL
inhibit biological activity.
Dissolved oxygen field kits using the Winkler method are The advantage of using the DO oxygen meter method is
relatively inexpensive, especially compared to a meter and that the meter can be used to determine DO concentration
probe. Field kits run between $35 and $200, and each directly (see Figure 13.13). In the field, a direct reading can be
kit comes with enough reagents to run 50–100 DO tests. obtained using a probe (see Figure 13.14) or by collection of
Replacement reagents are inexpensive, and you can buy samples for testing in the laboratory using a laboratory probe
them already measured out for each test in plastic pillows.
(see Figure 13.15).
You can also purchase the reagents in larger quantities in
bottles, and measure them out with a volumetric scoop.
Note: The field probe can be used for laboratory work by
The pillows’ advantage is that they have a longer shelf placing a stirrer at the bottom of the sample bottle, but the
life and are much less prone to contamination or spillage. laboratory probe should never be used in any situation where
Buying larger quantities in bottles has the advantage of the entire probe might be submerged.
considerably lower cost per test. The probe used in the determination of DO consists of
The major factor in the expense for the kits is the two electrodes, a membrane, and a membrane filling solution.
method of titration used—eyedropper, syringe-type titrator. Oxygen passes through the membrane into the filling solution
Eyedropper and syringe-type titration are less precise than and causes a change in the electrical current passing between
digital titration, because a larger drop of titrant is allowed to
pass through the dropper opening, and on a micro-scale,
the drop size (and thus the volume of titrant) can vary from
DISSOLVED OXYGEN METER-DIGITAL READOUT
drip to drop. A digital titrator or a burette (a long glass tube
with a tapered tip like a pipette) permits much more preci-
sion and uniformity for titrant it allows to pass. 4.14 mg/L
If a high degree of accuracy and precision in DO results is
required, a digital titrator should be used. A kit that uses
an eyedropper-type or syringe-type titrator is suitable for
most other purposes. The lower cost of this type of DO Temp
DO0.1 mg/L
field kit might be attractive if several teams of samplers
and testers at multiple sites at the same time are relied on. Calibration
DO0.01 mg/L Zero
Zero
DO% Sat.
Meter and Probe Off

A dissolved oxygen meteris an electronic device that converts
signals from a probe placed in the water into units of DO in FIGURE 13.13 Dissolved oxygen meter.
Cable to meter
Cable to meter
Mixer switch
Weighted cap
Probe body
Probe body
Temperature sensor
Membrane Protective cap Mixer
(inside cap)
Membrane
FIGURE 13.14 Dissolved oxygen-field probe.

FIGURE 13.15 Dissolved oxygen-lab probe.
the two electrodes. The change is measured and displayed as 5. Place laboratory electrode in BOD bottle with-
the concentration of DO. In order to be accurate, the probe out trapping air against membrane,and turn on
membrane must be in proper operating condition, and the stirrer.
meter must be calibrated before use. The only chemical used 6. Turn meter switch to temperature setting, and mea-
in the DO meter method during normal operation is the elec- sure temperature.
trode filling solution. However, in the Winkler DO method, 7. Turn meter switch to DO mode, and allow 10 sec for
chemicals are required for meter calibration. meter reading to stabilize.
Calibration prior to use is important. Both the meter and 8. Read DO mg/L from meter, and record the results.
the probe must be calibrated to ensure accurate results. The
frequency of calibration is dependent on the frequency of use. No calculation is necessary using this method because results
For example, if the meter is used once a day, then calibra- are read directly from the meter.
tion should be performed before use. There are three methods Dissolved oxygen meters are expensive compared to field
available for calibration: saturated water, saturated air, and kits that use the titration method. Meter/probe combinations
the Winkler method. It is important to note that if the Winkler run between $500 and $1200, including a long cable to con-
method is not used for the routine calibration method, peri- nect the probe to the meter. The advantage of a meter/probe
odic checks using this method are recommended. is that DO and temperature can be quickly read at any point
where the probe is inserted into the stream. DO levels can
Procedure be measured at a certain point on a continuous basis. The
It is important to keep in mind that the meter and probe results are read directly as milligrams per liter, unlike the
supplier’s operating procedures should always be followed. titration methods, in which the final titration result might
Normally, the manufacturer’s recommended procedure will have to be converted by an equation to milligrams per liter.
include the following generalized steps: However, DO meters are more fragile than filed kits, and
repairs to a damaged meter can be costly. The meter/probe
1. Turn DO meter on, and allow 15 min for it to warm must be carefully maintained, and must be calibrated before
up. each sample run, and if many tests are done, between sam-
2. Turn meter switch to zero, and adjust as needed. pling. Because of the expense, a small water/wastewater
3. Calibrate meter using the saturated air, saturated facility might only have one meter/probe, which means that
water, or Winkler azide procedure for calibration. only one team of samplers can sample DO, and they must
4. Collect sample in a 300 mL bottle, or place field test all the sites. With field kits, on the other hand, several
electrodes directly in the stream. teams can sample simultaneously.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing knowing when the zero point was reached is not possible,
determining the BOD level is also impossible. In this case,
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) measures the amount diluting the original sample by a factor that results in a final
of oxygen consumed by microorganisms in decomposing dissolved oxygen level of at least 2 mg/L is necessary. Special
organic matter in stream water. BOD also measures the chem- dilution water should be used for the dilutions (APHA, 1998).
ical oxidation of inorganic matter (the extraction of oxygen Some experimentation is needed to determine the appro-
from water via chemical reaction). A test is used to measure priate dilution factor for a particular sampling site. The result
the amount of oxygen consumed by these organisms during a is the difference in dissolved oxygen between the first mea-
specified period of time (usually five days at 20°C). The rate surement and the second, after multiplying the second result
of oxygen consumption in a stream is affected by a number of by the dilution factor. Standard Methodsprescribes all phases
variables: temperature, pH, the presence of certain kinds of of procedures and calculations for BOD determination. A
microorganisms, and the type of organic and inorganic mate- BOD test is not required for monitoring water supplies.
rial in the water. BOD directly affects the amount of dissolved
oxygen in water bodies. The greater the BOD, the more rap- BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing
idly oxygen is depleted in the water body, leaving less oxygen The approved biochemical oxygen demand sampling and
available to higher forms of aquatic life. The consequences analysis procedure measures the DO depletion (biological
of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen: oxidation of organic matter in the sample) over a 5-day period
Aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die. Most under controlled conditions (20°C in the dark). The test is
river waters used as water supplies have a BOD less than 7 performed using a specified incubation time and temperature.
mg/L; therefore, dilution is not necessary. The test results are used to determine plant loadings, plant
Sources of BOD include leaves and wood debris; dead efficiency, and compliance with NPDES effluent limitations.
plants and animals; animal manure; effluents from pulp and The duration of the test (5 days) makes it difficult to use the
paper mills, wastewater treatment plants, feedlots, and food- data effectively for process control.
processing plants; failing septic systems; and urban stormwa- The standard BOD test does not differentiate between oxy-
ter runoff. gen used to oxidize organic matter and that used to oxidize
Note: To evaluate raw water’s potential for use as a drink- organic and ammonia nitrogen to more stable forms. Because
ing water supply, it is usually sampled, analyzed, and tested many biological treatment plants now control treatment pro-
for biochemical oxygen demand when turbid, polluted water cesses to achieve oxidation of the nitrogen compounds, there
is the only source available. is a possibility that BOD test results for plant effluent and
some process samples many produce BOD test results based
Sampling Considerations on both carbon and nitrogen oxidation. To avoid this situa-
Biochemical oxygen demand is affected by the same factors tion, a nitrification inhibitor can be added. When this is done,
that affect dissolved oxygen. Aeration of stream water— the test results are known as carbonaceous BOD(CBOD). A
by rapids and waterfalls, for example—will accelerate the second uninhibited BOD should also be run whenever CBOD
decomposition of organic and inorganic material. Therefore, is determined.
BOD levels at a sampling site with slower, deeper waters might When taking a BOD sample, no special sampling container
be higher for a given column of organic and inorganic mate- is required. Either a grab or a composite sample can be used.
rial that the levels for a similar site in high aerated waters. BOD5 samples can be preserved by refrigeration at or below
Chlorine can also affect BOD measurement by inhibiting 4°C (not frozen)—composite samples must be refrigerated
or killing the microorganisms that decompose the organic during collection. The maximum holding time for preserved
and inorganic matter in a sample. If sampling in chlorinated samples is 48 h.
waters (such as those below the effluent from a sewage treat- Using the incubation of the dissolved approved test method,
ment plant), neutralizing the chlorine with sodium thiosulfate a sample is mixed with dilution water in several different con-
is necessary (APHA, 1998). centrations (dilutions). The dilution water contains nutrients
Biochemical oxygen demand measurement requires taking and materials to provide an optimum environment. Chemicals
two samples at each site. One is tested immediately for dissolved used: dissolved oxygen, ferric chloride, magnesium sulfate,
oxygen, and the second is incubated in the dark at 20°C for five calcium chloride, phosphate buffer, and ammonium chloride.
days, and then tested for dissolved oxygen remaining. The dif- Note: Remember all chemicals can be dangerous if not
ference in oxygen levels between the first test and the second used properly and in accordance with the recommended pro-
test (in milligrams per liter (mg/L)) is the amount of BOD. This cedures. Review appropriate sections of the individual chemi-
represents the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms cal materials safety data sheet (MSDS) to determine proper
and used to break down the organic matter present in the sam- methods for handling and for safety precautions that should
ple bottle during the incubation period. Because of the 5-day be taken.
incubation, the tests are conducted in a laboratory. Sometimes it is necessary to add (seed) healthy organisms
Sometimes by the end of the five-day incubation period, to the sample. The DO of the dilution and the dilution water
the dissolved oxygen level is zero. This is especially true are determined. If seed material is used, a series of dilu-
for rivers and streams with a lot of organic pollution. Since tions of seed material must also be prepared. The dilutions
bottle 1 had a DO of 2.9 mg/L. Bottle 1 contained 120

TABLE 13.8 mg/L of sample.
BOD5 Test Procedure
(1) Fill two bottles with BOD dilution water; insert stoppers. SOLUTION:
(2) Place sample in two BOD bottles; fill with dilution (7.1mg/L - 2.9 mg/L) ´ 300 mL
water; insert stoppers. BOD5 (Unseeded) =
120 mL
(3) Test for dissolved oxygen (DO).

(4) Incubate for 5 days. = 10.5 mg/L
(5) Test for DO.
If the BOD5 sample has been exposed to conditions that
(6) Add 1 mL MnSO4 below surface.
could reduce the number of healthy, active organisms, the
(7) Add 1 mL alkaline Kl below surface.
sample must be seeded with organisms. Seeding requires
(8) Add 1 mL H2SO4.
the use of a correction factor to remove the BOD5 contri-
(9) Transfer 203 mL to flask.
bution of the seed material:
(10) Titrate with PAO or thiosulfate.
Seed Correction
Seed Material BOD5 ´ Seed in Dilution, mL
= (13.3)
300 mL
and dilution blanks are incubated in the dark for 5 days at
20°C ± 1°C. At the end of 5 days, the DO of each dilution and
BOD5 (Seeded)
the dilution blanks are determined. For the test results to be
é(DOstart , mg/L - DOfinal , mg/L ) - Seed Corr.ù ´ 300
valid, certain criteria must be met: = ë û (13.4)
Sample Volume, mL
1. Dilution water blank DO change must be ≤0.2 mg/L.
2. Initial DO must be >7.0 mg/L but ≤9.0 mg/L (or
saturation at 20°C and testelevation). Example 13.3
3. Sample dilution DO depletion must be ≥2.0 mg/L.
Problem: Using the data provided below, determine the
4. Sample dilution residual DO must be ≥1.0 mg/L. BOD5:
5. Sample dilution initial DO must be ≥7.0 mg/L.
6. Seed correction should be ≥0.6 but ≤1.0 mg/L. BOD5 of Seed Material 90 mg/L
The BOD5 test procedure consists of ten steps (for unchlori- Dilution #1
nated water) as shown in Table 13.8.
Note: BOD5 is calculated individually for all sample dilu- mL of seed material 3 mL
tions that meet the criteria. The reported result is the average mL of sample 100 mL
of the BOD5 of each valid sample dilution. Start DO 7.6 mg/L
Final DO 2.7 mg/L
BOD5 Calculation
Unlike the direct reading instrument used in the DO analy-
90 mg/L ´ 3 mL
sis, BOD results require calculation. There are several crite- Seed Correction = = 0.90 mg/L
300 mL
ria used in selecting which BOD5 dilutions should be used
for calculating test results. Consult a laboratory testing ref-
erence manual such as Standard Methods (APHA, 1998),for BOD 5 (Seeded)
this information. Currently, there are two basic calculations
é(7.6 mg/L - 2.7 mg/L ) - 0.90 ùû ´ 300
for BOD5. The first is used for samples that have not been = ë
seeded. The second must be used whenever BOD5 samples are 100 mL

seeded. In this section, we illustrate the calculation procedure = 12 mg/L
for unseeded samples.
BOD5 ( Unseeded ) Temperature Measurement

As mentioned, an ideal water supply should have, at all times,
=
( DOstart mg/L - DOfinal
mg/L ) ´ 300 mL
(13.2) an almost constant temperature or one with minimum varia-
Sample Volume, mL tion. Knowing the temperature of the water supply is impor-
tant because the rates of biological and chemical processes
Example 13.2 depend on it. Temperature affects the oxygen content of the
water (oxygen levels become lower as temperature increases);
Problem: The BOD5 test is completed. Bottle 1 of the test the rate of photosynthesis by aquatic plants; the metabolic
had a DO of 7.1 mg/L at the start of the test. After 5 days, rates of aquatic organisms; and the sensitivity of organisms to
toxic wastes, parasites, and diseases. Causes of temperature separately from total hardness. Its concentration in waters
change include weather, removal of shading stream bank veg- can range from zero to several thousand mg/L, as CaCO3.
etation, impoundments (a body of water confined by a barrier, Likewise, when measuring magnesium hardness, magnesium
such as a dam), and discharge of cooling water, urban storm- is routinely determined by subtracting calcium hardness from
water, and groundwater inflows to the steam. total hardness. There is usually less magnesium than calcium
in natural water. Lime dosage for water softening operation is
Sampling and Equipment Considerations partly based on the concentration of magnesium hardness in
Temperature—for example, in a stream—varies with width the water.
and depth, and the temperature of well-sunned portions of a In the hardness test, the sample must be carefully mea-
stream can be significantly higher than the shaded portion of sured, and then a buffer is added to the sample to correct pH
the water on a sunny day. In a small stream, the temperature for the test and an indicator to signal the titration endpoint.
will be relatively constant as long as the stream is uniformly The indicator reagent is normally blue in a sample of pure
in sun or shade. In a large stream, the temperature can vary water, but if calcium or magnesium ions are present in the
considerably with width and depth, regardless of shad. If safe sample, the indicator combines with them to form a red-col-
to do so, temperature measurements should be collected at ored complex. The titrant in this test is EDTA (ethylenediami-
varying depths and across the surface of the stream to obtain netetraacetic acid, used with its salts in the titration method),
vertical and horizontal temperature profiles. This can be done a “chelant” which actually “pulls” the calcium and magne-
at each site at least once to determine the necessity of col- sium ions away from a red-colored complex. The EDTA is
lecting a profile during each sampling visit. The temperature added dropwise to the sample until all the calcium and mag-
should be measured at the same place every time. nesium ions have been “chelated” away from the complex and
Temperature is measured in the stream with a thermom- the indicator returns to its normal blue color. The amount of
eter or a meter. Alcohol-filled thermometers are preferred EDTA required to cause the color change is a direct indication
over mercury-filled because they are less hazardous if bro- of the amount of calcium and magnesium ions in the sample.
ken. Armored thermometers for field use can withstand more Some hardness kits include an additional indicator that is
abuse than unprotected glass thermometers and are worth the specific for calcium. This type of kit will provide three read-
additional expense. Meters for other tests (such as pH(acidity) ings: total hardness, calcium hardness, and magnesium hard-
or dissolved oxygen) also measure temperature and can be ness. For interference, precision, and accuracy, consult the
used instead of a thermometer. latest edition of Standard Methods.
Hardness Measurement pH Measurement

Hardness refers primarily to the amount of calcium and mag- pH is defined as the negative log of the hydrogen ion concen-
nesium in the water. Calcium and magnesium enter water tration of the solution. This is a measure of the ionized hydro-
mainly by leaching of rocks. Calcium is an important com- gen in solution. Simply, it is the relative acidity or basicity
ponent of aquatic plant cell walls and the shells and bones of of the solution. The chemical and physical properties and the
many aquatic organisms. Magnesium is an essential nutrient reactivity of almost every component in water are dependent
for plants and is a component of the chlorophyll molecule. upon pH. It relates to corrosivity, contaminant solubility, and
Hardness test kits express test results in ppm of CaCO3, but the water’s conductance, and has a secondary MCL range set
these results can be converted directly to calcium or magne- at 6.5–8.5.
sium concentrations:
Analytical and Equipment Considerations
Calcium Hardness as ppm CaCO3 ´ 0.40 The pH can be analyzed in the field or in the lab. If analyzed
= ppm Ca (13.5) in the lab, it must be measured within two hours of the sample
collection, because the pH will change from the carbon diox-
Magnesium Hardness as ppm CaCO3 ´ 0.24 ide from the air as it dissolves in the water, bringing the pH
toward 7. If your program requires a high degree of accuracy
= ppm Mg (13.6) and precision in pH results, the pH should be measured with
a laboratory quality pH meter and electrode. Meters of this
Note: Because of less contact with soil minerals and more quality range in cost from around $250–$1000. Color com-
contact with rain, surface raw water is usually softer than parators and pH “pocket pals” are suitable for most other pur-
groundwater. poses. The cost of either of these is in the $50 range. The
As a rule, when hardness is greater than 150 mg/L, soft- lower cost of the alternatives might be attractive if multiple
ening treatment may be required for public water systems. samplers are used to sample several sites at the same time.
Hardness determination via testing is required to ensure effi-
ciency of treatment. pH Meters
Note: Keep in mind that when measuring calcium hard- A pH meter measures the electric potential (millivolts) across
ness, the concentration of calcium is routinely measured an electrode when immersed in water. This electric potential
is a function of the hydrogen ion activity in the sample; there- the test for it is an indication of the effectiveness of filtra-
fore, pH meters can display results in either millivolts (mV) tion of water supplies. It is important to note that turbidity
or pH units. A pH meter consists of a potentiometer, which removal is the principal reason for chemical addition, settling,
measures electric potential where it meets the water sample; coagulation, settling, and filtration in potable water treatment.
a reference electrode, which provides a constant electric Sources of turbidity include:
potential; and a temperature compensating device, which
adjusts the readings according to the temperature of the sam- 1. Soil erosion
ple (since pH varies with temperature). The reference and 2. Waste discharge
glass electrodes are frequently combined into a single probe 3. Urban runoff
called a combination electrode. A wide variety of meters are 4. Eroding stream banks
available, but the most important part of the pH meter is the 5. Large numbers of bottom feeders (such as carp),
electrode. Thus, purchasing a good, reliable electrode and which stir up bottom sediments
following the manufacturer’s instructions for proper main- 6. Excessive algal growth
tenance is important. Infrequently used or improperly main-
tained electrodes are subject to corrosion, which makes them Sampling and Equipment Considerations
highly inaccurate. Turbidity can be useful as an indicator of the effects of run-
off from construction, agricultural practices, logging activ-
ity, discharges, and other sources. Turbidity often increases
pH “Pocket Pals” and Color Comparators
sharply during rainfall, especially in developed watersheds,
pH “pocket pals” are electronic handheld “pens” that are which typically have relatively high proportions of impervi-
dipped in the water, providing a digital readout of the pH. ous surfaces. The flow of stormwater runoff from impervious
They can be calibrated to only one pH buffer. (Lab meters, on surfaces rapidly increases stream velocity, which increases
the other hand, can be calibrated to two or more buffer solu- the erosion rates of streambanks and channels. Turbidity
tions and thus are more accurate over a wide range of pH mea- can also rise sharply during dry weather if Earth-disturbing
surements.) Color comparators involve adding a reagent to the activities occur in or near a stream without erosion control
sample that colors the sample water. The intensity of the color practices in place.
is proportional to the pH of the sample, then matched against Regular monitoring of turbidity can help detect trends that
a standard color chart. The color chart equates particular might indicate increasing erosion in developing watersheds.
colors to associated pH values, which can be determined by However, turbidity is closed related to stream flow and veloc-
matching the colors from the chart to the color of the sample. ity and should be correlated with these factors. Comparisons
For instructions on how to collect and analyze samples, refer of the change in turbidity over time, therefore, should be made
to Standard Methods (APHA, 1998). at the same point at the same flow.
Keep in mind that turbidity is not a measurement of the
amount of suspended solids present or the rate of sedimenta-
Turbidity Measurement
tion of a stream because it measures only the amount of light
Turbidity is a measure of water clarity—how much the mate- that is scattered by suspended particles. Measurement of total
rial suspended in water decreases the passage of light through solids is a more direct measurement of the amount of material
the water. Turbidity consists of suspended particles in the suspended and dissolved in water.
water and may be caused by a number of materials, organic Turbidity is generally measured by using a turbidity meter
and inorganic. These particles are typically in the size range or turbidimeter. The turbidimeter is a modern nephelometer
of 0.004-mm (clay) to 1.0 mm (sand). The occurrence of tur- originally, a box containing a light bulb which directed light
bid source waters may be permanent or temporary. It can at a sample. The amount of light scattered at right angles by
affect the color of the water. Higher turbidity increases water the turbidity particles was measured, as a measure of the tur-
temperatures, because suspended particles absorb more heat. bidity in the sample, and registered as nephelometric turbid-
This in turn reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen ity units (NTU). The turbidimeter uses a photoelectric cell to
(DO) because warm water holds less DO than cold. Higher register the scattered light on an analog or digital scale, and
turbidity also reduces the amount of light penetrating the the instrument is calibrated with permanent turbidity stan-
water, which reduces photosynthesis and the production of dards composed of the colloidal substance, formazin. Meters
DO. Suspended materials can clog fish gills, reducing resis- can measure turbidity over a wide range—from 0 NTUs to
tance to disease in fish, lowering growth rates, and affecting 1,000 NTUs. A clear mountain stream might have a turbidity
egg and larval development. As the particles settle, they can of around 1 NTU, whereas a large river like the Mississippi
blanket the stream bottom (especially in slower waters) and might have a dryweather turbidity of 10 NTUs. Because these
smother fish eggs and benthic macroinvertebrates values can jump into hundreds of NTUs during runoff events,
Turbidity also affects treatment plant operations. For the turbidity meter to be used should be reliable over the range
example, turbidity hinders disinfection by shielding microbes, in which you will be working. Meters of this quality cost
some of them pathogens, from the disinfectant. Obviously, this about $800. Many meters in this price range are designed for
is the most important significance of turbidity monitoring; field or lab use (USEPA, 2000).
An operator may also take samples to a lab for analysis. in centimeters, and has found tube readings to relate fairly
Another approach, discussed previously, is to measure trans- well to lab measurements of turbidity and total suspended sol-
parency (an integrated measure of light scattering and absorp- ids, although it does not recommend the transparency tube
tion) instead of turbidity. Water clarity/transparency can be for applications where precise and accurate measurement is
measured using a Secchi disk (see Figure 13.11) or transpar- required or in highly colored waters. The TVA and MPCA
ency tube. The Secchi disk can only be used in deep, slow- recommended the following sampling considerations:
moving rivers; the transparency tube (a comparatively new
development) is gaining acceptance in and around the coun- 1. Collect the sample in a bottle or bucket in mid-
try, but is not in wide use. stream and at mid-depth if possible. Avoid stagnant
water and sample as far from the shoreline as is safe.
Using a Secchi Disk Avoid collecting sediment from the bottom of the
A Secchi disk is a black and white disk that is lowered by hand stream.
into the water to the depth at which it vanishes from sight (see 2. Face upstream as you fill the bottle or bucket.
Figure 13.11). The distance to vanishing is then recorded—the 3. Take readings in open but shaded conditions. Avoid
clearer the water, the greater the distance. Secchi disks are direct sunlight by turning your back to the sun.
simple to use and inexpensive. For river monitoring they have 4. Carefully stir or swish the water in the bucket or
limited use, however, because in most cases the river bottom bottle until it is homogeneous, taking care not to
will be visible and the disk will not reach a vanishing point. produce air bubbles (these scatter light and affect
Deeper, slower-moving rivers are the most appropriate places the measurement). Then pour the water slowly in
for Secchi disk measurement, although the current might the tube while looking down the tube. Measure the
require that the disk be extra-weighted so it does not sway and depth of the water column in the tube at the point
make measurement difficult. Secchi disks cost about $50 but where the symbol just disappears.
can be homemade.
The line attached to the Secchi disk must be marked in water-
Orthophosphate Measurement
proof ink according to units designated by the sampling program.
Many programs require samplers to measure to the nearest 1/10 Earlier we discussed the nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen.
m. Meter intervals can be tagged (e.g., with duct tape) for ease of Both phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrients for
use. To measure water clarity with a Secchi disk: the plants and animals that make up the aquatic food web.
Because phosphorus is the nutrient in short supply in most
1. Check to make sure that the Secchi disk is securely freshwater systems, even a modest increase in phosphorus can
attached to the measured line. (under the right conditions) set off a whole chain of undesir-
2. Lean over the side of the boat and lower the Secchi able events in a stream, including accelerated plant growth,
disk into the water, keeping your back to the sun to algae blooms, low dissolved oxygen, and the death of certain
block glare. fish, invertebrates, and other aquatic animals. Phosphorus
3. Lower the disk until it disappears from view. Lower comes from many sources, both natural and human. These
it one-third of a meter and then slowly raise the disk include soil and rocks, wastewater treatment plants, runoff
until it just reappears. Move the disk up and down from fertilized lawns and cropland, failing septic systems,
until you find the exact vanishing point. runoff from animal manure storage areas, disturbed land
4. Attach a clothespin to the line at the point where areas, drained wetlands, water treatment, and commercial
the line enters the water. Record the measurement cleaning preparations.
on your data sheet. Repeating the measurement pro-
vides you with a quality control check. Forms of Phosphorus
Phosphorus has a complicated story. Pure, elemental phos-
The key to consistent results is to train samplers to follow phorus (P) is rare. In nature, phosphorus usually exists as part
standard sampling procedures, and if possible, have the same of a phosphate molecule (PO4). Phosphorus in aquatic sys-
individual take the reading at the same site throughout the tems occurs as organic phosphate and inorganic phosphate.
season. Organic phosphate consists of a phosphate molecule associ-
ated with a carbon-based molecule, as in plant or animal tis-
Transparency Tube sue. Phosphate that is not associated with organic material is
Pioneered by Australia’s Department of Conservation, the inorganic, the form required by plants. Animals can use either
transparency tube is a clear, narrow plastic tube marked in organic or inorganic phosphate. Both organic and inorganic
units with a dark pattern painted on the bottom. Water is phosphate can be either dissolved in the water or suspended
poured into the tube until the pattern disappears. Some U.S. (attached to particles in the water column).
volunteer monitoring programs (e.g., the Tennessee Valley
Authority (TWA) Clean Water Initiative and the Minnesota The Phosphorus Cycle
Pollution Control Agency (MPCA)) are testing the transpar- Phosphorus cycles through the environment, changing form
ency tube in streams and rivers. MPCA uses tubes marked as it does so. Aquatic plants take in dissolved inorganic
phosphorus, as it becomes part of their tissues. Animals get orthophosphate is measured by the ascorbic acid method.
the organic phosphorus they need by eating either aquatic Because the sample is not filtered, the procedure measures
plants and other animals or decomposing plant and animal both dissolved and suspended orthophosphate. The dissolved
material. In water bodies, as plants and animals excrete wastes phosphorustest measures that fraction of the total phosphorus
or die, the organic phosphorus they contain sinks to the bot- that is in solution in the water (as opposed to being attached
tom, where bacterial decomposition converts it back to inor- to suspended particles). It is determined by first filtering the
ganic phosphorus, both dissolved and attached to particles. sample, then analyzing the filtered sample for total phospho-
This inorganic phosphorus gets back into the water column rus. Insoluble phosphorus is calculated by subtracting the dis-
when animals, human activity, interactions, or water currents solved phosphorus result from the total phosphorus result.
stir up the bottom. Then plants take it up and the cycle begins All these tests have one thing in common—they all depend
again. In a stream system, the phosphorus cycle tends to move on measuring orthophosphate. The total orthophosphate test
phosphorus downstream as the current carries decomposing measures the orthophosphate that is already present in the
plant and animal tissue and dissolved phosphorus. It becomes sample. The others measure that which is already present and
stationary only when it is taken up by plants or is bound to that which is formed when the other forms of phosphorus are
particles that settle to the bottom of ponds. converted to orthophosphate by digestion. Monitoring phos-
In the field of water quality chemistry, phosphorus is phorus involves two basic steps:
described by several terms. Some of these terms are chem-
istry based (referring to chemically based compounds), and 1. Collecting a water sample
others are methods based (they describe what is measured 2. Analyzing it in the field or lab for one of the types of
by a particular method). The term orthophosphateis a chem- phosphorus described above
istry-based term that refers to the phosphate molecule all
by itself. More specifically, orthophosphate is simple phos- Sampling and Equipment Considerations
phate, or reactive phosphate, i.e., Na3PO4, sodium phosphate Sample containers made of either some form of plastic or
(tribasic), NaH2PO4, and sodium phosphate (monobasic). Pyrex® glass are acceptable to USEPA. Because phosphorus
Orthophosphate is the only form of phosphate that can be molecules have a tendency to “adsorb” (attach) to the inside
directly tested for in the laboratory, and is the form that bacte- surface of sample containers, if containers are to be reused,
ria use directly for metabolic processes. Reactive phosphorus they must be acid-washed to remove adsorbed phosphorus.
is a corresponding method-based term that describes what is The container must be able to withstand repeated contact
actually being measured when the test for orthophosphate is with hydrochloric acid. Plastic containers, either high-density
being performed. Because the lab procedure isn’t quite per- polyethylene or polypropylene, might be preferable to glass
fect, mostly orthophosphate is obtained along with a small from a practical standpoint because they are better able to
fraction of some other forms. More complex inorganic phos- withstand breakage. Some programs use disposable, sterile,
phate compounds are referred to as condensed phosphatesor plastic Whirl-pak® bags. The size of the container depends
polyphosphates. The method-based term for these forms in on the sample amount needed for the phosphorus analysis
acid hydrolyzable. method chosen, and the amount needed for other analyses to
be performed.
Testing Phosphorus All containers that will hold water samples or come into
Testing phosphorus is challenging because it involves measur- contact with reagents used in the orthophosphate test must be
ing very low concentrations, down to 0.01 mg/L or even lower. dedicated. They should not be used for other tests, to elimi-
Even such very low concentrations of phosphorus can have a nate the possibility that reagents containing phosphorus will
dramatic impact on streams. Less sensitive methods should be contaminate the labware. All labware should be acid-washed.
used only to identify serious problem areas. While many tests The only form of phosphorus this text recommends for
for phosphorus exist, only four are likely to be performed by field analysis is total orthophosphate, which uses the ascorbic
most samplers. The total orthophosphatetest is largely a mea- acid method on an untreated sample. Analysis of any of the
sure of orthophosphate. Because the sample is not filtered, the other forms requires adding potentially hazardous reagents,
procedure measures both dissolved and suspended orthophos- heating the sample to boiling, and using too much time and
phate. The USEPA-approved method for measuring is known too much equipment to be practical. In addition, analysis for
as the ascorbic acid method. Briefly, a reagent (either liquid or other forms of phosphorus is prone to errors and inaccuracies
powder) containing ascorbic acid and ammonium molybdate in field situations. Pretreatment and analysis for these other
reacts with orthophosphate in the sample to form a blue com- forms should be handled in a laboratory.
pound. The intensity of the blue color is directly proportional
to the amount of orthophosphate in the water. Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate
The total phosphatetest measures all the forms of phospho- In the ascorbic acid method, a combined liquid or prepack-
rus in the sample aged powder reagent consisting of sulfuric acid, potassium
(orthophosphate, condensed phosphate, and organic phos- antimonyl tartrate, ammonium molybdate, and ascorbic acid
phate) by first “digesting” (heating and acidifying) the sample (or comparable compounds) is added to either 50 mL or 25
to convert all the other forms to orthophosphate, then the mL of the water sample. This colors the sample blue in direct
proportion to the amount of orthophosphate in the sample. with nitrogen-rich organic matter might show low nitrates.
Absorbance or transmittance is then measured after 10 min, Decomposition of the organic matter lowers the dissolved
but before 30 min, using a color comparator with a scale in oxygen level, which in turn slows the rate at which ammonia
milligrams per liter that increases with the increase in color is oxidized to nitrite (NO2) and then to nitrate (NO3). Under
hue, or an electronic meter that measures the amount of light such circumstances, monitoring for nitrites or ammonia (con-
absorbed or transmitted at a wavelength of 700–880 nm siderably more toxic to aquatic life than nitrate) might be also
(again, depending on manufacturer’s directions). necessary. (See Standard Methodssections 4500-NH3 and
A color comparator may be useful for identifying heav- 4500-NH2 for appropriate nitrite methods.) Water samples
ily polluted sites with high concentrations (greater than 0.1 to be tested for nitrate should be collected in glass or poly-
mg/L). However, matching the color of a treated sample to a ethylene containers that have been prepared by using Method
comparator can be very subjective, especially at low concen- B (described previously). Two methods are typically used for
trations, and lead to variable results. nitrate testing: the cadmium reduction method and the nitrate
A field spectrophotometer or colorimeter with a 2.5-cm electrode. The more commonly used cadmium reduction
light path and an infrared photocell (set for a wavelength of method produces a color reaction measured either by compar-
700–880 nm) is recommended for accurate determination of ison to a color wheel or by use of a spectrophotometer. A few
low concentrations (between 0.2 mg/L and 0.02 mg/L). Use programs also use a nitrate electrode, which can measure in
of a meter requires that a prepared known standard concen- the range of 0–100-mg/L nitrate. A newer colorimetric immu-
tration be analyzed ahead of time to convert the absorbance noassay technique for nitrate screening is also now available.
readings of a stream sample to milligrams per liter, or that the
meter reads directly in milligrams per liter. Cadmium Reduction Method
For information on how to prepare standard concentrations In the cadmium reduction method, nitrate is reduced to nitrite
and on how to collect and analyze samples, refer to Standard by passing the sample through a column packed with acti-
Methods and USEPA’s Methods for Chemical Analysis of vated cadmium. The sample is then measured quantitatively
Water and Wastes(2nd ed., 1991, Method 365.2). for nitrite.
More specifically, the cadmium reduction method is a
colorimetric method that involves contact of the nitrate in
Nitrates Measurement
the sample with cadmium particles, which cause nitrates to
As mentioned, nitrates are a form of nitrogen found in several be converted to nitrites. The nitrites then react with another
different forms in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. These reagent to form a red color, in proportional intensity to the
forms of nitrogen include ammonia (NH3), nitrates (NO3), original amount of nitrate. The color is measured either by
and nitrites (NO2). Nitrates are essential plant nutrients, but comparison to a color wheel with a scale in milligrams per
excess amounts can cause significant water quality prob- liter that increases with the increase in color hue, or by use of
lems. Together with phosphorus, nitrates in excess amounts an electronic spectrophotometer that measures the amount of
can accelerate eutrophication, causing dramatic increases in light absorbed by the treated sample at a 543-nm wavelength.
aquatic plant growth and changes in the types of plants and The absorbance value converts to the equivalent concentra-
animals that live in the stream. This, in turn, affects dissolved tion of nitrate against a standard curve. Methods for mak-
oxygen, temperature, and other indicators. Excess nitrates ing standard solutions and standard curves are presented in
can cause hypoxia (low levels of dissolved oxygen) and can Standard Methods.
become toxic to warm-blooded animals at higher concentra- Before each sampling run, the sampling/monitoring super-
tions (10 mg/L or higher) under certain conditions. The natu- visor should create this curve. The curve is developed by
ral level of ammonia or nitrate in surface water is typically making a set of standard concentrations of nitrate, reacting
low (less than 1 mg/L); in the effluent of wastewater treat- them, and developing the corresponding color, then plotting
ment plants, it can range up to 30 mg/L. Conventional potable the absorbance value for each concentration against concen-
water treatment plants cannot remove nitrate. High concentra- tration. A standard curve could also be generated for the color
tions must be prevented by controlling the input at the source. wheel. Use of the color wheel is appropriate only if nitrate
Sources of nitrates include wastewater treatment plants, run- concentrations are greater than 1 mg/L. For concentrations
off from fertilized lawns and cropland, failing on-site septic below 1 mg/L, use a spectrophotometer. Matching the color
systems, runoff from animal manure storage areas, and indus- of a treated sample at low concentrations to a color wheel (or
trial discharges that contain corrosion inhibitors. cubes) can be very subjective and can lead to variable results.
Color comparators can, however, be effectively used to iden-
Sampling and Equipment Considerations tify sites with high nitrates.
Nitrates from land sources end up in rivers and streams more This method requires that the samples being treated are
quickly than other nutrients like phosphorus, because they clear. If a sample is turbid, filter it through a 0.45-micron fil-
dissolve in water more readily than phosphorus, which has ter. Be sure to test to make sure the filter is nitrate-free. If cop-
an attraction for soil particles. As a result, nitrates serve as per, iron, or other metals are present in concentrations above
a better indicator of the possibility of a source of sewage or several mg/L, the reaction with the cadmium will slow down
manure pollution during dry weather. Water that is polluted and the reaction time must be increased.
The reagents used for this method are often prepackaged placed in water with a very low level of solids (distilled water,
for different ranges, depending on the expected concentration for example) swells because water tends to move into its cells,
of nitrate in the stream. Manufacturers, for example, provide which have a higher concentration of solids. An organism
reagents for the following ranges: low (0–0.40 mg/L), medium placed in water with a high concentration of solids shrinks
(0–15 mg/L), and high (0–30 mg/L). Determining the appro- somewhat, because the water in its cells tends to move out.
priate range for the stream being monitored is important. This in turn affects the organism’s ability to maintain the
proper cell density, making keeping its position in the water
Nitrate Electrode Method column difficult. It might float up or sink down to a depth to
A nitrate electrode(used with a meter) is similar in function which it is not adapted, and it might not survive.
to a dissolved oxygen meter. It consists of a probe with a sen- Higher concentrations of suspended solids can serve as car-
sor that measures nitrate activity in the water; this activity riers of toxins, which readily cling to suspended particles. This
affects the electric potential of a solution in the probe. This is particularly a concern where pesticides are being used on
change is then transmitted to the meter, which converts the irrigated crops. Where solids are high, pesticide concentrations
electric signal to a scale that is read in millivolts; then the may increase well beyond those of the original application as the
millivolts are converted to mg/L of nitrate by plotting them irrigation water travels down irrigation ditches. Higher levels of
against a standard curve. The accuracy of the electrode can solids can also clog irrigation devices and might become so high
be affected by high concentrations of chloride or bicarbon- that irrigated plant roots will lose water rather than gain it.
ate ions in the sample water. Fluctuating pH levels can also A high concentration of total solids will make drinking
affect the meter reading. water unpalatable, and might have an adverse effect on people
Nitrate electrodes and meters are expensive compared to who are not used to drinking such water. Levels of total solids
field kits that employ the cadmium reduction method. (The that are too high or too low can also reduce the efficiency of
expense is comparable, however, if a spectrophotometer is wastewater treatment plants, as well as the operation of indus-
used rather than a color wheel.) Meter/probe combinations trial processes that use raw water.
run between $700 and $1200, including a long cable to con- Total solids affect water clarity. Higher solids decrease the
nect the probe to the meter. If the program has a pH meter that passage of light through water, thereby slowing photosynthe-
displays readings in millivolts, it can be used with a nitrate sis by aquatic plants. Water heats up more rapidly and holds
probe and no separate nitrate meter is needed. Results are more heat; this, in turn, might adversely affect aquatic life
read directly as milligrams per liter. adapted to a lower temperature regime.
Although nitrate electrodes and spectrophotometers can Sources of total solids include industrial discharges, sew-
be used in the field, they have certain disadvantages. These age, fertilizers, road runoff, and soil erosion. Total solids are
devices are more fragile than the color comparators and are measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L).
therefore more at risk of breaking in the field. They must be
carefully maintained and must be calibrated before each sam- Solids Sampling and Equipment Considerations
ple run, and if many tests are being run, between samplings. When conduction solids testing, there are many things that
This means that samples are best tested in the lab. Note that affect the accuracy of the test or result in wide variations in
samples to be tested with a nitrate electrode should be at room results for a single sample, including:
temperature, whereas color comparators can be used in the
field with samples at any temperature. 1. Drying temperature
2. Length of drying time
3. Condition of desiccator and desiccant
Solids Measurement
4. Non-representative samples’ lack of consistency in
Solids in water are defined as any matter that remains as resi- test procedure
due upon evaporation and drying at 103°C. They are sepa- 5. Failure to achieve constant weight prior to calculat-
rated into two classes: suspended solids and dissolved solids. ing results
Total Solids = Suspended Solids + Dissolved Solids
(nonfilterable residue) (filterable residue) Several precautions that can help to increase the reliability of
test results:
As shown above, total solids are dissolved solids plus sus-
pended and settleable solids in water. In natural freshwater 1. Use extreme care when measuring samples, weigh-
bodies, dissolved solids consist of calcium, chlorides, nitrate, ing materials, and drying or cooling samples.
phosphorus, iron, sulfur, and other ions—particles that will 2. Check and regulate oven and furnace temperatures
pass through a filter with pores of around 2 microns (0.002 cm) frequently to maintain the desired range.
in size. Suspended solids include silt and clay particles, plank- 3. Use an indicator drying agent in the desiccator that
ton, algae, fine organic debris, and other particulate matter. changes color when it is no longer good—change or
These are particles that will not pass through a 2-micron filter. regenerate the desiccant when necessary.
The concentration of total dissolved solids affects the 4. Keep desiccator cover greased with the appropri-
water balance in the cells of aquatic organisms. An organism ate type of grease—this will seal the desiccator and
prevent moisture from entering the desiccator as the In sampling for total suspended solids (TSS), samples may
test glassware cools. be either grab or composite and can be collected in either
5. Check ceramic glassware for cracks and glass fiber glass or plastic containers. TSS samples can be preserved by
filters for possible holes. A hole in a glass filter will refrigeration at or below 4°C (not frozen). However, compos-
cause solids to pass through and give inaccurate ite samples must be refrigerated during collection. The maxi-
results. mum holding time for preserved samples is 7 days.
6. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendation for care
and operation of analytical balances. Test Procedure
To conduct a TSS test procedure, a well-mixed measured
Total solids are important to measure in areas where dis- sample is poured into a filtration apparatus and, with the
charges from sewage treatment plants, industrial plants, or aid of a vacuum pump or aspirator, is drawn through a pre-
extensive crop irrigation may occur. In particular, streams and weighted glass fiber filter. After filtration, the glass filter is
rivers in arid regions, where water is scarce and evaporation dried at 103–105°C, cooled and reweighed. The increase in
is high, tend to have higher concentrations of solids, and are weight of the filter and solids compared to the filter alone
more readily affected by human introduction of solids from represents the total suspended solids. An example of the spe-
land use activities. cific test procedure used for total suspended solids is given
Total solids measurements can be useful as an indicator below:
of the effects of runoff from construction, agricultural prac-
tices, logging activities, sewage treatment plant discharges, 1. Select a sample volume that will yield between 10
and other sources. As with turbidity, concentrations often mg and 200 mg of residue with a filtration time of 10
increase sharply during rainfall, especially in developed min or less.
watersheds. They can also rise sharply during dry weather if Note: If filtration time exceeds 10 min, increase filter
Earth-disturbing activities occur in or near the stream with- area or decrease volume to reduce filtration time.
out erosion control practices in place. Regular monitoring of Note: For non-homogenous samples or samples with
total solids can help detect trends that might indicate increas- very high solids concentrations (i.e., raw wastewater
ing erosion in developing watersheds. Total solids are closely or mixed liquor), use a larger filter to ensure a repre-
related to stream flow and velocity, and should be correlated sentative sample volume can be filtered.
with these factors. Any change in total solids over time should 2. Place pre-weighed glass fiber filter on filtration
be measured at the same site at the same flow. assembly in a filter flask.
Total solids are measured by weighing the amount of 3. Mix sample well, and measure the selected volume
solids present in a known volume of sample; this is accom- of sample.
plished by weighing a beaker, filling it with a known volume, 4. Apply suction to filter flask, and wet filter with a
evaporating the water in an oven and completely drying the small amount of laboratory-grade water to seal it.
residue, then weighing the beaker with the residue. The total 5. Pour the selected sample volume into filtration
solids concentration is equal to the difference between the apparatus.
weight of the beaker with the residue and the weight of the 6. Draw sample through filter.
beaker without it. Since the residue is so light in weight, the 7. Rinse measuring device into filtration apparatus with
lab needs a balance that is sensitive to weights in the range three successive 10 mL portions of laboratory-grade
of 0.0001 g. Balances of this type are called analytical or water. Allow complete drainage between rinsing.
Mettler balances, and they are expensive (around $3000). The 8. Continue suction for 3 min after filtration of the final
technique requires that the beakers be kept in a desiccator, rinse is completed.
a sealed glass container that contains material that absorbs 9. Remove the glass filter from the filtration assembly
moisture and ensures that the weighing is not biased by water (membrane filter funnel or clean Gooch crucible). If
condensing on the beaker. Some desiccants change color to using the large disks and membrane filter assembly,
indicate moisture content. Measurement of total solids cannot transfer the glass filter to a support (aluminum pan or
be done in the field. Samples must be collected using clean evaporating dish) for drying.
glass or plastic bottles, or Whirl-pak® bags and taken to a 10. Place the glass filter with solids and support (pan,
laboratory where the test can be run. dish, or crucible) in a drying oven.
11. Dry filter and solids to constant weight at 103–105°C
Total Suspended Solids (at least 1 h).
As mentioned, the term solids means any material sus- 12. Cool to room temperature in a desiccator.
pended or dissolved in water and wastewater. Although nor- 13. Weigh the filter, and support and record constant
mal domestic wastewater contains a very small amount of weight in test record.
solids (usually less than 0.1%), most treatment processes are
designed specifically to remove or convert solids to a form TSS Calculations
that can be removed or discharged without causing environ- To determine the total suspended solids concentration in
mental harm. mg/L, we use the following equations:
1. To determine weight of dry solids in grams 5. Weigh ignited solids, filter, and support on an ana-
lytical balance.
Dry Solids, g = Wt. of Dry Solids and Filter, g 6. Record weight of ignited solids, filter, and support.
- Wt. of Dry Filter, g (13.7)
Total Volatile Suspended Solids Calculations
2. To determine weight of dry solids in milligrams (mg) To calculate total volatile suspended solids (TVSS) requires
the following information:
Dry Solids, mg = Wt. of Solids and Filter, g
- Wt. of Dry Filter, g (13.8) 1. Weights of dry solids, filter, and support in grams
2. Weight of ignited solids, filter, and support in grams
3. To determine the TSS concentration in mg/L
Tot. Vol. Suspended Solids, mg/L
Dry Solids, mg ´ 1,000 mL
TSS, mg/L = (13.9) (A - C) ´ 1, 000 mg/g ´ 1, 000 mL/L
mL sample = (13.10)
Sample Vol., mL
Example 13.4
where
Problem:Using the data provided below, calculate total A = Weight of Dried Solids, Filter, and Support
suspended solids (TSS): Weight of Ignited Solids, Filter, and Support
Sample Volume, mL 250 mL
Weight of Dry Solids and Filter, g 2.305 g Example 13.5
Weight of Dry Filter, g 2.297 g
Problem: Using the data provided below calculate the
SOLUTION: total volatile suspended solids:
Dry Solids, g = 2.305 g - 2.297 g = 0.008 g
Weight of dried solids, filter, and support = 1.6530 g
Weight of ignited solids, filter, and support =
Dry Solids, mg = 0.008 g ´ 1, 000 mg/g = 8 mg
1.6330 g
Sample volume = 100 mL
8.0 ´ 1, 000 mL/L
TSS, mg/L = - = 32.0 mg/L
250 mL SOLUTION:
(1.6530 g - 1.6330 g) ´ 1, 000 mg/g ´ 1, 000 mL
Volatile Suspended Solids Testing TVSS. =
100 mL
When the total suspended solids are ignited at 550 ± 50°C,
0.02 ´ 1, 000,, 000 mg/L
the volatile (organic) suspended solids of the sample are con- =-
100
verted to water vapor and carbon dioxide and are released to
= 200 mg /L
the atmosphere. The solids that remain after the ignition (ash)
are the inorganic or fixed solids. In addition to the equipment Note: Total fixed suspended solids (TFSS) is the difference
and supplies required for the total suspended solids test, you between the total volatile suspended solids (TVSS) and the
need the following: total suspended solids (TSS) concentrations.
1. Muffle furnace (550 ± 50°C) TFSS (mg/L) = TTS - TVSS (13.11)

2. Ceramic dishes
3. Furnace tongs
Example: 13.6
4. Insulated gloves
Problem: Using the data provided below, calculate the
Test Procedure
total fixed suspended solids:
An example of the test procedure used for volatile suspended
solids is given below. Total Fixed Suspended Solids = 202 mg/L
Total Volatile Suspended Solids = 200 mg/L
1. Place the weighed filter with solids and support from
the total suspended solids test in the muffle furnace.
2. Ignite filter, solids, and support at 550 ± 50°C for SOLUTION:
15–20 min. Total Fixed Suspended Solids, mg/L
3. Remove the ignited solids, filter, and support from
= 202 mg/L - 200 mg/L
the furnace, and partially air cool.
4. Cool to room temperature in a desiccator. = 2 mg/L
Conductivity Testing the water is used to calculate the conductivity per centimeter.
The meter converts the probe measurement to micromhos per
Conductivityis a measure of the capacity of water to pass centimeter (µmhos/cm) displays the result for the user.
an electrical current. Conductivity in water is affected by Note:Some conductivity meters can also be used to test
the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, for total dissolved solids and salinity. The total dissolved sol-
nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate anions (ions that carry a nega- ids concentration in milligrams per liter (mg/L) can also be
tive charge), or sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and alu- calculated by multiplying the conductivity result by a factor
minum cations (ions that carry a positive charge). Organic between 0.55 and 0.9, which is empirically determined, see
compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct Standard Methods, Methods #2510 (APHA, 1998).
electrical current very well, and therefore have a low conduc- Suitable conductivity meters cost about $350. Meters in
tivity when in water. Conductivity is also affected by tempera- this price range should also measure temperature and auto-
ture: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. matically compensate for temperature in the conductivity
Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by reading. Conductivity can be measured in the field or the lab.
the geology of the area through which the water flows. Streams In most cases, collecting samples in the field and taking them
that run through areas with granite bedrock tend to have lower to a lab for testing is probably better. In this way, several teams
conductivity because granite is composed of more inert mate- can collect samples simultaneously. If testing in the field is
rials that do not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when important, meters designed for field use can be obtained for
washed into the water. On the other hand, streams that run around the same cost mentioned above. If samples will be col-
through areas with clay soils tend to have higher conductivity, lected in the field for later measurement, the sample bottle
because of the presence of materials that ionize when washed should be a glass or polyethylene bottle that has been washed
into the water. Groundwater inflows can have the same effects, in phosphate-free detergent and rinsed thoroughly with both
depending on the bedrock they flow through. tap and distilled water. Factory-prepared Whirl-pak® bags
Discharges to streams can change the conductivity depend- may be used.
ing on their make-up. A failing sewage system would raise the
conductivity because of the presence of chloride, phosphate,
and nitrate: an oil spill would lower conductivity. Total Alkalinity
The basic unit of measurement of conductivity is the mho Alkalinity is defined as the ability of water to resist a change in
or siemens. Conductivity is measured in micromhos per cen- pH when acid is added; it relates to the pH buffering capacity
timeter (µmhos/cm) or microsiemens per centimeter (µs/cm). of the water. Almost all natural waters have some alkalinity.
Distilled water has conductivity in the range of 0.5–3 µmhos/ These alkaline compounds in the water such as bicarbonates
cm. The conductivity of rivers in the United States generally (baking soda is one type), carbonates, and hydroxides remove
ranges from 50 µmhos/cm to 1,500 µmhos/cm. Studies of H+ ions and lower the acidity of the water (which means
inland freshwaters indicated that streams supporting good increased pH). They usually do this by combining with the H+
mixed fisheries have a range between 150 µmhos/cm and ions to make new compounds. Without this acid-neutralizing
500 µmhos/cm. Conductivity outside this range could indi- capacity, any acid added to a stream would cause an immedi-
cate that the water is not suitable for certain species of fish ate change in the pH. Measuring alkalinity is important in
or macroinvertebrates. Industrial waters can range as high as determining a stream’s ability to neutralize acidic pollution
10,000 µmhos/cm. from rainfall or wastewater—one of the best measures of the
sensitivity of the stream to acid inputs. Alkalinity in streams
Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations is influenced by rocks and soils, salts, certain plant activities,
Conductivity is useful as a general measure of source water and certain industrial wastewater discharges.
quality. Each stream tends to have a relatively constant Total alkalinity is determined by measuring the amount of
range of conductivity that, once established, can be used as acid (e.g., sulfuric acid) needed to bring the sample to a pH
a baseline for comparison with regular conductivity mea- of 4.2. At this pH all the alkaline compounds in the sample
surements. Significant changes in conductivity could indi- are “used up.” The result is reported as milligrams per liter of
cate that a discharge or some other source of pollution has calcium carbonate (mg/L CaCO3).
entered a stream. The conductivity test is not routine in pota- Testing for alkalinity in potable water treatment is most
ble water treatment, but when performed on source water important with regard to its
is a good indicator of contamination. Conductivity readings relation to coagulant addition; that is, it is important that
can also be used to indicate wastewater contamination or there exists enough natural alkalinity in the water to buf-
saltwater intrusion. fer chemical acid addition so that floc formation will be
Note: Distilled water used for potable water analyses at optimum, and the turbidity removal can proceed. In water
public water supply facilities must have a conductivity of no softening, proper chemical dosage will depend on the type
more than 1 µmho/cm. and amount of alkalinity in the water. For corrosion control,
Conductivity is measured with a probe and a meter. Voltage the presence of adequate alkalinity in a water supply neu-
is applied between two electrodes in a probe immersed in the tralizes any acid tendencies, and prevents it from becoming
sample water. The drop of voltage caused by the resistance of corrosive.
Analytical and Equipment Considerations of pollution present in the water. EPA’s 2001 Total Coliform
For total alkalinity, a double endpoint titration using a pH Rule816-F-01–035:
meter (or pH “pocket pal”) and a digital titrator or burette
is recommended. This can be done in the field or in the lab. 1. Is intended to improve public health protection by
If alkalinity must be analyzed in the field, a digital titrator reducing fecal pathogens to minimal levels through
should be used instead of a burette, because burettes are control of total coliform bacteria, including fecal
fragile and more difficult to set up. The alkalinity method coliforms and Escherichia coli.
described below was developed by the Acid Rain Monitoring 2. Establishes a maximum contaminant level (MCL)
Project of the University of Massachusetts Water Resources based on the presence or absence of total coliforms,
Research Center (River Watch Network, 1992). modifies monitoring requirements including test-
ing for fecal coliforms or E. coli, requires use of a
Burettes, Titrators, and Digital Titrators sample siting plan, and also requires sanitary sur-
for Measuring Alkalinity veys for systems collecting fewer than five samples
The total alkalinity analysis involves titration. In this test, per month.
titration is the addition of small, precise quantities of sulfuric 3. Applies to all public water systems.
acid (the reagent) to the sample, until the sample reaches a 4. Has resulted in reduction in risk of illness from
certain pH (known as an endpoint). The amount of acid used disease-causing organisms associated with sewage
corresponds to the total alkalinity of the sample. Alkalinity or animal wastes. Disease symptoms may include
can be measured using a burette, titrator, or digital titrator diarrhea, cramps, nausea, and possibly jaundice, and
(described below). associated headaches and fatigue.
1. A buretteis a long, graduated glass tube with a Fecal coliforms are used as indicators of possible sewage con-
tapered tip like a pipette and a valve that opens to tamination, because they arecommonly found in human and
allow the reagent to drop out of the tube. The amount animal feces. Although they are not generally harmfulthem-
of reagent used is calculated by subtracting the origi- selves, they indicate the possible presence of pathogenic (dis-
nal volume in the burette from the column left after ease-causing) bacteria, andprotozoans that also live in human
the endpoint has been reached. Alkalinity is calcu- and animal digestive systems. Their presence in streamssug-
lated based on the amount used. gests that pathogenic microorganisms might also be present,
2. Titratorsforcefully expel the reagent by using a man- and that swimming in and/oreating shellfish from the waters
ual or mechanical plunger. The amount of reagent might present a health risk. Since testing directly for the pres-
used is calculated by subtracting the original volume ence of a large variety of pathogens is difficult, time-consum-
in the titrator from the volume left after the ending, and expensive, water isusually tested for coliforms and
point has been reached. Alkalinity is then calculated fecal streptococci instead. Sources of fecal contamination
based on the amount used or is read directly from the tosurface waters include wastewater treatment plants, on-site
titrator. septic systems, domestic and wildanimal manure, and storm
3. Digital titratorshave counters that display num- runoff. In addition to the possible health risks associated with
bers. A plunger is forced into a cartridge contain- thepresence of elevated levels of fecal bacteria, they can also
ing the reagent by turning a knob on the titrator. As cause cloudy water, unpleasant odors,and an increased oxygen
the knob turns, the counter changes in proportion to demand.
the amount of reagent used. Alkalinity is then calcu- Note: In addition to the most commonly tested fecal bac-
lated based on the amount used. Digital titrators cost teria indicators, total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and E. coli,
approximately $100. fecal streptococci and enterococci are also commonly used as
bacteria indicators. The focus of this presentation is on total
Digital titrators and burettes allow for much more precision coliforms are total coliforms and fecal coliforms.
and uniformity in the amount of titrant that is used. Fecal coliforms are widespread in nature. All members of
the total coliform group can occur in human feces, but some
can also be present in animal manure, soil, and submerged
wood, and in other places outside the human body. The use-
Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing
fulness of total coliforms as an indicator of fecal contami-
Much of the information in this section is from USEPA nation depends on the extent to which the bacteria species
(1985, 1986). Fecal coliform bacteriaare non-disease-caus- found are fecal and human in origin. For recreational waters,
ing organisms which are found in the intestinal tract of total coliforms are no longer recommended as an indicator.
all warm-blooded animals. Each discharge of body wastes For drinking water, total coliforms are still the standard test,
contains large amounts of these organisms. The presence because their presence indicates contamination of a water
of fecal coliform bacteria in a stream or lake indicates the supply by an outside source.
presence of human or animal wastes. The number of fecal Fecal coliforms, a subset of total coliform bacteria, are
coliform bacteria present is a good indicator of the amount more fecal-specific in origin. However, even this group
contains a genus, Klebsiella, with species that are not nec-

essarily fecal in origin. Klebsiella is commonly associated TABLE 13.9
with textile and pulp and paper mill wastes. If these sources Public Water System RoutineMonitoring Frequencies
discharge to a local stream, consideration should be given to Population Minimum Samples/Month
monitoring more fecal and human-specific bacteria. For rec-
25–1,000* 1
reational waters, this group was the primary bacteria indicator
1,001–2,500 2
until relatively recently, when USEPA began recommending
2,501–3,300 3
E. coli and enterococci as better indicators of health risk from
3,301–4,100 4
water contact. Fecal coliforms are still being used in many 4,101–4,900 5
states as indicator bacteria. 4,901–5,800 6
5,801–6,700 7
USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule
6,701–7,600 8
Under EPA’s Total Coliform Rule, sampling requirements are 7,601–8,500 9
specified as follows: 8,501–12,900 10
12,901–17,200 15
Routine Sampling Requirements 17,201–21,500 20
1. Total coliform samples must be collected at sites 21,501–25,000 25
which are representative of water quality throughout 25,001–33,000 30
the distribution system according to a written sample 33,001–41,000 40
siting plan subject to state review and revision. 41,001–50,000 50
2. Samples must be collected at regular time intervals 50,001–59,000 60
throughout the month, except groundwater systems 59,001–70,000 70
serving 4,900 persons or fewer, which may collect 70,000–83,000 80
samples on the same day. 83,001–96,000 90
3. Monthly sampling requirements are based on popu- 96,001–130,000 100
lation served (see Table 13.9 for the minimum sam- 130,000–220,000 120
220,001–320,000 150
pling frequency).
320,001–450,000 180
4. A reduced monitoring frequency may be available
450,001–600,000 210
for systems serving 1,000 persons or fewer and using
600,001–780,000 240
only groundwater if a sanitary survey within the past
780,001–970,000 270
5 years shows the system is free of sanitary defects 970,001–1,230,000 330
(the frequency may be no less than one sample per 1,520,001–1,850,000 360
quarter for community and one sample per year for 1,850,001–2,270,000 390
non-community systems). 2,270,001–3,020,000 420
5. Each total coliform-positive routine sample must 3,020,001–3,960,000 450
be tested for the presence of fecal coliforms or ≥3,960,001 480
E. coli.
* Includes PWSs, which have at least 15 service connections, but serve <25

Repeat Sampling Requirements people.
1. Within 24 h of learning of a total coliform-pos-

itive routine sample result, at least three repeat
samples must be collected and analyzed for total Additional Routine Sample Requirements
coliforms. A positive routine or repeat total coliform result requires a
2. One repeat sample must be collected from the same minimum of five routine samples be collected the following
tap as the original sample. month the system provides water to the public unless waived
3. One repeat sample must be collected within five ser- by the state.
vice connections upstream.
4. One repeat sample must be collected within five ser- Other Total Coliform Rule Provisions
vice connections downstream. 1. Systems collecting fewer than five routine sam-
5. Systems that collect one routine sample per month or ples per month must have a sanitary survey every
fewer must collect a fourth repeat sample. 5 years (or every 10 years if it is a non-commu-
6. If any repeat sample is total coliform-positive: nity water system using protected and disinfected
1. The system must analyze the total coliform-pos- groundwater).
itive culture for fecal coliforms or E. coli. 2. Systems using surface water or groundwater under
2. The system must collect another set of repeat the direct influence of surface water (GWUDI) and
samples, as before, unless the MCL has been meeting filtration avoidance criteria must collect and
violated and the system has notified the state. have analyzed one coliform sample each day the
turbidity of the source water exceeds 1 NTU. This container material must be able to withstand high tempera-
sample must be collected from a tap near the first tures and pressure. Plastic containers—either high-density
service connection. polyethylene or polypropylene—might be preferable to glass
from a practical standpoint because they will better withstand
Compliance breakage. In any case, be sure to check the manufacturer’s
Compliance is based on the presence or absence of total coli- specifications to see whether the container can withstand 15
forms. Moreover, compliance is determined each calendar min in an autoclave at a temperature of 121°C without melt-
month the system serves water to the public (or each calendar ing. (Extreme caution is advised when working with an auto-
month that sampling occurs for systems on reduced monitor- clave.) Disposable, sterile, plastic Whirl-pak® bags are used
ing). The results of routine and repeat samples are used to by a number of programs. The size of the container depends
calculate compliance. on the sample amount needed for the bacteria analysis method
In regard to violations, a monthly MCL violation is trig- you choose and the amount needed for other analyses. The
gered if a system collecting fewer than 40 samples per month two basic methods for analyzing water samples for bacteria
has greater than 1 routine/repeat sample per month, which in common use are the membrane filtration and multiple-tube
is total coliform-positive. In addition, a system collecting at fermentation methods (described later).
least 40 samples per month has greater than 5.0% of the rou- Given the complexity of the analysis procedures and the
tine/repeat samples in a month total coliform-positive and is equipment required, field analysis of bacteria is not recom-
technically in violation of the Total Coliform Rule. An acute mended. Bacteria can be either analyzed by the volunteer at a
MCL violation is triggered if any public water system has any well-equipped lab or sent to a state-certified lab for analysis. If
fecal coliform- or E. coli-positive repeat sample or has a fecal you send a bacteria sample to a private lab, make sure that the
coliform- or E. coli-positive routine sample followed by a lab is certified by the state for bacteria analysis. Consider state
total coliform-positive repeat sample. water quality labs, university and college labs, private labs,
The Total Coliform Rule also has requirements for public wastewater treatment plant labs, and hospitals. You might need
notification and reporting. For example, for a monthly MCL to pay these labs for analysis. On the other hand, if you have
violation, the violation must be reported to the state no later a modern lab with the proper equipment and properly trained
than the end of the next business day after the system learns technicians, the fecal coliform testing procedures described in
of the violation. The public must be notified within 14 days. the following section will be helpful. A note of caution: If you
For an acute MCL violation, the violation must be reported to decide to analyze your samples in your own lab, be sure to
the state no later than the end of the next business day after carry out a quality assurance/quality control program.
the system learns of the violation. The public must be notified
within 72 h. Systems with routine or repeat samples that are Fecal Coliform Testing
fecal coliform- or E. coli-positive must notify the state by the Federal regulations cite two approved methods for the deter-
end of the day they are notified of the result or by the end of mination of fecal coliform in water: (1) multiple-tube fermen-
the next business day if the state office is already closed. tation or most probable number (MPN) procedure and (2)
membrane filter (MF) procedure.
Note: Because the MF procedure can yield low or highly
Sampling and Equipment Considerations variable results for chlorinated wastewater, USEPA requires
Bacteria can be difficult to sample and analyze, for many rea- verification of results using the MPN procedure to resolve any
sons. Natural bacteria levels in streams can vary significantly; controversies. However, do not attempt to perform the fecal
bacteria conditions are strongly correlated with rainfall, mak- coliform test using the summary information provided in this
ing the comparison of wet and dry weather bacteria data a handbook. Instead, refer to the appropriate reference cited
problem; many analytical methods have a low level of preci- in the federal regulations for a complete discussion of these
sion, yet can be quite complex to accomplish; and absolutely procedures.
sterile conditions are essential to maintain while collecting
and handling samples. The primary equipment decision to Basic Equipment and Techniques
make when sampling for bacteria is the type and size of sam- Whenever microbiological testing of water samples is per-
ple container you will use. Once you have made that decision, formed, certain general considerations and techniques will be
the same straightforward collection procedure is used, regard- required. Because these are basically the same for each test
less of the type of bacteria being monitored. procedure, they are reviewed here prior to discussion of the
When monitoring bacteria, it is critical that all containers two methods.
and surfaces with which the sample will come into contact
be sterile. Containers made of either some form of plastic or 1. Reagents and Media—All reagents and media uti-
Pyrex glass are acceptable to the USEPA. However, if the lized in performing microbiological tests on water
containers are to be reused, they must be sturdy enough to samples must meet the standards specified in the ref-
survive sterilization using heat and pressure. The contain- erence cited in federal regulations.
ers can be sterilized by using an autoclave, a machine that 2. Reagent Grade Water—Deionized water that is
sterilizes with pressurized steam. If using an autoclave, the tested annually and found to be free of dissolved
metals and bactericidal or inhibitory compounds is Bacteriological Sampling

preferred for use in preparing culture media and test To obtain valid test results that can be utilized in the evalua-
reagents, although distilled water may be used. tion of process efficiency of water quality, proper technique,
3. Chemicals—All chemicals used in fecal coli- equipment, and sample preservation are critical. These factors
form monitoring must be ACS reagent grade or are especially critical in bacteriological sampling:
equivalent.
4. Media—To ensure uniformity in the test proce- 1. Sample dechlorination—When samples of chlo-
dures, the use of dehydrated media is recommended. rinated effluents are to be collected and tested, the
Sterilized, prepared media in sealed test tubes, sample must be dechlorinated. Prior to sterilization,
ampoules, or dehydrated media pads are also accept- place enough sodium thiosulfate solution (10%) in a
able for use in this test. clean sample container to produce a concentration of
5. Glassware and Disposable Supplies—All glass- 100 mg/L in the sample (for a 120-mL sample bottle,
ware, equipment, and supplies used in microbiologi- 0.1 mL is usually sufficient). Sterilize the sample
cal testing should meet the standards specified in the container as previously described.
references cited in federal regulations. 2. Sample procedure:
A. Keep the sample bottle unopened after steriliza-
Sterilization tion until the sample is to be collected.
All glassware used for bacteriological testing must be thor- B. Remove the bottle stopper and hood or cap as
oughly cleaned using a suitable detergent and hot water. one unit. Do not touch or contaminate the cap or
The glassware should be rinsed with hot water to remove the neck of the bottle.
all traces of residual from the detergent and, finally, should C. Submerge the sample bottle in the water to be
be rinsed with distilled water. Laboratories should use a sampled.
detergent certified to meet bacteriological standards or, at D. Fill the sample bottle approximately ¾ full, but
a minimum, rinse all glassware after washing with two tap not less than 100 mL.
water rinses followed by five distilled water rinses. For ster- E. Aseptically replace the stopper or cap on the
ilization of equipment, the hot air sterilizer or autoclave can bottle.
be used. When using the hot air sterilizer, all equipment F. Record the date, time, and location of sampling,
should be wrapped in high-quality (Kraft) paper or placed as well as the sampler’s name and any other
in containers prior to hot air sterilization. All glassware, descriptive information pertaining to the sample.
except those in metal containers, should be sterilized for a 3. Sample preservation and storage—Examination of
minimum of 60 min at 170°C. Sterilization of glassware in bacteriological water samples should be performed
metal containers should require a minimum of two hours. immediately after collection. If testing cannot be
Hot air sterilization cannot be used for liquids. An auto- started within one hour of sampling, the sample
clave can be used, sample bottles, dilution water, culture should be iced or refrigerated at 4°C or less. The
media, and glassware may be sterilized by autoclaving at maximum recommended holding time for fecal coli-
121°C for 15 min. form samples from wastewater is six hours. The stor-
age temperature and holding time should be recorded
Sterile Dilution Water Preparation as part of the test data.
The dilution water used for making sample serial dilutions
is prepared by adding 1.25 mL of stock buffer solution and Multiple-Tube Fermentation Technique
5.0 mL of magnesium chloride solution to 1,000 mL of dis- The multiple fermentation technique for fecal coliform test-
tilled or deionized water. The stock solutions of each chemical ing is useful in determining the fecal coliform density in most
should be prepared as outlined in the reference cited by the water, solid, or semisolid samples. Wastewater testing normally
federal regulations. The dilution water is then dispensed in requires use of the presumptive and confirming test procedures.
sufficient quantities to produce 9 or 99 mL in each dilution It is recognized as the method of choice for any samples that may
bottle following sterilization. If the membrane filter proce- be controversial (enforcement related). The technique is based
dure is used, an additional 60- to 100-mL portions of dilution on the most probable number of bacteria present in a sample
water should be prepared and sterilized to provide rinse water that produces gas in a series of fermentation tubes with various
required by the procedure. volumes of diluted samples. The MPN is obtained from charts
based on statistical studies of known concentrations of bacteria.
Serial Dilution Procedure The technique utilizes a two-step incubation procedure
At times, the density of the organisms in a sample makes it (Figure 13.16). The sample dilutions are first incubated in lau-
difficult to accurately determine the actual number of organ- ryl (sulfonate) tryptose broth for 24–48 h (presumptive test).
isms in the sample. When this occurs, the sample size may Positive samples are then transferred to EC broth and incubated
need to be reduced to as one-millionth of a milliliter. In order for an additional 24 h (confirming test). Positive samples from
to obtain such small volumes, a technique known as serial this second incubation are used to statistically determine the
dilutions has been developed. MPN from the appropriate reference chart. A single media, 24-h
Water No
Sample growth
or growth No
without growth
Cap gas or growth
Lauryl without
tryptose Incubation Negative gas
broth at 35 C Test
Negative
Inverted Test
vial Growth transferred
Fermentation Growth by wire loop Incubation
Tube with gas at 44.5 C
in the
inverted EC
vial medium Growth
with gas
Positive in the
test inverted
vial
Positive
test
Total coliforms test
Fecal coliforms test
FIGURE 13.16 Multiple-tube fermentation technique.
procedure is also acceptable. In this procedure, sample dilutions positive tubes in each of the three selected dilution inocula-
are inoculated in A-1 media and are incubated for three hours tions is used to determine the MPN/100 mL. In selecting the
at 35°C then incubated the remaining 20 h at 44.5°C. Positive dilution inoculations to be used in the calculation, each dilu-
samples from these inoculations are then used to statistically tion is expressed as a ratio of positive tubes per tubes inocu-
determine the MPN value from the appropriate chart. lated in the dilution, i.e., three positive/five inoculated (3/5).
There are several rules to follow in determining the most
Fecal Coliform MPN Presumptive Test Procedure valid series of dilutions. In the following examples, four dilu-
The procedure for the fecal coliform MPN Presumptive test tions were used for the test:
is described below:
1. Using the confirming test data, select the highest
1. Prepare dilutions and inoculate five fermentation dilution showing all positive results (no lower dilu-
tubes for each dilution. tion showing less than all positive) and the next two
2. Cap all tubes, and transfer to incubator. higher dilutions.
3. Incubate 24 + 2 h at 35 ± 0.5°C. 2. If a series shows all negative values with the exception
4. Examine tubes for gas. of one dilution, select the series that places the only
A. Gas present = Positive test—transfer positive dilution in the middle of the selected series.
B. No gas = Continue incubation 3. If a series shows a positive result in a dilution higher than
the selected series (using rule #1), it should be incorpo-
5. Incubate total time 48 ± 3 h at 35 ± 0.5°C rated into the highest dilution of the selected series.
6. Examine tubes for gas. After selecting the valid series, the MPN/1000
A. Gas present = Positive test—transfer mL is determined by locating the selected series
B. No gas = Negative test on the MPN reference chart. If the selected dilution
series matches the dilution series of the reference
Note:Keep in mind that the fecal coliform MPN confirming chart, the MPN value from the chart is the reported
procedure of fecal coliform procedure using A-1 broth test is value for the test. If the dilution series used for the
used to determine the MPN/100 mL. The MPN procedure for test does not match the dilution series of the chart,
fecal coliform determinations requires a minimum of three the test result must be calculated.
dilutions with five tubes/dilution.
MPN/10 ml = MPN chart
Calculation of Most Probable Number (MPN)/100 mL
Sample vol. in 1st dilution chart
Calculation of the MPN test results requires the selection of ´ (13.12)
Sample vol. in 1st dilution sample
a valid series of three consecutive dilutions. The number of
Membrane Filtration Technique Note: Filtration units should be sterile at the

The membrane filtration technique can be useful for deter- start of each filtration series and should be steril-
mining the fecal coliform density in wastewater effluents, ized again if the series is interrupted for 30 min
except for primary treated wastewater that has not been chlo- or more. A rapid interim sterilization can be
rinated or for wastewater containing toxic metals or phenols. accomplished by 2 min exposure to ultraviolet
Chlorinated secondary or tertiary effluents may be tested (UV) light, flowing steam or boiling water.
using this method, but results are subject to verification by 2. Incubation
the MPN technique. The membrane filter technique utilizes a A. Place absorbent pad into culture dish using ster-
specially designed filter pad with uniformly sized pores (open- ile forceps.
ings) that are small enough to prevent bacteria from entering B. Add 1.8–2.0 mL M-FC media to the absorbent
the filter (see Figure 13.17). Another unique characteristic of pad.
the filter allows liquids, such as the media, placed under the C. Discard any media not absorbed by the pad.
filter to pass upward through the filter to provide nourishment D. Filter sample through sterile filter.
required for bacterial growth. E. Remove filter from assembly, and place on absor-
Note: In the membrane filter method, the number of colo- bent pad (grid up).
nies grown estimates the number of coliforms. F. Cover culture dish.
G. Seal culture dishes in a weighted plastic bag.
Membrane Filter Procedure H. Incubate filters in a water bath for 24 h at
The procedure for the membrane filter method is described 44.5 ± 0.2°C.
below:
1. Sample filtration Colony Counting

A. Select a filter, and aseptically separate it from the Upon completion of the incubation period, the surface of the
sterile package. filter will have growths of both fecal coliform and non-fecal
B. Place the filter on the support plate with the grid coliform bacteria colonies. The fecal coliform will appear
side up. blue in color, while non-fecal coliform colonies will appear
C. Place the funnel assembly on the support; secure gray or cream colored. When counting the colonies the entire
as needed. surface of the filter should be scanned using a 10× to 15× bin-
D. Pour 100 mL of sample or serial dilution onto the ocular, wide-field dissecting microscope. The desired range
filter, apply vacuum. of colonies, for the most valid fecal coliform determination
Note: The sample size and/or necessary serial is 20–60 colonies per filter. If multiple sample dilutions are
dilution should produce a growth of 20–60 used for the test, counts for each filter should be recorded on
fecal coliform colonies on at least one filter. The the laboratory data sheet.
selected dilutions must also be capable of show-
ing permit excursions. 1. Too many colonies—Filters that show a growth over
E. Allow all of the liquid to pass through the filter. the entire surface of the filter with no individually
F. Rinse the funnel and filter with three portions identifiable colonies should be recorded as “conflu-
(20–30 mL) of sterile, buffered dilution water. ent growth.” Filters that show a very high number
(Allow each portion to pass through the filter of colonies (greater than 200) should be recorded as
before the next addition). TNTC (too numerous to count).
Water
Sample No growth or
atypical colonies
Funnel and Negative test

Filter Holder Incubation
at 35 C
Filter
Membrane Filter placed in Typical coliform
Suction a culture dish on colonies
Flask M-Endo medium
Positive test
FIGURE 13.17 Membrane filter technique.

2. Not enough colonies—If no single filter meets the 18 colonies

desired minimum colony count (20 colonies), the colonies/100 ml = ´ 100
11.1ml
sum of the individual filter counts and the respective
sample volumes can be used in the formula to calcu- = 162 colonies/100 ml
late the colonies/100 mL.
Note: The USEPA criterion for fecal coliform bacteria
Note: In each of these cases, adjustments in sample dilution in bathing waters is a logarithmic mean of 200 per 100
volumes should be made to ensure future tests meet the crite- mL, based on the minimum of five samples taken over a
30-day period, with not more than 10% of the total sam-
ria for obtaining a valid test result.
ples exceeding 400 per 100 mL. Because shellfish may be
eaten without being cooked, the strictest coliform criterion
Calculations
applies to shellfish cultivation and harvesting. The USEPA
The fecal coliform density can be calculated using the follow- criterion states that the mean fecal coliform concentration
ing formula: should not exceed 14 per 100 mL, with not more than
10% of the samples exceeding 43 per 100 mL.
Colonies counted Interferences

Colonies/100 ml = ´ 100 ml (13.13)
Sample volume, ml Large amounts of turbidity, algae, or suspended solids may
interfere with this technique blocking the filtration of the
sample through the membrane filter. Dilution of these samples
Example 13.8
to prevent this problem may make the test inappropriate for
samples with low fecal coliform densities because the sample
Problem: Using the data shown below, calculate the col-
onies per 100 mL for the influent and effluent samples volumes after dilution may be too small to give representa-
noted. tive results. The presence of large amounts of non-coliform
group bacteria in the samples may also prohibit the use of this
method.
Note: Many NPDES discharge permits require fecal
Inf. Sample Eff. Sample
coliform testing. Results for fecal coliform testing must be
Sample Location Dilutions Dilutions
reported as a geometric mean (average) of all the test results
Sample (mL) 1.0 0.1 0.01 10 1.0 0.1
obtained during a reporting period. A geometric mean, unlike
Colonies counted 97 48 16 10 5 3 an arithmetic mean or average, dampens the effect of very
high or low values that otherwise might cause a non-repre-
sentative result.
SOLUTION:
Step 1: Influent sample Apparent Color Testing/Analysis
Select the influent sample filter that has a colony
Color in water often originates from organic sources: decom-
count in the desired range (20–60). Because one
filter meets this criterion, the remaining influ-
position of leaves, and other forest debris such as bark, pine
ent filters that did not meet the criterion are needles, etc. Tannins and lignins, organic compounds, dis-
discarded. solve in water. Some organics bond to iron to produce soluble
color compounds. Biodegrading algae from recent bloom may
48 colonies cause significant color. Though less likely a source of color
Colonies/100 ml = - ´ 100 ml in water, possible inorganic sources of color are salts of iron,
0.1ml
copper, and potassium permanganate added in excess at the
= 48,000 colonies/100 ml treatment plant.
Note: Noticeable color is an objectionable characteristic
Step 2: Effluent sample that makes the water psychologically unacceptable to the
Because none of the filters for the effluent sample consumer.
meets the minimum test requirement, the colo- Recall that true coloris dissolved. It is measured col-
nies/100 mL must be determined by totaling the
orimetrically and compared against an EPA color standard.
colonies on each filter and the sample volumes
used for each filter.
Apparent colormay be caused by suspended material (turbid-
ity) in the water. It is important to point out that even though it
Total colonies = 10 + 5 + 3 may also be objectionable in the water supply, it is not meant
to be measured in the color analysis or test. Probably the most
= 18 colonies common cause of apparent color is particulate oxidized iron.

Total sample = 10.0 ml + 1.0 ml + 0.1ml By using established color standards, people in different
areas can compare test results. Over the years, several attempts
= 11.1ml have been made to standardize the method of describing the
“apparent” color of water using comparisons to color stan-

dards. Standard Methods (APHA, 1998) recognizes visual TABLE 13.10
comparison method as a reliable method of analyzing water Descriptions of Odors
from the distribution system. One of the visual comparison Nature of Odor Description Examples
methods is the Forel-Ule Color Scale, consisting of a dozen
Aromatic Spicy Camphor, cloves, lavender
shades ranging from deep blue to khaki green, typical of
Balsamic Flowery Geranium, violet, vanilla
offshore and coastal bay waters. By using established color
Chemical Industrial wastes or Chlorine
standards, people in different areas can compare test results. treatments Chlorinous
Another visual comparison method is the Borger Color Hydrocarbon Oil refinery wastes
System, which provides an inexpensive, portable color refer- Medicinal Phenol and iodine
ence for shades typically found in natural waters; it can also be Sulfur Hydrogen sulfide
used for its original purpose—describing the colors of insects Disagreeable Fishy Dead algae
and larvae found in streams of lakes. The Borger Color System Pigpen Algae
also allows the recording of the color of algae and bacteria Septic Stale sewage
on streambeds. To ensure reliable and accurate descriptions of Earthy Damp earth
apparent color, use a system of color comparison that is repro- Peaty Peat
ducible and comparable to the systems used by other groups. Grassy Crushed grass
Note: Do not leave color standard charts and comparators Mustymoldy Decomposing straw
in direct sunlight. Vegetable Root vegetables Damp cellar
Measured levels of color in water can serve as indicators Source: Adapted from Standard Methods, 20th ed.
for a number of conditions. For example, transparent water
with a low accumulation of dissolved minerals and particulate
matter usually appears blue, and indicates low productivity.
describe the smells. Record all observations. (see Standard
Yellow to brown color normally indicates that the water con-
Methods).
tains dissolved organic materials, humic substances from soil,
When treating for odor in water, removal depends upon the
peat, or decaying plant material. Deeper yellow to reddish
source of the odor. Some organic substances that cause odor can
colors indicates some algae and dinoflagellates. A variety of
be removed with powdered activated carbon. If the odor is of
yellows, reds, browns, and grays are indicative of soil runoff.
gaseous origin, scrubbing (aeration) may remove it. Some odor-
Note: Color by itself has no health significance in drink-
causing chemicals can be oxidized to odorless chemicals with
ing waters. A secondary MCL is set at 15 color units, and it
chlorine, potassium permanganate, or other oxidizers. Settling
is recommended that community supplies provide water that
may remove some material which, when later dissolved in the
has less color.
water, may have potential odor-causing capacity. Unfortunately,
When treating for color in water, alum and ferric coagula-
the test for odor in water is subjective—there is no scientific
tion areoften effective. It removes apparent color and often
means of measurement and is not very accurate.
much of the true color. Oxidation of color causing compounds
To test odor in water intended for potable water use, a
to a noncolored version is sometimes effective. Activated
sample is generally heated to 60°C. Odor is observed and
carbon treatment may result in the adsorbtion ofsome of the
recorded. A threshold odor number (TON) is assigned. TON
organics, causing color. For apparent color problems, filtration
is found by using the following equation:
is usually effective in trapping the colored particles.
Odor Analysis of Water Total Volume of Water Sample

TON = (13.14)
Odor is expected in wastewater—the fact is, any water contain- Lowest Sample Volume with Odor
ing waste, especially human waste, has a detectable (expected)
odor associated with it. Odor in a raw water source (for pota-
Chlorine Residual Testing/Analysis
ble water) is caused by a number of constituents. For example,
chemicals that may come from municipal and industrial waste Chlorination is the most widely used means of disinfecting
discharges, or natural sources such as decomposing vegetable water in the U.S. When chlorine gas is dissolved into (pure)
matter or microbial activity may cause odor problems. Odor water, if forms Hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ion, and
affects the acceptability of drinking water, the aesthetics of hydrogen chloride (hydrochloric acid). The total concentra-
recreation water, and the taste of aquatic foodstuffs. tion of HOCl and Ol ion is known as free chlorine residual.
The human nose can accurately detect a wide variety of Currently, federal regulations cite six approved methods for
smells, which is the best odor-detection and testing device determination of total residual chlorine (TRC).
presently available. To measure odor, collect a sample in a
large-mouthed jar. After waving off the air above the water 1. DPD—spectrophotometric
sample with your hand, smell the sample. Use the list of odors 2. Titrimetric—amperometric direct
provided in Table 13.10—a system of qualitative description 3. Titrimetric—iodometric direct
that helps monitor, describe, and record detected odors—to 4. Titrimetric—iodometric back
A. Starch iodine endpoint—iodine titrant 1. 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask

B. Starch iodine endpoint—iodate titrant 2. 10 mL measuring pipettes
3. 15 mL test tubes
5. Amperometric endpoint 4. 1 mL pipettes (graduated to 0.1 mL)
6. DPD-FAS titration 5. Sample cuvettes with 1 cm light path
7. Chlorine electrode
Note: A cuvette is a small, often tubular laboratory vessel,
All of these test procedures are approved methods and, unless often made of glass.
prohibited by the plant’s NPDES discharge permit, can be
used for effluent testing. Based on the current most popular Procedure:
methods usedin the U.S., discussion is limited to: Note: For direct readout colorimeters, follow the procedure
supplied by the manufacturer.
1. DPD-spectrophotometric
2. DPD-FAS titration 1. Prepare a standard curve for TRC concentrations
3. Titrimetric—amperometric direct from 0.05–4.0 mg/L—chlorine versus percent
transmittance.
Note: Treatment facilities required to meet “non-detectable”
total residual chlorine limitations must use one of the test Note: Instructions on how to prepare the TRC concentration
methods specified in the plant’s NPDES discharge permit. curve or a standard curve are normally included in the spec-
For information on any of the other approved methods, refer trophotometer manufacturer’s operating instructions.
to the appropriate reference cited in the federal regulations.
2. Calibrate colorimeter in accordance with the manu-
DPD-Spectrophotometry facturer’s instructions using a laboratory-grade water
Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD) reacts with chlorine blank.
to form a red color. The intensity of the color is directly 3. Add one prepared indicator packet (or tablet) of the
proportional to the amount of chlorine present. This color appropriate size to match sample volume to a clean
intensity is measured using a colorimeter or spectropho- test tube or cuvette; or
tometer. This meter reading can be converted to a chlorine A. Pipette 0.5 mL phosphate buffer solution.
concentration using a graph developed by measuring the B. Pipette 0.5 mL DPD indicator solution.
color intensity produced by solutions with precisely known C. Add 0.1-g Kl (potassium iodide) crystals to a
concentrations of chlorine. In some cases, spectrophotom- clean tube or cuvette.
eters or colorimeters are equipped with scales that display 4. Add 10 mL of sample to the cuvette.
chlorine concentration directly. In these cases, there is no 5. Stopper the cuvette, and swirl to mix the contents
requirement to prepare a standard reference curve. If the well.
direct reading colorimeter is not used, chemicals that are 6. Let stand for 2 min.
required to be used include: 7. Verify the wavelength of the spectrophotometer or
colorimeter, and check and set the 0% T using the
1. Potassium dichromate solution 0.100 N laboratory-grade water blank.
2. Potassium iodine crystals 8. Place the cuvette in the instrument, read %T, and
3. Standard ferrous ammonium sulfate solution record reading.
0.00282 N 9. Determine mg/L TRC from standard curve.
4. Concentrated phosphoric acid
5. Sulfuric acid solution (1 + 5) Note: Calculations are not required in this test because TRC,
6. Barium diphenylamine sulfonate 0.1% mg/L, is read directly from the meter or from the graph.
If an indicator is not used, DPD indicator and phosphate buf- DPD-FAS Titration
fer (DPD prepared indicator and buffer + indicator together) The amount of ferrous ammonium sulfate solution required to
are required. just remove the red color from a total residual chlorine sample
Conducting the test, a direct readout colorimeter designed that has been treated with the DPD indicator can be used to
to meet the test specifications, or a spectrophotometer (wave- determine the concentration of chlorine in the sample. This is
length of 515 nm and light path of at least 1 cm), or a filter known as a titrimetric test procedure. The chemicals used in
photometer with a filter having maximum transmission in the the test procedure include the following:
wavelength range of 490–520 nm and a light path of at least
1 cm are required. In addition, for direct readout colorimeter 1. DPD prepared indicator (buffer and indicator
procedures, a sample test vial is required. When the direct together)
readout colorimeter procedure is not used, the equipment 2. Potassium dichromate solution 0.100 N
required includes: 3. Potassium iodide crystals
4. Standard ferrous ammonium sulfate solution 2. Add 200-mL sample.

0.00282 N 3. Place container on titrator stand and turn on mixer.
5. Concentrated phosphoric acid 4. Add 1-g Kl crystals or 1 mL Kl solution.
6. Sulfuric acid solution (1 + 5) 5. Pipette 1 mL of pH 4 (acetate) buffer into the
7. Barium diphenylamine sulfonate 0.1% container.
6. Titrate with 0.0056 N PAO.
Note: DPD indicator and/or phosphate buffer is not required if
prepared indicator is used. When conducting the test procedure, as the downscale end-
The equipment required for this test procedure includes the point is neared, slow titrant addition to 0.1-mL increments,
following: and note titrant volume used after the increment. When no
needle movement is noted, the endpoint has been reached.
1. 250 mL graduated cylinder Subtract the final increment from the burette reading to deter-
2. 5 mL measuring pipettes mine the final titrant volume. For this procedure, the only cal-
3. 500 mL Erlenmeyer flask culation normally required is:
4. 50 mLburette (graduate to 0.1 mL)
5. Magnetic stirrer and stir bars TRC, mg/l = ml PAO used (13.16)
Procedure:
1. Add the contents of a prepared indicator packet (or
Fluorides
tablet) to the Erlenmeyer flask, or
A. pipette 5 mL phosphate buffer solution into an It has long been accepted that a moderate amount of fluo-
Erlenmeyer flask ride ions (F-) in drinking water contributes to good dental
B. pipette 5 mL DPD indicator solution into the health—it has been added to many community water sup-
flask plies throughout the U.S. to prevent dental caries in children’s
C. add 1-g Kl crystals to the flask teeth. Fluoride is seldom found in appreciable quantities of
2. Add 100 mL of sample to the flask. surface waters and appears in groundwater in only a few geo-
3. Swirl the flask to mix the contents. graphical regions. Fluorides are used to make ceramics and
4. Let the flask stand for 2 min. glass. Fluoride is toxic to humans in large quantities, and to
5. Titrate with ferrous ammonium sulfate (FAS) until some animals. The chemicals added to potable water in treat-
the red color first disappears. ment plants are:
6. Record the amount of titrant.
NaF: Sodium fluoride, solid
The calculation required in this procedure is Na2SiF6 Sodium silicofluoride, solid
H2SiF6 Hexafluorosilicic acid (most widely used)
TRC, mg/l = ml of FAS used (13.15)
Analysis of the fluoride content of water can be performed
In this test procedure, phenylarsine oxide is added to a using the colorimetric method. In this test, fluoride ion reacts
treated sample to determine when the test reaction has been with zirconium ion and produces zirconium fluoride, which
completed. The volume of phenylarsine oxide (PA) used bleaches an organic red dye in direct proportion to its con-
can then be used to calculate the TRC. The chemicals used centration. This can be compared to standards and read
include: colorimetrically.
1. Phenylarsine oxide solution 0.00564 N

2. Potassium dichromate solution 0.00564 N
3. Potassium iodide solution 5% 13.1 Explain (in simple terms) the methods involved in
4. Acetate buffer solution (pH 4.0) analyzing for total coliforms in an effluent sample.
5. Standard arsenite solution 0.1 N 13.2 How soon after the sample is collected must the pH
be tested?
Equipment used includes 13.3 What is a grab sample?
13.4 When is it necessary to use a grab sample?
1. 250 mL graduated cylinder 13.5 What is a composite sample?
2. 5 mL measuring pipettes 13.6 List three sample rules for sample collection.
3. Amperometric titrator 13.7 What is the acceptable preservation method for sus-
pended solids samples?
Procedure: 13.8 Most solids test methods are based upon changes in
1. Prepare amperometric titrator according to weight. What can cause changes in weight during the
manufacturer. testing procedure?
REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING Patrick, R., 1973. Use of Algae, Especially Diatoms, in the
Assessment of Water Quality. In: Cairns, J.&Dickson, K.L.,
APHA, 1971. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Eds. Biological Methods for the Assessment of Water Quality.
Wastewater, 17th ed. Washington, DC: APHA. Special Technical Publications 528. Philadelphia, PA:
APHA, 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water American Society of Testing and Materials.
and Wastewater, 20th ed. Washington, DC: American Water River Water Network, 1992. Phosphorus Monitoring. Washington,
Works Association. DC: USEPA.
AWRI, 2000. Plankton Sampling. Allendale, MI: Robert Annis Rodgers, J.H., Jr., Dickson, K.L., &Cairns, J., Jr., 1979. A Review
Water Resource Institute, Grand Valley State University. and Analysis of Some Methods Used to Measure Functional
AWWA, 1995. Water Treatment, 2nd ed. Denver, CO: American Aspects of Periphyton. In: Weitzel, R.L., Ed. Methods and
Water Works Association. Measurements of Periphyton Communities: A Review. Special
Bahls, L.L., 1993. Periphyton Bioassessment Methods for Montana Technical Publications 690. Washington, DC: American
Streams. Helena, MO: Montana Water Quality Bureau, Society for Testing and Materials.
Department of Health and Environmental Science. Stevenson, R.J., 1996. An Introduction to Algal Ecology in
Barbour, M.T., Gerritsen, J., Snyder, B.D., &Stibling, J.B., 1997. Freshwater Benthic Habitats. In: Stevenson, R.J., Bothwell,
Revision to Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams M., &Lowe, R.L., Eds. Algal Ecology: Freshwater Benthic
and Rivers, Periphytons, Benthic Macroinvertebrates, Ecosystems. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, pp. 3–30.
and Fish. Washington, DC: United States Environmental Stevenson, R.J., 1998. Diatom Indicators of Stream and Wetland
Protection Agency. Stressors in a Risk Management Framework. Environmental
Bly, T.D.&Smith, G.F., 1994. Biomonitoring Our Streams: What’s It Monitoring and Assessment51(1/2):107–108.
All About?Nashville, TN: U.S. Geological Survey. Stevenson, R.J.&Pan, Y., 1999. Assessing Ecological Conditions in
Botkin, D.B., 1990. Discordant Harmonies. New York: Oxford Rivers and Streams with Diatoms. In: Stoermer, E.F.&Smol,
University Press. J.P., Eds. The Diatoms: Application to the Environmental and
Camann, M., 1996. Freshwater Aquatic Invertebrates: Biomonitoring. Earth Sciences. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,
Accessed 11/10/19 @ http://www.humboldt.edu. pp. 11–40.
Cairns, J., Jr.&Dickson, K.L., 1971. A Simple Method for the Tchobanoglous, G.&Schroeder, E.D., 1985. Water Quality. Reading,
Biological Assessment of the Effects of Waste Discharges MA: Addision-Wesley.
on Aquatic Bottom-Dwelling Organisms. Journal of Water USEPA, 1983. Technical Support Manual: Waterbody Survey and
Pollution Control Federation, 43, 755–772. Assessments for Conducting Use Attainability Analyses.
Hauser, B.A., 2002. Practical Hydraulic Handbook. Boca Raton, Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency.
FL: CRC Press. USEPA, 1985. Guidelined for Deriving Numerical Water Quality
Hill, B.H., 1997. The Use of Periphyton Assemblage Data in an Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their
Index of Biotic Integrity. Bulletin of the North American Uses. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency.
Benthological Society, 14, 158. USEPA, 1986. Quality Criteria for Water. Washington, DC:
Huff, W.R., 1993. Biological Indices Define Water Quality Standard. Environmental Protection Agency.
Water Environment and Technology, 5, 21–22. USEPA, 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual.
Karr, J.R., 1981. Assessment of Biotic Integrity Using Fish Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Agency.
Communities. Fisheries, 66(6):21–27. USEPA, 2000. Monitoring Water Quality: Intensive Stream
Karr, J.R., Fausch, K.D., Hagermeier, P.L., Yant, P.R., &Schlosser, Bioassay. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection
I.J., 1986. Assessing Biological Integrity in Running Waters: Agency.
A Method and Its Rationale. Special Publications 5. Chicago, Velz, C.J., 1970. Applied Stream Sanitation. New York: Wiley
IL: Illinois Natural History Survey. Inter-Science.
Kentucky Department of Environmental Protection, 1993. Methods Warren, M.L., Jr.&Burr, B.M.., 1994. Status of Freshwater Fishes
for Assessing Biological Integrity of Surface Waters. of the US: Overview of an Imperiled Fauna. Fisheries, 19(1),
Frankfort, KY: Kentucky Department of Environmental 6–18.
Protection. Weitzel, R.L., 1979. Periphyton Measurements and Applications.
Kittrell, F.W., 1969. A Practical Guide to Water Quality Studies of In: Weitzel, R.L., Ed. Methods and Measurements of
Streams. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Interior. Periphyton Communities: A Review. Special Technical
O’Toole, C., Ed., 1986. The Encyclopedia of Insects. New York: Publications 690. Washington, DC: American Society for
Facts on File, Inc. Testing and Material.
Part IV
Water and Water Treatment
14 Potable Water Source
Because of huge volume and flow conditions, the quality drainage system. It is also called catchment area,
of natural water cannot be modified significantly within watershed, or drainage area.
the body of water. Accordingly, humans must augment Drawdown the distance or difference between the static
Nature’s natural processes with physical, chemical, and level and the pumping level. When the drawdown
biological treatment procedures. Essentially, this qual- for any particular capacity well and rate pump bowls
ity control approach is directed to the water withdrawn, is determined, the pumping level is known for that
which is treated, from a source for a specific use. capacity. The pump bowls are located below the
pumping level so that they will always be underwa-
ter. When the drawdown is fixed or remains steady,
INTRODUCTION the well then furnishes the same amount of water as
is being pumped.
Before presenting a discussion of potential potable water sup-
Groundwater subsurface water occupying a saturated geo-
plies available to us at the current time, it is important that we
logical formation from which wells and springs are
define portable water:
fed.
Potable water is water fit for human consumption and domes-
Hydrology the applied science pertaining to properties, dis-
tic use, which is sanitary and normally free of minerals, tribution, and behavior of water.
organic substances, and toxic agents in excess of reasonable Impermeable a material or substance water will not pass
amounts for domestic usage in the area served, and normally through.
adequate in quantity for the minimum health requirements of Overland flow the movement of water on and just under the
the persons served. earth’s surface.
Permeable a material or substance that water can pass
With regard to a potential potable water supply, the key words through.
are “quality and quantity.” Obviously, if we have a water sup- Porosity the ratio of pore space to total volume. That por-
ply that is unfit for human consumption, we have a quality tion of a cubic foot of soil that is air space and could
problem. If we do not have an adequate supply of quality therefore contain moisture.
water, we have a quantity problem. In this chapter, we dis- Precipitation the process by which atmospheric moisture is
cuss the surface water and groundwater hydrology and the discharged onto the earth’s crust. Precipitation takes
mechanical components associated with the collection and the form of rain, snow, hail, and sleet.
conveyance of water from its source to the public water sup- Pumping level the level at which the water stands when the
ply system for treatment. We also discuss the development of pump is operating.
well supplies. To better comprehend the material presented in Radius of influence the distance from the well to the edge of
this chapter, we have provided the following list of key terms the cone of depression, the radius of a circle around
and their definitions. the well from which water flows into the well.
Raw water the untreated water to be used after treatment for
KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS drinking water.
Recharge area an area from which precipitation flows into
Annular space the space between the casing and the wall underground water sources.
of the hole. Specific yield the geologist’s method for determining the
Aquifer a porous, water-bearing geologic formation. capacity of a given well and the production of a given
Caisson large pipe placed in a vertical position. water-bearing formation; it is expressed as gallons
Cone of depression as the water in a well is drawn down, the per minute per foot of drawdown.
water near the well drains or flows into it. The water Spring a surface feature where without the help of man,
will drain further back from the top of the water water issues from a rock or soil onto the land or into
table into the well as drawdown increases. a body of water, the place of issuance being relatively
Confined aquifer an aquifer that is surrounded by the for- restricted in size.
mation of a less permeable or impermeable material. Static level the height to which the water will rise in the well
Contamination the introduction into water of toxic materi- when the pump is not operating.
als, bacteria, or other deleterious agents that make Surface runoff the amount of rainfall that passes over the
the water unfit for its intended use. surface of the earth.
Drainage basin an area from which surface runoff or Surface water the water on the earth’s surface as distin-
groundwater recharge is carried into a single guished from water underground (groundwater).
425
Unconfined aquifer an aquifer that sits on an impervious beginning or end. As stated earlier, it transports the earth’s
layer, but is open on the top to local infiltration. The water from one location to another. And, as can be seen in
recharge for an unconfined aquifer is local. It is also Figure 14.1, it consists of precipitation, surface runoff, infil-
called a water table aquifer. tration, percolation, and evapotranspiration. In the hydrologic
Water rights the rights, acquired under the law, to use the cycle, water from streams, lakes, and oceans evaporated by
water accruing in surface or groundwater, for a spec- the sun, together with evaporation from the earth and transpi-
ified purpose in a given manner and usually within ration from plants, furnishes the atmosphere with moisture.
the limits of a given time period. Masses of warm air laden with moisture are either forced to
Water table the average depth or elevation of the ground- cooler supper regions or encounter cool air masses, where
water over a selected area. The upper surface of the masses condense and form clouds. This condensed mois-
the zone of saturation, except where that surface is ture falls to earth in the form of rain, snow, and sleet. Part
formed by an impermeable body. of the precipitation runs off to streams and lakes. Part enters
Watershed a drainage basin from which surface water is the earth to supply vegetation and rises through the plants to
obtained. transpire from the leaves, and part seeps or percolates deeply
into the ground to supply wells, springs, and the baseflow (dry
weather flow) of streams. The cycle constantly repeats itself,
HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
a cycle without end.
Although we have discussed the hydrologic cycle (water cycle) Note: How long water that falls from the clouds takes to
earlier in the text in order to gain a better understanding of return to the atmosphere varies tremendously. After a short
the hydrologic cycle (water cycle)it is important to review it summer shower, most of the rainfall on land can evaporate
again (see Figure 14.1). The hydrologic cycle is a cycle without into the atmosphere in only a matter of minutes. A drop of
FIGURE 14.1 Natural water cycle.

Potable Water Source 427
rain falling on the ocean may take as long as 37,000 years of this text) refers to water flowing in streams and rivers, as
before it returns to the atmosphere and some water has been in well as water stored in natural or artificial lakes, man-made
the ground or caught in glaciers for millions of years. impoundments such as lakes made by damming a stream or
river; springs that are affected by a change in level or quan-
tity; shallow wells that are affected by precipitation; wells
SOURCES OF WATER
drilled next to or in a stream or river; rain catchments; and/or
Approximately 40 million cubic miles of water cover or reside muskeg and tundra ponds.
within the earth. The oceans contain about 97%of all water
on earth. The other 3% is freshwater: (1) snow and ice on the
Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water
surface of earth contains about 2.25%of the water; (2) usable
groundwater is approximately 0.3%; and (3) surface freshwa- The biggest advantage of using a surface water supply as a
ter is less than 0.5%. water source is that these sources are readily located; finding
In the United States, for example, the average rainfall is surface water sources does not demand sophisticated training
approximately 2.6 ft (a volume of 5,900 cubic kilometers). Of or equipment. Many surface water sources have been used for
this amount, approximately 71%evaporates (about 4,200 cubic decades and even centuries (in the United States, for exam-
cm), and 29%goes to stream flow (about 1,700 cubic km). ple), and considerable data is available on the quantity and
Beneficial freshwater uses include manufacturing, food quality of the existing water supply. Surface water is also gen-
production, domestic and public needs, recreation, hydroelec- erally softer (not mineral-laden), which makes its treatment
tric power production, and flood control. Stream flow with- much simpler.
drawn annually is about 7.5%(440 cubic km). Irrigation and The most significant disadvantage of using surface water as
industry use almost half of this amount (3.4%or 200 cubic km a water source is pollution. Surface waters are easily contami-
per year). Municipalities use only about 0.6%(35 cubic km per nated (polluted) with microorganisms that cause waterborne
year) of this amount. Historically, in the United States, water diseases and chemicals that enter the river or stream from sur-
usage is increasing (as might be expected). For example, in face runoff and upstream discharges. Another problem with
1990, 40 billion gallons of freshwater was used. In 1975, the many surface water sources is turbidity, which fluctuates with
total increased to 455 billion gallons. Projected use in 2002 is the amount of precipitation. Increases in turbidity increase
about 725 billion gallons. treatment cost and operator time. Surface water temperatures
The primary sources of freshwater include: can be a problem because they fluctuate with ambient tempera-
ture, making consistent water quality production at a water-
1. Captured and stored rainfall in cisterns and water jars works plant difficult. Drawing water from a surface water
2. Groundwater from springs, artesian wells, and supply might also present problems; intake structures may clog
drilled or dug wells or become damaged from winter ice, or the source may be so
3. Surface water from lakes, rivers, and streams shallow that it completely freezes in the winter. Water rights
4. Desalinized seawater or brackish groundwater cause problems too—removing surface water from a stream,
5. Reclaimed wastewater lake, or spring requires a legal right. The lingering, seemingly
unanswerable question is who owns the water?
Current federal drinking water regulations actually define Using surface water as a source means that the purveyor
three distinct and separate sources of freshwater. They are is obligated to meet the requirements of the Surface Water
surface water, groundwater, and groundwater under the direct Treatment Rule (SWTR) and Interim Enhanced Surface
influence of surface water (GUDISW). This last classification Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR).
is the result of the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR). Note: This rule only applies to large public water sys-
The definition of what conditions constitute GUDISW, while tems (PWS), PWS that serve more than 10,000 people.
specific, is not obvious. This classification is discussed in It tightens controls on DBPs and turbidity and regulates
detail later. Cryptosporidium.
SURFACE WATER Surface Water Hydrology

Surface waters are not uniformly distributed over the earth’s To properly manage and operate water systems, a basic
surface. In the United States, for example, only about 4%of understanding of the movement of water and the things that
the landmass is covered by rivers, lakes, and streams. The affect water quality and quantity is important: in other words,
volumes of these freshwater sources depend on geographic hydrology. A discipline of applied science, hydrology includes
landscape and temporal variations, and on the impact of several components, including the physical configuration
human activities. Surface water is that water that is open to of the watershed, the geology, soils, vegetation, nutrients,
the atmosphere and results from overland flow (i.e., runoff energy, wildlife, and the water itself.
that has not yet reached a definite stream channel). Put a The area from which surface water flows is called a drain-
different way, surface water is the result of surface runoff. age basin or catchment area. With a surface water source, this
For the most part, however, surface (as used in the context drainage basin is most often called in nontechnical terms a
watershed (when dealing with groundwater, we call this area hydroelectric power, agriculture, water supply, pollution
a recharge area). abatement, recreation, and flow augmentation. The primary
Key Point: The area that directly influences the quantity reason for storing water is to meet peak demands and/or to
and quality of surface water is called the drainage basin or store water to meet demands when the flow of the source is
watershed. below the demand. Raw water is stored in natural storage
When you trace on a map the course of a major river from its sites (such as lakes, muskeg, and tundra ponds) or in man-
meager beginnings on its seaward path, that its flow becomes made storage areas such as dams. Man-made dams are either
larger and larger is apparent. While every tributary brings a masonry or embankment dams. If embankment dams are
sudden increase, between tributaries, the river grows gradu- used, they are typically constructed of local materials with an
ally from overland flow entering it directly (see Figure 14.2). impermeable clay core.
Not only does the river grow its whole watershed or drainage
basin, basically the land it drains into, grows too, in the sense
Surface Water Intakes
that it embraces an ever-larger area. The area of the watershed
is commonly measured in square miles, sections, or acres. Withdrawing water from a river, lake, or reservoir so that it
When taking water from a surface water source, knowing the may be conveyed to the first unit process of treatment pro-
size of the watershed is desirable. cess requires an intake structure. Intakes have no standard
design and range from a simple-pump suction pipe sticking
out into the lake or stream to expensive structures costing sev-
Raw Water Storage
eral thousands of dollars. Typical intakes include submerged
Raw water (i.e., water that has not been treated) is stored intakes, floating intakes, infiltration galleries, spring boxes,
for single or multiple uses, such as navigation, flood control, and roof catchments. Their primary functions are to supply
FIGURE 14.2 Watershed.

the highest quality water from the source and to protect pip- by water sprays. The screen travel pattern is intermittent and
ing and pumps from, or clogging as a result of, wave action, controlled by the amount of accumulated material.
ice formation, flooding, and submerged debris. A poorly Note: When considering what type of screen should be
conceived or constructed intake can cause many problems. employed, the most important consideration is ensuring that
Failure of the intake could result in water system failure. they can be easily maintained.
For a small stream, the most common intake structures
used are small gravity dams placed across the stream or a
Surface Water Quality
submerged intake. In the gravity dam type, a gravity line or
pumps can remove water behind the dam. In the submerged Surface waters should be of adequate quality to support aquatic
intake type, water is collected in a diversion and carried away life and be aesthetically pleasing, and waters used as sources
by gravity or pumped from a caisson. Another common intake of supply should be treatable by conventional processes to pro-
used on small and large streams is an end-suction centrifu- vide potable supplies that can meet the drinking water stan-
gal pump or submersible pump placed on a float. The float is dards. Many lakes, reservoirs, and rivers are maintained at a
secured to the bank, and the water is pumped to a storage area. quality suitable for swimming, water skiing, and boating as
Often, the intake structure placed in a stream is an infiltra- well as for drinking water. Whether the surface water supply
tion gallery. The most common infiltration galleries are built is taken from a river, stream, lake, spring, impoundment, res-
by placing well screens or perforated pipe into the streambed. ervoir, or dam, surface water quality varies widely, especially
The pipe is covered with clean, graded gravel. When water in rivers, streams, and small lakes. These water bodies are not
passes through the gravel, coarse filtration removes a portion only susceptible to waste discharge contamination but also to
of the turbidity and organic material. The water collected by “flash” contamination (can occur almost immediately and not
the perforated pipe then flows to a caisson placed next to the necessarily over time). Lakes are subject to summer/winter
stream and is removed from the caisson by gravity or pump- stratification (turnover) and to algal blooms. Pollution sources
ing. Intakes used in springs are normally implanted into the range from runoff (agricultural, residential, and urban) to
water-bearing strata, then covered with clean, washed rock spills, municipal and industrial wastewater discharges, rec-
and sealed, usually with clay. The outlet is piped into a spring reational users, as well as from natural occurrences. Surface
box. In some locations, a primary source of water is rainwa- water supplies are difficult to protect from contamination and
ter. Rainwater is collected from the roof of buildings with a must always be treated.
device called a roof catchment.
After determining that a water source provides a suitable
GROUNDWATER
quality and quantity of raw water, choosing an intake location
includes determining the following: As mentioned, part of the precipitation that falls on land
infiltrates the land surface, percolates downward through the
1. Best quality water location soil under the force of gravity and becomes groundwater.
2. Dangerous currents Groundwater, like surface water, is extremely important to the
3. Sandbar formation hydrologic cycle and to our water supplies. Almost half of the
4. Wave action people in the United States drink water from groundwater sup-
5. Ice storm factors plies. Overall, more water exists as groundwater than surface
6. Flood factors water in the United States, including the water in the Great
7. Navigation channel avoidance Lakes. But sometimes, pumping it to the surface is not eco-
8. Intake accessibility nomical, and in recent years, pollution of groundwater supplies
9. Power availability from improper disposal has become a significant problem.
10. Floating or moving object damage factors We find groundwater in saturated layers called aqui-
11. Distance from pumping station fers under the earth’s surface. Three types of aquifers exist:
12. Upstream uses that may affect water quality unconfined, confined, and springs. Aquifers are made up of
a combination of solid material such as rock and gravel and
open spaces called pores. Regardless of the type of aquifer,
Surface Water Screens
the groundwater in the aquifer is in a constant state of motion.
Generally, screening devices are installed to protect intake This motion is caused by gravity or by pumping.
pumps, valves, and piping. A coarse screen of vertical steel The actual amount of water in an aquifer depends upon the
bars, with openings of 1–3 in. placed in a near-vertical posi- amount of space available between the various grains of mate-
tion excludes large objects. It may be equipped with a trash rial that make up the aquifer. The amount of space available
truck rack rake to remove accumulated debris. A finer screen, is called porosity. The ease of movement through an aqui-
one with 3/8-in. opening, removes leaves, twigs, small fish, fer is dependent upon how well the pores are connected. For
and other material passing through the bar rack. Traveling example, clay can hold a lot of water and has high porosity,
screens consist of wire mesh trays that retain solids as the but the pores are not connected, so water moves through the
water passes through them. Drive chain and sprockets raise clay with difficulty. The ability of an aquifer to allow water to
the trays into a head enclosure, where the debris is removed infiltrate is called permeability.
FIGURE 14.3 Unconfined aquifer.
The aquifer that lies just under the earth’s surface is called Groundwater Quality
the zone of saturation, unconfined aquifer (see Figure 14.3).
At the top of the zone of saturation is the water table. An Generally, groundwater possesses high chemical, bacterio-
unconfined aquifer is only contained on the bottom and is logical, and physical quality. When pumped from an aquifer
dependent on local precipitation for recharge. This type of composed of a mixture of sand and gravel, if not directly
aquifer is often called a water table aquifer. influenced by surface water, groundwater is often used with-
Unconfined aquifers are a primary source of shallow well out filtration. It can also be used without disinfection if it has
water (see Figure 18.3). These wells are shallow (and not a low coliform count. However, as mentioned, groundwater
desirable as a public drinking water source). They are sub- can become contaminated. When septic systems fail, salt-
ject to local contamination from hazardous and toxic mate- water intrudes, improper disposal of wastes occurs, improp-
rials—fuel and oil, and septic tanks and agricultural runoff erly stockpiled chemicals leach, underground storage tanks
providing increased levels of nitrates and microorganisms. leak, hazardous materials spill, fertilizers and pesticides
These wells may be classified as groundwater under the direct are misplaced, and when mines are improperly abandoned,
influence of surface water (GUDISW), and therefore require groundwater can become contaminated. To understand
treatment for control of microorganisms. how an underground aquifer becomes contaminated, you
A confined aquifer is sandwiched between two imper- must understand what occurs when pumping is taking place
meable layers that block the flow of water. The water in a within the well.
confined aquifer is under hydrostatic pressure. It does not When groundwater is removed from its underground
have a free water table (see Figure 14.4). Confined aqui- source (i.e., from the water-bearing stratum) via a well, water
fers are called artesian aquifers. Wells drilled into artesian flows toward the center of the well. In a water table aquifer,
aquifers are called artesian wells and commonly yield large this movement causes the water table to sag toward the well.
quantities of high-quality water. An artesian well is any This sag is called the cone of depression. The shape and size
well where the water in the well casing would rise above of the cone depends on the relationship between the pumping
the saturated strata. Wells in confined aquifers are normally rate and the rate at which water can move toward the well.
referred to as deep wells and are not generally affected by If the rate is high, the cone is shallow, and its growth stabi-
local hydrological events. lizes. The area that is included in the cone of depression is
A confined aquifer is recharged by rain or snow in the called the cone of influence, and any contamination in this
mountains where the aquifer lies close to the surface of the zone will be drawn into the well.
earth. Because the recharge area is some distance from areas
of possible contamination, the possibility of contamination GROUNDWATER UNDER THE DIRECT
is usually very low. However, once contaminated, confined
INFLUENCE OF SURFACE WATER
aquifers may take centuries to recover.
Groundwater naturally exits the earth’s crust in areas called Ground water under the direct influence of surface water
springs. The water in a spring can originate from a water table (GUDISW) is not classified as a groundwater supply. A supply
aquifer or from a confined aquifer. Only water from a con- designated as GUDISW must be treated under the state’s sur-
fined spring is considered desirable for a public water system. face water rules rather than the groundwater rules. The Surface
FIGURE 14.4 Confined aquifer.
Water Treatment Rule of the Safe Drinking Water Act requires Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for Giardia, viruses, heterotro-
each site to determine which groundwater supplies are influ- phic plate count bacteria, Legionella, and turbidity. Treatment
enced by surface water (i.e., when surface water can infiltrate must achieve at least 99.9% removal (3-log removal) and/or
a groundwater supply and could contaminate it with Giardia, inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts and 99.9% removal and/
viruses, turbidity, and organic material from the surface water or inactivation of viruses.
source). To determine whether a groundwater supply is under Qualified operators (as determined by the state) must oper-
the direct influence of surface water, USEPA has developed ate all systems. To avoid filtration, waterworks must satisfy
procedures that focus on significant and relatively rapid shifts the following criteria:
in water quality characteristics, including turbidity, tempera-
ture, and pH. When these shifts can be closely correlated with 1. Fecal coliform concentration must not exceed
rainfall or other surface water conditions, or when certain indi- 20/100 ml, or the total coliform concentration must
cator organisms associated with surface water are found, the not exceed 100/100 ml before disinfection in more
source is said to be under the direct influence of surface water. than 10%of the measurements for the previous six
months, calculated each month.
SURFACE WATER QUALITY AND 2. Turbidity levels must be measured every 4 h by
grab samples or continuous monitoring. The tur-
TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS
bidity level may not exceed 5 NTU. If the turbidity
Public water systems (PWS) must comply with applicable fed- exceeds 5 NTU, the water supply system must install
eral and state regulations and must provide appropriate quan- filtration, unless the state determines that the event
tity and quality of water supplies including proper treatment is unusual or unpredictable, and the event does not
(where/when required) and competent/qualified waterworks occur more than twice in any one year or five times
operators. USEPA’s regulatory requirements insist that all in any consecutive 10 years.
public water systems using any surface or groundwater under
the direct influence of surface water must disinfect and may It is important, when considering the choice of water source,
be required by the state to filter, unless the water source meets that the source must present minimal risks of contamination
certain requirements and site-specific conditions. Treatment from wastewaters and contain a minimum of impurities that
technique requirements are established in lieu of Maximum may be hazardous to health. Acute (immediate) health effects
such as those presented by exposure to Giardia lamblia and November 1999. USEPA outlined what it termed
chronic (those that take longer to affect health) effects must be a “compelling” case for recognizing a safe (or
guarded against. Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) must threshold) exposure level for chloroform, one of
be monitored to ensure that the maximum permissible level of the regulated trihalomethanes.
contaminants in water is not exceeded.
Note: Primary MCL is based on health considerations.
Secondary MCL is based on aesthetic considerations (taste, Interim Enhanced Surface Water
odor, and appearance). Treatment (IESWT) Rule
The Public Water System must also provide water free of This treatment optimization rule, which only applies to large
pathogens (disease-causing microorganisms: bacteria, pro- (those serving more than 10,000 people) public water systems
tozoa, spores, viruses, etc.). Chemical quality must also be that use surface water or groundwater directly influenced by
monitored to ensure the prevention of inorganic and organic surface water, is the first to directly regulate Cryptosporidium
contamination. (crypto):
In 1996, the USEPA finalized the Stage 1 Disinfectants/
Disinfection By-products (D/DBP) and Interim Enhanced a. The rule sets a crypto MCLG of zero
Surface Water Treatment rules, and implemented them in b. Requires systems that filter to remove 99% (2-log) of
1998. These amendments tighten controls on DBPs and tur- crypto oocytes
bidity and regulate Cryptosporidium. Highlights of these c. Adds crypto control to watershed protection require-
changes include the following. ments for systems operating under filtration waivers
d. Is particular to the genus Cryptosporidium, not to
Stage 1 D/DBP Rule the Cryptosporidium parvum species
i. Turbidity
a. Tightened the total trihalomethane standard to The rule requires continuous turbidity moni-
0.080 mg/l toring of individual filters and tightens allowable
b. Sets new DBP standards for five haloacetic acids turbidity limits for combined filter effluent, cut-
(0.060 mg/l), chlorite (1.0 mg/l), and bromate ting the maximum from 5 NTU to 1 NTU and the
(0.010 mg/l) average monthly limit from 0.5 NTU to 0.3 NTU.
c. Established new standards for disinfectant residuals ii. Benchmarking
(4.0 mg/l for chlorine, 4.0 mg/l for chloramines, and Systems must determine within15 months
0.8 mg/l for chlorine dioxide) of promulgation whether they must establish a
d. Requires systems using surface water or groundwa- disinfection benchmark to ensure maintenance
ter directly influenced by surface water to implement of microbial protection as systems comply with
enhanced coagulation or softening to remove DBP new DBP standards. Because the determination
precursors unless systems meet alternative criteria is based on whether the PWS exceeds annual
e. Applies to all community and nontransient–noncom- average levels of THMs or haloacetic acids, sys-
munity systems that disinfect, including those serv- tems that lack such data must begin collecting it
ing fewer than 10,000 people within three months of promulgation to have a
i. MCLGs year’s worth by the 15-month deadline.
For maximum contaminant level goals The rule also requires states to conduct
(MCLGs), however, the USEPA opted to retain periodic sanitary surveys of all surface water
the chloroform MCLG at zero instead of loos- systems regardless of size, and covers all new
ening it to 0.3 mg/l as set forth in the Spring treated-water reservoirs.
1998 Notice of Data Availability. The EPA also
loosened the chlorite MCLG from 0.08 mg/l to
0.8 mg/l, loosened the maximum residual disin- Regulatory Deadlines
fectant level goal for chlorine dioxide from 0.3 Large surface water systems (those serving over 10,000) were
mg/L to 0.8 mg/l, and set no MCLG for the DBP required to comply with the Stage 1 D/DBP and IESWT rules
chloral hydrate (control of which will be covered by December 2001. Smaller surface water systems and all
by the other requirements). groundwater systems were required to comply with the stage
ii. Chloroform 1 D/DBP Rule by December 2003.
In dropping its plan to loosen the chloroform
MCLG, USEPA has backed away (for now) from
its first attempt to set a level higher than zero PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM QUALITY
MCLG for a carcinogenic contaminant, opting
REQUIREMENTS
for more time to allow the issue to be discussed
by stakeholders and the Science Advisory Board, Many factors affect the use of water, including climate,
which is slated to produce a chloroform report by economic conditions, type of community (i.e., residential,
commercial, industrial), the integrity of the distribution sys- Well Site Requirements
tem (waste pressure/leaks in the system), and water cost. In
the United States, the typical per capita usage is approxi- To protect the groundwater source and provide high-quality
mately 150 gallons per day (gpd) per person. Each residential safe water, the waterworks industry has developed standards
connection requires approximately 400 gpd per connection. and specifications for wells. The following listing includes
Keep in mind that fire-fighting requirements at a standard fire industry standards and practices, as well as those items
flow of 500 gpm will use in 1 minute what a family of five included in the example of State Department of Environmental
normally uses in 24 h. Water pressure delivered to each ser- Compliance regulations.
vice connection should (at a minimum) reach 20 psi under all Note: Check with your local regulatory authorities to
flow conditions. determine well site requirements.
1. Minimum well lot requirements

WELL SYSTEMS a. 50 ft from well to all property lines
The most common method for withdrawing groundwater is b. All-weather access road provided
to penetrate the aquifer with a vertical well, then pump the c. Lot graded to divert surface runoff
water up to the surface. In the past, when someone wanted d. Recorded well plate and dedication document
a well, they simply dug (or hired someone to dig) and hoped 2. Minimum well location requirements
(gambled) that they would find water in a quantity suitable for a. At least 50 ft horizontal distance from any actual
their needs. Today, in most locations in the United States, for or potential sources of contamination involving
example, developing a well supply usually involves a more sewage
complicated step-by-step process. Local, state, and federal b. At least 50 ft horizontal distance from any petro-
requirements specify the actual requirements for the devel- leum or chemical storage tank or pipeline or
opment of a well supply in the United States. The standard similar source of contamination, except where
sequence for developing a well supply generally involves a plastic type well casing is used, the separation
seven-step process. This process includes: distance must be at least 100 ft
3. Vulnerability assessment
Step 1: Application—Depending on location, filling a. Wellhead area = 1,000 ft radius from the well.
out and submitting an application (to the applicable b. What is the general land use of the area (residential,
authorities) to develop a well supply is standard industrial, livestock, crops, undeveloped, other)?
procedure. c. What are the geologic conditions (sinkholes, sur-
Step 2: Well site approval—Once the application has face, subsurface)?
been made, local authorities check various local geo-
logical and other records to ensure that the siting of
Type of Wells
the proposed well coincides with mandated guide-
lines for approval. Water supply wells may be characterized as shallow or deep.
Step 3: Well drilling—The well is then drilled. In addition, wells are classified as follows:
Step 4: Preliminary engineering report—After the well
is drilled and the results documented, a prelimi- 1. Class I—cased and grouted to 100 ft
nary engineering report is made on the suitability 2. Class II A—cased to a minimum of 100 ft and
of the site to serve as a water source. This proce- grouted to 20 ft
dure involves performing a pump test to determine 3. Class II B—cased and grouted to 50 ft
if the well can supply the required amount of water.
The well is generally pumped for at least 6h at a rate Note: During the well development process, mud/silt forced
equal to or greater than the desired yield. A stabi- into the aquifer during the drilling process is removed, allow-
lized drawdown should be obtained at that rate and ing the well to produce the best quality water at the highest
the original static level should be recovered within rate from the aquifer.
24 h after pumping stops. During this test period,
samples are taken and tested for bacteriological and Shallow Wells
chemical quality. Shallow wells are those that are less than 100 ft deep. Such
Step 5: Submission of documents for review and wells are not particularly desirable for municipal supplies
approval—The application and test results are sub- since the aquifers they tap are likely to fluctuate considerably
mitted to an authorized reviewing authority that in depth, making the yield somewhat uncertain. Municipal
determines if the well site meets approval criteria. wells in such aquifers cause a reduction in the water table (or
Step 6: Construction permit—If the site is approved, a phreatic surface) that affects nearby private wells, which are
construction permit is issued. more likely to utilize shallow strata. Such interference with
Step 7: Operation permit—When the well is ready for private wells may result in damage suits against the commu-
use, an operation permit is issued. nity. Shallow wells may be dug, bored, or driven.
1. Dug Wells—Dug wells are the oldest type of well and this section, we focus on the components that make up the well
date back many centuries; they are dug by hand or itself. Many of these components are shown in Figure 14.5.
by a variety of unspecialized equipment. They range
in size from approximately 4–15 ft in diameter and Well Casing
are usually about 20–40 ft deep. Such wells are usu- A well is a hole in the ground called the borehole. The hole
ally lined or cased with concrete or brick. Dug wells is protected from collapse by placing a casing inside the
are prone to failure from drought or heavy pumpage. borehole. The well casing prevents the walls of the hole
They are vulnerable to contamination and are not from collapsing and prevents contaminants (either surface or
acceptable as a public water supply in many locations. subsurface) from entering the water source. The casing also
2. Driven Wells—Driven wells consist of a pipe cas- provides a column of stored water and housing for the pump
ing terminating in a point slightly greater in diam- mechanisms and pipes. Well casings constructed of steel or
eter than the casing. The pointed well screen and the plastic material are acceptable. The well casing must extend a
lengths of pipe attached to it are pounded down or minimum of 12 in. above grade.
driven in the same manner as a pile, usually with
a drop hammer, to the water-bearing strata. Driven Grout
wells are usually 2–3 in. in diameter and are used To protect the aquifer from contamination, the casing is sealed
only in unconsolidated materials. This type of shal- to the borehole near the surface and near the bottom where
low well is not acceptable as a public water supply. it passes into the impermeable layer with grout. This sealing
3. Bored Wells—Bored wells range from 1 to 36 in.in process keeps the well from being polluted by surface water
diameter and are constructed in unconsolidated and seals out water from water-bearing strata that have unde-
materials. The boring is accomplished with augers sirable water quality. Sealing also protects the casing from
(either hand or machine driven) that fill with soil external corrosion and restrains unstable soil and rock forma-
and then are drawn to the surface to be emptied. The tions. Grout consists of near cement that is pumped into the
casing may be placed after the well is completed (in annular space (it is completed within 48 h of well construc-
relatively cohesive materials), but must advance with tion); it is pumped under continuous pressure starting at the
the well in noncohesive strata. Bored wells are not bottom and progressing upward in one continuous operation.
acceptable as a public water supply.
Well Pad
Deep Wells The well pad provides a ground seal around the casing. The
Deep wells are the usual source of groundwater for municipal- pad is constructed of reinforced concrete 6 ft × 6 ft (6-in thick)
ities. Deep wells tap thick and extensive aquifers that are not with the well head located in the middle. The well pad pre-
subject to rapid fluctuations in water (piezometric surface— vents contaminants from collecting around the well and seep-
the height to which water will rise in a tube penetrating a coning down into the ground along the casing.
fined aquifer) level and that provide a large and uniform yield.
Deep wells typically yield water of more constant quality than Sanitary Seal
shallow wells, although the quality is not necessarily better. To prevent contamination of the well, a sanitary seal is placed
Deep wells are constructed by a variety of techniques; we dis- at the top of the casing. The type of seal varies depending
cuss two of these techniques (jetting and drilling) below. upon the type of pump used. The sanitary seal contains open-
ings for power and control wires, pump support cables, a
1. Jetted Wells—Jetted well construction commonly drawdown gauge, discharge piping, pump shaft, and air vent,
employs a jetting pipe with a cutting tool. This type while providing a tight seal around them.
of well cannot be constructed in clay, hardpan, or
where boulders are present. Jetted wells are not Well Screen
acceptable as a public water supply. Screens can be installed at the intake point(s) on the end of a
2. Drilled Wells—Drilled wells are usually the only type well casing or on the end of the inner casing on gravel packed
of well allowed for use in most public water supply sys- well. These screens perform two functions: (1) supporting
tems. Several different methods of drilling are available, the borehole, and (2) reducing the amount of sand that enters
all of which are capable of drilling wells of extreme the casing and the pump. They are sized to allow the maxi-
depth and diameter. Drilled wells are constructed using mum amount of water while preventing the passage of sand/
a drilling rig that creates a hole into which the casing is sediment/gravel.
placed. Screens are installed at one or more levels when
water-bearing formations are encountered. Casing Vent
The well casing must have a vent to allow air into the casing
as the water level drops. The vent terminates 18 in. above the
Components of a Well
floor with a return bend pointing downward. The opening of
The components that make up a well system include the well the vent must be screened with #24 mesh stainless steel to
itself, the building and the pump, and related piping system. In prevent the entry of vermin and dust.
FIGURE 14.5 Components of a well.
Drop Pipe Blowoff—Valved and located between the well and stor-
The drop pipe or riser is the line leading from the pump to the age tank; used to flush the well of sediment or turbid
well head. It assures adequate support so that an aboveground or super-chlorinated water.
pump does not move and so that a submersible pump is not Sample taps—(a) Raw water sample tap—located
lost down the well. This pipe is either steel or PVC. Steel is before any storage or treatment to permit sampling
the most desirable. of the water directly from the well. (b) Entry point
sample tap—located after treatment.
Miscellaneous Well Components Control valves—Isolates the well for testing or mainte-
Miscellaneous well components include: nance or used to control water flow.
Gauge and air line—Measures water level of the well.

Well Evaluation
Check valve—Located immediately after the well, it
prevents system water from returning to the well. It After a well is developed, conducting a pump test determines
must be located above ground and be protected from if it can supply the required amount of water. The well is gen-
freezing. erally pumped for at least 6 h (many states require a 48-h yield
Flowmeter—Required to monitor the total amount of and drawdown test) at a rate equal to or greater than the desired
water withdrawn from the well, including any water yield. Yield is the volume or quantity of water per unit of time
blown off. discharged from a well (GPM, cubic feet/sec). Regulations
Control switches—Controls for well pump operation. usually require that a well produces a minimum of 0.5 gallons
per minute per residential connection. Drawdown is the dif- treatment equipment. Measure gallons on the installed meter
ference between the static water level (level of the water in for one minute to obtain pump rate in gpm (look for gradual
the well when it has not been used for some time and has trends or big changes). Check the water level in the well at
stabilized) and the pumping water level in a well. Drawdown least monthly (maybe more often in summer or during peri-
is measured by using an airline and pressure gauge to monitor ods of low rainfall). Finally, from recorded meter readings,
the water level during the 48 h of pumping. determine gallons used and compare with water consumed
The procedure calls for the airline to be suspended inside to determine possible distribution system leaks. Along with
the casing down into the water. At the other end are the pres- meter readings, other records must be accurately and consis-
sure gauge and a small pump. Air is pumped into the line tently maintained for water supply wells. This recordkeeping
(displacing the water) until the pressure stops increasing. The is absolutely imperative. The records (an important resource
gauge’s highest pressure reading is recorded. During the 48 for troubleshooting) can be useful when problems develop or
h of pumping, the yield and drawdown are monitored more helpful in identifying potential problems. A properly operated
frequently during the beginning of the testing period, because and managed waterworks facility keeps the following records
the most dramatic changes in flow and water level usually of well operation.
occur then. The original static level should be recovered The well log provides documentation of what materi-
within 24 h after pumping stops. als were found in the borehole and at what depth. The well
Testing is accomplished on a bacteriological sample for log includes the depths at which water was found, the casing
analysis by the MPN method every half-hour during the last length and type, the depth at which what type of soils were
10 h of testing. The results are used to determine if chlorina- found, testing procedure, well development techniques, and
tion is required or if chlorination alone will be sufficient to well production. In general, the following items should be
treat the water. Chemical, physical, and radiological samples included in the well log.
are collected for analyses at the end of the test period to deter-
mine if treatment other than chlorination may be required. 1. Well location
Note: Recovery from the well should be monitored at the 2. Who drilled the well
same frequency as during the yield and drawdown testing and 3. When the well was completed
for at least the first 8 h, or until 90%of the observed drawdown 4. Well class
is obtained. 5. Total depth to bedrock
Specific capacity (often referred to as productivity index) 6. Hole and casing size
is a test method for determining the relative adequacy of a 7. Casing material and thickness
well, and over a period of time, is a valuable tool in evaluating 8. Screen size and locations
well production. Specific capacity is expressed as a measure 9. Grout depth and type
of well yield per unit of drawdown (yield divided by draw- 10. Yield and drawdown (test results)
down). When conducting this test, if possible, always run the 11. Pump information (type, HP, capacity, intake depth,
pump for the same length of time and at the same pump rate. and model #)
12. Geology of the hole
13. A record of yield and drawdown data
Well Pumps
Pumps are used to move the water out of the well and deliver Pump data should be collected and maintained. This data
it to the storage tank/distribution system. The type of pump should include:
chosen for use should provide optimum performance based on
location and operating conditions, required capacity, and total • Pump brand and model number
head. Two types of pumps commonly installed in groundwa- • Rate capacity
ter systems are lineshaft turbines and submersible turbines. • Date of installation
Whichever type of pump is used, they are rated on the basis • Maintenance performed
of pumping capacity expressed in gpm (e.g., 40 gpm), not on • Date replaced
horsepower. • Pressure reading or water level when the pump will
cut on and off
• Pumping time (hours per day the pump is running)
Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements
• Output in gallons per minute
Ensuring the proper operation of a well requires close moni-
toring; wells should be visited regularly. During routine moni- A record of water quality should be kept and maintained,
toring visits, check for any unusual sounds in the pump, line, including bacteriological, chemical and physical (inorganic,
or valves, and for any leaks. In addition, as a routine, cycle metals, nitrate/nitrite, VOC), and radiological reports.
valves should ensure good working condition. Check motors System-specific monthly operation reports should be kept
to make sure they are not overheating. Check the well pump and maintained. These reports should contain information
to guard against short cycling. Collect a water sample for a and data from meter readings/total gallons per day/month,
visual check for sediment. Also, check chlorine residual and chlorine residuals, amount and type of chemicals used,
turbidity readings, physical parameters (pH, temperature), • Temporary decrease in recharge—dry cycles
pumping rate, total population served, and the total number • Permanent decrease in recharge—less flow in
of connections. rivers
A record of water level (static and dynamic levels) should • Decreased specific capacity (if it has dropped
be kept and maintained, in addition to a record of any changes 10–15%take steps to determine cause; may be a
in conditions (such as heavy rainfall, high consumption, leaks, result of incrustation)
and earthquakes) and a record of specific capacity.
Note: Incrustation occurs when clogging, cementation,
or stoppage of a well screen and water-bearing formation
Well Maintenance
occurs. Incrustations on screens and adjacent aquifer mate-
Wells do not have an infinite life, and their output is likely rials result from chemical or biological reactions at the air-
to reduce with time as a result of hydrological or mechani- water interface in the well. The chief encrusting agent is
cal factors. Protecting the well from possible contamination calcium carbonate, which cements the gravel and sand grains
is an important consideration. If proper well location (based together. Incrustation could also be a result of carbonates
on knowledge of the local geological conditions and a vulner- of magnesium, clays, and silts, or iron bacteria. Treatment
ability assessment of the area) was affected, potential prob- involves pulling the screen and removing incrusted material,
lems can be minimized. replacing the screen, or treating the screen and water bearing
During the initial assessment, ensuring that the well is not formation with acids. If severe, treatment may involve reha-
located in a sinkhole area is important. A determination of bilitating the well.
where unconsolidated or bedrock aquifers may be subject to
contamination must be made. Several other important deter- • Pump rate is dropping, but water level is not—prob-
minations must be made. Is the well located on a floodplain? able cause is pump impairment
It is located next to a drainfield for septic systems or near a • Impellers might be worn
landfill? Are petroleum/gasoline storage tanks nearby? Is pes- • Change in hydraulic head against which the pump is
ticide/plastic manufacturing conducted near the well site? working (head may change as a result of corrosion
Along with proper well location, proper well design and in the pipelines, higher pressure setting, or maybe a
construction prevent wells from acting as conduits for vertical new-elevated tank)
migration of contaminants into the groundwater. Basically, the
pollution potential of a well equals how well it was constructed.
Well Abandonment
Contamination can occur during the drilling process, and an
unsealed or unfinished well is an avenue for contamination. Any In the past, common practice was simply to walk away and
opening in the sanitary seal or break in the casing may cause con- forget about a well when it ran dry. Today, while dry or failing
tamination, as can reversal of water flow. In routine well main- wells are still abandoned, we know that they must be aban-
tenance operations, corroded casing or screens are sometimes doned with care (and not completely forgotten). An abandoned
withdrawn and replaced, but this is difficult and not always suc- well can become a convenient (and dangerous) receptacle for
cessful. Simply constructing a new well may be less expensive. wastes, thus contaminating the aquifer. An improperly aban-
doned well could also become a haven for vermin, or worse,
Troubleshooting Well Problems a hazard for children. A temporarily abandoned well must be
During operation, various problems may develop. For exam- sealed with a watertight cap or wellhead seal. The well must
ple, the well may pump sand or mud. When this occurs, the be maintained so that it does not become a source or channel
well screen may have collapsed or corroded, causing the of contamination during temporary abandonment.
screen’s slot openings to become enlarged (allowing debris, When a well is permanently abandoned all casing and
sand, and mud to enter). If the well screen is not the problem, screen materials may be salvaged. The well should be checked
the pumping rate should be checked; the pumping rate may be from top to bottom to assure that no obstructions interfere
too high. In the following, we provide a few other well prob- with plugging/sealing operations. Prior to plugging, the well
lems, their probable causes, and the remediation required: should be thoroughly chlorinated. Bored wells should be com-
pletely filled with cement grout. If the well was constructed
• If the water is white, pump might be sucking air; in an unconsolidated formation, it should be completely filled
reduce pump rate. with cement grout or clay slurry introduced through a pipe
• If water rushes backwards when pump shuts off, that initially extends to the bottom of the well. As the pipe is
check the valve, as it may be leaking. raised, it should remain submerged in the top layers of grout
• If the well yield has decreased, check static water as the well is filled.
level. A downward trend in static water level sug- Wells constructed in consolidated rock or that penetrate
gests that the aquifer is becoming depleted, which zones of consolidated rock can be filled with sand or gravel
could be the result of the following: opposite of zones of consolidated rock. The sand or gravel fill
• Local overdraft (well spacing too close) is terminated 5 ft below the top of the consolidated rock. The
• General overdraft—pumpage exceeds recharge remainder of the well is filled with sand-cement grout.
CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 14.8 The area inside the cone of depression is called the
___________.
14.1 When water is withdrawn from a well, a
14.9 A spring is an example of what type of water

_______________ will develop. source?
14.2 How far should the well casing extend above the 14.10 Describe the function of the bar screen at a surface
ground or well-house floor? water intake.
14.3 A well casing should be grouted for at least 10 ft, with
the first 20 ft grouted with ________________.
14.4 List three sources of drinking water. RECOMMENDED READING
14.5 Explain GUDISW. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,2007. Public Drinking Water
14.6 What are two advantages of surface water sources? Systems: Facts and Figures. Accessed 11/14/19 @ www.epa.
14.7 Define hydrology. gov/safewater/pws/factoid.html.
15 Water Treatment Operations
Municipal water treatment operations and associated that complies with all current regulations, despite source
treatment unit processes are designed to provide reli- water conditions.
able, high quality water service for customers, and Small water systems tend to use a smaller number of
to preserve and protect the environment for future the wide array of unit treatment processes available, in part
generations. because they usually rely on groundwater as the source, and
in part because small makes many sophisticated processes
Water management officials and treatment plant opera-
impractical (i.e., too expensive to install, too expensive to
tors are tasked with exercising responsible financial
operate, too sophisticated for limited operating staff). This
management, ensuring fair rates and charges, providing
chapter concentrates on those individual treatment unit pro-
responsive customer service, providing a consistent sup-
cesses usually found in conventional water treatment systems,
ply of safe potable water for consumption by the user,
corrosion control methods, and fluoridation. A summary of
and promoting environmental responsibility.
basic water treatment processes (many of which are discussed
While studying this chapter on water and the next in this chapter) is presented Table 15.1.
one on wastewater treatment plant operation, keep in
mind the major point within both chapters: water and
WATERWORKS OPERATOR
wastewater treatment plant design can be taught in
school. But in operating the plants, experience, atten- The operation of a water treatment system, no matter the size
tion to detail, and operator common sense are most or complexity, requires operators. To perform their functions
important. at the highest knowledge and experience level possible, opera-
tors must understand the basic principles and theories behind
In the past, water quality was described as “wholesome
many complex water treatment concepts and treatment sys-
and delightful” and “sparkling to the eye.” Today, we
tems. Under new regulations, waterworks operators must be
describe water quality as “safe and healthy to drink.”
certified or licensed. Actual water treatment protocols and
procedures are important, however, without proper imple-
mentation, they are nothing more than hollow words occupy-
INTRODUCTION
ing space on reams of paper. This is where the waterworks
In this chapter, the focus is on water treatment operations and operator comes in. To successfully treat water requires skill,
the various unit processes currently used to treat raw source dedication, and vigilance. The waterworks operator must not
water before it is distributed to the user. In addition, the rea- only be highly trained and skilled, but also must be conscien-
sons for water treatment and the basic theories associated tious—the ultimate user demands nothing less. The role of the
with individual treatment unit processes are discussed. Water waterworks operator can be succinctly stated:
treatment systems are installed to remove those materials that
cause disease and/or create nuisances. At its simplest level, • Waterworks operators provide water that complies
the basic goal of water treatment operations is to protect pub- with state waterworks regulations, water that is safe
lic health, with a broader goal to provide potable and palatable to drink and ample in quantity and pressure without
water. The bottom line: the water treatment process functions interruption.
to provide water that is safe to drink and is pleasant in appear- • Waterworks operators must know their facilities.
ance, taste, and odor. • Waterworks operators must be familiar with bacteri-
In this text, water treatment is defined as any unit process ology, chemistry, and hydraulics.
that changes/alters the chemical, physical, and/or bacterio- • Waterworks operators must stay abreast of techno-
logical quality of water with the purpose of making it safe logical change and stay current with water supply
for human consumption and/or appealing to the customer. information.
Treatment also is used to protect the water distribution system
components from corrosion. When operating a waterworks facility, waterworks operator
Many water treatment unit processes are commonly used duties include:
today. Treatment processes used depend upon the evaluation
of the nature and quality of the particular water to be treated • Maintaining a distribution system
and the desired quality of the finished water. In water treat- • Collecting or analyzing water samples
ment unit processes employed to treat raw water, one thing is • Operating chemicals feed equipment
certain: as new USEPA regulations take effect, many more • Keeping records
processes will come into use in the attempt to produce water • Operating treatment unit processes
439
MCLs established by USEPA and the state, the water may

TABLE 15.1 need to be treated.
Basic Water Treatment Processes If we assume that the water source used to feed a typical
Process/Step Purpose water supply system is groundwater (usually the case in the
United States), a number of common groundwater problems
Screening Removes large debris (leaves, sticks, fish) that can foul
or damage plant equipment
may require water treatment. Keep in mind that water that
must be treated for any one of these problems may also exhibit
Chemical Conditions the water for removal of algae and other
pretreatment aquatic nuisances
several other problems. Among these other problems are:
Presedimentation Removes gravel, sand, silt, and other gritty materials
Microstraining Removes algae, aquatic plants, and small debris • Bacteriological contamination
Chemical feed Adds chemicals (coagulants, pH, adjusters, etc.) to • Hydrogen sulfide odors
and rapid mix water • Hard water
Coagulation/ Converts nonsettleable or settable particles • Corrosive water
flocculation • Iron and manganese
Sedimentation Removes settleable particles
Softening Removes hardness-causing chemicals from water
Filtration Removes particles of solid matter which can include
STAGES OF WATER TREATMENT
biological contamination and turbidity Earlier it was stated that the focus of our discussion in this
Disinfection Kills disease-causing organisms text is on the conventional model of water treatment. Figure
Adsorption using Removes radon and many organic chemicals such as 15.1 presents the very basic conventional model discussed
granular pesticides, solvents, and trihalomethanes
in this text. Figure 15.1 clearly illustrates that water treat-
activated
ment is made up of various stages, unit processes, or a train
Aeration Removes volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), radon
H2S, and other dissolved gases; oxidizes iron and
of processes combined to form one treatment system. Note
manganese that a given waterworks may contain all the unit processes
Corrosion Prevents scaling and corrosion discussed in the following or any combination of them. One
control or more of these stages may be used to treat any one or more
Reverse osmosis, Removes nearly all inorganic contaminants of the source water problems listed above. Also note that the
electrodialysis model shown in Figure 20.1 does not necessarily apply to very
Ion exchange Removes some inorganic contaminants including small water systems. In some small systems, water treatment
hardness-causing chemicals may consist of nothing more than the removal of water via
Activated Removes some inorganic contamination pumping from a groundwater source to storage to distribu-
alumina tion. In some small water supply operations, disinfection may
Oxidation Removes some inorganic contaminants (e.g., iron, be added because it is required. Although it is likely that the
filtration manganese, radium) basic model shown in Figure 15.1 does not reflect the type of
Source: Adapted from AWWA, Introduction to Water Treatment, Vol 2, treatment process used in most small systems, we use it in this
1984. handbook for illustrative and instructive purposes because
higher-level licensure requires operators, at a minimum, to
learn these processes.
• Performing sanitary surveys of the water supply

PRETREATMENT
watershed
• Operating a cross-connection control program Simply stated, water pretreatment (also called preliminary
treatment) is any physical, chemical, or mechanical process
used before the main water treatment processes. It can include
PURPOSE OF WATER TREATMENT
screening, presedimentation, and chemical addition (see
As mentioned, the purpose of water treatment is to condi- Figure 15.1). Pretreatment in water treatment operations usu-
tion, modify and/or remove undesirable impurities, to provide ally consists of oxidation or other treatment for the removal
water that is safe, palatable, and acceptable to users. While of tastes and odors, iron and manganese, trihalomethane
this is the obvious, expected purpose of treating water, vari- precursors, or entrapped gases (like hydrogen sulfide). Unit
ous regulations also require water treatment. Some regula- processes may include chlorine, potassium permanganate
tions state that if the contaminants listed under the various or ozone oxidation, activated carbon addition, aeration, and
regulations are found in excess of maximum contaminant presedimentation. Pretreatment of surface water supplies
levels (MCLs), the water must be treated to reduce the levels. accomplishes the removal of certain constituents and mate-
If a well or spring source is surface influenced, treatment is rials that interfere with or place an unnecessary burden on
required, regardless of the actual presence of contamination. conventional water treatment facilities.
Some impurities affect the aesthetic qualities (taste, odor, Based on our experience and according to the Texas Water
color, and hardness) of the water; if they exceed secondary Utilities Association’s Manual of Water Utility Operations,
Water Treatment Operations 441
Addition of
Coagulant
Water Mixing Flocculation Settling Sand To Storage and

Supply Tank Basin Tank Filter Distribution
Screening
Sludge Disinfection
Processing
FIGURE 15.1 Conventional water treatment model.
eighth edition, typical pretreatment processes include the the water is less than 6.5. Aeration may also be useful in oxidizing
following: iron and manganese, oxidizing humic substances that might form
trihalomethanes when chlorinated, eliminating other sources of
(1) Removal of debris from water from rivers and reser- taste and odor, or imparting oxygen to oxygen-deficient water.
voirs that would clog pumping equipment. Note: Iron is a naturally occurring mineral found in many
(2) Destratification of reservoirs to prevent anaerobic water supplies. When the concentration of iron exceeds 0.3
decomposition that could result in reducing iron and mg/l, red stains will occur on fixtures and clothing. This
manganese from the soil to a state that would be increases customer costs for cleaning and replacement of dam-
soluble in water. This can cause subsequent removal aged fixtures and clothing. Manganese, like iron, is a naturally
problems in the treatment plant. The production of occurring mineral found in many water supplies. When the con-
hydrogen sulfide and other taste- and odor-producing centration of manganese exceeds 0.05 mg/l, black stains occur
compounds also results from stratification. on fixtures and clothing. As with iron, this increases customer
(3) Chemical treatment of reservoirs to control the costs for cleaning and replacement of damaged fixtures and
growth of algae and other aquatic growths that could clothing. Iron and manganese are commonly found together in
result in taste and odor problems. the same water supply. We discuss iron and manganese later.
(4) Presedimentation to remove excessively heavy silt
loads prior to the treatment processes.
Screening
(5) Aeration to remove dissolved odor-causing gases
such as hydrogen sulfide and other dissolved gases Screening is usually the first major step in the water pretreat-
or volatile constituents, and to aid in the oxidation ment process (see Figure 15.1). It is defined as the process
of iron and manganese, although manganese or high whereby relatively large and suspended debris is removed
concentrations of iron are not removed in detention or retained from the water before it enters the plant. River
provided in conventional aeration units. water, for example, typically contains suspended and floating
(6) Chemical oxidation of iron and manganese, sulfides, debris varying in size from small rocks to logs. Removing
taste- and odor-producing compounds, and organic these solids is important, not only because these items have
precursors that may produce trihalomethanes upon no place in potable water, but also because this river trash
the addition of chlorine. may cause damage to downstream equipment (clogging and
(7) Adsorption for removal of tastes and odors. damaging pumps, etc.), increase chemical requirements,
impede hydraulic flow in open channels or pipes, or hinder
Note: An important point to keep in mind is that in small sys- the treatment process. The most important criteria used in the
tems, using groundwater as a source, pretreatment may be the selection of a particular screening system for water treatment
only treatment process used. technology are the screen opening size and flow rate; they
Note: Pretreatment may be incorporated as part of the total range in size from microscreens to trash racks. Other impor-
treatment process or may be located adjacent to the source tant criteria include costs related to operation and equipment,
before the water is sent to the treatment facility. plant hydraulics, debris handling requirements, and operator
qualifications and availability. Large surface water treatment
plants may employ a variety of screening devices including
Aeration
rash screens (or trash rakes), traveling water screens, drum
Aeration is commonly used to treat water that contains trapped screens, bar screens, or passive screens.
gases (such as hydrogen sulfide) that can impart an unpleasant
taste and odor to the water. Just allowing the water to rest in a
Chemical Addition
vented tank will (sometimes) drive off much of the gas, but usu-
ally some form of forced aeration is needed. Aeration works well Much of the procedural information presented in this section
(about 85% of the sulfides may be removed) whenever the pH of applies to both water and wastewater operations. Two of the
major chemical pretreatment processes used in treating water rate changes; other feeders are paced by a flow meter to
for potable use are iron and manganese and hardness removal. adjust the chemical feed so it matches the water flow rate.
Another chemical treatment process that is not necessarily Operators must also be familiar with chemical solutions
part of the pretreatment process, but is also discussed in this and feeder calibration.
section, is corrosion control. Corrosion prevention is affected As mentioned, a significant part of the waterworks opera-
by chemical treatment—not only in the treatment process but tor’s important daily operational functions includes measur-
also in the distribution process. Before discussing each of ing quantities of chemicals and applying them to water at
these treatment methods in detail, however, it is important to preset rates. Normally accomplished semiautomatically by
describe chemical addition, chemical feeders, and chemical use of electro-mechanical-chemical feed devices, waterworks
feeder calibration. operators must still know what chemicals to add, how much to
When chemicals are used in the pretreatment process, add to the water (wastewater), and the purpose of the chemical
they must be the proper ones, fed in the proper concentra- addition.
tion and introduced to the water at the proper locations.
Determining the proper amount of chemicals to use is Chemical Solutions
accomplished by testing. The operator must test the raw A water solution is a homogeneous liquid made of the solvent
water periodically to determine if the chemical dosage (the substance that dissolves another substance) and the sol-
should be adjusted. For surface supplies, checking must be ute (the substance that dissolves in the solvent). Water is the
done more frequently than for groundwater (remember, sur- solvent (see Figure 15.2). The solute (whatever it may be) may
face water supplies are subject to change on short notice, dissolve up to a certain limit. This is called its solubility—
while groundwaters generally remain stable). The operator that is, the solubility of the solute in the particular solvent
must be aware of the potential for interactions between vari- (water) at a particular temperature and pressure.
ous chemicals and how to determine the optimum dosage Note: Temperature and pressure influence the stability of
(e.g., adding both chlorine and activated carbon at the same solutions but not by filtration, because only suspended mate-
point will minimize the effectiveness of both processes, as rial can be eliminated by filtration or by sedimentation.
the adsorptive power of the carbon will be used to remove Remember, in chemical solutions, the substance being dis-
the chlorine from the water). solved is called the solute, and the liquid present in the great-
Note: Sometimes using too many chemicals can be worse est amount in a solution (that does the dissolving) is called
than not using enough. the solvent. The operator should also be familiar with another
Prechlorination (distinguished from chlorination used in term, concentration—the amount of solute dissolved in a
disinfection at the end of treatment) is often used as an oxidant given amount of solvent. Concentration is measured as:
to help with the removal of iron and manganese. However,
currently, concern for systems that prechlorinate is prevalent Wt. of solute
% Strength = ´ 100
because of the potential for the formation of total trihalometh- Wt. of solution
anes (TTHMs), which form as a by-product of the reaction
between chlorine and naturally occurring compounds in raw Wt. of solute
= ´ 100 (15.1)
water. USEPA’s TTHM standard does not apply to water sys- Wt. of solute + solvent
tems that serve less than 10,000 people, but operators should
be aware of the impact and causes of TTHMs. Chlorine dos-
age or application point may be changed to reduce problems Example 15.1
with TTHMs.
Note: TTHMs such as chloroform are known or sus- Problem: If 30lb of chemical is added to 400lb of water,
what is the percent strength (by weight) of the solution?
pected to be carcinogenic and are limited by water and state
regulations.
Note: To be effective, pretreatment chemicals must be thor-
oughly mixed with the water. Short-circuiting or plug flows of
chemicals that do not come in contact with most of the water
will not result in proper treatment.
All chemicals intended for use in drinking water must
meet certain standards. Thus, when ordering water treatment Solvent
chemicals, the operator must be assured that they meet all
appropriate standards for drinking water use.
Chemicals are normally fed with dry chemical feeders Solute
or solution (metering) pumps. Operators must be familiar
with all of the adjustments needed to control the rate at
which the chemical is fed to the water (wastewater). Some
feeders are manually controlled and must be adjusted
by the operator when the raw water quality or the flow FIGURE 15.2 Solution with two components: solvent and solute.
SOLUTION: Here are a few key facts about density (of water):
30 lb solute
% Strength = ´ 100 • measured in units of lb/cf, lb/gal, or mg/l
400 lb water
• density of water = 62.5 lbs/cf = 8.34 lb/gal
30 lb solute • other densities: concrete = 130 lb/cf, alum (liquid, @
= ´ 100
30 lb solute + 400 lb water 60°F) = 1.33, and hydrogen peroxide (35%) = 1.132
30 lb solute
= ´ 100 Density of substance
430 lb solute/water Specific Gravity = (15.5)
Density of water
% Strength = 7.0 (rounded)
Important to the process of making accurate computa- Here are a few facts about specific gravity:
tions of chemical strength is a complete understanding of the
dimensional units involved. For example, operators should • Specific gravity has no units
understand exactly what milligrams per liter (mg/l) signify. • Specific gravity of water = 1.0
• Specific gravity of concrete = 2.08, alum (liquid, @
Milligrams per Liter (mg/l) 60°F) = 1.33, and hydrogen peroxide (355) = 1.132
Milligrams of Solute Chemical Feeders

= (15.2)
Liters of Solution Simply put, a chemical feeder is a mechanical device for mea-
Another important dimensional unit commonly used when suring a quantity of a chemical and applying it to water at a
dealing with chemical solutions is parts per million (ppm). preset rate.
Parts per Million (ppm) Types of Chemical Feeders

Parts of Solute Two types of chemical feeders are commonly used: solu-
= (15.3)
Million Parts of Solution tion (or liquid) feeders and dry feeders. Liquid feeders apply
chemicals in solutions or suspensions, and dry feeders apply
Note: “Parts” is usually a weight measurement. chemicals in granular or powdered forms. In a solution feeder,
An example is: the chemical enters and leaves the feeder in a liquid state; in
a dry feeder, the chemical enters and leaves the feeder in a
9 lb solids dry state.
9 ppm = -
1, 000, 000 lb solution
Solution Feeders
or Solution feeders are small, positive displacement metering
pumps of three types: (1) reciprocating (piston-plunger or
9 mg solids diaphragm types); (2) vacuum type (e.g., gas chlorinator); or
9 ppm =
1,000,000 mg solution (3) gravity feed rotameter (e.g., drip feeder). Positive displace-
ment pumps are used in high pressure, low flow applications;
This leads us to two important parameters that operators they deliver a specific volume of liquid for each stroke of a
should commit to memory: piston or rotation of an impeller.
Concentrations—Units and Conversions Dry Feeders
Two types of dry feeders are volumetric and gravimetric,
1-mg/l = 1 ppm depending on whether the chemical is measured by volume
(volumetric-type) or weight (gravimetric-type). Simpler and
1% = 10, 000 mg/l less expensive than gravimetric pumps, volumetric dry feeders
are also less accurate. Gravimetric dry feeders are extremely
When working with chemical solutions, you should also be accurate, deliver high feed rates, and are more expensive than
familiar with two chemical properties we briefly described volumetric feeders.
earlier: density and specific gravity. Density is defined as
the weight of a substance per unit of its volume; for example Chemical Feeder Calibration
pounds per cubic foot or pounds per gallon. Specific gravity Chemical feeder calibration ensures effective control of the
is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance to a stan- treatment process. Obviously, chemical feed without some
dard density. type of metering and accounting of chemical used adversely
affects the water treatment process. Chemical feeder calibra-
Mass of substance tion also optimizes the economy of operation; it ensures the
Density = (15.4)
Volume of substance optimum use of expensive chemicals. Finally, operators must
have accurate knowledge of each individual feeder’s capabili- (9) Calculate the dosage for each setting.
ties at specific settings. When a certain dose must be adminis- (10) Graph dosage versus setting.
tered, the operator must rely on the feeder to feed the correct
amount of chemical. Proper calibration ensures chemical Calibration Procedure: Dry Feeder
dosages can be set with confidence. At a minimum, chemical The following equipment is required:
feeders must be calibrated on an annual basis. During opera-
tion, when the operator changes chemical strength or chemi- • Weighing pan
cal purity or makes any adjustment to the feeder, or when • Balance
the treated water flow changes, the chemical feeder should • Stopwatch
be calibrated. Ideally, any time maintenance is performed on • Plain paper
chemical feed equipment, calibration should be performed. • Graph paper
What factors affect chemical feeder calibration (i.e., feed • Straight edge
rate)? For solution feeders, calibration is affected any time • Calculator
solution strength changes, any time a mechanical change is
introduced in the pump (change in stroke length or stroke fre- The procedure is as follows:
quency), and/or whenever flow rate changes. In the dry chemi-
cal feeder, calibration is affected any time chemical purity (1) Weigh the pan and record.
changes, mechanical damage occurs (e.g., belt change), and/ (2) Set feeder at 100% setting.
or whenever flow rate changes. In the calibration process, (3) Collect sample for 5 min.
calibration charts are usually used or made up to fit the cali- (4) Calculate the weight of the sample and record in the
bration equipment. The calibration chart is also affected by table.
certain factors, including a change in the chemical, a change (5) Repeat steps 3 and 4 twice.
in the flow rate of water being treated, and/or a mechanical (6) Repeat steps 3 and4 for settings of 25%, 50%, and
change in the feeder. 75%.
(7) Calculate the average sample weight per minute for
Calibration Procedures each setting and record in the table.
When calibrating a positive displacement pump (liquid (8) Calculate weight per day fed for each setting.
feeder), the operator should always refer to the manufactur- (9) Plot weight per day versus setting on graph paper.
er’s technical manual. Keeping in mind the need to refer to
the manufacturer’s specific guidelines, we provide general Note: Pounds per day (lb/day) is not normally useful informa-
examples here of calibration procedures for simple positive- tion for setting the feed rate setting on a feeder. This is the
displacement pump and dry feeder calibration procedures. case because process control usually determines a dosage in
ppm, mg/l, or grains/gallon. A separate chart may be neces-
Calibration Procedure: Positive Displacement Pump sary for another conversion based on the individual treatment
The following equipment is required: facility flow rate.
• Graduated cylinder (1,000 ml or less)

Example 15.2
• Stopwatch
• Calculator
To demonstrate that performing a chemical feed pro-
• Graph paper cedure is not necessarily as simple as opening a bag of
• Plain paper chemicals and dumping the contents into the feed system,
• Straight edge we provide a real-world example below.
Problem: Consider the chlorination dosage rates below.
The procedure is as follows:
(1) Fill the graduated cylinder with solution. Setting Dosage

(2) Insert pump suction line into the graduated cylinder.
100% 111/121 0.93 mg/l
(3) Run pump 5 min at highest setting (100%).
70% 78/121 0.66 mg/l
(4) Divide the ml of liquid withdrawn by 5 min to deter-
50% 54/121 0.45 mg/l
mine the pumping rate (ml/min) and record on plain
20% 20/121 0.16 mg/l
paper.
(5) Repeat steps 3 and 4 at 100% setting.
(6) Repeat steps 3 and 4 for 20%, 50%, and 70% settings
twice.
SOLUTION:
(7) Average the ml/min pumped for each setting.
(8) Calculate the weight of the chemical pumped for This is not a good dosage setup for a chlorination sys-
each setting. tem. Maintenance of a chlorine residual at the ends of
the distribution system should be within 0.5–1.0 ppm. At Precipitation

0.9 ppm, the dosage will probably result in this range— Precipitation (or pH adjustment) or iron and manganese from
depending on the chlorine demand of the raw water and
water in their solid forms can be effected in treatment plants
detention time in the system. However, the pump is set at
its highest setting. We have room to decrease the dosage, by adjusting the pH of the water by adding lime or other
but no ability to increase the dosage without changing chemicals. Some of the precipitate will settle out with time,
the solution strength in the solution tank. In this example, while the rest is easily removed by sand filters. This process
doubling the solution strength to 1% provides the ideal requires pH of the water to be in the range of 10 to11.
solution, resulting in the following chart changes. Note: Although the precipitation or pH adjustment tech-
nique for treating water containing iron and manganese is
effective, note that the pH level must be adjusted higher (10–
Setting Dosage 11 range) to cause the precipitation, which means that the pH
level must then also be lowered (to the 8.5 range or a bit lower)
100% 222/121 1.86 mg/l
to use the water for consumption.
70% 154/121 1.32 mg/l
50% 108/121 0.90 mg/l
20% 40/121 0.32 mg/l Oxidation
One of the most common methods of removing iron and man-
This is ideal because the dosage we want to feed is at ganese is through the process of oxidation (another chemical
the 50% setting for our chlorinator. We can now easily process), usually followed by settling and filtration. Air, chlo-
increase or decrease the dosage whereas the previous rine, or potassium permanganate can oxidize these minerals.
setup only allowed the dosage to be decreased. Each oxidant has advantages and disadvantages, and each
operates slightly differently:
Iron and Manganese Removal
Iron and manganese are frequently found in groundwater and (1) Air—To be effective as an oxidant, the air must come
in some surface waters. They do not cause health-related prob- in contact with as much of the water as possible.
lems but are objectionable because they may cause aesthetic Aeration is often accomplished by bubbling diffused
problems. Severe aesthetic problems may cause consumers air through the water by spraying the water up into
to avoid an otherwise safe water supply in favor of one of the air, or by trickling the water over rocks, boards,
unknown or of questionable quality, or may cause them to incur or plastic packing materials in an aeration tower.
unnecessary expense for bottled water. Aesthetic problems The more finely divided the drops of water, the more
associated with iron and manganese include the discoloration oxygen comes in contact with the water and the dis-
of water (iron = reddish water, manganese = brown or black solved iron and manganese.
water); staining of plumbing fixtures; imparting a bitter taste (2) Chlorine—This is one of the most popular oxidants
to the water; and stimulating the growth of microorganisms. for iron and manganese control because it is also
As mentioned, there is no direct health concern associated widely used as a disinfectant; iron and manganese
with iron and manganese, although the growth of iron bac- control by prechlorination can be as simple as adding
teria slimes may cause indirect health problems. Economic a new chlorine feed point in a facility already feeding
problems include damage to textiles, dye, paper, and food. chlorine. It also provides a predisinfecting step that
Iron residue (or tuberculation) in pipes increases pumping can help control bacterial growth through the rest of
head, decreases carrying capacity, may clog pipes, and may the treatment system. The downside to chorine use,
corrode through pipes. however, is that when chlorine reacts with the organic
Note: Iron and manganese are secondary contaminants. materials found in surface water and some ground-
Their secondary maximum contaminant levels (SMCLs) are waters, it forms TTHMs. This process also requires
iron = 0.3 mg/L; manganese = 0.05 mg/L. that the pH of the water be in the range of 6.5 to 7;
Iron and manganese are most likely found in groundwater because many groundwaters are more acidic than
supplies, industrial waste, and acid mine drainage, and as by- this, pH adjustment with lime, soda ash, or caustic
products of pipeline corrosion. They may accumulate in lake soda may be necessary when oxidizing with chlorine.
and reservoir sediments, causing possible problems during (3) Potassium permanganate—This is the best oxidizing
lake/reservoir turnover. They are not usually found in running chemical to use for manganese control removal. An
waters (streams, rivers, etc.). extremely strong oxidant, it has the additional benefit
of producing manganese dioxide during the oxidation
Iron and Manganese Removal Techniques reaction. Manganese dioxide acts as an adsorbent for
Chemical precipitation treatments for iron and manganese soluble manganese ions. This attraction for soluble
removal are called deferrization and demanganization. The manganese provides removal to extremely low levels.
usual process is aeration; dissolved oxygen in the chemical
causing precipitation; chlorine or potassium permanganate The oxidized compounds form precipitates that are removed
may be required. by a filter. Note that sufficient time should be allowed from the
addition of the oxidant to the filtration step. Otherwise, the oxi- general rule, groundwaters are harder than surface waters, so
dation process will be completed after filtration, creating insol- hardness is frequently of concern to the small water system
uble iron and manganese precipitates in the distribution system. operator. This hardness is derived from contact with soil and
rock formations such as limestone. Although rainwater itself
Ion Exchange will not dissolve many solids, the natural carbon dioxide in the
The ion exchange process is used primarily to soften hard soil enters the water and forms carbonic acid (HCO), which is
waters, but it will also remove soluble iron and manganese. capable of dissolving minerals. Where soil is thick (contribut-
The water passes through a bed of resin that adsorbs undesir- ing more carbon dioxide to the water) and limestone is present,
able ions from the water, replacing them with less trouble- hardness is likely to be a problem. The total amount of hard-
some ions. When the resin has given up all its donor ions, ness in water is expressed as the sum of its calcium carbonate
it is regenerated with strong salt brine (sodium chloride); the (CaCO3) and its magnesium hardness. However, for practical
sodium ions from the brine replace the adsorbed ions and purposes, hardness is expressed as calcium carbonate. This
restore the ion exchange capabilities. means that regardless of the amount of the various compo-
nents that make up hardness, they can be related to a specific
Sequestering amount of calcium carbonate (e.g., hardness is expressed as
Sequestering or stabilization may be used when the water mg/l as CaCO3—milligrams per liter as calcium carbonate).
contains mainly low concentration of iron, and the volumes Note: The two types of water hardness are temporary hard-
needed are relatively small. This process does not actually ness and permanent hardness. Temporary hardness is also
remove the iron or manganese from the water but complexes known as carbonate hardness (hardness that can be removed
(binds it chemically) it with other ions in a soluble form that by boiling); permanent hardness is also known as noncarbon-
is not likely to come out of solution (i.e., not likely oxidized). ate hardness (hardness that cannot be removed by boiling).
Hardness is of concern in domestic water consumption
Aeration because hard water increases soap consumption, leaves a
The primary physical process uses air to oxidize the iron and soapy scum in the sink or tub, can cause water heater elec-
manganese. The water is either pumped up into the air or trodes to burn out quickly, can cause discoloration of plumb-
allowed to fall over an aeration device. The air oxidizes the ing fixtures and utensils, and is perceived as less desirable
iron and manganese that is then removed by use of a filter. water. In industrial water use, hardness is a concern because
The addition of lime to raise the pH is often included in the it can cause boiler scale and damage to industrial equipment.
process. While this is called a physical process, removal is The objection of customers to hardness is often dependent on
accomplished by chemical oxidation. the amount of hardness they are used to. People familiar with
water with a hardness of 20 mg/l might think that a hardness of
Potassium Permanganate Oxidation 100 mg/l is too much. On the other hand, a person who has been
and Manganese Greensand using water with a hardness of 200 mg/l might think that 100
The continuous regeneration potassium greensand filter pro- mg/l was very soft. Table 15.2 lists the classifications of hardness.
cess is another commonly used filtration technique for iron
and manganese control. Manganese greensand is a mineral Hardness Calculation
(glauconite) that has been treated with alternating solutions of Recall that hardness is expressed as mg/l as CaCO3. The
manganous chloride and potassium permanganate. The result mg/L of Ca and Mg must be converted to mg/L as CaCO3
is a sand-like (zeolite) material coated with a layer of manga- before they can be added. The hardness (in mg/L as CaCO3)
nese dioxide—an adsorbent for soluble iron and manganese. for any given metallic ion is calculated using the formula:
Manganese greensand has the ability to capture (adsorb) sol-
uble iron and manganese that may have escaped oxidation, as Hardness ( mg/L as CaCO3 )
well as the capability of physically filtering out the particles
50
of oxidized iron and manganese. Manganese greensand filters = M (mg/L) ´ (15.6)
are generally set up as pressure filters, totally enclosed tanks Eq. Wt. of M
containing the greensand. The process of adsorbing soluble where:
iron and manganese “uses up” the greensand by converting M = metal ion concentration (mg/L)
the manganese dioxide coating to manganic oxide, which Eq. Wt. = equivalent weight = ÷
gram molecular weight
does not have the adsorption property. The greensand can be valence
regenerated in much the same way as ion exchange resins, by
washing the sand with potassium permanganate. Treatment Methods
Two common methods are used to reduce hardness: ion
Hardness Treatment exchange and cation exchange:
Hardness in water is caused by the presence of certain posi-
tively charged metallic irons in solution in the water. The • Ion Exchange Process—The ion exchange process is
most common of these hardness-causing ions are calcium and the most frequently used process for softening water.
magnesium; others include iron, strontium, and barium. As a Accomplished by charging a resin with sodium
balance prevents the water from corroding distribution pipes

TABLE 15.2 and consumers’ plumbing. This keeps substances like lead
Classification of Hardness from leaching out of plumbing and into the drinking water.
Classification mg/l CaCO3 For our purpose, we define corrosion as the conversion of a
metal to a salt or oxide with a loss of desirable properties such
Soft 0–75
as mechanical strength. Corrosion may occur over an entire
Moderately hard 75–150
exposed surface or may be localized at micro- or macroscopic
Hard 150–300
discontinuities in metal. In all types of corrosion a gradual
Very hard Over 300
decomposition of the material occurs, often due to an electro-
chemical reaction. Corrosion may be caused by (1) stray cur-
rent electrolysis, (2) galvanic corrosion caused by dissimilar
ions, the resin exchanges the sodium ions for cal- metals, or (3) differential concentration cells. Corrosion starts
cium and/or magnesium ions. Naturally occurring at the surface of a material and moves inward.
and synthetic cation exchange resins are available. The adverse effects of corrosion can be categorized accord-
Natural exchange resins include such substances ing to health, aesthetics, economic effects, and/or other effects.
as aluminum silicate, zeolite clays [zeolites are The corrosion of toxic metal pipes made from lead creates a
hydrous silicates found naturally in the cavities of serious health hazard. Lead tends to accumulate in the bones
lavas (greensand); glauconite zeolites; or synthetic, of humans and animals. Signs of lead intoxication include
porous zeolites], humus, and certain types of sedi- gastrointestinal disturbances, fatigue, anemia, and muscular
ments. These resins are placed in a pressure vessel. paralysis. Lead is not a natural contaminant in either surface
Salt brine is flushed through the resins. The sodium waters or groundwaters, and the MCL of 0.005 mg/l in source
ions in the salt brine attach to the resin. The resin waters is rarely exceeded. It is a corrosion by-product from
is now said to be charged. Once charged, water is high lead solder joints in copper and lead piping. Small dos-
passed through the resin and the resin exchanges the ages of lead can lead to developmental problems in children.
sodium ions attached to the resin for calcium and The USEPA’s Lead and Copper Rule addresses the matter of
magnesium ions, thus removing them from the water. lead in drinking water exceeding specified action levels.
The zeolite clays are most common because they are Note: The USEPA’s Lead and Copper Rule requires that a
quite durable, can tolerate extreme ranges in pH, and treatment facility achieve optimum corrosion control. Since
are chemically stable. They have relatively limited lead and copper contamination generally occurs after water
exchange capacities, however, so they should be used has left the public water system, the best way for the water
only for water with a moderate total hardness. One system operator to find out if customer water is contaminated
of the results is that the water may be more corrosive is to test water that has come from a household faucet.
than before. Another concern is that the addition of With regard to the Lead and Copper Rule, it is important to
sodium ions to the water may increase the health risk note that EPA made minor changes in 1999 to the original Rule.
of those with high blood pressure. These minor revisions (also known as the Lead and Copper
• Cation Exchange Process—The cation exchange Rule Minor Revisions or LCRMR) streamline requirements,
process takes place with little or no intervention promote consistent nation implementation, and in many cases,
from the treatment plant operator. Water contain- reduce the burden for water systems. The LCRMR does not
ing hardness-causing cations (Ca++, Mg++, Fe + 3) change the action levels of 0.015 mg/L for lead and 1.3 mg/L,
is passed through a bed of cation exchange resin. for copper, or Maximum Contaminant Level Goals estab-
The water coming through the bed contains hard- lished by the 1991 Lead and Copper Rule (“the rule”), which
ness near zero, although it will have elevated are 0 mg/L for lead and 1.3 mg/L for copper. They also do
sodium content. (The sodium content is not likely not affect the rule’s basic requirements to optimize corrosion
to be high enough to be noticeable, but it could be control and, if appropriate, treat source water, deliver public
high enough to pose problems to people on highly education, and replace lead service lines (USEPA, 1990d).
restricted salt-free diets.) The total lack of hard- Cadmium is the only other toxic metal found in samples
ness in the finished water is likely to make it very from plumbing systems. Cadmium is a contaminant found in
corrosive, so normal practice bypasses a portion of zinc. Its adverse health effects are best known for being asso-
the water around the softening process. The treated ciated with severe bone and kidney syndrome in Japan. The
and untreated waters are blended to produce an proposed maximum contaminant level (PMCL) for cadmium
effluent with a total hardness of around 50–75 mg/l is 0.01 mg/L.
as CaCO3. Note: Water systems should try to supply water free of lead
and having no more than 1.3 milligrams of copper (mg/L).
Corrosion Control This is a non-enforceable health goal.
Water operators add chemicals (e.g., lime or sodium hydrox- Aesthetic effects that are a result of corrosion of iron are
ide) to water at the source or at the waterworks to control cor- characterized by “pitting” and are a consequence of the depo-
rosion. Using chemicals to achieve slightly alkaline chemical sition of ferric hydroxide and other products and the solution
of iron—tuberculation. Tuberculation reduces the hydraulic examined for signs of corrosion damage. A primary indicator
capacity of the pipe. Corrosion of iron can cause customer of corrosion damage is pitting. (Note: Measure depth of pits to
complaints of reddish or reddish-brown staining of plumbing gauge the extent of damage.) Another common method used
fixtures and laundry. Corrosion of copper lines can cause cus- to determine if corrosion or scaling is taking place in distri-
tomer complaints of bluish or blue-green stains on plumbing bution lines is by inserting special steel specimens of known
fixtures. Sulfide corrosion of copper and iron lines can cause weight (called coupons)in the pipe and examining them for
a blackish color in the water. The by-products of microbial corrosion after a period of time. Detecting evidence of leaks,
activity (especially iron bacteria) can cause foul tastes and/or conducting flow tests and chemical tests for dissolved oxygen
odors in the water. and toxic metals, as well as customer complaints (red or black
The economic effects of corrosion may include the need water and/or laundry and fixture stains) are also used to indi-
for water main replacement, especially when tuberculation cate corrosion problems.
reduces the flow capacity of the main. Tuberculation increases Formulas can also be used to determine corrosion (to an
pipe roughness, causing an increase in pumping costs and extent). The Langelier Saturation Index (LI) and Aggressive
reducing distribution system pressure. Tuberculation and cor- Index (AI) are two of the commonly used indices. LI is a
rosion can cause leaks in distribution mains and household method used to determine if water is corrosive. AI refers to
plumbing. Corrosion of household plumbing may require waters that have low natural pH, are high in dissolved oxy-
extensive treatment, public education, and other actions under gen, are low in total dissolved solids, and have low alkalinity
the Lead and Copper Rule. and low hardness. These waters are very aggressive and can
Other effects of corrosion include short service life of be corrosive. Both the Langelier Saturation and Aggressive
household plumbing caused by pitting. Buildup of mineral Indices are typically used as starting points in determining
deposits in the hot water system may eventually restrict hot the adjustments required to produce a film:
water flow. Also, the structural integrity of steel water storage
tanks may deteriorate, causing structural failures. Steel lad- • LI—approximately 0.5
ders in clearwells or water storage tanks may corrode, intro- • AI—value of 12 or higher.
ducing iron into the finished water. Steel parts in flocculation
tanks, sedimentation basins, clarifiers, and filters may also Note: LI and AI are based on the dissolving of and precipi-
corrode. tation of calcium carbonate; therefore, the respective indices
may not actually reflect the corrosive nature of the particular
Types of Corrosion water for a specific pipe material. However, they can be useful
Three types of corrosion occur in water mains: galvanic, tools in selecting materials or treatment options for corrosion
tuberculation, and pitting: control.
• Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar met- Corrosion Control

als are in contact and are exposed to a conductive As mentioned, one method used to reduce the corrosive
environment, a potential exists between them and nature of water is chemical addition. The selection of chemi-
current flows. This type of corrosion is the result of cals depends on the characteristics of the water, where the
an electrochemical reaction when the flow of electric chemicals can be applied, how they can be applied and mixed
current itself is an essential part of the reaction. with water, and the cost of the chemicals.
• Tuberculation refers to the formation of localized If the product of the calcium hardness times the alkalin-
corrosion products scattered over the surface in the ity of the water is less than 100,treatments may be required.
form of knob-like mounds. These mounds increase Both lime and CO2 may be required for proper treatment of
the roughness of the inside of the pipe, increasing the water. If the calcium hardness and alkalinity levels are
resistance to water flow and decreasing the C-factor between 100 and 500, either lime or soda ash (Na2CO3) will
of the pipe. be satisfactory. The decision regarding which chemical to use
• Pitting is localized corrosion generally classified as depends on the cost of the equipment and chemicals. If the
pitting when the diameter of the cavity at the metal product of the calcium hardness times the alkalinity is greater
surface is the same or less than the depth. than 500, either lime or caustic soda (NaOH) may be used.
Soda ash will be ruled out because of the expense.
Factors Affecting Corrosion The chemicals chosen for the treatment of public drinking
The primary factors affecting corrosion are pH, alkalinity, water supplies modify the water characteristics, making the
hardness (calcium), dissolved oxygen, and total dissolved sol- water less corrosive to the pipe. Modification of water quality
ids. Secondary factors include temperature, velocity of water can increase the pH of the water, reducing the hydrogen ions
in pipes, and carbon dioxide (CO2). available for galvanic corrosion, as well as reducing the solu-
bility of copper, zinc, iron, lead, and calcium, and increasing
Determination of Corrosion Problems the possibility of forming carbonate protective films.
To determine if corrosion is taking place in water mains, Calcium carbonate stability is the most effective means of
materials removed from the distribution system should be controlling corrosion. Lime,
caustic soda, or soda ash is added until the pH and the distribution system pipe is soil. The measure of corrosivity of
alkalinity indicate the water is saturated with calcium car- the soil is the soil resistivity. If the soil resistivity is greater
bonate. Saturation does not always assure non-corrosiveness. than 5,000 ohms/cm, serious corrosion is unlikely. Steel pipes
Utilities should also exercise caution when applying sodium may be used under these conditions. If soil resistivity is less
compounds, since high sodium content in water can be a than 500 ohms/cm, plastic PVC pipes should be used. For
health concern for some customers. By increasing the alka- intermediate ranges of soil resistivity (500–5,000 ohms/cm),
linity of the water, the bicarbonate and carbonate available use ductile iron pipe, lining, and coating.
to form protective carbonate film increase. By decreasing the Common operating problems associated with corrosion
dissolved oxygen of the water, the rate of galvanic corrosion control include:
is reduced, along with the possibility of iron tuberculation.
Inorganic phosphates used include: (1) CaCO3 not depositing a film: usually a result of poor
pH control (out of the normal range of 6.5–8.5). This
a. Zinc phosphates, which can cause algae blooms on may also cause excessive film deposition.
open reservoirs. (2) Persistence of red water problems: most probably
b. Sodium silicate, which is used by individual custom- a result of poor flow patterns, insufficient velocity,
ers, such as apartments, houses, and office buildings. tuberculation of pipe surface, and presence of iron
c. Sodium polyphosphates (tetrasodium pyrophosphate bacteria.
or sodium hexametaphosphate), which control scale a. Velocity—Chemicals need to make contact
formation in supersaturated waters and are known as with pipe surface. Dead ends and low-flow areas
sequestering agents. should have flushing programs; dead ends should
d. Silicates (SiO2), which form a film; an initial dos- be looped.
age of 12–16 mg/l for about 30 days will adequately b. Tuberculation—the best approach is to clean
coat the pipes, and a 1.0 mg/l concentration should with “pig.” In extreme cases, clean the pipe
be maintained thereafter. with metal scrapers and install a cement-mortar
lining.
Caution: Great care and caution must be exercised any time c. Iron bacteria—Slime prevents film contact with
feeding corrosion control chemicals into a public drinking the pipe surface. Slime will grow and lose coat-
water system! ing. Pipe cleaning and disinfection programs are
Another corrosion control method is aeration. Aeration needed.
works to remove carbon dioxide (CO2); it can be reduced to
about 5 mg/l. Cathodic protection, often employed to control
corrosion, is achieved by applying an outside electric current
COAGULATION
to the metal to reverse the electromechanical corrosion pro-
cess. The application of D-C current prevents normal electron The primary purpose of surface water treatment is chemical
flow. Cathodic protection uses a sacrificial metal electrode (a clarification by coagulation and mixing, flocculation, sedi-
magnesium anode) that corrodes instead of the pipe or tank. mentation, and filtration. These unit processes, along with
Linings, coatings, and paints can also be used in corrosion disinfection, work to remove particles, naturally occurring
control. Slip-line with plastic liner, cement mortar, zinc or organic matter (NOM—i.e., bacteria, algae, zooplankton, and
magnesium, polyethylene, epoxy, and coal tar enamels are organic compounds), and microbes from water, and to produce
some of the materials that can be used. water that is non-corrosive. Specifically, coagulation/floccula-
Caution: Before using any protective coatings, consult the tion work to destabilize particles and agglomerate dissolved
district engineer first! and particulate matter. Sedimentation removes solids and
Several corrosive resistant pipe materials are used to pre- provides 1/2-log Giardia and 1-log virus removal. Filtration
vent corrosion, including: removes solids and provides 2-log Giardia and 1-log virus
removal. Finally, disinfection provides microbial inactivation
(1) PVC plastic pipe and 1/2-log Giardia and 2- log virus removal.
(2) Aluminum From Figure 15.3, it can be seen that following screening
(3) Nickel and the other pretreatment processes, the next unit process
(4) Silicon in a conventional water treatment system is a mixer where
(5) Brass chemicals are added in what is known as coagulation. The
(6) Bronze exception to this unit process configuration occurs in small
(7) Stainless steel systems using groundwater, when chlorine or other taste and
(8) Reinforced concrete odor control measures are introduced at the intake and are the
extent of treatment.
In addition to internal corrosion problems, waterworks opera- Materials present in raw water may vary in size, concentra-
tors must also be concerned with external corrosion prob- tion, and type. Dispersed substances in the water may be clas-
lems. The primary culprit involved with external corrosion of sified as suspended, colloidal, or solution. Suspended particles
Addition of
Pretreatment Coagulant
Stage
Water Mixing
Supply Tank
Screening
FIGURE 15.3 Coagulation.
may vary in mass and size and are dependent on the flow of Coagulation is the reaction between one of these salts and
water. High flows and velocities can carry larger material. As water. The simplest coagulation process occurs between alum
velocities decrease, the suspended particles settle according and water. Alum or aluminum sulfate is made by a chemical
to size and mass. reaction of bauxite ore and sulfuric acid. The normal strength
There may be other materials in the solution, for example, of liquid alum is adjusted to 8.3%, while the strength of dry
salt dissolves in water. Matter in the colloidal state does not alum is 17%.
dissolve, but the particles are so small they will not settle out When alum is placed in water, a chemical reaction occurs
of the water. Color (as in tea-colored swamp water) is mainly that produces positively charged aluminum ions. The over-
due to colloids or extremely fine particles of matter in suspen- all result is the reduction of electrical charges and the forma-
sion. Colloidal and solute particles in water are electrically tion of a sticky substance—the formation of floc, which when
charged. Because most of the charges are alike (negative) and properly formed, will settle. These two destabilizing factors
repel each other, the particles stay dispersed and remain in the are the major contributions that coagulation makes to the
colloidal or soluble state. removal of turbidity, color, and microorganisms.
Suspended matter will settle without treatment if the water Liquid alum is preferred in water treatment because it
is still enough to allow it to settle. The rate of settling of par- has several advantages over other coagulants, including the
ticles can be determined, as this settling follows certain laws following:
of physics. However, much of the suspended matter may be
so slow in settling that the normal settling processes become (1) Ease of handling
impractical, and if colloidal particles are present, settling will (2) Lower costs
not occur. Moreover, water drawn from a raw water source (3) Less labor required to unload, store, and convey
often contains many small unstable (unsticky) particles; there- (4) Elimination of dissolving operations
fore, sedimentation alone is usually an impractical way to (5) Less storage space required
obtain clear water in most locations, and another method of (6) Greater accuracy in measurement and control
increasing the settling rate must be used: coagulation, which provided
is designed to convert stable (unsticky) particles to unstable (7) Elimination of the nuisance and unpleasantness of
(sticky) particles. handling dry alum
The term coagulation refers to the series of chemical and (8) Easier maintenance
mechanical operations by which coagulants are applied and
made effective. These operations are comprised of two dis- The formation of floc is the first step of coagulation; for great-
tinct phases: (1) rapid mixing to disperse coagulant chemicals est efficiency, rapid, intimate mixing of the raw water and
by violent agitation into the water being treated and (2) floc- the coagulant must occur. After mixing, the water should
culation to agglomerate small particles into well-defined floc be slowly stirred so that the very small, newly formed par-
by gentle agitation for a much longer time. ticles can attract and enmesh colloidal particles, holding them
Coagulation results from adding salts of iron or aluminum together to form larger floc. This slow mixing is the second
to the water. The coagulant must be added to the raw water stage of the process (flocculation), covered later.
and perfectly distributer into the liquid; such uniformity of A number of factors influence the coagulation process—
chemical treatment is reached through rapid agitation or mix- pH, turbidity, temperature, alkalinity, and the use of poly-
ing. Common coagulants (salts) include: mers. The degree to which these factors influence coagulation
depends upon the coagulant used. The raw water conditions,
• Alum—aluminum sulfate optimum pH for coagulation and other factors must be con-
• Sodium aluminate sidered before deciding which chemical is to be fed and at
• Ferric sulfate what levels.
• Ferrous sulfate To determine the correct chemical dosage, a jar test or
• Ferric chloride coagulation test is performed. Jar tests (widely used for many
• Polymers years by the water treatment industry) simulate full-scale
coagulation and flocculation processes to determine opti- in chemical volumes to determine the approximate
mum chemical dosages. It is important to note that jar test- range. This is then narrowed in subsequent tests.)
ing is only an attempt to achieve a ballpark approximation of (3) Continue mixing for 1 min.
correct chemical dosage for the treatment process. The test (4) Reduce the mixer speed to a gentle agitation (30
conditions are intended to reflect the normal operation of a rpm), and continue mixing for 20 min. Again, time
chemical treatment facility. The test can be used to: and mixer speed may be varied to reflect the facility.
Note: During this time, observe the floc forma-
• Select the most effective chemical tion—how well the floc holds together during the
• Select the optimum dosage agitation (floc strength).
• Determine the value of a flocculant aid and the (5) Turn off the mixer and allow solids to settle for 20–30
proper dose min. Observe the settling characteristics, the clarity
of the supernatant, the settleability of the solids, the
The testing procedure requires a series of samples to be flocculation of the solids, and the compactability of
placed in testing jars (see Figure 15.4) and mixed at 100 the solids.
ppm. Varying amounts of the process chemical or speci- (6) Perform phosphate tests to determine removals.
fied amounts of several flocculants are added (one volume/ (7) Select the dose that provided the best treatment based
sample container). The mix is continued for 1 min. Next, upon the observations made during the analysis.
the mixing is slowed to 30 rpms to provide gentle agitation, Note: After initial ranges and/or chemical selec-
and then the floc is allowed to settle. The flocculation period tions are completed, repeat the test using a smaller
and settling process are observed carefully to determine range of dosages to optimize performance.
the floc strength, settleability, and clarity of the supernatant
liquor (defined: the water that remains above the settled floc).
MIXING AND FLOCCULATION
Additionally, the supernatant can be tested to determine the
efficiency of the chemical addition for the removal of TSS, As we see in Figure 15.5, flocculation follows coagulation
BOD5, and phosphorus. in the conventional water treatment process. Flocculation is
The equipment required for the jar test includes a six- the physical process of slowly mixing the coagulated water
position, variable speed paddle mixer (see Figure 15.4), six to increase the probability of particle collision—unstable
two-quart wide-mouthed jars, an interval timer, and assorted particles collide and stick together to form fewer larger flocs.
glassware, pipettes, graduates, and so forth. The jar testing Through experience, we see that effective mixing reduces
procedure follows: the required amount of chemicals and greatly improves the
sedimentation process, which results in longer filter runs and
(1) Place an appropriate volume of water sample in each higher quality finished water.
of the jars (250–1,000 ml samples may be used, The goal of flocculation is to form a uniform, feather-like
depending upon the size of the equipment being use). material similar to snowflakes—a dense, tenacious floc that
Start mixers and set for 100 rpm. entraps the fine, suspended, and colloidal particles and carries
(2) Add previously selected amounts of the chemical them down rapidly in the settling basin. Proper flocculation
being evaluated. (Initial tests may use wide variations requires 15–45 min. The time is based on water chemistry,
FIGURE 15.4 Variable-speed paddle mixer used in jar testing procedure.

Addition of
Stage
Water Mixing Flocculation

Supply Tank Basin
Screening
FIGURE 15.5 Mixing and flocculation.
water temperature, and mixing intensity. Temperature is the (4) disintegration of previously formed floc; and (5) size and
key component in determining the amount of time required density of the floc.
for floc formation. To increase the speed of floc formation and
the strength and weight of the floc, polymers are often added.
FILTRATION
In the conventional water treatment process, filtration usu-
SEDIMENTATION
ally follows coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation (see
After raw water and chemicals have been mixed and the Figure 15.7). At present, filtration is not always used in small
floc formed, the water containing the floc (because it has water systems. However, recent regulatory requirements
higher specific gravity than water) flows to the sedimenta- under USEPA’s Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment
tion or settling basin (see Figure 15.6). Sedimentation is also Rules may make water filtering necessary at most water sup-
called clarification. Sedimentation removes settleable solids ply systems. Water filtration is a physical process of separat-
by gravity. Water moves slowly through the sedimentation ing suspended and colloidal particles from water by passing
tank/basin with a minimum of turbulence at entry and exit water through a granular material. The process of filtration
points with minimum short-circuiting. Sludge accumulates at involves straining, settling, and adsorption. As floc passes into
the bottom of the tank/basin. Typical tanks or basins used the filter, the spaces between the filter grains become clogged,
in sedimentation include conventional rectangular basins, reducing this opening and increasing removal. Some material
conventional center-feed basins, peripheral-feed basins, and is removed merely because it settles on a media grain. One of
spiral-flow basins. the most important processes is adsorption of the floc onto
In conventional treatment plants, the amount of detention the surface of individual filter grains. This helps collect the
time required for settling can vary from 2 to 6 h. Detention floc and reduces the size of the openings between the filter
time should be based on the total filter capacity when the fil- media grains. In addition to removing silt and sediment, floc,
ters are passing 2 gpm per square foot of superficial sand area. algae, insect larvae, and any other large elements, filtration
For plants with higher filter rates, the detention time is based also contributes to the removal of bacteria and protozoans
on a filter rate of 3–4 gpm per square foot of sand area. The such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium. Some filtra-
time requirement is dependent on the weight of the floc, the tion processes are also used for iron and manganese removal.
temperature of the water, and how quiescent (still) the basin.
A number of conditions affect sedimentation: (1) unifor-
Types of Filter Technologies
mity of flow of water through the basin; (2) stratification of
water due to difference in temperature between water enter- The Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) specifies four fil-
ing and water already in the basin; (3) release of gases that tration technologies, although SWTR also allows the use of
may collect in small bubbles on suspended solids, causing alternate filtration technologies (e.g., cartridge filters). The
them to rise and float as scum rather than settle as sludge; specified technologies are (1) slow sand filtration/rapid sand
Addition of
Stage
Water Mixing Flocculation Settling

Supply Tank Basin Tank
Screening
Sludge
Processing
FIGURE 15.6 Sedimentation.

Addition of
Stage
Water Mixing Flocculation Settling Sand

Supply Tank Basin Tank Filter
Screening
Sludge
Processing
FIGURE 15.7 Filtration.
filtration, (2) pressure filtration, (3) diatomaceous earth filtra- through the sand. An overflow device prevents excessive water
tion, and (4) direct filtration. Of these, all but rapid sand filtra- depth. The filter must have provisions for filling it from the bot-
tion are commonly employed in small water systems that use tom up, and it must be equipped with a loss-of-head gauge, a
filtration. Each type of filtration system has advantages and rate-of-flow control device (such as an orifice or butterfly valve),
disadvantages. Regardless of the type of filter, however, filtra- a weir or effluent pipe that assures that the water level cannot
tion involves the processes of straining (where particles are drop below the sand surface, and filtered waste sample taps.
captured in the small spaces between filter media grains), sedi- When the filter is first placed in service, the head loss
mentation (where the particles land on top of the grains and through the media caused by the resistance of the sand is
stay there), and adsorption (where a chemical attraction occurs about 0.2 ft (i.e., a layer of water 0.2 ft deep on top of the fil-
between the particles and the surface of the media grains). ter will provide enough pressure to push the water downward
through the filter). As the filter operates, the media becomes
Slow Sand Filters clogged with the material being filtered out of the water, and
The first slow sand filter was installed in London in 1829 and the head loss increase. When it reaches about 4–5 ft, the filter
was used widely throughout Europe, though not in the United needs to be cleaned.
States. By 1900, rapid sand filtration began taking over as the For efficient operation of a slow sand filter, the water being
dominant filtration technology, and a few slow sand filters filtered should have a turbidity average of less than 5 TU, with
are in operation today. However, with the advent of the Safe a maximum of 30 TU. Slow sand filters are not backwashed
Drinking Water Act and its regulations (especially the Surface the way conventional filtration units are. The 1–2 in. of mate-
Water Treatment Rule) and the recognition of the problems rial must be removed on a periodic basis to keep the filter
associated with Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium in operating.
surface water, the water industry is re-examining slow sand
filters. Low technology requirements may prevent many state Rapid Sand Filters
water systems from using this type of equipment. The rapid sand filter, which is similar in some ways to slow
On the plus side, slow sand filtration is well suited for small sand filter, is one of the most widely used filtration units. The
water systems. It is a proven, effective filtration process with major difference is in the principle of operation; that is, in
relatively low construction costs and low operating costs (it the speed or rate at which water passes through the media.
does not require constant operator attention). It is quite effective In operation, water passes downward through a sand bed that
for water systems as large as 5,000 people, beyond that, surface removes the suspended particles. The suspended particles
area requirements and manual labor required to recondition consist of the coagulated matter remaining in the water after
the filters make rapid sand filters more effective. The filtration sedimentation, as well as a small amount of uncoagulated sus-
rate is generally in the range of 45–150 gpd/sq ft. Components pended matter.
making up a slow sand filter include the following: Some significant differences exist in construction, control,
and operation between slow sand filters and rapid sand filters.
• A covered structure to hold the filter media Because of the construction and operation of the rapid sand
• An underdrain system filtration with its higher filtration the land area needed to filter
• Graded rock that is placed around and just above the the same quantity of water is reduced. Components of a rapid
underdrain sand filter include:
• The filter media, consisting of 30–55 in. of sand with
a grain size of 0.25–0.35 mm • Structure to house media
• Inlet and outlet piping to convey the water to and • Filter media
from the filter, and the means to drain filtered water • Gravel media support layer
to waste • Underdrain system
• Valves and piping system
The area above the top of the sand layer is flooded with water • Filter backwash system
to a depth of 3–5 ft and the water is allowed to trickle down • Waste disposal system
Usually 2–3 ft deep, the filter media is supported by approxi- is that the entire pressure filter is contained within a pressure
mately 1 ft of gravel. The media may be fine sand or a com- vessel. These units are often highly automated and are usually
bination of sand, anthracite coal, and coal (dual-multimedia purchased as self-contained units with all necessary piping,
filter). Water is applied to a rapid sand filter at a rate of 1.5 controls, and equipment contained in a single unit. They are
to gallons per minute per square foot of filter media sur- backwashed in much the same manner as the rapid sand filter.
face. When the rate is between 4 and 6 gpm/sq ft, the filter is The major advantage of the pressure filter is its low ini-
referred to as a high-rate filter; at a rate of over 6 gpm/sq ft the tial cost. They are usually prefabricated, with standardized
filter is called an ultra-high-rate filter. These rates compare designs. A major disadvantage is that the operator is unable
to the slow sand filtration rate of 45–150 gallons per day per to observe the filter in the pressure filter and so is unable to
square foot. High-rate and ultra-high-rate filters must meet determine the condition of the media. Unless the unit has an
additional conditions to assure proper operation. automatic shutdown feature on high effluent turbidity, driving
Generally, raw water turbidity is not that high. However, filtered material through the filter is possible.
even if raw water turbidity values exceed 1,000 TU, properly
operated rapid sand filters can produce filtered water with tur- Diatomaceous Earth Filters
bidity well under 0.5 TU. The time the filter is in operation Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a white material made from the
between cleanings (filter runs) usually lasts from 12 to 72 h, skeletal remains of diatoms. The skeletons are microscopic,
depending on the quality of the raw water; the end of the run and in most cases, porous. There are different grades of dia-
is indicated by the head loss approaching 6–8 ft. Filter break- tomaceous earth, and the grade is selected based on filtration
through (when filtered material is pulled through the filter requirements. These diatoms are mixed in water slurry and
into the effluent) can occur if the head loss becomes too great. fed onto a fine screen called a septum, usually of stainless
Operation with head loss too high can also cause air binding steel, nylon, or plastic. The slurry is fed at a rate of 0.2 lb/
(which blocks part of the filter with air bubbles), increasing sq ft of filter area. The diatoms collect in a precoat over the
the flow rate through the remaining filter area. septum, forming an extremely fine screen. Diatoms are fed
Rapid sand filters have the advantage of lower land require- continuously with the raw water, causing the buildup of a fil-
ments, and they have other advantages, too. For example, ter cake approximately 1/8–1/5 in. thick. The openings are so
rapid sand filters cost less, are less labor-intensive to clean, small that the fine particles that cause turbidity are trapped
and offer higher efficiency with highly turbid waters. On the on the screen. Coating the septum with diatoms gives it the
downside, the operation and maintenance costs of rapid sand ability to filter out very small microscopic material. The fine
filters are much higher because of the increased complexity of screen and the buildup of filtered particles cause a high head
the filter controls and backwashing system. loss through the filter. When the head loss reaches a maxi-
When backwashing a rapid sand filter, the filter is cleaned mum level (30 psi on a pressure-type filter or 15 in. or mer-
by passing treated water backwards (upwards) through the fil- cury on a vacuum-type filter), the filter cake must be removed
ter media and agitating the top of the media. The need for by backwashing.
backwashing is determined by a combination of filter run time A slurry of diatoms is fed with raw water during filtration
(i.e., the length of time since the last backwashing), effluent in a process called body feed. The body feed prevents prema-
turbidity, and head loss through the filter. Depending on the ture clogging of the septum cake. These diatoms are caught
raw water quality, the run time varies from one filtration plant on the septum, increasing the headloss and preventing the
to another (and may even vary from one filter to another in the cake from clogging too rapidly by the particles being filtered.
same plant). While the body feed increases headloss, headloss increases
Note: Backwashing usually requires 3–7% of the water are more gradual than if body feed was not used.
produced by the plant. Diatomaceous earth filters are relatively low in cost to con-
struct, they have high operating costs and can give frequent
Pressure Filter Systems operating problems if not properly operated and maintained.
When raw water is pumped or piped from the source to a grav- They can be used to filter raw surface waters or surface-influ-
ity filter, the head (pressure) is lost as the water enters the floc enced groundwaters, with low turbidity (<5 NTU), low coli-
basin. When this occurs, pumping the water from the plant form concentrations (no more than 50coliforms/100 ml) and
clearwell to the reservoir is usually necessary. One way to may also be used for iron and manganese removal following
reduce pumping is to place the plant components into pressure oxidation. Filtration rates are between 1.0 and 1.5 gpm/sq ft.
vessels, thus maintaining the head. This type of arrangement
is called a pressure filter system. Pressure filters are also quite
DIRECT FILTRATION
popular for iron and manganese removal and for filtration of
water from wells. They may be placed directly in the pipeline Direct filtration is a treatment scheme that omits the floccu-
from the well or pump with little head loss. Most pressure lation and sedimentation steps prior to filtration. Coagulant
filters operate at a rate of about 3 gpm/sq ft. chemicals are added, and the water is passed directly onto
Operationally the same, and consisting of components sim- the filter. All solids removal takes place on the filter, which
ilar to those of a rapid sand filter, the main difference between can lead to much shorter filter runs, more frequent back-
a rapid sand filtration system and a pressure filtration system washing, and a greater percentage of finished water used for
backwashing. The lack of a flocculation process and sedi- This keeps the top of the media from collecting the floc and
mentation basin reduces construction cost but increases the sealing the entrance into the filter media.
requirement for skilled operators and high-quality instrumen- Another common filtration problem is associated with
tation. Direct filtration must be used only where the water poor backwashing practices: the formation of mud balls that
flow rate and raw water quality are fairly consistent and where get trapped in the filter media. In severe cases, mud balls can
the incoming turbidity is low. completely clog a filter. Poor agitation of the surface of the
filter can form a crust on top of the filter; the crust later cracks
under the water pressure, causing uneven distribution of water
Alternative Filters
through the filter media. Filter cracking can be corrected by
A cartridge filter system can be employed as an alternate removing the top 1in. of the filter media, increasing the back-
filtering system to reduce turbidity and remove Giardia. A wash rate, or checking the effectiveness of the surface wash
cartridge filter is made of a synthetic media contained in a (if installed). Backwashing at too high a rate can cause the
plastic or metal housing. These systems are normally installed filter media to wash out of the filter over the effluent troughs
in a series of three or four filters. Each filter contains a media and may damage the filter underdrain system. Two possible
that is successively smaller than the previous filter. The media solutions are as follows: (1) check the backwash rate to be
sizes typically range from 50µ to 5µ or less. The filter arrange- sure that it meets the design criteria, and (2) check the surface
ment is dependent on the quality of the water, the capability wash (if installed) for proper operation.
of the filter, and the quantity of water needed. The USEPA
and state agencies have established criteria for the selection
Filtration and Compliance with Turbidity Requirements
and use of cartridge filters. Generally, cartridge filter systems
are regulated in the same manner as other filtration systems. Under the1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments,
Because of new regulatory requirements and the need to USEPA must supplement the existing 1989 Surface Water
provide more efficient removal of pathogenic protozoans (e.g., Treatment Rule (SWTR) with the Interim Enhanced Surface
Giardia and Cryptosporidium) from water supplies, mem- Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) to improve protection
brane filtration systems are finding increased application in against waterborne pathogens. Key provisions established in
water treatment systems. A membrane is a thin film separat- the IESWTR include (USEPA, 1998).
ing two different phases of a material acting as a selective
barrier to the transport of matter operated by some driving • A maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) of zero
force. Simply, a membrane can be regarded as a sieve with for Cryptosporidium; 2-log (99%) Cryptosporidium
very small pores. Membrane filtration processes are typically removal requirements for systems that filter
pressure, electrically, vacuum, or thermally driven. The types • Strengthened combined filter effluent turbidity per-
of drinking water membrane filtration systems include micro- formance standards
filtration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, and reverse osmosis. • Individual filter turbidity monitoring provisions
In a typical membrane filtration process, there is one input • Disinfection benchmark provisions to assure con-
and two outputs. Membrane performance is largely a function tinued levels of microbial protection while facilities
of the properties of the materials to be separated and can vary take the necessary steps to comply with new disin-
throughout the operation. fection by-product standards
• Inclusion of Cryptosporidium in the definition of
groundwater under the direct influence of surface
Common Filter Problems
water (GWUDI) and in the watershed and in the
Two common types of filter problems occur: those caused watershed control requirements for unfiltered public
by filter runs that are too long (infrequent backwash) and water systems
those caused by inefficient backwash (cleaning). A filter that • Requirements for covers on new finished water
is run to long can cause breakthrough (the pushing of debris reservoirs
removed from the water through the media and into the efflu- • Sanitary surveys for all surface water systems
ent) and air binding (the trapping of air and other dissolved regardless of size
gases in the filter media). Air binding occurs when the rate at
which water exits the bottom of the filter exceeds the rate at This section outlines the regulatory, reporting, and record-
which the water penetrates the top of the filter. When this hap- keeping requirements that all waterworks operators should be
pens, a void and partial vacuum occur inside the filter media. familiar with additional compliance aspects of the IESWTR
The vacuum causes gases to escape from the water and fill the related to turbidity.
void. When the filter is backwashed, the release of these gases
may cause a violent upheaval in the media and destroy the lay- IESWTR Regulatory Requirements
ering of the media bed, gravel, or underdrain. Two solutions The Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule con-
to the problems are as follows: (1) check the filtration rates tains several key provisions including strengthened combined
to assure they are within the design specifications and (2) filter effluent turbidity performance standards and individual
remove the top 1 in of media and replace it with new media. filter turbidity monitoring.
Applicability of Giardia lamblia cysts and 99.99% removal and/

Entities potentially regulated by the IESWTR are public or inactivation of viruses, and 99% removal of
water systems that use surface water or groundwater under Cryptosporidium oocysts. For a system that makes
the direct influence of surface water and serve at least 10,000 this demonstration, then representative samples of
people (including industries, state, local, tribal, or federal a system’s filtered water must be less than or equal
governments). To determine whether your facility may be to a value determined by the state which the state
regulated by this action, you should carefully examine the determines is indicative of 2-log Cryptosporidium
applicability criteria subpart H (systems subject to the Surface removal, 3-log Giardia removal, and 4-log virus
Water Treatment Rule) and subpart P (subpart H systems that removalin at least 95% of the measurements taken
serve 10,000 or more people) of the final rule. each month and the turbidity level of representative
Note: Systems subject to the turbidity provisions of the samples of a system’s filtered water must at no time
IESWTR are a subset of systems subject to the IESWTR, exceed a maximum turbidity value determined by
which utilize rapid granular filtration (i.e., conventional filtra- the state. Examples of such technologies include bag
tion treatment and direct filtration) or other filtration processes or cartridge filtration, microfiltration, and reverse
(excluding slow sand and diatomaceous earth filtration). osmosis. USEPA recommends a protocol similar to
the “Protocol for Equipment Verification Testing for
Combined Filter Effluent Monitoring Physical Removal of Microbiological and Particulate
Under the SWTR, a subpart H system, which provides filtra- Contaminants” prepared by the National Science
tion treatment, must monitor turbidity in the combined filter Foundation (NSF) International with support from
effluent. Turbidity measurements must be performed on rep- USEPA.
resentative samples of the system’s filtered water every 4 h 3. Slow Sand and Diatomaceous Earth Filtration—
(or more frequently) that the system serves water to the pub- The IESWTR does not contain new turbidity provi-
lic. A public water system may substitute continuous turbid- sions for slow sand or DE filtration systems. Utilities
ity monitoring for grab sample monitoring if it validates the utilizing either of these filtration processes must con-
continuous measurement for accuracy on a regular basis using tinue to meet the requirements for their respective
a protocol approved by the State. The turbidity performance treatment as set forth in the SWTR (1 NTU 95%, 5
requirements of the IESWTR require that all surface water NTU max).
systems, which use conventional treatment or direct filtration 4. Systems which Utilize Lime Softening—Systems,
and serve a population of 10,000 people must meet two dis- which practice lime softening, may experience dif-
tinct filter effluent limits; a maximum limit and a 95% limit. ficulty in meeting the turbidity performance require-
These limits, set forth in the IESWTR, are outlined below for ments due to residual lime floc carryover inherent
the different types of treatment employed by systems. in the process. USEPA is allowing such systems to
acidify turbidity samples prior to measurement using
a protocol approved by the states. The chemistry
1. Conventional Treatment or Direct Filtration—For supporting this decision is well documented in envi-
conventional and direct filtration systems (including ronmental chemistry texts.
those systems utilizing in-line filtration), the turbid- USEPA recommends that acidification proto-
ity level of representative samples or a system’s fil- cols lower the pH of samples to <8.3 to ensure an
tered water (measured every 4 h) must be less than adequate reduction in carbonate ions and a corre-
or equal to 0.3 NTU in at least 95% of the measure- sponding increase in bicarbonate ions. Acid should
ments taken each month. The turbidity level of rep- consist of either hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid of
resentative samples of a system’s filtered water must standard lab grade. Care should be taken when add-
not exceed 1 NTU at any time. Conventional filtration ing acid to samples. Operators should always follow
is defined as a series of processes including coagu- the sampling guidelines as directed by their super-
lation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration visors and standard protocols. If systems choose
resulting in substantial particulate removal. Direct to use acidification, USEPA recommends systems
filtration is defined as a series of processes including maintain documentation regarding the turbidity with
coagulation and filtration but excluding sedimenta- and without acidification as well as pH values and
tion resulting in substantial particle removal. quantity of acid added to the sample.
2. Other Treatment Technologies or Alternative
Filtration—For other filtration technologies (those Individual Filter Monitoring
technologies other than conventional, direct, slow In addition to the combined filter effluent monitoring dis-
sand, or diatomaceous earth filtration), a system may cussed above, those systems that use conventional treatment
demonstrate to the state, using pilot plant studies or or direct filtration (including in-line filtration) must conduct
other means, that the alternative filtration technol- continuous monitoring of turbidity for each individual filter
ogy, in combination with disinfection treatment, con- using an approved method in §141.74(a) and must calibrate tur-
sistently achieves 99.9% removal and/or inactivation bidimeters using the procedure specified by the manufacturer.
Systems must record the results of individual filter monitoring • Any individual filter has a measured turbidity
every 15 min. If the individual filter is not providing water level greater than 1.0 NTU in two consecutive
which contributes to the combined filter effluent, (i.e., it is not measurements taken 15 min apart. The sys-
operating, is filtering to waste, or recycled) the system does tem must report the filter number, the turbid-
not need to record or monitor the turbidity for that specific ity measurement, and the date(s) on which the
filter. exceedance occurred. In addition, the system
Note: Systems which utilize filtration other than conven- must either produce a filter profile for the filter
tional or direct filtration are not required to conduct indi- within 7 days of the exceedance (if the system
vidual filter monitoring although USEPA recommends such is not able to identify an obvious reason for the
systems consider individual filter monitoring. abnormal filter performance) and report that the
If a failure occurs in the continuous turbidity monitoring profile has been produced or report the obvious
equipment, the system must conduct grab sampling every 4 h reason for the exceedance.
in lieu of continuous monitoring, but must return to 15 min • Any individual filter that has a measured turbid-
monitoring no more than 5 working days following the failure ity level of greater than 0.5 NTU in two con-
of the equipment. secutive measurements taken 15 min apart at the
end of the first 4 h of continuous filter operation
Reporting and Recordkeeping after the filter has been backwashed or otherwise
Distinct reporting and recordkeeping requirements for the taken offline. The system must report the filter
turbidity provisions of the IESWTR for both systems and number, the turbidity, and the date(s) on which
states include the following: the exceedance occurred. In addition, the system
must either produce a filter profile for the filter
System Reporting Requirements within 7 days of the exceedance (if the system
Under the IESWTR, systems are tasked with specific report- is not able to identify an obvious reason for the
ing requirements associated with combined filter effluent abnormal filter performance) and report that the
monitoring and individual filter effluent monitoring. profile has been produced or report the obvious
reason for the exceedance.
• Combined Filter Effluent Reporting—Turbidity • Any individual filter has a measured turbidity
measurements as required by §141.173 must be level of greater than 1.0 NTU in two consecu-
reported within 10 days after the end of each month tive measurements taken 15 min apart at any
the system serves water to the public. Information time in each of three consecutive months. The
that must be reported includes: system must report the filter number, the turbid-
1. The total number of filtered water turbidity mea- ity measurement, and the date(s) on which the
surements taken during the month. exceedance occurred. In addition, the system
2. The number and percentage of filtered water shall conduct a self-assessment of the filter.
turbidity measurements taken during the month • Any individual filter has a measured turbidity
which are less than or equal to the turbidity limits level of greater than 2.0 NTU in two consecutive
specified in §141.173. (0.3 NTU for conventional measurements taken 15 min apart at any time in
and direct and the turbidity limit established by each of two consecutive measurements taken 15
the state for other filtration technologies) min apart at any time in each of two consecutive
3. The date and value of any turbidity measure- months. The system must report the filter num-
ments taken during the month exceed 1 NTU for ber, the turbidity measurement, and the date(s)
systems using conventional filtration treatment on which the exceedance occurred. In addition,
or direct filtration and the maximum limit estab- the system shall contact the state or a third party
lished by the state for other filtration technolo- approved by the state to conduct a comprehen-
gies. This reporting requirement is similar to the sive performance evaluation.
reporting requirement currently found under the
SWTR.
• Individual Filter Requirements—Systems utilizing State Reporting Requirements
conventional and direct filtration must report that Under §142.15, each state, which has primary enforcement
they have conducted individual filter monitoring in responsibility, is required to submit quarterly reports to the
accordance with the requirements of the IESWTR administrator of the EPA on a schedule and in a format pre-
within 10 days after the end of each month the sys- scribed by the administrator, which includes:
tem serves water to the public. Additionally, systems
must report individual filter turbidity measurements 1. New violations by public water systems in the state
within 10 days after the end of each month the sys- during the previous quarter with respect to state reg-
tem serves water to the public only if measurements ulations adopted to incorporate the requirements of
demonstrate one of the following: the national primary drinking water regulations.
2. New enforcement actions taken by the state during Abnormal Filter Operations—Filter Profile
the previous quarter against public water systems A filter profile must be produced if no obvious reason for
with respect to state regulations adopted to incorpo- abnormal filter performance can be identified. A filter profile
rate the requirements of national primary drinking is a graphical representation of individual filter performance
water standards. based on continuous turbidity measurements or total particle
counts versus time for an entire filter run, from startup to
Any violations or enforcement actions with respect to turbid- backwash inclusively that includes an assessment of filter per-
ity would be included in the quarterly report noted above. formance while another filter is being backwashed. The run
USEPA has developed a State Implementation guidance man- length during this assessment should be representative of typi-
ual which includes additional information on state reporting cal plant filter runs. The profile should include an explanation
requirements. of the cause of any filter performance spikes during the run.
Examples of possible abnormal filter operations which may be
System Recordkeeping Requirements obvious to operators include the following:
Systems must maintain the results of individual filter moni-
toring taken under §141.174 for at least 3years. These records • Outages or maintenance activities at processes
must be readily available for state representatives to review within the treatment train
during Sanitary Surveys on other visits. • Coagulant feed pump or equipment failure
• Filters being run at significantly higher loading rates
State Recordkeeping Requirements
than approved
Records of turbidity measurements must be kept for not less
than 1 year. The information retained must be set forth in a It is important to note that while the reasons for abnormal
form which makes a possible comparison with limits speci- filter operation may appear obvious they could be masking
fied in §§141.71, 141.73, 141.173, and 141.175. Records of other reasons which are more difficult to identify. These may
decisions made on a system-by-system and case-by-case basis include situations such as:
under provisions of part 141, subpart H or subpart P, must be
made in writing and kept by the state (this includes records • Distribution in filter media
regarding alternative filtration determinations). • Excessive or insufficient coagulant dosage
• Hydraulic surges due to pump changes or other fil-
Additional Compliance Issues
ters being brought on/offline
The following section outlines additional compliance issues
associated with the IESWTR. Systems need to use best professional judgment and discretion
when determining when to develop a filter profile. Attention at
Schedule
this stage will help systems avoid the other forms of follow-up
The IESWTR was published on December 16, 1998, and action described below.
became effective on February 16, 1999. The SDWA requires,
within 24 months following the promulgation of a rule, that
Individual Filter Self-Assessment
the Primacy Agencies adopt any state regulations neces-
sary to implement the rule. Under Sec. 14.13, these rules A system must conduct an individual filter self-assessment
must be at least as stringent as those required by USEPA. for any individual filter that has a measured turbidity level of
Thus, primary agencies must promulgate regulations which greater than 1.0 NTU in two consecutive measurements taken
are at least as stringent as the IESWTR by December 17, 15 min apart in each of three consecutive months. The system
2000. Beginning December 17, 2001, systems serving at must report the filter number, the turbidity measurement, and
least 10,000 people must meet the turbidity requirements in the dates on which the exceedance occurred.
§141.173.
Comprehensive Performance Evaluation
Individual Filter Follow-up Action A system must conduct a comprehensive performance evalu-
Based on the monitoring results obtained through continuous ation (CPE) if any individual filter has a measured turbidity
filter monitoring, a system may have to conduct one of the level of greater than 2.0 NTU in two consecutive measure-
following follow-up actions due to persistently high turbidity ments taken 15 min apart in two consecutive months. The sys-
levels at an individual filter: tem must report the filter number, the turbidity measurement,
and the date(s) on which the exceedance occurred. The system
• Filter profile shall contact the state or a third party approved by the state to
• Individual filter self-assessment conduct a CPE.
• CPE Note: USEPA has developed a guidance document called,
Handbook: Optimizing Water Treatment Plant Performance
These specific requirements are found in section 141.175(b) Using the Composite Correction Program (EPA/625/6-
(1)-(4). 91/027 1998).
Notification Tier 1 Violations

The IESWTR contains two distinct types of notification: In addition, the public notification rule requires that when
state and public. It is important to understand the differences providing notification on potential adverse health effects in
between each and the requirements of each. Tier 1 public notices and in notices on the granting and con-
tinued existence of a variance or exemption, the owner-oper-
• State Notification—Systems are required to notify ator of a public water system must include certain mandatory
states under §141.31. Systems must report to the state health effects language. For violations of treatment technique
within 48 h, the failure to comply with any NPDWR. requirements for filtration and disinfection, the mandatory
The system within 10 days of completion of each health effects language is:
public notification required pursuant to §141.32 must
submit to the state a representative copy of each type The USEPA sets drinking water standards and has
of notice distributed, published, posted, and/or made determined that the presence of microbiological
available to persons served by the system and/or the contaminants is a health concern at certain levels
media. The water supply system must also submit of exposure. If water is inadequately treated, micro-
to the state (within the time stated in the request biological contaminants in that water cause disease.
made by the state) copies of any records required to Disease symptoms may include diarrhea, cramps,
be maintained under §141.33 or copies of any docu- nausea, and possibly jaundice, and any associated
ments then in existence which the state or the admin- headaches and fatigue. These symptoms, however,
istrator is entitled to inspect pursuant to the authority are not just associated with disease-causing organ-
of section 1445 of the SDWA or the equivalent provi- isms in drinking water, but also may be caused by
sions of the state law. a number of factors other than your drinking water.
USEPA has set enforceable requirements for treating
Notification drinking water to reduce the risk of these adverse
The IESWTR specifies that the public notification require- health effects. Treatment such as filtering and disin-
ments of the SDWA and the implementation regulations of fection the water removes or destroys microbiologi-
40 CFR §141.32 must be followed. These regulations divide cal contaminants. Drinking water which is treated to
public notification requirements into two tiers. These tiers are meet USEPA requirements is associated with little to
defined as follows: none of this risk and should be considered safe.
• Tier 1 Further, the owner or operator of a community water system

Failure to comply with MCL must give a copy of the most recent notice for any Tier 1 viola-
Failure to comply with prescribed treatment tions to all new billing units or hookups prior to or at the time
technique service begins.
Failure to comply with a variance or exemption The medium for performing public notification and the time
schedule period in which notification must be sent varies with the type of
• Tier 2 violation and is specified in §141.32. For Tier 1 violations, the
Failure to comply with monitoring requirements owner or operator of a public water system must give notice:
Failure to comply with a testing procedure pre-
scribed by an NPDWR By publication in a local daily newspaper as soon as pos-
Operating under a variance/exemption (this is not sible but in no case later than 14 days after the violation
considered a violation but public notification is or failure. If the area does not have a daily newspaper,
required) then notice shall be given by publication in a weekly
newspaper of general circulation in the area, and
Certain general requirements must be met by all pub- By either direct mail delivery or hand delivery of the
lic notices. All notices must provide a clear and readily notice, either by itself or with the water bill no
understandable explanation of the violation, any potential later than 45 days after the violation or failure. The
adverse health effects, the population at risk, the steps Primacy Agency may waive the requirement if it
the system is taking to correct the violation, the necessity determines that the owner or operator has corrected
of seeking alternate water supplies (if any) and any pre- the violation with 45 days.
ventative measures the consumer should take. The notice
must be conspicuous, and not contain any unduly techni- Although the IESWTR does not specify any acute violations,
cal language, unduly small print, or similar problems. The the Primacy Agency may specify some Tier 1 violations as
notice must include the telephone number of the owner or posing an acute risk to human health; examples might include:
operator or designee of the public water system as a source
of additional information concerning the violation where • A waterborne outbreak in an unfiltered supply
appropriate. The notice must be bi- or multilingual if • Turbidity of filtered water exceeds 1.0 NTU at any
appropriate. time
• Failure to maintain a disinfectant residual of at least The Primacy Agency may allow for owner or operator to
0.2 mg/L in the water being delivered to the distribu- provide less frequent notice for minor monitoring violations
tion system (as defined, by the Primacy Agency if the EPA has approved
the Primacy Agency’s substitute requirements contained in a
For these violations or any others defined by the Primacy program revision application).
Agency as “acute” violations, the system must furnish a copy
of the notice to the radio and television stations serving the Variances and Exemptions
area as soon as possible but in no case later than 72 h after As with the SWTR, no variances from the requirements in §141
the violation. Depending on the circumstances particular to are permitted for subpart H systems. Under Section 1416(a),
the system, as determined by the Primacy Agency, the notice USEPA or a State may exempt a public water system from any
may instruct that all water be boiled prior to consumption. requirements related to an MCL or treatment technique of an
Following the initial notice, the owner or operator must National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR) if it
give notice at least once every three months by mail delivery finds that (1) due to compelling factors (which may include eco-
(either or with the water bill), or by hand delivery, for as long nomic factors such as qualifications of the PWS as serving a
as the violation or failures exist. disadvantaged community), the Public Water System (PWS) is
There are two variations on these requirements. First, the unable to comply with the requirement or implement measures
owner or operator of a community water system in an area not to develop an alternative source of water supply; (2) the exemp-
served by a daily or weekly newspaper must give notice within tion will not result in an unreasonable risk to health; and (3) the
14 days after the violation by hand delivery or continuous post- PWS was in operation on the effective date of the NPDWR, or
ing of a notice of the violation. The notice must continue for for a system that was not in operation by that date, only if no
as long as the violation exists. Notice by hand delivery must reasonable alternative source of drinking water is available to
be repeated at least every three months for the duration of the the new systems; and (4) management or restructuring changes
violation. Secondly, the owner or operator of a noncommunity (or both) cannot reasonably result in compliance with the Act
water system (i.e., one serving a transitory population) may or improve the quality of drinking water.
give notice by hand delivery or continuous posting of the notice
in conspicuous places in the area served by the system. Notice
DISINFECTION
must be given within 14 days after the violation. If notice is
given by posting, then it must continue as long as the violations
exist. Notice given by hand delivery must be repeated at least PUBLIC NOTICE
every three months for as long as the violation exists.
As an added measure to assure the quality of drink-
Tier 2 Violations ing water, the City of Norfolk will temporarily use free
For Tier 2 violations (i.e., violations of 40 CFR §§141.74 and chlorine as the disinfectant in the water distribution sys-
141.174) notice must be given within three months after the tem that serves Norfolk, Virginia Beach, area military
violation by publication in a daily newspaper of general cir- facilities and parts of Chesapeake. During this period
culation, or if there is no daily newspaper, then in a weekly some customers may notice a slight change in the taste
newspaper. In addition, the owner or operator shall give notice or smell of their water.
by mail (either by itself or with the water bill) or by hand
delivery at least once every three months for as long as the • For three weeks, beginning October 11, 2012, the
violation exists. Notice of a variance or exemption must be water disinfectant will be switched from chlora-
given every three months from the date it is granted for as mine to free chlorine.
long as it remains in effect. • On November 1, 2012, the disinfectant will be
If a daily or weekly newspaper does not serve the area, switched back to chloramine. It will take several
the owner or operator of a community water system must days for the chloramine to replace the free chlo-
give notice by continuous posting in conspicuous places in rine in the water distribution systems.
the area served by the system. This must continue as long as • The free chlorine disinfection process complies
the violation exists or the variance or exemption remains in with all state and federal regulations.
effect. Notice by hand delivery must be repeated at least every • Kidney dialysis patients and fish owners may fol-
three months for the duration of the violation of the variance low the same standard water treatment process
or exemption. that removes both chloramine and free chlorine.
For noncommunity water systems, the owner or operator
may give notice by hand delivery or continuous posting in The Virginian-Pilot, 10/07/12
conspicuous places, beginning within three months of the vio-
lation of the variance or exemption. Posting must continue for
the duration of the violation of variance or exemption, and Disinfection is a unit process used both in water and waste-
notice by hand delivery must be repeated at least every three water treatment. Many of the terms, practices, and appli-
months during this period. cations discussed in this section apply to both water and
wastewater treatment. There are also some differences— disinfect by destroying organisms that might be dangerous,
mainly in the types of disinfectants used and applications— they do not attempt to sterilize water.
between the use of disinfection in water and wastewater Disinfectants are also used to achieve other specific objec-
treatment. Thus, in this section we discuss disinfection as tives in drinking water treatment. These other objectives
it applies to water treatment. Later we cover disinfection as include nuisance control (e.g., for zebra mussels and Asiatic
it applies to wastewater treatment. Much of the information clams), oxidation of specific compounds (i.e., taste and odor-
presented in this section is based on personal experience and causing compounds, iron, and manganese), and use as a coag-
on USEPA (1999b). ulant and filtration aid. The goals of this section are to:
To comply with the SDWA regulations, the major-
ity of PWSs use some form of water treatment. The 1995 • Provide a brief overview of the need for disinfection
Community Water System Survey reports that in the United in water treatment
States, 99% of surface water systems provide some treatment • Provide basic information that is common to all
to their water, with 99% of these treatment systems using dis- disinfectants
infection/oxidation as part of the treatment process. Although • Discuss other uses for disinfectant chemicals (i.e., as
45% of groundwater systems provide no treatment, 92% of oxidants)
those groundwater plants that do provide some form of treat- • Describe trends in DBP formation and the health
ment include disinfection/oxidation as part of the treatment effects of DBPs found in water treatment
process. In regard to groundwater supplies, why the Public • Discuss microorganisms of concern in water sys-
Health concern? According to USEPA’s Bruce Macler [in tems, their associated health impact, and the inac-
What is the Ground Water Disinfection Rule, @ www.groc. tivation mechanisms and efficiencies of various
org/winter96/gwdr.htm.], disinfectants
• Summarize current disinfection practices in the
There are legitimate concerns for public health from micro- United States, including the use of chlorine as a dis-
bial contamination of groundwater systems. Microorganisms infectant and an oxidant
and other evidence of fecal contamination have been detected
in a large number of wells tested, even those wells that had In water treatment, disinfection is almost always accom-
been previously judged not vulnerable to such contamination. plished by adding chlorine or chlorine compounds after all
The scientific community believes that microbial contami-
other treatment steps (see Figure 15.8), although in the United
nation of groundwater is real and widespread. Public health
impact from this contamination while not well quantified, States ultraviolet (UV) light and potassium permanganate and
appear to be large. Disease outbreaks have occurred in many ozone processes may be encountered.
groundwater systems. Risk estimates suggest several million The effectiveness of disinfection in a drinking water sys-
illnesses each year. Additional research is underway to better tem is measured by testing for the presence or absence of coli-
characterize the nature and magnitude of the public health form bacteria. Coliform bacteria found in water are generally
problem. not pathogenic, though they are good indicators of contami-
nation. Their presence indicates the possibility of contamina-
The most commonly used disinfectants/oxidants (in no partic- tion, and their absence indicates the possibility that the water
ular order) are chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloramines, ozone, is potable—if the source is adequate, the waterworks history
and potassium permanganate. is good, and an acceptable chlorine residual is present.
As mentioned, the process used to control waterborne patho- Desired characteristics of a disinfectant include the
genic organisms and prevent waterborne disease is called dis- following:
infection. The goal of proper disinfection in a water system is
to destroy all disease-causing organisms. Disinfection should • It must be able to deactivate or destroy any type
not be confused with sterilization. Sterilization is the com- or number of disease-causing microorganisms that
plete killing of all living organisms. Waterworks operators may be in a water supply, in reasonable time, within
Addition of
Coagulant
Water Mixing Flocculation Settling Sand To Storage and

Supply Tank Basin Tank Filter Distribution
Screening
Sludge Disinfection
Processing
FIGURE 15.8 Disinfection.

expected temperature ranges, and despite changes in infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholera.
the character of the water (pH, for example). The infection is often mild or without symptoms, but some-
• It must be nontoxic. times can be quite severe. Approximately 1 in 20 infected
• It must not add unpleasant taste or odor to the water. persons has severe disease symptoms such as profuse watery
• It must be readily available at a reasonable cost and diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps. In these persons, the rapid
be safe and easy to handle, transport, store, and loss of body fluids leads to dehydration and shock. Without
apply. treatment, death can occur within hours.
• It must be quick and easy to determine the concen-
tration of the disinfectant in the treated water.
• It should persist within the disinfected water at a DID YOU KNOW?
high enough concentration to provide residual pro- You don’t need to be a rocket scientist to figure out just
tection through the distribution. how deadly cholera was during the London cholera out-
break of 1854. Comparing the state of “medicine” at that
Need for Disinfections in Water Treatment time to ours is like comparing the speed potential of a
horse and buggy to a state-of-the-art NASCAR race car
Side Bar 15.1 A Sherlock Holmes-Type at the Pump* today. Simply stated: cholera was the classic epidemic
He wandered the foggy, filthy, garbage-strewn, corpse-ridden disease of the 19th century, as the plague had been for
streets of 1854 London searching, making notes, always look- the 14th. Its defeat was a reflection of both common
ing … seeking a murdering villain (no; not the Ripper, but a sense and of progress in medical knowledge—and of
killer just as insidious and unfeeling)—and find the miscre- the enduring changes in European and American social
ant, he did. He took action; he removed the handle from a thought.
water pump. And, fortunately for untold thousands of lives,
his was the correct action—the lifesaving action.
He was a detective—of sorts. No, not the real Sherlock How does a person contract cholera? Good question.
Holmes—but absolutely as clever, as skillful, as knowledgeable, Again, we refer to the CDC for our answer. A person may
as intuitive—and definitely as driven. His real name: Dr. John contract cholera (even today) by drinking water or eating food
Snow. His middle name? Common Sense. Snow’s master crimi- contaminated with the cholera bacterium. In an epidemic, the
nal, his target? A mindless, conscienceless, brutal killer: cholera. source of the contamination is usually feces of an infected
Let’s take a closer look at this medical super sleuth and at person. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inad-
his quarry, the deadly cholera—and at Doctor Snow’s actions equate treatment of sewage and drinking water. Disaster
to contain the spread of cholera. More to the point, let’s look areas often pose special risks. For example, the aftermath of
at Dr. Snow’s subsequent impact on water treatment (disinfec- Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans raised concerns about a
tion) of raw water used for potable and other purposes. potential cholera outbreak.
Dr. John Snow—An unassuming—and creative—London Cholera bacterium also lives in brackish river and coastal
obstetrician, Dr. John Snow (1813–1858) achieved promi- waters. Raw shellfish have been a source of cholera, with a
nence in the mid-nineteenth century for proving his theory (in few people in the United States having contracted it from
his On the Mode of Communication of Cholera) that cholera eating shellfish from the Gulf of Mexico. The disease is not
is a contagious disease caused by a “poison” that reproduces likely to spread directly from one person to another; therefore,
in the human body and is found in the vomitus and stools casual contact with an infected person is not a risk for trans-
of cholera patients. He theorized that the main (though not mission of the disease.
the only) means of transmission was water contaminated with
this poison. His theory was not held in high regard at first, Flashback to 1854 London
because a commonly held and popular counter-theory stated The information provided in the preceding section was
that diseases are transmitted by inhalation of vapors. Many updated and provided by the CDC in 1996. Basically, for our
theories of cholera’s cause were expounded. In the beginning, purposes, the CDC confirms the fact that cholera is a water-
Snow’s argument did not cause a great stir; it was only one of borne disease. Today, we know quite a lot about cholera and
many hopeful theories proposed during a time when cholera its transmission, as well as how to prevent infection and how
was causing great distress. Eventually, Snow was able to prove to treat it. But what did they know about cholera in the 1850s?
his theory. We describe how Snow accomplished this later, Not much. However, one thing is certain: They knew cholera
but for now, let’s take a look again at Snow’s target: cholera. was a deadly killer. And that was just about all they knew—
until Dr. Snow proved his theory. He believed that cholera is a
Cholera contagious disease caused by a poison that reproduces in the
According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and human body and is found in the vomitus and stools of cholera
as mentioned, cholera is an acute, diarrheal illness caused by victims. He also believed that the main means of transmission
was contaminated water.
* This section is adapted for F.R. Spellman (2006). Environmental Science Dr. Snow’s theory was correct, of course, as we know
and Technology, 2nd ed. Rockville, MD: Government Institutes Press. today. The question is, how did he prove his theory correct 20
years before the development of the germ theory? The answer mystery to its barest bones—has quite a lot to do with water
to which provides us with an account of one of the all-time treatment. Combating any disease is rather difficult without a
legendary quests for answers in epidemiological research— determination of how the disease is transmitted—how it trav-
and an interesting story! els from vector or carrier to receiver. Dr. Snow established
Dr. Snow proved his theory in 1854, during yet another this connection, and from his work, and the work of others,
severe cholera epidemic in London. Though ignorant of the progress was made in understanding and combating many
concept of bacteria carried in water (germ theory), Snow different waterborne diseases.
traced an outbreak of cholera to a water pump located at the Today, sanitation problems in developed countries (those
intersection of Cambridge and Broad Street (London). How with the luxury of adequate financial and technical resources)
did he isolate this source from this particular pump? He deal more with the consequences that arise from inadequate
began his investigation by determining which areas in London commercial food preparation, and the results of bacteria
persons with cholera lived and worked. He then used this becoming resistant to disinfection techniques and antibiot-
information to map the distribution of cases on what epidemi- ics. We simply flush our toilets to rid ourselves of unwanted
ologists call a “spot map.” His map indicated that the major- wastes and turn on our taps to take in high-quality drinking
ity of the deaths occurred within 250 yards of that communal water supplies, from which we’ve all but eliminated cholera
water pump. The water pump was used regularly by most of and epidemic diarrheal diseases. This is generally the case in
the area residents. Those who did not use the pump remained most developed countries today—but it certainly wasn’t true
healthy. Suspecting the Broad Street pump as the plague’s in Dr. Snow’s time.
source, Snow had the water pump handle removed and thus The progress in water treatment from that notable day in
ended the cholera epidemic. 1854 [when Snow made the “connection” (actually the “dis-
Sounds like a rather simple solution, doesn’t it? For us, it connection” of handle from pump) between deadly cholera
is simple, but remember in that era, aspirin had not yet been and its means of transmission, its “communication”] to the
formulated—to say nothing of other medical miracles we now present reads like a chronology of discovery leading to our
take for granted—antibiotics, for example. Dr. John Snow, by modern water treatment practices. This makes sense, of
the methodical process of elimination and linkage (Sherlock course, because with the passage of time, pivotal events and
Holmes would have been impressed—and he was), proved discoveries occur—events that have a profound effect on
his point and his theory. Specifically, he painstakingly docu- how we live today. Let’s take a look at a few elements of
mented the cholera cases and correlated the comparative inci- the important chronological progression that evolved from
dence of cholera among subscribers to the city’s two water the simple removal of a pump handle to the advanced water
companies. He learned that one company drew water from the treatment (disinfection) methods we employ today to treat our
lower Thames River. While the other company obtained water water supplies.
from the upper Thames. Snow discovered that cholera was After Snow’s discovery (that cholera is a waterborne dis-
much more prevalent in customers of the water company that ease emanating primarily from human waste), events began
drew its water from the lower Thames, where the river had to drive the water/wastewater treatment process. In 1859, 4
become contaminated with London sewage. Snow tracked and years after Snow’s discovery, the British Parliament was sus-
pinpointed the Broad Street pump’s water source. You guessed pended during the summer because the stench coming from
it: the contaminated lower Thames, of course. the Thames was unbearable. According to one account, the
Dr. Snow the obstetrician became the first effective prac- river began to “seethe and ferment under a burning sun.” As
titioner of scientific epidemiology. His creative use of logic, was the case in many cities at this time, storm sewers carried
common sense (removing the handle from the pump) and a combination of storm water, sewage, street debris and other
scientific information enabled him to solve a major medical wastes to the nearest body of water. In the 1890s, Hamburg,
mystery—to discern the means by which cholera was trans- Germany suffered a cholera epidemic. Detailed studies by
mitted—and earned him the title “the father of field epidemi- Koch tied the outbreak to the contaminated water supply.
ology.” Today Dr. John Snow is known as the father of modern In response to the epidemic, Hamburg was among the first
epidemiology. cities to use chlorine as part of a wastewater treatment regi-
men. At about the same time, the town of Brewster, New York
Pump Handle Removal—To Water became the first U.S. city to disinfect its treated wastewater.
Chlorination of drinking water was used on a temporary basis
Treatment (Disinfection)
in 1896, and its first known continuous use for water supply
Dr. John Snow’s major contribution to the medical profession, disinfection occurred in Lincoln, England, and Chicago in
to society, and to humanity in general can be summarized 1905. Jersey City, New Jersey became one of the first routine
rather succinctly: he determined and proved that the deadly users of chlorine in 1908.
disease cholera is a waterborne disease (Dr. John Snow’s sec- Time marched on and with it came an increased realization
ond medical accomplishment was that he was the first person of the need to treat and disinfect both water supplies and waste-
to administer anesthesia during childbirth). water. Between 1910 and 1915, technological improvements
What does all of this have to do with water treatment (disin gaseous and then solution feed of elemental chlorine (Cl2)
infection)? Actually, Dr. Snow’s discovery—his stripping of a made the process more practical and efficient. Disinfection of
water supplies and chlorination of treated wastewater for odor

control increased over the next several decades. In the United TABLE 15.4
States, disinfection, in one form or another, is now being used Waterborne Diseases from Human
by more than 15,000 out of approximately 16,000 Publicly Enteric Viruses
Owned Treatment Works (POTWs). The significance of this
Group Subgroup
number becomes apparent when you consider that fewer than
Enterovirus Poliovirus
25 of the 600 plus POTWs in the United States in 1910 were
Echovirus
using disinfectants.
Coxsackie-virus
A
Although the epidemiological relation between water and dis-
B
ease had been suggested as early as the 1850s, it was not until
Reovirus
the establishment of the germ theory of disease by Pasteur
Adenovirus
in the mid-1880s that water as a carrier of disease-producing
Hepatitis
organisms was understood. And, as related in Sidebar 15.1, in
the 1850s, while London experienced the “Broad Street Well”
cholera epidemic, Dr. John Snow conducted his now-famous
epidemiological study. Dr. Snow concluded that the well had TABLE 15.5
become contaminated by a visitor, with the disease, who had Waterborne Diseases from Parasites
arrived in the vicinity. Cholera was one of the first diseases to Causative Agent Symptoms
be recognized as capable of being waterborne. Also, this inci-
Ascario lumbricoides (round worm) Ascariasis
dent was probably the first reported disease epidemic attrib-
Cryptosporidium muris and parvum Cryptosporidiosis
uted to the direct recycling of non-disinfected water. Now,
Entamoeba histolytica Amebiasis
over 100 years later, the list of potential waterborne diseases
Giardia lamblia Giardiasis
due to pathogens is considerably larger and includes bacterial,
Naegleria gruberi Amoebic meningoecephalitis
viral, and parasitic microorganisms, as shown in Tables 15.3,
Schistosoma mansoni Schistosomiasis
15.4, and 15.5, respectively.
Taenis saginata (beef tapeworm) Taeniasis
A major cause for the number of disease outbreaks in pota-
ble water is the contamination of the distribution system from
cross-connections and backsiphonage with non-potable water.
However, outbreaks resulting from distribution system con- public water systems are found to be related to deficiencies in
tamination are usually quickly contained and result in rela- source water and treatment systems with 92% of the causes of
tively few illnesses compared to contamination of the source illness due to these two particular problems.
water or a breakdown in the treatment system, which typically All natural waters support biological communities.
produces many cases of illnesses per incident. When consider- Because some microorganisms can be responsible for public
ing the number of cases, the major causes of disease outbreaks health problems, biological characteristics of the source water
are source water contamination and treatment deficiencies are one of the most important parameters in water treatment.
(White, 1992). Historically, about 46% of the outbreaks in the In addition to public health problems, microbiology can also
affect the physical and chemical water quality and treatment
plant operation.
TABLE 15.3
Waterborne Diseases from Bacteria
Pathogens of Primary Concern
Causative Agent Disease
Table 15.6 shows the attributes of three groups of pathogens
Salmonella typhosa Typhoid Fever
of concern in water treatment, namely bacteria, viruses, and
S. paratyphi Paratyphoid Fever
protozoa.
S. schottinulleri
S. hirschfeldi C.
(1)
Bacteria—Recall that bacteria are single-celled
Shigella flexneri Bacillary dysentery
Sh. dysenteriae
organisms typically ranging in size from 0.1 to
Sh. sonnel
10 µm. Shape, components, size, and the manner
Sh. paradysinteriae in which they grow can characterize the physical
Vibrio comma Cholera structure of the bacterial cell. Most bacteria can be
V. cholerae grouped by shape into four general categories: spher-
Pasteurella tularensis Tularemia oid, rod, curved rod or spiral, and filamentous. Cocci,
Brucella melitensis Brucellosis or spherical bacteria, are approximately 1–3 µm in
Leptospira icterchaemorrihagiae Leptospirosis diameter. Bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria) are variable
Enteropathogenic E. coli Gastroenteritis in size and range from 0.3 to 1.5 µm in width (or
diameter) and from 1.0 to 10.0 µm in length. Vibrios,
TABLE 15.6
Attributes of the Three Waterborne Pathogens in Water Treatment
Organism Size (µm) Mobility Point(s) of Origin Resistance to Disinfection
Bacteria 0.1–10 Motile, Humans and animals, water, Type-specific bacterial spores typically have the
Nonmotile contaminated food highest resistance whereas vegetative bacteria
have the lowest resistance
Viruses 0.01–0.1 Nonmotile Humans and animals, polluted Generally more resistant than vegetative bacteria
water; contaminated food
Protozoa 1–20 Motile, Humans and animals, sewage More resistant than viruses or vegetative bacteria
Nonmotile decaying vegetation, and water
or curved rod-shaped bacteria, typically vary in size water; however, several species are parasitic and live
from 0.6to1.0 µm in width (or diameter) and from 2 on or in host organisms. Host organisms can vary
to 6 µm in length. Spirilla (spiral bacteria) can be from primitive organisms such as algae to highly
found in lengths up to 50 µm whereas filamentous complex organisms such as human beings. Several
bacteria can occur in length in excess of 100 µm. species of protozoa known to utilize human beings
(2)
Viruses—Viruses are microorganisms composed of as hosts are shown in Table 15.7.
the genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or
ribonucleic acid (RNA) and a protective protein coat
Recent Waterborne Disease Outbreaks
(either single, double, or partially double stranded).
All viruses are obligate parasites, unable to carry out Within the past 40 years, several pathogenic agents never
any form of metabolism and are completely depen- before associated with documented waterborne outbreaks
dent upon host cells for replication. Viruses are have appeared in the United States. Enteropathogenic
typically 0.01–0.1 µm in size and are very species- Escherichia Coli and Giardia lamblia were first identified to
specific with respect to infection, typically attack- be the etiological agent responsible for waterborne outbreaks
ing only one type of host. Although the principal in the 1960s.The first recorded Cryptosporidium infection in
modes of transmission for the hepatitis B virus and humans occurred in the mid-1970s. Also, during that time
poliovirus are through food, personal contact, or was the first recorded outbreak of pneumonia caused by
exchange of body fluids, these viruses can be trans- Legionella pneumophila. Recently, there have been numer-
mitted through potable water. Some viruses, such as ous documented waterborne disease outbreaks that have
the retroviruses (including HIV group), appear to be been caused by E. coli, G. lamblia, Cryptosporidium, and
too fragile for water transmission to be a significant L. pneumophila.
danger to public health (Spellman, 2007).
(3)
Protozoa—Protozoa are single-cell eukaryotic Escherichia coli
microorganisms without cell walls that utilize bac- The first documented case of waterborne disease outbreaks
teria and other organisms for food. Most protozoa in the United States associated with enteropathogenic E. coli
are free-living in nature and can be encountered in occurred in the 1960s. Various serotypes of E. coli have been
TABLE 15.7
Human Parasitic Protozoans
Protozoan Host(s) Disease Transmission
Acanathamoeba Fresh water, sewage, Amoebic Gains entry through abrasions, ulcers, and as secondary
castellannii humans, soil meningoencephalitis invader during other infections
Balantidium coli Pigs, humans Balantidiasis (dysentery) Contaminated water
Cryptosporidium Animals, humans Cryptosporidiosis Person-to-person or animal-to-person contact, ingestion
parvum of fecally contaminated water or food, or contact with
focally contaminated environmental surfaces.
Entamoeba histolytica Humans Amoebic dysentery Contaminated water
Giardia lamblia Animals, humans Giardiasis (gastroenteritis) Contaminated water
Naegleria Fowleri Soil, water, humans Primary amoebic Nasal inhalation with subsequent penetration of
and decaying meningoencephalitis nasopharynx; exposure from swimming in fresh-water
vegetation lakes
implicated as the etiological agent responsible for disease in people were affected by the outbreak, and 35 of those afflicted
newborn infants, usually the result of cross-contamination in died. The cause of pneumonia was not determined immedi-
nurseries. Now, there have been several well-documented out- ately despite an intense investigation by the CDC. Six months
breaks of E. coli associated with adult waterborne disease. In after the incident, microbiologists were able to isolate a bacte-
1975, the etiologic agent of a large outbreak at Crater Lake rium from the autopsy lung tissue of one of the Legionnaires.
National Park was E. coli serotype 06:H16 (Craun, 1981). The bacterium responsible for the outbreak was found to
be distinct from other known bacterium and was named
Giardia lamblia Legionella pneumophila (Witherell et al., 1988). Following
Similar to Escherichia coli, Giardia lamblia was first identified the discovery of this organism, other Legionella-like organ-
in the 1960s to be associated with waterborne outbreaks in the isms were discovered. Legionnaires’ disease does not appear
United States. Recall that G. lamblia is a flagellated protozoan to be transferred person-to-person. Epidemiological studies
that is responsible for Giardiasis, a disease that can range from have shown that the disease enters the body through the respi-
being mildly to extremely debilitating. Giardia is currently ratory system. Legionella can be inhaled in water particles
one of the most commonly identified pathogens responsible less than 5 µm in size from facilities such as cooling towers,
for waterborne disease outbreaks. The life cycle of Giardia hospital hot water systems, and recreational whirlpools.
includes a cyst stage when the organism remains dormant and
is extremely resilient (i.e., the cyst can survive some extreme
Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation
environmental conditions). Once ingested by a warm-blooded
animal, the life cycle of Giardia continues with excystation. The three primary mechanisms of pathogen inactivation are:
The cysts are relatively large (8–14 µm) and can be removed
effectively by filtration • Destroy or impair cellular structural organization by
using DE, granular media, or membranes. Giardiasis can attacking major cell constituents, such as destroying
be acquired by ingesting viable cysts from food or water or by the cell wall or impairing the functions of semi-per-
direct contact with fecal material. In addition to humans, wild meable membranes;
and domestic animals have been implicated as hosts. Between • Interfere with energy-yielding metabolism through
1972 and 1981, 50 waterborne outbreaks of Giardiasis occurred enzyme substrates in combination with prosthetic
with about 20,000 reported cases (Craun & Jakubowski, groups of enzymes, thus rendering non-functional;
1996). Currently, no simple and reliable method exists to and
assay Giardia cysts in water samples. Microscopic methods • Interfere with biosynthesis and growth by prevent-
for detection and enumeration are tedious and require exam- ing synthesis of normal proteins, nucleic acids, coen-
iner skill and patience. Giardia cysts are relatively resistant to zymes, or the cell wall.
chlorine, especially at higher pH and low temperatures.
Depending on the disinfectant and microorganism type,
Cryptosporidium combinations of these mechanisms can also be responsible
Cryptosporidium is a protozoan similar to Giardia. It forms for pathogen inactivation. In water treatment, it is believed
resilient oocysts as part of its life cycle. The oocysts are smaller that the primary factors controlling disinfection efficiency
than Giardia cysts, typically about 4–6 µm in diameter. These are: (1) the ability of the disinfectant to oxidize or rupture
oocysts can survive under adverse conditions until ingested by a the cell wall; and (2) the ability of the disinfectant to diffuse
warm-blooded animal and then continue with excystation. Due into the cell and interfere with cellular activity (Montgomery,
to the increase in the number of outbreaks of Cryptosporidiosis, 1985). In addition, it is important to point out that disinfec-
a tremendous amount of research has focused on tion is effective in reducing waterborne diseases because most
Cryptosporidium within the last 10 years. Medical interest has pathogenic organisms are more sensitive to disinfection than
increased because of its occurrence as a life-threatening infec- are nonpathogens. However, disinfection is only as effective
tion to individuals with depressed immune systems. As previ- as the care used in controlling the process and assuring that
ously mentioned, in 1993, the largest documented waterborne all of the water supply is continually treated with the amount
disease outbreak in the United States occurred in Milwaukee of disinfectant required to produce safe water.
and was determined to be caused by Cryptosporidium. An esti-
mated 403,000 people became ill, 4,400 people were hospital- Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment
ized, and 100 people died. The outbreak was associated with Disinfectants are used for more than just disinfection in
deterioration in raw water quality and a simultaneous decrease drinking water treatment. While inactivation of pathogenic
in effectiveness of the coagulation-filtration process, which led organisms is a primary function, disinfectants are also used
to an increase in the turbidity of treated water and inadequate as oxidants in drinking water treatment for several other
removal of Cryptosporidium oocysts. functions:
Legionella pneumophila • Minimization of DBP formation

An outbreak of pneumonia occurred in 1976 at the annual con- • Control of nuisance Asiatic clams and zebra mussels
vention of the Pennsylvania American Legion. A total of 221 • Oxidation of iron and manganese
• Prevention of regrowth in the distribution system Cameron et al. (1989) investigated the effectiveness of sev-
and maintenance of biological stability eral oxidants to control the Asiatic clam in both the juvenile
• Removal of taste and odors through chemical and adult phases. As expected, the adult clam was found to
oxidation be much more resistant to oxidants than the juvenile form. In
• Improvement of coagulation and filtration efficiency many cases, the traditional method of control, free chlorina-
• Prevention of algal growth in sedimentation basins tion, cannot be used because of the formation of excessive
and filters amounts of THMs. As shown in Table 15.8, Cameron et al.
• Removal of color (1989) compared the effectiveness of four oxidants for con-
trolling the juvenile Asiatic clam in terms of the LT50 (time
A brief discussion of these additional oxidant uses follows. required for 50% mortality). Monochloramine was found to
be the best for controlling the juvenile clams without form-
Minimization of DBP Formation ing THMs. The effectiveness of monochloramine increased
Strong oxidants may play a role in disinfection and DBP con- greatly as the temperature increased. Clams can tolerate tem-
trol strategies in water treatment. Several strong oxidants, peratures between 2 and 35°C.
including potassium permanganate and ozone, may be used to In a similar study, Belanger et al. (1991) studied the bio-
control DBP precursors. cidal potential of total residual chlorine, monochloramine,
Note: Potassium permanganate can be used to oxidize monochloramine plus excess ammonia, bromine, and copper
organic precursors at the head of the treatment plant, thus for controlling the Asiatic clam. Belanger et al. (1991) showed
minimizing the formation of by-products at the downstream that monochloramine with excess ammonia was the most
disinfection stage of the plant. The use of ozone for oxidation effective for controlling the clams at 30°C. Chlorination at
of DBP precursors is currently being studied. Early work has 0.25–0.40 mg/L total residual chlorine at 20–25°C controlled
shown that the effects of ozonation, prior to chlorination, were clams of all sizes but had minimal effect at 12–15°C (as low
highly site-specific and unpredictable. The key variables that as zero mortality). As in other studies, the toxicity of all the
seem to determine the effect of ozone are dose, pH, alkalin- biocides was highly dependent on temperature and clam size.
ity, and the nature of the organic material Ozone has been The zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) is a recent addi-
shown to be effective for DBP precursor reduction at low pHs. tion to the fauna of the Great Lakes. It was first found in Lake
However, at higher pHs (i.e., above 7.5), ozone may actually St. Clair in 1988, though it is believed that this native of the
increase the amount of chlorination by-product precursors. Black and Caspian seas was brought over from Europe in bal-
last water around 1985. The zebra mussel population in the
Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels Great Lakes has expanded very rapidly, both in size and geo-
The Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea) was introduced to the graphical distribution (Herbert, 1989;Roberts, 1990). Lang
United States from Southeast Asia in 1938 and now inhab- (1994) reported that zebra mussels have been found in the
its almost every major river system south of 40° latitude. Ohio River, Cumberland River, Arkansas River, Tennessee
Asiatic clams have been found in the Trinity River, TX; the River, and the Mississippi River south to New Orleans.
Ohio River at Evansville, IN; New River at Narrows and Glen Klerks and Fraleigh (1991) evaluated the effectiveness of
Lyn, VA; and the Catawba River in Rock Hill, SC. This ani- hypochlorite, permanganate, and hydrogen peroxide with iron
mal has invaded many water utilities, clogging source water for their effectiveness controlling adult zebra mussels. Both
transmission systems and valves, screens, and meters; damag- continuous and intermittent 28-day static renewal tests were
ing centrifugal pumps; and causing taste and odor problems conducted to determine the impact of intermittent dosing.
(Britton & Morton, 1982; Belanger et al., 1991; Sinclair, 1964; Intermittent treatment proved to be much less effective than
Cameron et al., 1989). continuous dosing. The hydrogen peroxide-iron combination
TABLE 15.8
The Effects of Various Oxidants on Mortality of the Asiatic Clam
Residual Temperature
Chemical (mg/L) (°C) pH Life Stage LT50 (days)
Free chlorine 0.5 23 8.0 Adult 8.7
4.8 21 7.9 Adult 5.9
4.7 16 7.8 Juvenile 4.8
Potassium 1.1 17 7.6 Juvenile 7.9
Permanganate 4.8 17 7.6 Juvenile 8.6
Chlorine dioxide 1.2 24 6.9 Juvenile 0.7
4.7 22 6.6 Juvenile 0.6
Source: Adaptation from Cameron et al., 1989a.

(1–5 mg/L with 25% iron) was less effective in controlling

the zebra mussel than either permanganate or hypochlorite. TABLE 15.9
Permanganate (0.5–2.5 mg KnnO4/L) was usually less effec- Oxidant Doses Required for Oxidation of Iron
tive than hypochlorite (0.5–10 mg Cl2/L). and Manganese
Van Benschoten et al. (1995) developed a kinetic model to
Iron (II) Manganese (II)
predict the rate of mortality of the zebra mussel in response Oxidant (mg/mg Fe) (mg/mg Mn)
to chlorine. The model shows the relationship between chlo-
Chorine 0.62 0.77
rine residual and temperature on the exposure time required
Chlorine dioxide 1.21 2.45
to achieve 50% and 95% mortality. Data were collected for
Ozone 0.43 0.85
chlorine residuals between 0.5 and 3.0 mg Cl2/L and tempera-
Oxygen 0.14 0.29
tures from 0.3 to 24°C. The results show a strong dependence
Potassium permanganate 0.94 1.92
on temperature and required contact times ranging from two
days to more than a month, depending on environmental fac- Source: Adapted from Culp G.L., and Culp, R.L., New Concepts
tors and mortality required. in Water Purification. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
Brady et al. (1996) compared the efficiency of chlorine Company, 1974.
to control the growth of zebra mussel and quagga mussel
(Dreissena bugensis). The quagga mussel is a newly identi-
fied mollusk within the Great Lakes that is similar in appear- The precise chemical composition of the precipitate will
ance to the zebra mussel. Full-scale chlorination treatment depend on the nature of the water, temperature, and pH.
found a significantly higher mortality for the quagga mussel. Table 15.9 shows that oxidant doses for iron and manga-
The required contact time for 100% mortality for quagga and nese control are relatively low. In addition, the reactions are
zebra mussels was 23 days and 37 days, respectively, sug- relatively rapid, on the order of seconds, while DBP formation
gesting that chlorination programs designed to control zebra occurs over hours. Therefore, with proper dosing, residual
mussels should also be effective for controlling populations of chlorine during iron and manganese oxidation is therefore rel-
quagga mussels. atively low and short lived. These factors reduced the poten-
Mastisoff et al. (1996) evaluated chlorine dioxide (CIO2) tial for DBP formation as a result of oxidation for iron and
to control adult zebra mussels using simple, intermittent, and manganese removal.
continuous exposures. A single 30-min exposure to 20 mg/L
chlorine dioxide or higher concentration induced at least 50% Prevention of Re-growth in the Distribution
mortality, while sodium hypochlorite produced only 26% System and Maintenance of Biological Stability
mortality, and permanganate and hydrogen peroxide were Biodegradable organic compounds and ammonia in treated
totally ineffective when dosed at 30 mg/L for 30 min under the water can cause microbial growth to the distribution system.
same conditions. These high dosages, even though only used Biological stability refers to a condition wherein the water
for a short period, may not allow application directly in water quality does not enhance biological growth in the distribution
for certain applications due to by-products that remain in the system. Biological stability can be accomplished in several
water. Continuous exposure to chlorine dioxide for four days ways:
was effective at concentrations above 0.5 mg/L (LC50 = 0.35
mg/L), and 100% mortality was achieved at chlorine dioxide • Removing nutrients from the water prior to
concentrations above 1 mg/L. distribution
These studies all show that the dose required to induce • Maintaining a disinfectant residual in the treated
mortality to these nuisance organisms is extremely high, both water
in terms of chemical dose and contact time. The potential • Combining nutrient removal and disinfectant resid-
impact on DBPs is significant, especially when the water is ual maintenance
high in organic content with a high propensity to form THMs
and other DBPs. To maintain biological stability in the distribution system,
the Total Coliform Rule (TCR) requires that treated water
Oxidation of Iron and Manganese have a residual disinfectant of 0.2 mg/L when entering the
Iron and manganese occur frequently in groundwaters but distribution system. A measurable disinfectant residual
are less problematic in surface waters. Although not harmful must be maintained in the distribution system, or the util-
to human health at the low concentrations typically found in ity must show through monitoring that the heterotrophic
water, these compounds can cause staining and taste problems. plate count (HPC) remains less than 500/100 mL. A sys-
These compounds are readily treated by oxidation to produce tem remains in compliance as long as 95% of samples meet
a precipitant that is removed in subsequent sedimentation and these criteria. Chlorine, monochloramine, and chlorine
filtration processes. Almost all the common oxidants except dioxide are typically used to maintain a disinfectant resid-
chloramines will convert ferrous (2+) iron to the ferric (3+) ual in the distribution system. Filtration can also be used to
state and manganese (2+) to the (4+) state, which will precipi- enhance biological stability by reducing the nutrients in the
tate as ferric hydroxide and manganese dioxide, respectively. treated water.
The level of secondary disinfectant residual maintained is be effective for many taste and odor compounds, but some
low, typically in the range of 0.1–0.3 mg/L, depending on the of the difficult-to-treat compounds require strong oxidants
distribution system and water quality. However, because the such as ozone and/or advanced oxidation processes or alter-
contact times in the system are quite long, it is possible to gen- native technologies such as granular activated carbon (GAC)
erate significant amounts of DBPs in the distribution system, adsorption.
even at low disinfectant doses. Distribution system problems
associated with the use of combined chlorine residual (chlo- Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efficiency
ramines), or no residual, have been documented in several Oxidants, specifically ozone, have been reported to improve
instances. The use of combined chlorine is characterized by coagulation and filtration efficiency. Others, however, have
an initial satisfactory phase in which chloramine residuals are found no improvement in effluent turbidity from oxidation.
easily maintained throughout the system and bacterial counts Prendiville (1986) collected data from a large treatment plant
are very low. However, problems may develop over a period showing that preozonation was more effective than prechlo-
of years including increased bacterial counts, reduced com- rination to reduce filter effluent turbidities. The cause of
bined chlorine residual, increased taste and odor complaints, and improved coagulation is not clear, but several possibili-
and reduced transmission main carrying capacity. Conversion ties have been offered, including (Gurol and Pidatella, 1983;
of the system to free-chlorine residual produces an initial Reckhow et al., 1986):
increase in consumer complaints of taste and odors resulting
from oxidation of accumulated organic material. Also, it is • Oxidation of organics into more polar forms
difficult to maintain a free-chlorine concentration at the ends • Oxidation of metal ions to yield insoluble complexes
of the distribution system. such as ferric iron complexes
• Change in the structure and size of suspended
Removal of Taste and Odors through particles
Chemical Oxidation
Taste and odors in drinking water are caused by several Prevention of Algal Growth in
sources, including microorganisms, decaying vegetation, Sedimentation Basins and Filters
hydrogen sulfide, and specific compounds of municipal, Prechlorination is often used to minimize operational prob-
industrial, or agricultural origin. Disinfectants themselves lems associated with biological growth in water treatment
can also create taste and odor problems. In addition to a spe- plants. Prechlorination will prevent slime formation on filters,
cific taste-and odor-causing compound, the sanitary impact pipes, and tanks, and reduce potential taste and odor prob-
is often accentuated by a combination of compounds. More lems associated with such slimes. Many sedimentation and
recently, significant attention has been given to tastes and filtration facilities operate with a small chlorine residual to
odors from specific compounds such as geosmin, 2-methy- prevent the growth of algae and bacteria in laundries (in like
lisoborneol (MIB), and chlorinated inorganic and organic equipment or machinery) and on the filter surfaces. This prac-
compounds (AWWARF, 1987). tice has increased in recent years as utilities take advantage of
Oxidation is commonly used to remove taste- and odor- additional contact time in the treatment units to meet disinfec-
causing compounds. Because many of these compounds are tion requirements under the SWTR.
very resistant to oxidation, advanced oxidation processes
(ozone/hydrogen peroxide, ozone/UV, etc.), and ozone by Removal of Color
itself are often used to address taste and odor problems. The Free chlorine is used for color removal. A low pH is favored.
effectiveness of various chemicals to control taste and odors Humic compounds which have a high potential for DBP for-
can be site-specific. Suffet et al. (1986) found that ozone is mation cause color. The chlorine dosage and kinetics for color
generally the most effective oxidant for use in taste and odor removal are best determined through bench studies.
treatment. They found ozone is generally the most effective
oxidant for use in taste and odor treatment. They found ozone
Types of DBPs and Disinfection Residuals
doses of 2.5–2.7 mg/L and 10 min of contact time (residual
0.2 mg/L) significantly reduced levels of taste and odors. Table 15.10 provides a list compiled by USEPA of DBPs and
Lalezary et al. (1986) used chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, disinfection residuals that may be of health concern. The table
and permanganate to treat earthy-musty smelling compounds. includes both the disinfectant residuals and the specific by-
In that study, chlorine dioxide was found most effective, products produced by the disinfectants of interest in drinking
although none of the oxidants were able to remove geosmin water treatment. These contaminants of concern are grouped
and MIB by more than 40–60%. Potassium permanganate has into four distinct categories and include disinfectant residu-
been used in doses of 0.25–20 mg/L. als, inorganic by-products, organic oxidation by-products, and
Prior experiences with taste and odor treatment indicate halogenated organic by-products.
that oxidant doses are dependent on the source of the water The production of DBPs depends on the type of disinfec-
and causative compounds. In general, small doses can be tant, the presence of organic material (e.g., TOC), bromide
effective for many taste and odor compounds, but not some of ion, and other environmental factors as discussed in this sec-
the difficult-to-treat compounds. In general, small doses can tion. By removing DBP precursors, the formation of DBPs
TABLE 15.10 TABLE 15.11

List of Disinfection By-products and Disinfection Status of Health Information for Disinfectants and
Residuals Disinfection By-products(DBPs)
Disinfectant Residuals Halogenated Organic By-products Contaminant Cancer Classification
Free Chlorine Trihalomethanes Chloroform Probable Human Carcinogen
Hypochlorous Acid Chloroform Bromodichloromethane Probable Human Carcinogen
Hypochlorite Ion Bromodichloromethane Dibromochloromethane Possible Human Carcinogen
Chloramines Dibromochloromethane Bromoform Probable Human Carcinogen
Monochloramine Bromoform Monochloroacetic Acid ------------------------------------
Chlorine Dioxide Haloacetic Acids Dichloroacetic Acid Probable Human Carcinogen
Monochloroacetic Acid Trichloroacetic Acid Possible Human Carcinogen
Inorganic By-products Dichloroacetic Acid Dichloroacetonitrile Possible Human Carcinogen
Chlorate Ion Trichloroacetic Acid Bromochloroacetonitrile -------------------------------------
Chlorite Ion Monobromoacetic Acid Dibromoacetonitrile Possible Human Carcinogen
Bromate Ion Dibromoacetic Acid Trichloroacetonitrile --------------------------------------
Iodate Ion Haloacetonitriles 1,1-Dichloropropanone --------------------------------------
Hydrogen Peroxide Dichloroacetronitrile 1,1,1-Trichloropropanone --------------------------------------
Ammonia Bromochloroacetonitrile 2-Chlorophenol Not Classifiable
Dibromoacetonitrile 2,4-Dichlorphenol Not Classifiable
Organic Oxidation By-products Trichloroacetonitrile 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Probable Human Carcinogen
Aldehydes Haloketones Chloropicrin --------------------------------------
Formaldehyde 1,1-Dichloropropanone Chloral Hydrate Possible Human Carcinogen
Acetaldehyde 1,1,1-Trichloropropanone Cyanogen Chloride --------------------------------------
Glyoxal Chlorophenols Formaldehyde Probable Human Carcinogen
Hexanal 2-Chlorophenol Chlorate ---------------------------------------
Heptanal 2,4-Dichlorophenol Chlorite Not Classifiable
Carboxylic Acids 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Bromate Probable Human Carcinogen
Hexanoic Acid Chloropicrin Ammonia Not Classifiable
Heptanoic Acid Chloral Hydrate Hypochlorous Acid ---------------------------------------
Oxalic Acid Cyanogen Chloride Hypochlorite ---------------------------------------
Assimilable Organic Carbon N-Organochloramines Monochloramine ---------------------------------------
Chlorine Dioxide Not Classifiable
Source: USEPA. Drinking Water Regulations and Health Advisories. EPA

can be reduced. The health effects of DBPs and disinfectants 822-B-96-002, October 1996.
are generally evaluated with epidemiological studies and/or
toxicological studies using laboratory animals. Table 15.11
indicates the cancer classifications of both disinfectants and the haloacetonitriles, halopicrins, and cyanogen halides. The
DBPs as of January 1999. The classification scheme used by parameter TOX represents the concentration of total organic
USEPA is shown at the bottom of Table 15.11. The USEPA halides in a water sample (calculated as chloride). In gen-
classification scheme for carcinogenicity weighs both animal eral, less than 50% of the TOX content has been identified,
studies and epidemiologic studies, but places greater weight despite evidence that several of these unknown halogenated
on evidence of carcinogenicity in humans. by-products of water chlorination may be harmful to humans
(Reckhow et al., 1990; Singer and Chang, 1989).
Nonhalogenated DBPs are also formed when strong oxi-
DBP Formation
dants react with organic compounds found in water. Ozone
Halogenated organic by-products are formed when natural and peroxone oxidation of organics lead to the production
organic matter (NOM) reacts with free chlorine or free bro- of aldehydes, aldo- and keto-acids, organic acids, and, when
mine. Free chlorine can be introduced to water directly as bromide ion is present, brominated organics. Many of the
a primary or secondary disinfectant, with chlorine dioxide, oxidation by-products are biodegradable and appear as biode-
or with chloramines. Free bromine results from the oxida- gradable dissolved organic carbon (BDOC) and assimilable
tion of the bromide ion in source water. Factors affecting the organic carbon (AOC) in treated water.
formation of halogenated DBPs include type and concentra- Bromide ion plays a key role in DBP formation. Ozone or
tion of natural organic matter, oxidant type and dose, time, free chlorine oxidizes bromide ion to hypobromite ion/hypo-
bromide ion concentration, pH, organic nitrogen concentra- bromous acid, which subsequently forms brominated DBPs.
tion, and temperature. Organic nitrogen significantly influ- Brominated organic by-products include compounds such
ences the formation of nitrogen-containing DBPs such as as bromoform, brominated acetic acids and acetonitriles,
bromopicrin, and cyanogen bromide. Only about one-third • Due to warmer temperatures, chlorine demand may
of the bromide ions incorporated into by-products have been be greater during summer months requiring higher
identified. dosages to maintain disinfection
DBP Precursors If the bromide ion is present in source waters, it can be oxi-
Numerous researchers have documented that NOM is the dized to hypobromous acid that can react with NOM to form
principal precursor of organic DBP formation. Chlorine reacts brominated DBPs, such as bromoform. Furthermore, under
with NOM to produce a variety of DBPs, including THMs, certain conditions, ozone may react with the hypobromite ion
haloacetic acids (HAAs), and others. Ozone reacts with NOM to form bromate ion.
to produce aldehydes, organic acids, and aldo- and keto-acids; The ratio of bromide ion to the chlorine dose affects THM
many of these are produced by chlorine as well (Stevens, formation and bromine substitution of chlorine. Increasing
1976; Singer et al., 1993). Natural waters contain mixtures of the bromide ion to chlorine dose ratio shifts the speciation
both humic and nonhumic organic substances. NOM can be of THMs to produce more brominated forms. In the Krasner
subdivided into a hydrophobic fraction composed of primarily et al. (1989) study, the chlorine dose was roughly proportional
humic material, and a hydrophilic fraction composed of pri- to TOC concentration. As TOC was removed through the
marily fulvic material. The type and concentration of NOMs treatment train, the chlorine does decrease and TTHM forma-
are often assessed using surrogate measures. Although surro- tion declined. However, at the same time, the bromide ion to
gate parameters have limitations, they are used because they chlorine dose increased, thereby shifting TTHM concentra-
may be measured more easily, rapidly, and inexpensively than tions to the more brominated THMs. Therefore, improving the
the parameter of interest, often allowing on-line monitoring removal of NOM prior to chlorination can shift the speciation
of the operation and performance of water treatment plants. of halogenated by-products toward more brominated forms.
Surrogates used to assess NOM include: Chloropicrin is produced by the chlorination of humic
materials in the presence of nitrate ion. Thibaud et al. (1988)
• Total and dissolved organic carbon (TOC and DOC) chlorinated humic compounds in the presence of bromide
• Specific ultraviolet light absorbance (SUVA), which ion to demonstrate the formation of brominated analogs to
is the absorbance at 254 nm wavelength (UV-254) chloropicrin.
divided by DOC (SUVA = (UV-254/DOC)100 in L/
mg-m) Impacts of pH on DBP Formation
• THM formation potential (THMFP)—a test measur- The pH of water being chlorinated has an impact on the for-
ing the quantity of THMs formed with a high dosage mation of halogenated by-products. THM formation increases
of free chlorine and a long reaction time with increasing pH. Trichloroacetic acid, dichloroacetonitile,
• TTHM Stimulated Distribution System (SDS)—a and trichloropropanone formation decrease with increased
test to predict the TTHM concentration at some pH. Overall TOX formation decreases with increasing pH.
selected point in a given distribution system, where Based on chlorination studies of humic material in model sys-
the conditions of the chlorination test simulate the tems, high pH tends to favor chloroform formation over the
distribution system at the point desired formation of trichloroacetic acid and other organic halides.
Accordingly, water treatment plants practicing precipitative
On average, about 90% of the TOC is dissolved. DOC is softening at pH values greater than 9.5–10 are likely to have
defined as the TOC able to pass through a 0.45 µm filter. UV a higher fraction of TOX attributable to THMs than plants
absorbance is a good technique for assessing the presence of treating surface waters by conventional treatment in pH
DOC through a 0.45 µm filter. UV absorbance is a good tech- ranges of 6–8.
nique for assessing the presence of DOC because DOC pri- Because the application of chlorine dioxide and chlora-
marily consists of humic substances, which contain aromatic mines may introduce free chlorine into water, chlorination
structures that absorb light in the UV spectrum. Oxidation of by-products that may be formed would be influenced by pH as
DOC reduces the UV absorbance of the water due to oxida- discussed above. Ozone application to bromide ion containing
tion of some of the organic bonds that absorb UV absorbance. waters at high pH favors the formation of bromate ion, while
Complete mineralization of organic compounds to carbon application at low pH favors the formation of brominated
dioxide usually does not occur under water treatment con- organic by-products.
ditions; therefore, the overall TOC concentration usually is The pH also impacts enhanced coagulation (i.e., for
constant. ESWTR compliance) and Lead and Copper Rule Compliance.
Concentrations of DBPs vary seasonally and are typically These issues are addressed in USEPA’s Microbial and
greatest in the summer and early fall for several reasons: Disinfection Byproduct Simultaneous Compliance Guidance
Manual.
• The rate of DBP formation increases with increasing
temperature Organic Oxidation By-products
• The nature of organic DBP precursors varies with Organic oxidation by-products are formed by reactions
season between NOM and all oxidizing agents added during drinking
controlling DBP formation potential of source waters. Control

TABLE 15.12 of bromide ion in source waters may be accomplished by pre-
Inorganic Disinfection By-products (DBPs) Produced venting brine or saltwater intrusion into the water source.
during Disinfection
Precursor Removal
Inorganic By-product or Disinfectant
Disinfectant Residual Discussed
Raw water can include DBP precursors in both dissolved and
particulate forms. For the dissolved precursors to be removed
Chlorine dioxide Chlorine dioxide, Chlorite ion, Chlorate ion,
in conventional treatment, they must be converted to particu-
Bromate ion
late form for subsequent removal during settling and filtering.
Ozone Bromate ion, Hydrogen peroxide
The THM formation potential generally decreases by about
Chloramination Monochloramine, Dichloramine, Trichloramine,
50% through conventional coagulation and settling, indicat-
Ammonia
ing the importance of moving the point of chlorine application
after coagulation and settling (and even filtration) to control
TOX as well as TTHM formation. Conventional systems can
water treatment. Some of these by-products are halogenated, lower the DBP formation potential of water prior to disinfection
as discussed in the previous section, while others are not. The by further removing precursors with enhanced coagulation,
types and concentrations of organic oxidation by-products pro- GAC adsorption, or membrane filtration prior to disinfection.
duced depend on the type and dosage of the oxidant being used, Precursor removal efficiencies are site-specific and vary with
chemical characteristics, and concentration of the NOM being different source waters and treatment techniques.
oxidized, and other factors such as the pH and temperature. Aluminum (alum) and iron (ferric) salts can remove vari-
able amounts of NOM. For alum, the optimal pH for NOM
Inorganic By-products and Disinfectants removal is in the range of 5.5–6.0. The addition of alum
Table 15.12 shows some of the inorganic DBPs that are pro- decreases pH and may allow the optimal pH range to be
duced or remain as residual during disinfection. As discussed reached without acid addition. However, waters with very low
earlier, bromide ion reacts with strong oxidants to form or very high alkalinities may require the addition of base or
bromate ion and other organic DBPs. Chlorine dioxide and acid to reach the optimal NOM coagulation pH (Singer, 1992).
chloramines leave residuals that are of concern for health con- GAC adsorption can be used following filtration to remove
siderations, as well as for taste and odor. additional NOM. For most applications, empty bed contact
times in excess of 20 min are required, with regeneration
frequencies on the order of 2–3 months. These long control
DBP Control Strategies
times and frequent regeneration requirements make GAC an
In 1983, the USEPA identified technologies, treatment tech- expensive treatment option. In cases where prechlorination is
niques, and plant modifications that community water sys- practiced, the chlorine rapidly degrades GAC. The addition
tems could use to comply with the maximum contaminant of a disinfectant to the GAC bed can result in specific reac-
level for TTHMs. The principal treatment modifications tions in which previously absorbed compounds leach into the
involved moving the point of chlorination downstream in treated water.
the water treatment plant, improving the coagulation pro- Membrane filtration has been shown effective in remov-
cess to enhance the removal of DBP precursors, and using ing DBP precursors in some instances. In pilot studies, ultra-
chloramines to supplement or replace the use of free chlorine filtration (UF) with a molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) of
(Singer & Harrington, 1993). Moving the point of chlorina- 100,000 daltons was ineffective for controlling DBP forma-
tion downstream in the treatment train often is very effec- tion. However, when little or no bromide ion was present in
tive in reducing DBP formation, because it allows the NOM source water, nanofiltration (NF) membranes with MWCOs
precursor concentration to be reduced during treatment prior of 400–800 daltons effectively controlled DBP formation
to chlorine addition. Replacing prechlorination by preoxida- (Laine et al., 1993).
tion with an alternate disinfectant that produces fewer DBPs In waters containing bromide ion, higher bromoform con-
is another option for reducing the formation of chlorinated centrations were observed after chlorination of membrane
by-products. Other options to control the formation of DBPs permeate (compared with raw water). This occurs as a result
include; source water quality control, DBP precursor removal, of filtration removing NOM while concentrating bromide
and disinfection strategy selection. An overview of each is ions in the permeate thus providing a higher ratio of bromide
provided below. ions to NOM than in raw water. This reduction in chlorine
demand increases the ratio of bromide to chlorine, result-
Source Water Quality Control ing in higher bromoform concentrations after chlorination
Source water control strategies involve managing the source of NF membrane permeation (compared with the raw water).
water to lower the concentrations of NOM and bromide ion in TTHMs were lower in chlorinated permeate than chlorinated
the source water. Research has shown that algal growth leads raw water. However, due to the shift in speciation of THMs
to the production of DBP precursors (Oliver & Shindler, 1980). toward more brominated forms, bromoform concentrations
Therefore, nutrient and algal management is one method of were actually greater in chlorinated treated water than in
chlorinated raw water. Use of spiral-wound NF membranes chlorine dioxide, or potassium permanganate for
(200–300 daltons) more effectively controlled the formation chlorine as a preoxidant.
of brominated THMs, but pretreatment of the water was nec- • Use two different disinfectants or oxidants at various
essary. Significant limitations in the use of membranes are the points in the treatment plant to avoid DBP formation
disposal of the waste brine generated, fouling of membranes, at locations where precursors are still present in high
cost of membrane replacement, and increasing energy cost. quantities.
Disinfection by-product regulations require enhanced • Use of powdered activated carbon for THM precur-
coagulation as an initial step for the removal of DBP precursor or TTHM reduction seasonally or intermittently.
sors. In addition to meeting MCLs and MRDLs, some water • Maximize precursor removal.
suppliers also must meet treatment requirements to control
the organic material (DBP precursors) in the raw water that
CT Factor
combines with disinfectant residuals to form DBPs. Systems
using conventional treatment are required to control precur- One of the most important factors for determining or pre-
sors (measured as TOC) by using enhanced coagulation or dicting the germicidal efficiency of any disinfectant is the
enhanced softening. A system must remove a specified per- CT factor, a version of the Chick-Watson law (1908). The CT
centage of TOC (based on raw water quality) prior to the point factor is defined as the product of the residual disinfectant
of continuous disinfection (Table 15.13). concentration, C, in mg/L, and the contact time, T, in min-
Systems using ozone followed by biologically active fil- utes that residual disinfectant is in contact with the water.
tration or chlorine dioxide that meet specific criteria would USEPA developed CT values for the inactivation of Giardia
be required to meet the TOC removal requirements prior to and viruses under the SWTR. Table 15.14 compares the CT
the addition of a residual disinfectant. Systems able to reduce values for virus inactivation using chlorine, chlorine dioxide,
TOC by a specified percentage level have met the DBP treat- ozone, chloramine, and ultraviolet light disinfection under
ment technique requirements. If the system does not meet the specified conditions. Table 15.15 shows the CT values for the
percent reduction, it must determine its alternative minimum inactivation of Giardia cyst using chlorine, chloramine, chlo-
TOC removal level. The primacy agency approves the alter- rine dioxide, and ozone under specified conditions. The CT
native minimum TOC removal possible for the system on the values shown in Tables 15.14 and 15.15 are based on water
basis of the relationship between coagulant dose and TOC in
the system based on results of bench- or pilot-scale testing.
TABLE 15.14
Enhanced coagulation is determined in part as the coagulant
does where an incremental addition of 10 mg/L of alum (or CT Values for Inactivation of Viruses
an equivalent amount of ferric salt) results in a TOC removal Inactivation
below 0.3 mg/L. Disinfectant (@ 10°C) Units 2-log 3-log
Chlorine mg · min/L 4 4
Disinfection Strategy Selection Chloramine mg · min/L 643 1,067
Chlorine Dioxide mg · min/L 4.2 12.8
In addition to improving the raw or predisinfectant water
Ozone mg · min/L 0.5 0.8
quality, alternative disinfection strategies can be used to con-
Ultraviolet (UV) mW ·s/cm2 21 36
trol DBPs. These strategies include the following:
Source: Modified from data obtained from AWWA. Guidance Manual for
• Use an alternative or supplemental disinfectant or Compliance with the Filtration and Disinfection Requirements for
oxidant such as chloramines or chlorine dioxide that Public Works Systems using Surface Water Sources, 1991.
will produce fewer DBPs.
• Move the point of chlorination to reduce TTHM for-
mation and, where necessary, substitute chloramines,
TABLE 15.15
CT Values for Inactivation of Giardia Cysts
TABLE 15.13
Inactivation (mg min/L)
Required Removal of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) by
Enhanced Coagulation for Surface Water Systems Using Disinfectant (@ 10°C) 1-log 2-log 3-log
Convention Treatment (percent reduction) Chlorine 35 69 104

Chloramine 615 1,240 1,850
Source Water Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3)
Chlorine Dioxide 7.7 15 23
Source Water TOC (mg/L) 0–60 >60–120 >120 Ozone 0.48 0.95 1.43
>2.0–4.0 35.0 25.0 15.0 Source: Modified from data obtained from AWWA. Guidance Manual for
>4.0–8.0 45.0 35.0 25.0 Compliance with the Filtration and Disinfection Requirements for
>8.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 Public Works Systems using Surface Water Sources, 1991.
temperatures of 10°C and pH values in the range of 6 to 9. CT that 81% of all community water systems provide some form
values for chlorine disinfection are based on a free chlorine of treatment on all or a portion of their water sources. The
residual. Note that chlorine is less effective as pH increases survey also found that virtually all surface water systems pro-
from 6 to 9. In addition, for a given CT value, a low C and a vide some treatment of their water. Of those systems reporting
high T is more effective than the reverse (i.e., a high C and a no treatment, 80% rely on groundwater as their only water
low T). For all disinfectants, as temperature increases, effec- source.
tiveness increases. The most commonly used disinfectants/oxidants are chlo-
rine, chlorine dioxide, chloramines, ozone, and potassium
permanganate. Chlorine is predominately used in surface and
Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements
groundwater disinfection treatment systems; more than 60%
One of the most important factors for evaluating the merits of of the treatment systems use chlorine as a disinfectant/oxi-
alternative disinfectants is their ability to maintain the micro- dant. Potassium permanganate, on the other hand, is used by
bial quality in the water distribution system. Disinfectant many systems, but its application is primarily for oxidation,
residuals may serve to protect the distribution system against rather than for disinfection.
regrowth. SWTR requires that filtration and disinfection must Permanganate will have some beneficial impact on disin-
be provided to ensure that the total treatment of the system fection since it is a strong oxidant that will reduce the chemical
achieves at least a 3-log removal/inactivation of Giardia cysts demand for the ultimate disinfection chemical. Chloramine is
and a 4-log removal/inactivation of viruses. In addition, the used by some systems and is more frequently used as a post-
disinfection process must demonstrate by continuous moni- treatment disinfectant.
toring and recording that the disinfection residual in the water The International Ozone Association (IOA, 1997) con-
entering the distribution system is never less than 0.2 mg/L ducted a survey of ozone facilities in the United States.
for more than 4 h (Snead, 1980). The survey documented the types of ozone facilities, size,
Several of the alternative disinfectants examined in the objective of ozone application, and year of operation. The
handbook cannot be used to meet the residual requirements International Ozone Association (1997) summarizes the
stated in the SWTR. For example, if either ozone or ultravio- findings of its survey of water treatment plants in the United
let light disinfection is used as the primary disinfectant, a sec- States in Table 15.16. The most common use of ozone is for
ondary disinfectant such as chlorine or chloramines should be the oxidation of iron and manganese, and for taste and odor
utilized to obtain a residual in the distribution system. control. Twenty-four of the 158 ozone facilities used GAC
Disinfectant by-product formation continues in the distri- following ozonation. In addition to the 158 operating ozone
bution system due to reactions between the residual disinfec- facilities, the survey identified 19 facilities under construc-
tant and organics in the water. Koch et al., (1991) found that tion and another 30 under design. The capacity of the systems
with a chlorine dose of 3–4 mg/L, THM and HAA concen- ranges from less than 25 gpm to exceeding 500 mg. Nearly
trations increase rapidly during the first 24 h in the distribu- half of the operating facilities have a capacity exceeding 1
tion system. After the initial 48 h, the subsequent increase mg. Rice et al. (1998) found that as of May 1998, 264 drinking
in THMs is very small. Chloral hydrate concentrations con- water plants in the United States are using ozone.
tinued to increase after the initial 24 h, but at a reduced rate.
Haloketones actually decreased in the distribution system.
Summary of Methods of Disinfection
Nieminski et al. (1993) evaluated DBP formation in the
simulated distribution systems of treatment plants in Utah. The methods of disinfection include:
Finished water chlorine residuals ranged from 0.4 to 2.8
mg/L. Generally, THM values in the distribution system stud- Heat—possibly the first method of disinfection.
ies increased by 50 to 100% (range of 30–200%) of the plant Disinfection is accomplished by boiling water for
effluent value after 24-hcontact time. The 24-h THM concen- 5–10 min. Good, obviously, only for household
tration was essentially the same as the 7-day THM formation quantities of water when bacteriological quality is
potential. HAA concentrations in the simulated distribution questionable.
system were about 100% (range of 30–200%) of the HAA in
the plant effluent. The 7-day HAA formation potential was
sometimes higher, or below the distribution system values. If TABLE 15.16
chlorine is used as a secondary disinfectant, one should there- Ozone Application in Water Treatment plants in the
fore anticipate a 100% increase in the plant effluent THMs or
United States
plan to reach the 7-day THM formation level in the distribu-
tion system. Ozone Objective Number of Plants % Plants
THM Control 50 32
Disinfection 63 40
Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices
Iron/Manganese, Taste,and Odor Control 92 58
Most water treatment plants disinfect water prior to distribu- Total 158 –
tion. The 1995 Community Water Systems Survey reports
Ultraviolet (UV) light—while a practical method of found to serve other useful purposes in water treatment, such
treating large quantities, adsorption of UV light is as (White, 1992):
very rapid, so the use of this method is limited to
nonturbid waters close to the light source. • Taste and odor control
Metal ions—silver, copper, mercury. • Prevention of algal growths
Alkalis and acids • Maintenance of clear filter media
pH adjustment—to under 3.0 or over 11.0 • Removal of iron and manganese
Oxidizing agents—bromine, ozone, potassium perman- • Destruction of hydrogen sulfide
ganate, and chlorine • Bleaching of certain organic colors
• Maintenance of distribution system water quality by
The vast majority of drinking water systems in the United controlling slime growth
States use chlorine for disinfection (Spellman, 2007). Along • Restoration and preservation of pipeline capacity
with meeting the desired characteristics listed above, chlorine • Restoration of well capacity, water main sterilization
has the added advantage of a long history of use—it is fairly • Improved coagulation
well understood. Although some small water systems may use
other disinfectants, we focus on chlorine in this handbook and Chlorine is available in a number of different forms: (1) as
provide only a brief overview of other disinfection alternatives. pure elemental gaseous chlorine (a greenish-yellow gas pos-
Note: One of the recent developments in chlorine disin- sessing a pungent and irritating odor that is heavier than air,
fection is the use of multiple and interactive disinfectants. In nonflammable, and nonexplosive), when released to the atmo-
these applications, chlorine is combined with a second dis- sphere, this form is toxic and corrosive; (2) as solid calcium
infectant to achieve improved disinfection efficiency and/or hypochlorite (in tablets or granules); or (3) as a liquid sodium
effective DBP control. hypochlorite solution (in various strengths).
Note: As described earlier, the 1995 Community Water The selection of one form of chlorine over the others for
System Survey indicated that all surface water and groundwa- a given water system depends on the amount of water to be
ter systems in the United States use chlorine for disinfection treated, the configuration of the water system, the local avail-
(Spellman, 2007). ability of the chemicals, and the skill of the operator.
One of the major advantages of using chlorine is the
effective residual that it produces. A residual indicates that
Chlorination
disinfection is completed, and the system has an acceptable
The addition of chlorine or chlorine compounds to water bacteriological quality. Maintaining a residual in the distribu-
is called chlorination. Chlorination is considered to be the tion system provides another line of defense against patho-
single most important process for preventing the spread of genic organisms that could enter the distribution system and
waterborne disease. Chlorine has many attractive features helps to prevent regrowth of those microorganisms that were
that contribute to its wide use in industry. Five of the key attri- injured but not killed during the initial disinfection stage.
butes of chlorine are:
Chlorine Terminology
• It damages the cell wall. Often it is difficult for new waterworks operators to under-
• It alters the permeability of the cell (the ability to stand the terms used to describe the various reactions and
pass water in and out through the cell wall). processes used in chlorination. Common chlorination terms
• It alters the cell protoplasm. include the following:
• It inhibits the enzyme activity of the cell so it is
unable to use its food to produce energy. • Chlorine reaction—Regardless of the form of chlo-
• It inhibits cell reproduction. rine used for disinfection, the reaction in water is
basically the same. The same amount of disinfec-
Some concerns regarding chlorine usage that may inspect its tion can be expected, provided the same amount of
uses include: available chlorine is added to the water. The stan-
dard term for the concentration of chlorine in water
• Chlorine reacts with many naturally occurring is milligrams per liter (mg/l) or parts per million
organic and inorganic compounds in water to pro- (ppm); these terms indicate the same quantity.
duce undesirable DBPs. • Chlorine dose—It is the amount of chlorine added
• Hazards associated with using chlorine, specifically to the system. It can be determined by adding the
chlorine gas, require special treatment and response desired residual for the finished water to the chlorine
programs. demand of the untreated water. Dosage can be either
• High chlorine doses can cause taste and odor problems. milligrams per liter (mg/l) or pounds per day. The
most common is mg/l.
Chlorine is used in water treatment facilities primarily for dis- • Chlorine demand—It is the amount of chlorine used by
infection. Because of chlorine’s oxidizing powers, it has been iron, manganese, turbidity, algae, and microorganisms
in the water. Because the reaction between chlorine Cryptosporidium oocysts. To be assured that the water is free
and microorganisms is not instantaneous, demand is of viruses, a combination of filtration and disinfection to pro-
relative to time. For instance, the demand 5 min after vide a 4-log removal of viruses has been judged the best for
applying chlorine will be less than the demand after drinking water safety—99.99% removal. Viruses are inacti-
20 min. Demand, like dosage, is expressed in mg/l. vated (killed) more easily than cysts or oocysts.
The chlorine demand is as follows:
Chlorine Chemistry
Cl 2 demand = Cl 2 dose - Cl 2 residual (15.7) The reactions of chlorine with water and the impurities that
might be in the water are quite complex, but a basic under-
• Chlorine residual—It is the amount of chlorine standing of these reactions can aid the operator in keeping the
(determined by testing) that remains after the disinfection process operating at its highest efficiency. When
demand is satisfied. Residual, like demand, is based dissolved in pure water, chlorine reacts with the H+ ions and
on time. The longer the time after dosage, the lower the OH− radicals in the water. Two of the products of this reac-
the residual will be, until all of the demand has tion (the actual disinfecting agents) are hypochlorous acid,
been satisfied. Residual, like dosage and demand, is HOCl, and the hypochlorite radical, OCl−. If microorganisms
expressed in mg/l. The presence of a free residual of are present in the water, the HOCl and the OCl− penetrate
at least 0.2–0.4 ppm usually provides a high degree the microbe cells and react with certain enzymes. This reac-
of assurance that the disinfection of the water is com- tion disrupts the organisms’ metabolism and kills them. The
plete. Combined residual is the result of combining chemical equation for hypochlorous acid is as follows:
free chlorine with nitrogen compounds. Combined
residuals are also called chloramines. Total chlorine Cl 2 H 2O HOCL
+ «
residual is the mathematical combination of free and (chlorine ) (water ) (hypochlorous acid)
combined residuals. Total residual can be determined
directly with standard chlorine residual test kits. HCl
+ (15.9)
• Chorine contact time—It is one of the key items in (hydrochloric acid)
predicting the effectiveness of chlorine on microor-
ganisms. It is the interval (usually only a few min- Note: The symbol ↔ indicates that the reactions are reversible.
utes) between the time when chlorine is added to the
water and the time the water passes by the sampling Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is a weak acid—meaning it
point, contact time is the “T” in CT. CT is calculated dissociates slightly into hydrogen and hypochlorite ions—but
based on the free chlorine residual prior to the first a strong oxidizing and germicidal agent. Hydrochloric acid
customer, times the contact time in minutes. (HCl) in the above equation is a strong acid and retains more
of the properties of chlorine. HCl tends to lower the pH of the
CT = Concentration ´ Contact Time water, especially in swimming pools where the water is recir-
culated and continually chlorinated. The total hypochlorous
= mg/L ´ minutes (15.8) acid and hypochlorite ions in water constitute the free avail-
able chlorine. Hypochlorites act in a manner similar to HCl
A certain minimum time period is required for the disinfect- when added to water, because hypochloric acid is formed.
ing action to be completed. The contact time is usually a fixed When chlorine is first added to water containing some
condition determined by the rate of flow of the water and the impurities, the chlorine immediately reacts with the dissolved
distance from the chlorination point to the first consumer con- inorganic or organic substances and is then unavailable for
nection. Ideally, the contact time should not be less than 30 disinfection. The amount of chlorine used in this initial reac-
min, but even more time is needed at lower chlorine doses in tion is the chlorine demand of the water. If dissolved ammo-
cold weather, or under other conditions. nia (NH3) is present in the water, the chlorine will react with
Pilot studies have shown that specific CT values are it to form compounds called chloramines. Only after the chlo-
necessary for the inactivation of viruses and Giardia. The rine demand is satisfied and the reaction with all the dissolved
required CT value will vary depending on pH, temperature, ammonia is complete is the chlorine actually available in the
and the organisms to be killed. Charts and formulae are avail- form of HOCl and OCl−. The equation for the reaction of
able to make this determination. USEPA has set a CT value hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and ammonia (NH3) is as follows:
of three-log (CT99.9) inactivation to assure the water is free
of Giardia. State drinking water regulations include charts HOCl NH 3
giving this value for different pH and temperature combina- +
(hypochlorous acid) (ammonia )
tions. Filtration, in combination with disinfection, must pro-
vide a 3-log removal/inactivation of Giardia. Charts in the 
USEPA SWTR Guidance manual list the required CT val-
ues for various filter systems. Under the 1996 IESWTR, the NH 2Cl H 2O
+ (15.10)
USEPA requires systems that filter to remove 99% (2-log) of (monochloramine) (water )
Note: The chlorine as hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite is combined residual. At some point, the curve begins to drop
ions remaining in the water after the above reactions are back toward zero. This portion of the curve results from a
complete is known as free available chlorine, and it is a very reduction in combined residual, which occurs because enough
active disinfectant. chlorine has been added to destroy (oxidize) the nitrogen
compounds used to form combined residuals. The breakpoint
Breakpoint Chlorination is the point where the downward slope of the curve breaks
To produce a free chlorine residual, enough chlorine must be upward. At this point, all of the nitrogen compounds that
added to the water to produce what is referred to as breakpoint could be destroyed have been destroyed. After breakpoint, the
chlorination, which is the point at which near complete oxida- curve starts upward again, usually at a 45° angle. Only on this
tion of nitrogen compounds is reached; any residual beyond part of the curve can free residuals be found. The distance
breakpoint is mostly free chlorine (see Figure 15.9). When that the breakpoint is above zero is a measure of the remain-
chlorine is added to natural waters, the chlorine begins coming combined residual in the water. This combined residual
bining with and oxidizing the chemicals in the water before it exists because some of the nitrogen compound will not have
begins disinfecting. Although residual chlorine will be detect- been oxidized by chlorine. If irreducible combined residual is
able in the water, the chlorine will be in the combined form more than 15% of the total residual, chlorine odor and taste
with a weak disinfecting power. As we see in Figure 15.9, add- complains will be high.
ing more chlorine to the water at this point actually decreases
the chlorine residual as the additional chlorine destroys the Gas Chlorination
combined chlorine compounds. At this stage, water may have Gas chlorine is provided in 100-lb or 1-ton containers.
a strong swimming pool or medicinal taste and odor. To avoid Chlorine is placed in the container as a liquid. The liquid boils
this taste and odor, and still more chlorine to produce a free at room temperature, reducing to a gas and building pressure
residual chlorine. Free chlorine has the highest disinfecting in the cylinder. At room temperature of 70°F, a chlorine cylin-
power. The point at which most of the combined chlorine der will have a pressure of 85 psi; 100/150-lb cylinders should
compounds have been destroyed and the free chlorine starts be maintained in an upright position and chained to the wall.
to form is the breakpoint. To prevent a chlorine cylinder from rupturing in a fire, the
The chlorine breakpoint of water can only be deter- cylinder valves are equipped with special fusible plugs that
mined by experimentation. This simple experiment requires melt between 158 and 164°F.
20 1,000-ml breakers and a solution of chlorine. Place the Chlorine gas is 99.9% chlorine. A gas chlorinator meters
raw water in the beakers and dose with progressively larger the gas flow and mixes it with water, which is then injected
amounts of chlorine. For instance, you might start with zero as a water solution of pure chlorine. As the compressed liq-
in the first beaker, then 0.5 mg/l and 1.0 mg/l, and so on. After uid chlorine is withdrawn from the cylinder, it expands as a
a period of time, say 20 min, test each beaker for total chlo- gas, withdrawing heat from the cylinder. Care must be taken
rine residual and plot the results. not to withdraw the chlorine at too fast a rate: if the operator
attempts to withdraw more than about 40 pounds of chlorine
Breakpoint Chlorination Curve per day from a 150-pound cylinder, it will freeze up.
Refer to Figure 15.9 for the following explanation. Where Note: All chlorine gas feed equipment sold today is vacuum
the curve starts, no residual exists, even though there was a operated. This safety feature ensures that if a break occurs in
dosage. This is called the initial demand and is microorgan- one of the components in the chlorinator, the vacuum will be
isms and interfering agents using the result of the chlorine. lost, and the chlorinator will shut down without allowing gas
After the initial demand, the curve slopes upward. Chlorine to escape.
combining to form chloramines produces this part of the Chlorine gas is a highly toxic lung irritant, and special
curve. All of the residual measured on this part of the curve facilities are required for storing and housing it. Chlorine gas
will expand to 500 times its original compressed liquid vol-
Demand Chloramines Chloramines Free Residual ume at room temperature (one gallon of liquid chlorine will
Formed Destroyed Formed expand to about 67 cu ft). Its advantage as a drinking water
disinfectant is the convenience afforded by a relatively large
quantity of chlorine available for continuous operation for
Total Residual
several days or weeks without the need for mixing chemicals.

Free Where water flow rates are highly variable, the chlorination
Available rate can be synchronized with the flow.
Chlorine
Residual Chlorine gas has a very strong, characteristic odor that can
be detected by most people at concentrations as low as 3.5
ppm. Highly corrosive in moist air, it is extremely toxic and
Combined Chlorine Residual
irritating in concentrated form. Its toxicity ranges from throat
Chlorine Added To Water irritating 15 ppm to rapid death at 1,000 ppm. Although chlo-
rine does not burn, it supports combustion, so open flames
FIGURE 15.9 Breakpoint chlorination curve. should never be used around chlorination equipment.
When changing chlorine cylinders, an accidental release C1 = 5.25%

of chlorine may occasionally occur. To handle this type of
release, an approved (NIOSH approved) self-contained (5.25%)(10, 000 mg/l) = 52, 500 mg/l
C1 =
breathing apparatus (SCBA) must be worn. Special emer- 1.0%
gency repair kits are available from the Chlorine Institute for
use by emergency response teams to deal with chlorine leaks. V1 = unknown volume of sodium hypochlorite
Because chlorine gas is 2.5 times heavier than air, exhaust
and inlet air ducts should be installed at floor level. A leak of C2 = 50 mg/l
chlorine gas can be found by using the fumes from a strong
ammonia mist solution. A white cloud develops when ammo- V2 = 10, 000 gallons
nia mist and chlorine combine.
(52,500 mg/l)(V1 ) = (50 mg/l)(10,000 gal)
Hypochlorination
Combining chlorine with calcium or sodium produces hypo-
V1 =
( 50 mg/l )(10,000 gal )
chlorites. Calcium hypochlorites are sold in powder or tab- 52, 500 mg/l
let forms and can contain chlorine concentrations up to 67%.
Sodium hypochlorite is a liquid (bleach, for example) and is V1 = 9.52 gal of sodium hypochlorite
found in concentrations up to 16%. Chlorine concentrations
of household bleach range from 4.75% to 5.25%. Most small Sodium hypochlorite solutions are introduced to the water in
system operators find using these liquid or dry chlorine com- the same manner as calcium hypochlorite solutions. The pur-
pounds more convenient and safer than chlorine gas. chased stock “bleach” is usually diluted with water to produce
The compounds are mixed with water and fed into the a feed solution that is pumped into the water system.
water with inexpensive solution feed pumps. These pumps Hypochlorites stored properly to maintain their strengths.
are designed to operate against high system pressures, but can Calcium hypochlorite must be stored in airtight containers
also be used to inject chlorine solutions into tanks, though in cool, dry, dark locations. Sodium hypochlorite degrades
injecting chlorine into the suction side of a pump is not rec- relatively quickly even when properly stored; it can lose more
ommended as the chlorine may corrode the pump impeller. than half of its strength in three to six months. Operators
Calcium hypochlorite can be purchased as tablets or gran- should purchase hypochlorites in small quantities to assure
ules, with approximately 65% available chlorine (10 pounds of they are used while still strong. Old chemicals should be dis-
calcium hypochlorite granules contain only 6.5 pounds of chlo- carded safely.
rine). Normally, 6.5 pounds of calcium hypochlorite will produce The pumping rate of a chemical metering pump is usu-
a concentration of 50-mg/l chlorine in 10,000 gallons of water. ally manually adjusted by varying the length of the piston or
Calcium hypochlorite can burn (at 350°F) if combined with oil diaphragm stroke. Once the stroke is set, the hypochlorinator
or grease. When mixing calcium hypochlorite, operators must feeds accurately at that rate. However, chlorine measurements
wear chemical safety goggles, a cartridge breathing apparatus, must be made occasionally at the beginning and end of the
and rubberized gloves. Always place the powder in the water. well pump cycle to assure correct dosage. A metering device
Placing the water into the dry powder could cause an explosion. may be used to vary the hypochlorinator feed rate, synchro-
Sodium hypochlorite is supplied as a clear, greenish-yel- nized with the water flow rate. Where a well pump is used,
low liquid in strengths from 5.25% to 16% available chlorine. the hypochlorinator is connected electrically with the pump’s
Often referred to as “bleach,” it is, in fact, used for bleaching. on-off controls to assure that the chlorine solution is not fed
As we stated earlier, common household bleach is a solution into the pipe when the well is not pumping.
of sodium hypochlorite containing 5.25% available chlorine.
The amount of sodium hypochlorite needed to produce a Determining Chlorine Dosage
50-mg/l chlorine concentration in 10,000 gallons of water can Proper disinfection requires a calculation of the amount
be calculated using the solutions equation: of chlorine that must be added to the water to produce the
required dosage. The type of calculation used depends on the
C1V1 = C2 V2 (15.11) form of chlorine being used. The basic chlorination calcula-
tion used is the same one used for all chemical addition calcu-
where: lations—the pounds formula. The pounds formula is:
C = the solution concentration in mg/l or %
V = the solution volume in the liters, gal., qt., etc. Pounds = mg/L ´ 8.34 ´ MG (15.12)
1.0% = 10,000 mg/l
where:
In this example, C1 and V1and associated with the sodium Pounds = pounds of available chlorine required
hypochlorite and C2 and V2 are associated with the 10,000 mg/L = desired concentration in milligrams per liter
gallons of water with a 50 mg/l chlorine concentration. 8.24 = conversion factor
Therefore: MG = millions of gallons of water to be treated
Example 15.3 Dose = demand + residual
Problem: Calculate the number of pounds of gaseous = 2.2 mg/l + 1.0 mg/l
chlorine needed to treat 250,000 gallons of water with 1.2 = 3.2 mg/l
mg/l of chlorine.
To obtain a 1.0-mg/l residual when the water
SOLUTION: enters the distribution system, we must add 3.2
Pounds = 1.2 mg/l ´ 8.34 ´ 0.25 MG mg/l of chlorine to the water.
• Step 2: Determine the strength of the chlorine
= 2.5 lb feed solution that would add 3.2 mg/l of chlorine
to 65 gallons/min of water when fed at a rate of
Note: Hypochlorites contain less than 100% available 100 ml/min. To make this calculation, consider
chlorine. Thus, we must use more hypochlorite to get the the diagram of this chlorination system in Figure
same number of pounds of chlorine into the water. 15.10. The well pump below is producing water
at a flowrate (Q1) of 65 gpm, with a chlorine con-
centration (C1) of 0.0 mg/l. The metering pump
If we substitute calcium hypochlorite with 65% available will add 100-ml/min (Q2) of chlorine solution,
chlorine in our example, 2.5 lb of available chlorine is still but we do not know its concentration (C2) yet.
needed, but more than 2.5 pounds of calcium hypochlorite is The finished water will have been dosed with a
needed to provide that much chlorine. Determine how much chlorine concentration of 3.2 mg/l (C1) and will
of the chemical is needed by dividing the pounds of chlorine enter the distribution system at a rate (Qt) of 65
needed by the decimal form of the% available chlorine. Since gallons + 100 ml per min, with a free residual
65% is the same as 0.65, we need to add: chlorine concentration of 1.0 mg/l after the chlo-
rine contact time.
• Step 3: Convert the metering pump flow (100 ml/
2.5 lb min) to gpm so we can calculate Q1. To do this,
= 3.85 lb Ca (OCl) (15.13)
0.65 available chlorine we use standard conversion factors:
to get that much chlorine. 100 mL 1L 1 gal

´ ´ = 0.026 gal/min
In practice, because most hypochlorites are fed as solu- min 1, 000 mL 3.785 L
tions, we often need to know how much chlorine solution So, now we know that Q2 is 0.026 gpm and
we need to feed. In addition, the practical problems faced in that Qt is 65 gpm + 0.026 gpm = 65,026 gpm.
day-to-day operation are never so clearly stated as the prac- • Step 4: We must now use what is known as the
tice problems we work. For example, small water systems stand mass balance equation. The mass balance
do not usually deal with water flow in million gallons per equation says that the flow rate times the con-
day. Real-world problems usually require a lot of interme- centration of the output is equal to the flow rate
diate calculations to get everything ready to plug into the times the concentration of each of the inputs
pounds formula. added together, or in equation form:
( Q1 ´ C1) + ( Q2 ´ C 2 ) = ( Q1 ´ C1) (15.14)

Example 15.4
Problem: We have raw water with a chlorine demand Q1 = 65 gal/min Qt = Q1 + Q2

of 2.2 mg/l. We need a final residual of 1.0 mg/l at
the entrance to the distribution system. We can use
sodium hypochlorite or calcium hypochlorite granules CL = 0.0 mg/l Ct = 3.2 mg/l
as the source of chlorine. If well output is 65 gallons
per minute (gpm) and the chemical feed pump can
inject 100 milliliters per minute (ml/min) at the 50% Well pump T reated Water
setting. What is the required strength of the chlorine
solution we will feed? What volume of 5.20% sodium
hypochlorite will be needed to produce one gallon of
the chlorine feed solution? How many pounds of 65%
calcium hypochlorite will be needed to mix each gal- Chlorination Metering Pump
lon of solution?
SOLUTION: Q2 = 100 mL/min

• Step 1: Determine the amount of chlorine to be
added to the water (the chlorine dose). The dose C2 = unknown
is defined as the chlorine demand of the water,
plus the desired residual, or in this case: FIGURE 15.10 Chlorination system problem.
Substituting the numbers given and those we have calcu- 0.80% ´ 1.0 gal
lated so far gives us: x=
5.20%
(65 gpm ´ 0.0 mg/l) + (0.026 gpm ´ mg/l) = 0.15 gal bleach per gal solution
To summarize, 1 gallon of household bleach:
= éë(65 + 0.026) gpm ´ 3.2mg/lùû

0 + 0.026 X = 65.026 ´ 3.2 • Contains 0.85 gal water
• Contains 5.20% or 52,000 mg/l available
0.026 X = 208.1 chlorine
• Contains 0.15 gal available chlorine
208.1 • Contains 0.43lb available chlorine
x=
0.026 • Weighs 8.34lb
x = 8, 004 mg/l
The third part of the problem requires that we determine
the pounds of calcium hypochlorite needed for each gal-
This is the answer to the first part of the question, the lon of feed solution. We know that we need 0.066 lb of
required strength of the chlorine feed solution. Since a chlorine for each gallon of solution and that HTH contains
1% solution is equal to 10,000 mg/L, solution strength of 65% available chlorine; that is, 1.0 lb of HTH contains
8,004 mg/L is approximately a 0.80% solution. 0.65 lb of available chlorine. Using the ratio equation,
To determine the required volume of bleach per gallon
to produce this 0.80% solution, we go back to the pounds
1lb HTH x lb HTH
formula: =
0.65 lb Cl2 0.067 lb Cl2
Pounds = mg/L ´ 8.34 ´ MG
= 8,004 mg/L ´ 8.34 ´ 0.000001 MG 1lb ´ 0.067 lb

x=-
= 0.067 lb chlorine/gal solution 0.65 lb
Note: Remember to convert gallons to MG 0.067

x=-
Recalling that the bleach, like water, weighs 8.34 lb/ 0.65
gal and contains approximately 5.20% (0.0520) available = 0.1lb HTH per gal solution
chlorine,
1 gal bleach = 8.34 lb/gal ´ 0.0520 Chlorine Generation
Onsite generation of chlorine has recently become practical.
= 0.43 lb available chlorine
These generation systems, using only salt and electric power,
per gallon of bleach
can be designed to meet disinfection and residual standards
If one gallon of bleach contains 0.43 lb of available chlo- and to operate unattended at remote sites. Considerations for
rine, how many gallons of bleach do we need to provide chlorine generation include cost, concentration of the brine
the 0.067lb of chlorine we need for each gallon of chlorine produced, and availability of the process.
feed solution? To determine the gallons of bleach needed,
we use the simple ration equation: Chlorine
Chlorine gas can be generated by a number of processes
1 gal x gal
= including the electrolysis of alkaline brine or hydrochloric
0.443 lb Cl2 0.067 lb Cl2
acid, the reaction between sodium chloride and nitric acid,
or the oxidation of hydrochloric acid. About 70% of the chlo-
1 gal ´ 0.067 lb
x= rine produced in the United States is manufactured from the
0.43 lb electrolysis of salt brine and caustic solutions in a diaphragm
= 0.16 gal bleach per gal solution. cell (White, 1992). Because chlorine is a stable compound,
it is typically produced off-site by a chemical manufacturer.
Or, to determine the required volume of bleach per gallon Once produced, chlorine is packaged as a liquefied gas under
to produce this 0.80% solution, we use the solutions equa- pressure for delivery to the site in railcars, tanker trucks, or
tion and calculate it this way: cylinders.
C1V1 = C 2V2 Sodium Hypochlorite
Dilute sodium hypochlorite solutions (less than 1%) can be
C1 = 0.80%
V1 = 1.0 gal generated electrochemically on-site from salt or brine solu-
C2 = 5.20% tion. Typically, sodium hypochlorite solutions are referred
V2 = unknown to as liquid bleach or Javelle water. Generally, the commer-
cial or industrial grade solutions produced have hypochlorite
0.80% solution ´ 1.0 gal = 5.20% solution ´ gal strengths of 10–16%. The stability of sodium hypochlorite
solution depends on the hypochlorite concentration, the stor- Typical Doses

age temperature, the length of storage (time), the impuri- Table 15.19 shows the typical dosages for the various forms of
ties of the solution, and exposure to light. Decomposition of chlorine. The wide range of chlorine gas dosages most likely
hypochlorite over time can affect the feed rate and dosage, represents its use as both an oxidant and a disinfectant. While
as well as produce undesirable by-products such as chlorite sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite can also serve
ions or chlorate (Gordon et al., 1995). Because of the storage as both an oxidant and a disinfectant, their higher cost may
problems, many systems are investigating onsite generation limit their use.
of hypochlorite in lieu of its purchase from a manufacturer
or vendor. Factors Affecting Chlorination
Disinfection by chlorination is a rather straightforward pro-
Calcium Hypochlorite cess, but several factors (interferences) can affect the ability of
To produce calcium hypochlorite, hypochlorous acid is made chlorine to perform its main function: disinfection. Turbidity
by adding chlorine monoxide to water and then neutralizing is one such interference. As we described earlier, turbidity is
it with lime slurry to create a solution of calcium hypochlo- a general term that describes particles suspended in the water.
rite. Generally, the final product contains up to 70% available Water with a high turbidity appears cloudy. Turbidity inter-
chlorine and 4–6% lime. Storage of calcium hypochlorite is a feres with disinfection when microorganisms “hide” from the
major safety consideration. It should never be stored where it chlorine within the particles causing turbidity. This problem
is subject to heat or allowed to contact any organic material of is magnified when turbidity comes from organic particles,
an easily oxidized nature (Spellman, 2007). such as those from sewage effluent. To overcome this, the
length of time the water is exposed to the chlorine or the chlo-
Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine rine dose must be increased, although highly turbid waters
Uses may still shield some microorganisms from the disinfectant.
The main usage of chlorine in drinking water treatment is for USEPA took this type of problem into consideration in its
disinfection. However, chlorine has also found the applica- Surface Water Treatment Rule and the 1996 Amendments (the
tion for a variety of other water treatment objectives such as IESWTR) that tightens controls on DBPs and turbidity and
the control of nuisance organisms, oxidation of taste and odor regulates Cryptosporidium. The rule requires continuous tur-
compounds, oxidation of iron and manganese, color removal, bidity monitoring of individual filters and tightens allowable
and as a general treatment aid to filtration and sedimentation turbidity limits for combined filter effluent, cutting the maxi-
processes (White, 1992). Table 15.17 presents a summary of mum from 5 NTU to 1 NTU and the average monthly limit
chlorine uses and doses. from 0.5 NTU to 0.3 NTU.
Note: Recall that the IESWT rule applies to large
Points of Application (those serving more than 10,000 people) public water sys-
At conventional surface water treatment plants, chlorine is tems that use surface water or groundwater directly influ-
typically added for prechlorination at either the raw water enced by surface water and is the first to directly regulate
intake or flash mixer, for intermediate chlorination ahead of Cryptosporidium.
the filters, for postchlorination at the filter clearwell, or for Temperature affects the solubility of chlorine, the rate at
rechlorination of the distribution system (Connell, 1996). which disinfecting ions are produced, and the proportion of
Table 15.18 summarizes typical points of application. highly effective forms of chlorine that will be present in the
TABLE 15.17
Chlorine Uses and Doses
Application Typical Dose Optimal pH Reaction Time Effectiveness Other Considerations
Iron 0.62 mg/mg Fe 7.0 Less than 1 h Good –
Manganese 0.77 mg/mg Mn 7–8 1–3 h Slow Kinetics Reaction time increases at lower pH
9.5 Minutes
Biological Growth 1–2 mg/L 6–8 NA Good Disinfection by-product (DBP)
formation
Taste/odor Varies 6–8 Varies Varies Effectiveness depends on compound
Color Varies 4.0–6.8 Minutes Good DBP formation removal
Zebra 2–5 mg/L – Shock level Good DBP formation
Mussels 0.2–0.5 mg/L – Maintenance level
Asiatic clams 0.3–0.5 mg/L – Continuous Good DBP formation
Source: Adapted in part from White, 1992, Connell, 1996, Culp/Wesner/Culp, 1986.
Note: The color comparator method is acceptable for most

TABLE 15.18 groundwater systems and for chlorine residual measurements
Typical Chlorine Points of Application in the distribution system. However, keep in mind that the
Point of Application methods used to take chlorine residual measurements for
controlling the disinfection process in surface water systems
Raw Water Intake
and some groundwater systems where adequate disinfection is
Flash Mixer (prior to sedimentation)
essential must be approved by standard methods.
Filter Influent
Filter Clearwell Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy
Distribution System
Inactivation Mechanisms
Sources: Adapted in part from Connell, 1996; Research has shown that chlorine is capable of producing
White, 1992. lethal events at or near the cell membrane as well as affecting
DNA. In bacteria, chlorine was found to adversely affect cell
respiration, transport, and possibly DNA activity. Chlorination
TABLE 15.19 was found to cause an immediate decrease in oxygen utiliza-
Typical Chlorine Dosages at Water Treatment Plants tion in both Escherichia coli and Candida parapsilosis stud-
ies. The results also found that chlorine damages the cell wall
Chlorine Compound Range of Doses
membrane, promotes leakage through the cell membrane, and
Calcium hypochlorite 0.6–5 mg/L produces lower levels of DNA synthesis for Escherichia coli,
Sodium hypochlorite 0.2–2 mg/L Candida parapsilosis, and Mycobacterium fortuitum bacteria.
Chlorine gas 1–16 mg/L This study also showed that chlorine inactivation is rapid and
Source: Science Applications International Corporation (SAIC), 1998, does not require bacteria reproduction (Hass & Englebrecht,
San Diego, CA. as adapted from USEPA’s review of public 1980). These observations rule out mutation or lesions as the
water systems’ initial Sampling Plans which were required by principal inactivation mechanisms since these mechanisms
USEPA’s Information Collection Rule (ICR). require at least one generation of replication for inactivation
to occur.
water. More importantly, however, temperature affects the rate Environmental Effects
at which the chlorine reacts with the microorganisms them- Several environmental factors influence the inactivation effi-
selves. As water temperature decreases, the rate at which the ciency of chlorine, including water temperature, pH, contact
chlorine reacts with the microorganisms themselves. As water time, mixing, turbidity, interfering substances, and the con-
temperature decreases, the rate at which the chlorine can pass centration of available chlorine. In general, the highest lev-
through the microorganisms’ cell wall decreases, making the els of pathogen inactivation are achieved with high chlorine
chlorine less effective as a disinfectant. Along with the pres- residuals, long contact times, high water temperature, and
ence of turbidity-causing agents such as suspended solids and good mixing, combined with a low pH, low turbidity, and the
organic matter, chemical compounds in the water may influ- absence of interfering substances. Of the environmental fac-
ence chlorination: high alkalinity, nitrates, manganese, iron, tors, pH and temperature have the most impact on pathogen
and hydrogen sulfide. inactivation by chlorine. The effect of pH and temperature on
pathogen inactivation is discussed below.
Measuring Chlorine Residual
During normal operations, waterworks operators perform • pH: The germicidal efficiency of hypochlorous acid
many operating checks and tests on unit processes through- (HOCl) is much higher than that of the hypochlo-
out the plant. One of the most important and most frequent rite ion (OCl−).The distribution of chlorine species
operating checks is chlorine residual test. This test must be between HOCl and OCl−. The distribution of chlo-
performed whenever a distribution sample is collected for rine species between HOCl and OCl− is determined
microbiological analysis and should be done frequently where by pH, as discussed above. Because HOCl domi-
the treatment facility discharges to the water distribution sys- nates at low pH, chlorination provides more effective
tem to ensure that the disinfection system is working properly. disinfection at low pH. At high pH, OCl−dominates,
To test for residual chlorine, several methods are available. which causes a decrease in disinfection efficiency.
The most common and most convenient is the DPD Color The inactivation efficiency of gaseous chlorine and
Comparator Method. This method uses a small portable test hypochlorite is the same at the same pH after chlo-
kit with prepared chemicals that produce a color reaction indi- rine addition. Note, however, that the addition of gas-
cating the presence of chlorine. By comparing the color pro- eous chlorine will decrease the pH while the addition
duced by the reaction with a standard, we can determine the of hypochlorite will increase the pH of the water.
approximate chlorine residual concentration of the sample. Therefore, without pH adjustment to maintain the
DPD color comparator chlorine residual test kits are available same treated water pH, gaseous chlorine will have
from the manufacturers of chlorination equipment. greater disinfection efficiency than hypochlorite.
The impact of pH on chlorine disinfection has laboratory and field strains. All of the virus
been demonstrated in the field. For example, virus inactivation tests in this study were performed
inactivation studies have shown that 50% more at a free chlorine residual of 0.4 mg/L, a pH of
contact time is required at pH 7.0 than at pH 6.0 7.0, a temperature of 5°C, and contact times of
to achieve comparable levels of inactivation. These either 10, 100, or 1,000 min. Test results showed
studies also demonstrated that a rise in pH from 7.0 that of the 20 cultures tested only 2 poliovirus
to 8.8 or 9.0 requires six times the contact time to strains reached 99.99% inactivation after 10 min
achieve the same level of virus inactivation. Although (CT = 4 mg·min/L), 6 poliovirus strains reached
these studies found a decrease in inactivation with 99.99% inactivation after 100 min (CT = 40
increasing pH, some studies have shown the opposite mg·min/L), and 11 of the 12 polioviruses plus
effect. A 1972 study reported that viruses were more 1 Coxsackievirus strain (12 out of a total of 20
sensitive to free chorine at high pH than at low pH viruses) reached 99.99% inactivation after 1,000
(Scarpino, 1972). min (CT = 400 mg·min/L).
• Temperature: For typical drinking water treatment Protozoa Inactivation: Chlorine has been shown to
temperatures, pathogen inactivation increases with have limited success inactivating protozoa. Data
temperature. Virus studies indicated that the con- obtained during a 1984 study indicated that the
tact time should be increased by two to three times resistance of Giardia cysts is two orders of mag-
to achieve comparable inactivation levels when the nitude higher than that of enteroviruses and more
water temperature is lowered by 10°C (Clarke et al., than three orders of magnitude higher than the
1962). enteric bacteria (Hoff et al., 1984). CT require-
• Disinfection Efficacy: Since its introduction, numer- ments for Giardia cysts inactivation when using
ous investigations have been made to determine the chlorine as a disinfectant has been determined
germicidal efficiency of chlorine. Although there are for various pH and temperature conditions. The
widespread differences in the susceptibility of vari- CT values increase at low temperatures and high
ous pathogens the general order of increasing chlo- pH. Chlorine has little impact on the viability of
rine disinfection difficulty are bacteria, viruses, and Cryptosporidium oocysts when used at the rela-
then protozoa. tively low doses encountered in water treatment
Bacteria Inactivation: Chlorine is an extremely (e.g., 5 mg/L). Approximately 40% removals
effective disinfectant for inactivating bacteria. (0.2 log) of Cryptosporidium were achieved at
A study conducted during the 1940s investigated CT values of both 30 and 3,600 mg·min/L (Finch
the inactivation levels as a function of time for et al., 1994). Another study determined that
E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella “no practical inactivation was observed” when
typhi, and Shigella dysenteriae (Butterfield et oocysts were exposed to free chlorine concentra-
al., 1943).Study results indicated that HOCl is tions ranging from 5 to 80 mg/L at pH 8, a tem-
more effective than OCl−for inactivation of these perature of 22°C, and contact times of 48–245
bacteria. These results have been confirmed by min (Gyurek et al., 1996). CT values ranging
several researchers that concluded that HOCl is from 3,000 to 4,000 mg·min/L were required to
70–80 times more effective than OCl− for inacti- achieve 1-log of Cryptosporidium inactivation
vating bacteria (Culp et al., 1986). at pH 6.0 and temperature of 22°C. During this
Virus Inactivation: Chlorine has been shown to be a study, one trial in which oocysts were exposed to
highly effective viricide. One of the most com- 80 mg/L of free chlorine for 120 min was found
prehensive virus studies was conducted in 1971 to produce greater than 3-logs of inactivation.
using treated Potomac estuary water (Liu et al.,
1971). The tests were performed to determine DBPs
the resistance of 20 different enteric viruses to Halogenated organics are formed when NOM reacts with free
free chlorine under constant conditions of 0.5 chlorine or free bromine. Free chlorine is normally introduced
mg/L free chlorine and a pH and temperature into water directly as a primary or secondary disinfectant. Free
of 7.8 and 2°C, respectively. In this study, the bromine results from the oxidation by chlorine of the bromide
least resistant virus was found to be reovirus and ion in the source water. Factors affecting the formation of these
required 2.7 min to achieve 99.99% inactivation halogenated DBPs include type and concentration of NOM,
(4-log removal). The most resistant virus was chlorine form and dose, time, bromide ion concentration, pH,
found to be a poliovirus, which required more organic nitrogen concentration, and temperature. Organic
than 60 min for 99.99% inactivation. The cor- nitrogen significantly influenced the formation of nitrogen
responding CT range required to achieve 99.99% containing DBPs, including haloacetonitriles (Reckhow et al.,
inactivation for all 20 viruses was between 1.4 1990), halopicrins, and cyanogen halides. Because most water
to over 30mg·min/L. Virus survival studies treatment systems have been required to monitor for total
have also been conducted on a variety of both trihalomethanes (TTHM) in the past, most water treatment
operators are probably familiar with some of the requirements residual by-products and disinfection by-prod-
that the D/DBP Rule involves. The key points of the DBP Rule ucts. The plan will be required to be submitted to
and some of the key changes water supply systems are required and approved by state EPA. Disinfection resid-
to comply with are summarized below: ual monitoring compliance for total chlorine,
including chloramines, will be based upon a run-
• Chemical Limits and Testing—Testing require- ning annual average, computed quarterly, of the
ments will include TTHMs and five haloacetic acids monthly average of all samples collected under
(HAA5). The Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) this rule. Disinfectant residual monitoring com-
for TTHM is 0.080 mg/L for surface water systems. pliance for chlorine dioxide will be based upon
In addition, a new MCL of 0.060 mg/L has been consecutive daily samples. Disinfectant residual
established for haloacetic acids (HAA5). New MCLs monitoring will be required at the same distribu-
have been established for bromate (0.010 mg/L and tion point and time as total coliform monitoring.
chlorite (1.0 mg/L). Bromate monitoring is required In addition, if the operator feeds ozone or chlo-
of systems which use ozone. Chlorite monitoring only rine dioxide, a sample monitoring plan for bro-
will be required of systems which use chlorine diox- mate or chlorite, respectively, must be submitted
ide (i.e., sodium- and calcium hypochlorite are not to and approved by state EPA.
included). Maximum Residual Disinfectant Levels
(MRDLs) will be established for Total Chlorine (4.0 Application Methods
mg/L) and Chlorine Dioxide (0.8 mg/L). Different application methods are used, depending upon the
• Operational Requirements—Analytical require- form of chlorine used. The following paragraphs describe the
ments for measuring chlorine residual have been typical application methods for chlorine, sodium hypochlo-
changed to require digital equipment (i.e., no color rite, and calcium hypochlorite:
wheels or analog test kits). The test kit must have a
detection limit of at least 0.1 mg/L. Chlorine—Liquefied chlorine gas is typically evapo-
• Monitoring and Reporting—Individual state rated to gaseous chlorine prior to metering. The
requirements will differ, but at the minimum, the heat required for evaporation can be provided either
following requirements are listed. through a liquid chlorine evaporator or the ambient
• Surface water system monitoring require- heat input to the storage container. Once the com-
ments include four quarterly samples per treat- pressed liquid chlorine is evaporated, chlorine gas
ment plant (Source Treatment Unit or STU) is typically fed under vacuum conditions. Either an
for TTHM and HAA5. One of these quarterly injector or a vacuum induction mixer usually creates
samples, or 25% of the total samples, must be the required vacuum. The injector uses water flowing
collected at the maximum residence time loca- through a venturi to draw the chlorine gas into a side
tion. The remaining samples must be collected stream of carrier water to form a concentrated chlo-
at representative locations throughout the entire rine solution. This solution is then introduced into
distribution system. Compliance is based on a the process water through a diffuser or mixed with
running annual average computed quarterly. a mechanical mixer. A vacuum induction mixer uses
• For those surface water systems using conven- the motive forces of the mixer to create a vacuum
tional filtration or lime softening, a D/DBP and draws the chlorine gas directly into the process
monthly operating report for Total Organic water at the mixer.
Carbon (TOC) removal will be required to be Sodium Hypochlorite—Sodium hypochlorite solutions
completed and filed with state EPA. This report degrade over time. For example, a 12.5% hypochlo-
will include TOC, alkalinity, and Specific rite solution will degrade to 10% in 30 days under
Ultraviolet Absorption (SUVA) parameters. “best case” conditions. Increased temperature, expo-
There will be an additional monthly operating sure to light, and contact with metals increase the
report for bromate, chlorite, chlorine dioxide, rate of sodium hydroxide degradation (White, 1992).
and chlorine residual. More information will be Sodium hypochlorite solution is typically fed directly
forthcoming closer to the compliance date. into the process water using a type of metering pump.
• TTHM monitoring results may indicate the pos- Similar to chlorine solution, sodium hypochlorite is
sible need for additional treatment to include the mixed with the process water with either a mechani-
best available technology for the reduction of cal mixer or induction mixer. Sodium hypochlorite
DBP. This may include granular activated car- solution is typically not diluted prior to mixing to
bon, enhanced coagulation (for surface water sys- reduce scaling problems.
tems using conventional filtration), or enhanced Calcium Hypochlorite—Commercial high-level cal-
softening (for systems using lime softening). cium hypochlorite contains at least 70% available
• Operators are required to develop and imple- chlorine. Under normal storage conditions, calcium
ment a sample-monitoring plan for disinfectant hypochlorite loses 3–5% of its available chlorine
in a year. Calcium hypochlorite comes in powder, • Chlorine enhances taste and odor
granular, and compressed tablet forms. Typically, • Chlorine may enhance coagulation and filtration of
calcium hypochlorite solution is prepared by mix- particulate contaminants
ing powdered or granular calcium hypochlorite with • Chlorine is an effective biocide
a small flow. The high-chlorinated solution is then • Chlorine is the easiest and least disinfection method,
flow paced into drinking water flow (USEPA, 1991). regardless of system size
• Chlorine is the most widely used disinfection
Safety and Handling Considerations method, and therefore, the best known
Chlorine gas is a strong oxidizer. The U.S. Department of • Chlorine is available as calcium and sodium hypo-
Transportation classifies chlorine as a poisonous gas (Connell, chlorite (use of these solutions is more advantageous
1996). Fire codes typically regulate the storage and use of for smaller systems than chlorine gas because they
chlorine. In addition, facilities storing more than 2,500 pounds are easier to use, are safer, and need less equipment
of chlorine are subject to the following two safety programs: compared to chlorine gas)
• Chlorine provides a residual
• Process Safety Management (PSM) standard
regulated by the Occupational Safety and Health Disadvantages
Administration (OSHA) under 29 CFR 1910.119. • Chlorine may cause deterioration in coagulation/fil-
• The Risk Management Program (RMP) Rule admin- tration of dissolved organic substances
istered by EPA under Section 112(r) of the Clean Air • Chlorine forms halogen-substituted by-products
Act (CAA). • Chlorine finished water could have taste and odor
problems, depending on the water quality and dosage
These regulations (as well as local and state codes and regula- • Chlorine gas is a hazardous corrosive gas
tions) must be considered during the design and operation of • Special leak containment and scrubber facilities
chlorination facilities at a water treatment plant. could be required for chlorine gas
Sodium hypochlorite solution is a corrosive liquid with an • Typically, sodium and calcium hypochlorite are
approximate pH of 12.Therefore, typical precautions for han- more expensive than chlorine gas
dling corrosive materials such as avoiding contact with metals, • Sodium hypochlorite degrades over time and with
including stainless steel, should be used. Sodium hypochlo- exposure to light
rite solutions may contain chlorate. Chlorate is formed during • Sodium hypochlorite is a corrosive chemical
both the manufacturing and storage of sodium hypochlorite • Calcium hypochlorite must be stored in a cool, dry
(due to degradation of the product). Chlorate formation can place because of its reaction with moisture and heat
be minimized by reducing the degradation of sodium hypo- • A precipitate may form in a calcium hypochlorite
chlorite by limiting storage time, avoid high temperatures solution because of impurities, therefore, an antis-
and reduce light exposure (Gordon, 1995). Spill contaminant calant chemical may be needed
must be provided for the sodium hypochlorite storage tanks. • Higher concentrations of hypochlorite solutions are
Typical spill containment structures include containment for unstable and will produce chlorate as a by-product
the entire contents of the largest tank (plus freeboard for rain- • Chlorine is less effective at high pH
fall or fire sprinklers), no uncontrolled floor drains, and sepa- • Chlorine forms oxygenated by-products that are bio-
rate containment areas for each incompatible chemical. degradable and which can enhance subsequent bio-
Calcium hypochlorite is an oxidant and as such as should logical growth if a chlorine residual is not maintained
be stored separately from organic materials that can be read- • Chlorine can cause a release of constituents bound
ily oxidized. It should also be stored away from sources of in the distribution system (e.g., arsenic) by changing
heat. Improperly stored calcium hypochlorite has caused the redox state
spontaneous combusting fires.
Chlorine Summary Table
Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Use Table 15.20 presents a summary of the considerations for the
The following list presents selected advantages and disadvan- use of chlorine as a disinfectant.
tages of using chlorine as a disinfection method for drink-
ing water. Because of the wide variation of system size,
ARSENIC REMOVAL FROM DRINKING WATER
water quality, and dosages applied, some of these advan-
tages and disadvantages may not apply to a particular system (Much of the following information is based on USEPA,
(Masschelein, 1992). 2000). Operators may be familiar with the controversy cre-
ated when newly elected President George W. Bush placed the
Advantages pending Arsenic Standard on temporary hold. The president
• Chlorine oxidizes soluble iron, manganese, and prevented implementation of the Arsenic Standard to give sci-
sulfides entists time to review the Standard, to take a closer look at the
• Chlorine enhances color removal possible detrimental effects on the health and well-being of
levels in potable water supplies are required to be reduced to

TABLE 15.20 a set level and in the future will have to be reduced to an
Summary of Chlorine Disinfection even lower level. Accordingly, water treatment plants affected
Consideration Description by the existing arsenic requirements and the pending tougher
arsenic requirements should be familiar with the technologies
Generation Chlorination may be performed using chlorine gas or
other chlorinated compounds that may be in liquid or
for the removal of arsenic from water supplies. In this section,
solid form. Chlorine gas can be generated by a number we describe a number of these technologies.
of processes including the electrolysis of alkaline brine
or hydrochloric acid, the reaction between sodium Arsenic Exposure
chloride and nitric acid, or the oxidation of
hydrochloric acid. Since chlorine is a stable compound, Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring element present in food,
chlorine gas, sodium hypochlorite, and calcium water, and air. Known for centuries to be an effective poison,
hypochlorite are typically produced off-site by a some animal studies suggest that arsenic may be an essential
chemical manufacturer. nutrient at low concentrations. Non-malignant skin altera-
Primary uses The primary use of chlorination is disinfection. Chlorine tions, such as keratosis and hypo- and hyper-pigmentation,
also Serves as an oxidizing agent for taste and odor have been linked to arsenic ingestion, and skin cancers have
control, prevention of algal growths, maintaining clear developed in some patients. Additional studies indicate that
filter media, removal of iron and manganese, arsenic ingestion may result in internal malignancies, includ-
destruction of hydrogen sulfide, color removal,
ing cancers of the kidney, bladder, liver, lung, and other
maintaining the water quality at the distribution
organs. Vascular system effects have also been observed,
systems, and improving coagulation.
including peripheral vascular disease, which in its most severe
Inactivation The general order of increasing chlorine disinfection
efficiency difficulty is bacteria, viruses, and then protozoa.
form, results in gangrene or Blackfoot Disease. Other poten-
Chlorine is an extremely effective disinfectant for tial effects include neurologic impairment.
inactivating bacteria and highly effective viricide. The primary route of exposure to arsenic for humans is
However, chlorine is less effective against Giardia ingestion. Exposure via inhalation is considered minimal,
cysts. Cryptosporidium oocysts are highly resistant to though there are regions where elevated levels of airborne
chlorine. arsenic occur periodically (Hering & Chiu, 1998). Arsenic
By-product When added to the water, free chlorine reacts with occurs in two primary forms; organic and inorganic. Organic
formation natural organic matter (NOM) and bromide to form species of arsenic are predominately found in foodstuffs, such
disinfection by-products (DBPs), primarily THMs, as shellfish, and include such forms as monomethyl arsenic
some haloacetic acids (HAAs), and others.
acid (MMAA), dimethyl arsenic acid (DMAA), and arseno-
Point of Raw water storage, precoagulation/post-raw water
sugars. Inorganic arsenic occurs in two valence states, arse-
application storage, presedimentation/postcoagulation, post-
nite and arsenate. In natural surface waters arsenate is the
sedimentation/prefiltration, post filtration
(disinfection), or in the distribution System.
dominant species.
Special Because chlorine is such a strong oxidant and extremely
considerations corrosive, special storage and handling considerations Arsenic Removal Technologies
should be considered in the planning of a water
treatment plant. Additionally, health concerns Some of the arsenic removal technologies discussed in this
associated with handling and use of chlorine is an section are traditional treatment processes which have been
important consideration. tailored to improve the removal of arsenic from drinking
water. Several treatment techniques discussed here are at the
experimental stage with regard to arsenic removal, and some
consumers in certain geographic areas of the United States, have not been demonstrated at full scale. Although some of
and to give economists time to determine the actual cost of these processes may be technically feasible, their cost may
implementation. be prohibitive. Technologies discussed in this section are
President Bush’s decision caused quite a stir, especially grouped into four broad categories: prescriptive processes,
among environmentalists, the media, and others who felt that adsorption processes, ion exchange processes, and separation
the Arsenic Standard should be enacted immediately to pro- (membrane) processes. Each category is discussed here, with
tect affected consumers. The president, who understood the at least one treatment technology described in each category.
emotional and political implications of shelving the Arsenic
Standard, also understood the staggering economic implica- Prescriptive Processes
tions involved in implementing the new, tougher standard. Coagulation/Filtration
Many view the president’s decision as the wrong one. Others Coagulation/flocculation (C/F) is a treatment process by
view his decision as the right one; they base their opinion on which the physical or chemical properties of dissolved col-
the old adage, “It is best to make scientific judgments based loidal or suspended matter are altered such that agglomeration
on good science instead of on ‘feel good’ science.” Whether is enhanced to an extent that the resulting particles will settle
the reader shares the latter view or not, the point is that arsenic out of solution by gravity or will be removed by filtration.
Coagulants change surface charge properties of solids to compounds displace species from the manganese oxide (pre-
allow agglomeration and/or enmeshment of particles into a sumably OH− and H2O), becoming bound to the greensand
flocculated precipitate. In either case, the final products are surface—in effect an exchange of ions. The oxidative nature
larger particles, or floc, which more readily filter or settle of the manganese surface converts arsenite to arsenate and
under the influence of gravity. arsenate is adsorbed to the surface. As a result of the transfer
The coagulation/filtration process has traditionally of electrons and adsorption of arsenate, reduced manganese
been used to remove solids from drinking water supplies. (Mn) is released from the surface.
However, the process is not restricted to the removal of par- The effectiveness of greensand filtration for arsenic removal
ticles. Coagulants render some dissolved species [e.g., NOM, is dependent on the influent water quality. Subramanian et al.
inorganics, and hydrophobic synthetic organic compounds showed a strong correlation between influent Fe concentration
(SOCs)] insoluble and the metal hydroxide particles produced and arsenic percent removal. Removal increased from 41%
by the addition of metal salt coagulants (typically aluminum to more than 80% as the Fe/As ratio increased from 0 to 20
sulfate, ferric chloride, or ferric sulfate) can adsorb other when treating tap water with a spiked arsenite concentration
dissolved species. Major components of a basic coagula- of 200 mg/L. The tap water contained 366mg/L sulfate and
tion/filtration facility include chemical feed systems, mixing 321 mg/L TDS; neither constituent seemed to affect arsenic
equipment, basins for rapid mix, flocculation, settling, filter removal. The authors also point out that the influent manga-
media, sludge handling equipment, and filter backwash facili- nese concentration may play an important role. Divalent ions,
ties. Settling may not be necessary in situations where the such as calcium, can also compete with arsenic for adsorption
influent particle concentration is very low. Treatment plants sites. Water quality would need to be carefully evaluated for
without settling are known as direct filtration plants. applicability for treatment using greensand. Other research-
ers have also reported substantial arsenic removal using this
Iron/Manganese Oxidation technology, including arsenic removals of greater than 90%
Iron/Manganese (Fe/Mn) oxidation is commonly used by for treatment of groundwater (Subramanian et al., 1997).
facilities treating groundwater. The oxidation process used As with other treatment media, greensand must be regen-
to remove iron and manganese leads to the formation of erated when its oxidative and adsorptive capacity has been
hydroxides that remove soluble arsenic by precipitation or exhausted. Greensand filters are regenerated using a solu-
adsorption reactions. Arsenic removal during iron precipitation of excess potassium permanganate (KMnO4). Like other
tion is fairly efficient. Removal of 2 mg/L of iron achieved treatment media, the regeneration frequency will depend on
a 92.5% removal of arsenic from a 10 µg/L arsenate initial the influent water quality in terms of constituents which will
concentration by adsorption alone. Even removal of 1 mg/L degrade the filter capacity. Regenerant disposal for greensand
of iron resulted in the removal of 83% of influent arsenic from filtration has not been addressed in previous research.
a source with 22-µg/L arsenate. Indeed, field studies of iron
removal plants have indicated that this treatment can feasibly Coagulation-Assisted Microfiltration
reach 3 g/L. Arsenic is removed effectively by the coagulation process.
The removal efficiencies achieved by iron removal are not Microfiltration is used as a membrane separation process to
as high or as consistent as those realized by activated alumina remove particulates, turbidity, and microorganisms. In coag-
or ion exchange (Edwards, 1994). Note, however, that arsenic ulation assisted microfiltration technology, microfiltration is
removal during manganese precipitation is relatively inef- used in a manner similar to a conventional gravity filter. The
fective when compared to iron even when removal by both advantages of microfiltration over conventional filtration are
adsorption and coprecipitation are considered. For instance, outlined below (Muilenberg, 1997):
precipitation of 3mg/L manganese removed only 69% of arse-
nate of a 12.5µg/L arsenate influent concentration. • More effective microorganism barrier during coagu-
Oxidation filtration technologies may be effective in arse- lation process upsets
nic removal technologies. Research of oxidation filtration • Smaller floc sizes can be removed (smaller amounts
technologies has primarily focused on greensand filtration. of coagulants are required)
As a result, the following discussion focuses on the effective- • Increased total plant capacity
ness of greensand filtration as an arsenic removal technology.
Substantial arsenic removal has been seen using greensand Vickers et al. (1997) reported that microfiltration exhibited
filtration (Subramanian et al., 1997). The active material in excellent arsenic removal capability. This report is corrobo-
“greensand” is glauconite, a green, iron-rich, clay-like min- rated by pilot studies conducted by Clifford, which found
eral that has ion exchange properties. Glauconite often occurs that coagulation assisted microfiltration could reduce arsenic
in nature as small pellets mixed with other sand particles, giv- levels below 2 g/L in waters with a pH of between 6 and 7,
ing a green color to the sand. The glauconite sand is treated even when the influent concentration of Fe is approximately
with KMnO4 until the sand grains are coated with a layer of 2.5 mg/L (Clifford et al., 1997). These studies also found that
manganese oxides, particularly manganese dioxide. The prin- the same level of arsenic removal could be achieved by this
ciple behind this arsenic removal treatment is multi-faceted treatment process even if source water sulfate and silica levels
and includes oxidation, ion exchange, and adsorption. Arsenic were high. Further, coagulation assisted microfiltration can
reduce arsenic levels to an even greater extent at a slightly is excessively high (above 9.5) for potable use. The most com-
lower pH (approximately 5.5). mon form of pH adjustment in softening plants is recarbon-
The addition of a coagulant did not significantly affect the ation with carbon dioxide.
membrane-cleaning interval, although the solids level to the Lime softening has been widely used in the United States
membrane system increased substantially. With an iron and for reducing hardness in large water treatment systems. Lime
manganese removal system, it is critical that all of the iron softening, excess lime treatment, split lime treatment, and
and manganese be fully oxidized before they reach the mem- lime-soda softening are all common in municipal water sys-
brane to prevent fouling (Muilenberg, 1997). tems. All of these treatment methods are effective in reduc-
ing arsenic. Arsenite or arsenate removal is pH dependent.
Enhanced Coagulation Oxidation of arsenite is the predominant form. Considerable
The Disinfectant/Disinfection By-Product (D/DBP) Rule amounts of sludge are produced in a lime softening system
requires the use of enhanced coagulation treatment for the and its disposal is expensive. Large capacity systems may find
reduction of DBP precursors for surface water systems which it economically feasible to install recalcination equipment
have sedimentation capabilities. The enhanced process to recover the reuse of the lime sludge and reduce disposal
involves modifications to the existing coagulation process problems. Construction of a new lime softening plant for the
such as increasing the coagulant dosage, reducing the pH, or removal of arsenic would not generally be recommended
both. Cheng et al., (1994) conducted bench, pilot, and dem- unless hardness must also be reduced.
onstration scale studies to examine arsenate removals during
Adsorptive Processes
enhanced coagulation. The enhanced coagulation conditions
in these studies included an increase of alum and ferric chlo- Activated Alumina
ride coagulant dosage from 10 to 30 mg/L, a decrease of pH Activated alumina is a physical/chemical process by which
from 7 to 5.5, or both. Results from these studies indicated ions in the feed water are sorbed to the oxidized activated
the following: alumina surface. Activated alumina is considered an adsorp-
tion process, although the chemical reactions involved are
• Greater than 90% arsenate removal can be achieved actually an exchange of ions. Activated alumina is prepared
under enhanced coagulation conditions. Arsenate through dehydration of Al (OH)3 at high temperatures, and
removals greater than 90% were easily attained consists of amorphous and gamma alumina oxide (Clifford et
under all conditions when ferric chloride was used. al., 1985). Activated alumina is used in packed beds to remove
• Enhanced coagulation using ferric salts is more contaminants such as fluoride, arsenic, selenium, silica, and
effective for arsenic removal than enhanced coagula- NOM. Feed water is continuously passed through the bed to
tion using alum. With an influent arsenic concentra- remove contaminants. The contaminant ions are exchanged
tion of 5 µg/L, ferric chloride achieved 96% arsenate with the surface hydroxides on the alumina. When adsorption
removal with a dosage of 10 mg/L and no acid addi- sites on the activated alumina surface become filled, the bed
tion. When alum was used, 90% arsenate removal must be regenerated. Regeneration is accomplished through
could not be achieved without reducing the pH. a sequence of rinsing with regenerant, flushing with water,
• Lowering pH during enhanced coagulation improved and neutralizing with acid. The regenerant is a strong base,
arsenic removal by alum coagulation. With ferric typically sodium hydroxide; the neutralizer is a strong acid,
coagulation pH does not have a significant effect typically sulfuric acid. Many studies have shown that acti-
between 5.5 and 7.0. vated alumina is an effective treatment technique for arsenic
removal. Factors such as pH, arsenic oxidation state, com-
Note: Post-treatment pH adjustment may be required for cor- peting ions, empty bed contact time, and regeneration have
rosion control when the process is operated at a low pH. significant effects on the removals achieved with activated
alumina. Other factors include spent regenerant disposal, alu-
Lime Softening mina disposal, and secondary water quality.
Recall that hardness is predominately caused by calcium and
magnesium compounds in solution. Lime softening removes Ion Exchange
this hardness by creating a shift in the carbonate equilibrium. Ion exchange is a physical/chemical process by which an ion
The addition of lime to water raises the pH. Bicarbonate is on the solid phase is exchanged for an ion in the feed water.
converted to carbonate as the pH increases, and as a result, This solid phase is typically a synthetic resin which has
calcium is precipitated as calcium carbonate. Soda ash been chosen to preferentially adsorb the particular contami-
(sodium carbonate) is added if insufficient bicarbonate is nant of concern. To accomplish this exchange of ions, feed
present in the water to remove hardness to the desired level. water is continuously passed through a bed of ion exchange
Softening for calcium removal is typically accomplished at a resin beads in a downflow or upflow mode until the resin
pH range of 9 to 9.5. For magnesium removal, excess lime is is exhausted. Exhaustion occurs when all sites on the resin
added beyond the point of calcium carbonate precipitation. beads have been filled by contaminant ions. At this point,
Magnesium hydroxide precipitates at pH levels greater than the bed is regenerated by rinsing the ion exchange column
10.5. Neutralization is required if the pH of the softened water with a regenerant—a concentrated solution of ions initially
exchanged from the resin. The number of bed volumes (BVs) are used in fixed bed reactors to remove various dissolved
that can be treated before exhaustion varies with resin type metal species. The metal ions are exchanged with the surface
and influent water quality. Typically 300–60,000 BVs can be hydroxides on the iron oxide coated sand. Iron oxide coated
treated before regeneration is required. In most cases, regen- sand exhibits selectivity in the adsorption and exchange of
eration of the bed can be accomplished with only 1–5 BV of ions present in the water. Like other processes, when the bed
regenerant followed by 2–20 BV of rinse water. Important is exhausted it must be regenerated by a sequence of opera-
considerations in the applicability of the ion exchange process tions consisting of rinsing with regenerant, flushing with
for removal of a contaminant include water quality param- water, and neutralizing with strong acid. Sodium hydroxide is
eters such as pH, competing ions, resin type, alkalinity, and the most common regenerant and sulfuric acid the most com-
influent arsenic concentration. Other factors include the affin- mon neutralizer. Several studies have shown that iron oxide
ity of the resin for the contaminant, spent regenerant and resin coated sand is effective for arsenic removal. Factors such as
disposal requirements, secondary water quality effects, and pH, arsenic oxidation state, competing ions, and regeneration
design operating parameters. have significant effects on the removes achieved with iron
oxide coated sand.
Membrane Processes
Membranes are a selective barrier, allowing some constituents Sulfur-Modified Iron
to pass while blocking the passage of others. The movement A patented Sulfur-Modified Iron (SMI) process for arsenic
of constituents across a membrane requires a driving force removal has recently been developed (Hydrometrics, 1998).
(i.e., a potential difference between the two sides of the mem- The process consists of three components: (1) finely divided
brane). Membrane processes are often classified by the type metallic iron; (2) powdered elemental sulfur or other sulfur
of driving force, including pressure, concentration, electri- compounds; and (3) an oxidizing agent. The powdered iron,
cal potential, and temperature. The processes discussed here powdered sulfur, and the oxidizing agent (H202 in preliminary
include only pressure-driven and electrical potential-driven tests) are thoroughly mixed and then added to the water to
types. Pressure-driven membrane processes are often classi- be treated. The oxidizing agent serves to convert arsenite to
fied by pore size into four categories: microfiltration (MF), arsenate. The solution is then mixed and settled. Using the
ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse osmo- sulfur-modified iron process on several water types, high
sis (RO). High pressure processes (i.e., NF and UF). Typical adsorptive capacities were obtained with a final arsenic con-
pressure ranges for these processes are given in Table 15.21. centration of 0.050 mg/L. Arsenic removal was influenced
NF and RO primarily remove constituents through chemical by pH. Approximately 20 mg/L arsenic per gram of iron was
diffusion. MF and UF primarily remove constituents through removed at pH 8, and 50 mg arsenic per gram of iron was
physical sieving. An advantage of high-pressure processes is removed at pH 7. Arsenic removal seems to be very dependent
that they tend to remove a broader range of constituents than on the iron to arsenic ratio.
low-pressure processes. However, the drawback to broader Packed-bed column tests demonstrated significant arsenic
removal is the increase in energy required for high-pressure removal at residence times of 5–15 min. Significant removal
processes (Aptel & Buckley, 1996). Electrical potential-driven of both arsenate and arsenite was measured. The highest
membrane processes can also be used for arsenic removal. adsorption capacity measured was 11mg arsenic removed
These processes include, for the purposes of this document, per gram of iron. Flow distribution problems were evident, as
only electrodialysis reversal (EDR). In terms of achievable several columns became partially plugged and better arsenic
contaminant removal, EDR is comparable to RO. The separa- removal was observed with reduced flow rates.
tion process used in EDR, however, is ion exchange. Spent media from the column tests were classified as non-
hazardous waste. Projected operating costs for sulfur-modi-
Alternative Technologies fied iron (SMI), when the process is operated below a pH of 8,
Iron Oxide Coated Sand are much lower than alternative arsenic removal technologies
Iron-oxide-coated sand is a rare process which has shown such as ferric chloride addition, RO, and activated alumina.
some tendency for arsenic removal. Iron oxide coated sand Cost savings would increase proportionally with increased
consists of sand grains coated with ferric hydroxide which flow rates and increased arsenic concentrations.
Possible treatment systems using SMI include continu-
ously stirred tank reactors, packed bed reactors, fluidized bed
TABLE 15.21 reactors, and passive in situ reactors. Packed bed and fluidized
bed reactors appear to be the most promising for successful
Typical Pressure Ranges for Membrane Processes
arsenic removal in pilot-scale and full-scale treatment sys-
Membrane Process Pressure Range tems based on present knowledge of the SMI process.
Microfiltration (MF) 5–45 psi
Ultrafiltration (UF) 7–100 psi Granular Ferric Hydroxide
Nanofiltration (NF) 50–150 psi A new removal technique for arsenate, which has recently been
Reverse osmosis (RO) 100–150 psi developed at the Technical University of Berlin (Germany),
Department of Water Quality Control, is adsorption on
profiled in the field study presented above testes activated

TABLE 15.22 alumina as well as GFH and found the GFH was sufficiently
Adsorption Tests on GFH more efficient than smaller adsorption vessels and less media
Units Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 could be used to achieve the same level of arsenic removal
(reducing costs). In addition, unlike activated alumina, GFH
Raw Water Parameters
does not require preoxidation.
pH 7.8 7.8 8.2 7.6
A treatment for leaching arsenic from the media to enable
Arsenate Concentration µg/L 100–800 21 16 15–20
regeneration of GFH seems feasible, but it results in the gen-
Phosphate Conc. µg/L 0.70 0.22 0.15 0.30
eration of an alkaline solution with high levels of arsenate,
Conductivity µS/cm 780 480 200 460
Adsorption Capacity Arsenateg/kg 8.5 4.5 3.2 N/D
which requires further treatment to obtain a solid waste. Thus,
Adsorber
direct disposal of spent GFH should be favored.
Bed Height m 0.24 0.16 0.15 0.82
Iron Filings
Filter Rate m/h 6–10 7.6 5.7 15
Treatment Cap. Bed volume (BV) 34,000 37,000 32,000 85,000 Iron filings and sand may be used to reduce inorganic arse-
Max. Effluent Conc. µg/L 10 10 10 7 nic species to iron co-precipitates, mixed precipitates and, in
Arsenate Content of GFH g/kg 8.5 1.4 0.8 1.7 conjunction with sulfates, arsenopyrites. This type of process
Mass of Spent GFH g/m3 20.5 12 18 8.6 is essentially a filter technology, much like greensand filtra-
tion, wherein the source water is filtered through a bed of sand
N/D: not determined
and iron filings. Unlike some technologies, ion exchange,
for example, sulfate is actually introduced in this process to
encourage arsenopyrite precipitation. This arsenic removal
granular ferric hydroxide in fixed bed reactors. This technique method was originally developed as a batch arsenic remedia-
combines the advantages of the coagulation-filtration process, tion technology. It appears to be quite effective in this use.
efficiency and small residual mass, with the fixed bed adsorp- Bench-scale tests indicate an average removal efficiency of
tion on activated alumina, and sample processing. Demers & 81% with much higher removals at lower influent concentra-
Renner (1992) reported that the application of granular ferric tions. This method was tested to arsenic levels of 20,000 ppb,
hydroxide in test adsorbers showed a high treatment capacity and at 2000 ppb consistently reduced arsenic levels to less
of 30,000–40,000 BVs with an effluent arsenate concentra- than 50 ppb (the current MCL). While it is quite effective in
tion never exceeding 10 µ/L. The typical residual mass was this capacity, its use as a drinking water treatment technol-
in the range of 5–25 g/m3 treated water. The residue was a ogy appears to be limited. In batch tests, a residence time of
solid with an arsenate content of 1–10 g/kg. Table 15.22 sum- approximately seven days was required to reach the desired
marizes data from the adsorption tests. arsenic removal. In flowing conditions, even though remov-
The competition of sulfate on arsenate adsorption was not very als averaged 81% and reached greater than 95% at 2000 ppb
strong. Phosphate, however, competed strongly with arsenate, arsenic, there is no indication that this technology can reduce
which reduced arsenate removal with granular ferric hydroxide arsenic levels below approximately 25 ppb, and there are no
(GFH). Arsenate adsorption decreases with pH, which is typical data to indicate how the technology can reduce arsenic levels
for anion adsorption. At high pH values GFH outperforms alu- below approximately 25 ppb, and there are not data to indi-
mina. Below a pH of 7.6, the performance is comparable. cated how the technology performs at normal source water
A field study reported by Simms et al. (2000) confirms arsenic levels. This technology needs to be further evaluated
the efficacy of GFH for arsenic removal. Over the course of before it can be recommended as an approved arsenic removal
this study, a 5.3 mgd GHF located in the United Kingdom technology for drinking water.
was found to reliably and consistently reduce average influ-
ent arsenic concentrations or 20 g/L to less than 10 g/L for Photooxidation
200,000 BV (over a year of operation) at an empty bed contact Researchers at the Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
time (EBCT) of 3 min. Despite insignificant headloss, routine Organization (ANSTO) have found that in the presence of light
backwashing was conducted on a monthly basis to maintain and naturally occurring light-absorbing materials, the oxida-
media conditions and to reduce the possibility of bacterial tion rate of arsenite by oxygen can be increased 10,000-fold.
growth. The backwash was not hazardous and could be recy- The oxidized arsenic, now arsenate, can then be effectively
cled or disposed to a sanitary sewer. At the time of replace- removed by co-precipitation. ANSTO evaluated both UV
ment, arsenic loading on the media was 2.3%. Leachate tests lamp reactors and sunlight-assisted-photo-oxidation using
conducted on the spent media found that arsenic did not leach acidic, metal-bearing water from an abandoned gold, silver,
from the media. and lead mine. Air sparging was required for sunlight-assisted
The most significant weakness of this technology appears oxidation due to the high initial arsenate concentration (12
to be its cost. Currently, GFH media costs approximately mg/L). Tests demonstrated that near complete oxidation of
US$4,000 per ton. However, if a GFH bed can be used several arsenite could be achieved using the photochemical process.
times longer than an alumina bed, for example, it may prove Analysis of process waters 97% of the arsenic of the arsenic
to be the more cost-effective technology. Indeed, the system in the process stream was present as arsenate. Researchers
also concluded that arsenite was preferentially oxidized in enough to cause acute health effects. Most people’s bodies can
the presence of excess dissolved Fe (22:1 iron to arsenic mole fight off these microbial contaminants the way they fight off
ratio). This is a contrast to conventional plants where dissolved germs, and these acute contaminants typically don’t have per-
Fe represents an extra chemical oxidant demand, which has to manent effects. Nonetheless, when high enough levels occur,
be satisfied during oxidation of arsenite. they can make people ill and can be dangerous or deadly for
Photooxidation of the mine water followed by co-precipi- a person whose immune system is already weak due to HIV/
tation was able to reduce arsenic concentrations to as low as AIDS, chemotherapy, steroid use, or another reason.
17 g/L, which meets the current MCL for arsenic. Initial total Chronic effects occur after people consume a contaminant
arsenic concentrations were unknown, though the arsenite at levels over USEPA’s safety standards for many years. The
concentration was given as approximately 12 mg/L, which is drinking water contaminants that can have chronic effects
considerably higher than typical raw water arsenic concen- are chemicals (such as DBPs, solvents, and pesticides), radio-
trations. ANSTO reported residuals from this process are nuclides (such as radium), and minerals (such as arsenic).
environmentally stable and passed the Toxicity Characteristic Examples of these chronic effects include cancer, liver or kid-
Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test necessary to declare waste ney problems, or reproductive difficulties.
non-hazardous suitable for landfill disposal. Based on the
removals achieved and residuals characteristics, it is expected
that photo-oxidation followed by co-precipitation would be an
effective arsenic removal technology. However, this technol- 15.1 What two minerals are primarily responsible for

ogy is still largely experimental and should be further evalu- causing “hard water?”
ated before recommendations as an approved arsenic removal 15.2 The power of a substance to resist pH changes is
technology for drinking water. referred to as a (n):
15.3 What chemical is used as a titrant when analyzing a
WHO IS ULTIMATELY RESPONSIBLE water sample for Carbon Dioxide (CO2)?
15.4 How many pounds of chlorine a day will be used if
FOR DRINKING WATER QUALITY?
the dosage is 1.2 mg/L for a flow of 1,600,000 gal/
The SDWA gives the USEPA the responsibility for setting day?
national drinking water standards that protect the health of 15.5 The specific capacity of a well having a yield of 60
the 250 million people who get their water from public water gallons per minute with a drawdown of 25 ft is:
systems. Other people get their water from private wells which 15.6 What is the chlorine demand in mg/l if the chlorine
are not subject to federal regulations. Since 1974, USEPA dosage is 1.0 mg/L and the residual chlorine is 0.5
has set national standards for over 80 contaminants that may mg/L?
occur in drinking water. 15.7 If the chlorine dosage is 6 mg/L, what must the chlo-
Although USEPA and state governments set and enforce rine residual be if the chlorine demand is 3.3 mg/L?
standards, local governments and private water supplies have 15.8 A water treatment plant has a daily flow of 3.1 MGD.
direct responsibility for the quality of the water that flows to If the chlorinator setting is 220 lbs/day, and the
the customer’s tap. Water systems test and treat their water, chlorine demand is 6.9 mg/L, what is the chlorine
maintain the distribution systems that deliver water to con- residual?
sumers, and report on their water quality to the state. States 15.9 A well log is best described as:
and USEPA provide technical assistance to water suppliers 15.10 The type of well construction not normally permit-
and can take legal action against systems that fail to provide ted for a public water supply is:
water that meets state and USEPA standards. As mentioned, 15.11 Name three water quality tests routinely performed
USEPA has set standards for more than 180 contaminants that on water samples collected from storage tanks:
may occur in drinking water and pose a risk to human health. 15.12 Paint for the interior of a drinking water storage tank
USEPA sets these standards to protect the health of every- must be approved by:
body, including vulnerable groups like children. The contam- 15.13 Potable water is water that __________________.
inants fall into two groups according to the health effects that 15.14 A test of the effluent in the clearwell shows that the
they cause. Local water suppliers normally alert customers required dosage of chlorine is 0.6 mg/L. The aver-
through the local media, direct mail, or other means if there is age daily flow at the treatment plant is 1 mgd. If we
a potential acute or chronic health effect from compounds in are using a hypochlorite solution with 68% available
the drinking water. Customers may want to contact them for chlorine, how many lbs/day hypochlorite will be
additional information specific to their area. required?
Acute effects occur within hours or days of the time that a 15.15 A waterworks conveys piped water to the _________.
person consumes a contaminant. People can suffer acute health 15.16 The hydrologic cycle describes:
effects from almost any contaminant if they are exposed to 15.17 Is Giardia lamblia a chronic or acute health threat?
extraordinarily high levels (as in the case of a spill). In drink- 15.18 Disinfection can be defined as:
ing water, microbes, such as bacteria and viruses, are the 15.19 As disinfectants, they are as common as household
contaminants with the greatest chance of reaching levels high bleach:
1 5.20 Effective disinfectants must: 15.41 The group of microorganisms that form cysts and
15.21 How many pounds of chlorine will be used if the thus become resistant to disinfection is:
dosage is 0.4 mg/L for a flow of 5,300,000 gpd? 15.42 The Surface Water Treatment Rule contains opera-
15.22 If the chlorine dosage is 10 mg/L, what must the tional and monitoring requirements to ensure that:
chlorine residual be if the demand is 2.6 mg/L? 15.43 The Aggressive Index is in indicator of:
15.23 There are a number of possible interferences with 15.44 List three factors that influence coagulant dose:
chlorine disinfection, name one. 15.45 Flow is a 2.5-ft wide rectangular channel is 1.4-ft
15.24 Given: Dose of soda ash = 0.8 mg/L deep and measures 11.2 cfs. What is the average
Flow = 2.6 MGD velocity?
Find: Feed rate of soda ash in lbs/day 15.46 A cylindrical tank is 100 ft high, and 20 ft in diam-
15.25 A circular clarifier handles a flow of 0.75 MGD. The eter. How many gallons of water will it contain?
clarifier has a 20-ft radius, and a depth of 10-ft. Find 15.47 What is the correct sequence for running a jar test?
the detention time. 15.48 The purpose of coagulation and flocculation is to
15.26 A water treatment plant operates at a rate of 2 mgd. accomplish:
The dosage of alum is 35 ppm (or mg/L); how many 15.49 The goal of chemical precipitation is to:
pounds of alum are used a day? 15.50 To achieve optimum removal of hardness, one

15.27 Is the following statement true? By weight, more should add how much lime and soda ash?
pounds (65%) of hypochlorite material (HTH) than 15.51 What percentage of positive samples cannot be

pounds of chlorine are needed to get the same num- exceeded for bacteriological compliance monitor-
ber of pounds of available chlorine into the water. ing of a distribution system?
15.28 ____________ ____________ is the amount
15.52 What is the velocity in ft/min if water travels 1,500
of chlorine present in water after a specified time ft in 4 min? What is the velocity in ft/second?
period. 15.53 A type of valve in a water distribution system used
15.29 For a potable water system to be contaminated by to isolate a damaged line would be:
water from a non-potable system through a cross- 15.54 The Lead and Copper Rule requires that a treatment
connection, two conditions must exist simultane- facility:
ously. What are they? 15.55 Fluoridation at 0.2 mg/l below optimum cuts effec-
15.30 A piping arrangement that could allow a non-toxic tiveness by:
substance such as milk, beer, or orange juice) to 15.56 The chemical normally used in a fluoride saturator is:
contaminate a potable water system would be clas- 15.57 Long-term consumption of water with a fluoride
sified as a __________ hazard situation. concentration of 3.0 mg/l or more may cause:
15.31 When firefighting, main breaks or heavy water usage 15.58 If a raw water source has a fluoride ion concentra-
withdraws more water form a potable water system tion of 0.15 mg/l and the optimum concentration for
than is being supplied to the system, _________ the fluoride ion is 0.9 mg/l, then the desired fluoride
pressure may develop in the potable system. dose is:
15.32 What type of pump uses roller and tubing? 15.59 The purpose of the Jar Test in water treatment is to
15.33 List three watershed management practices: determine the:
15.34 A filter plant has three filters, each measuring 10 ft 15.60 Inorganic phosphate addition normally functions

long × 7 ft wide. One filter is out of service, and the to:
other two together are capable of filtering 280 gpm. 15.61 The flow in a 6-in pipe is 350 gpm. What is the aver-
How many gallons per sq ft per min will each filter? age velocity?
15.35 A filter having an area of 300 sq. ft is ready to be 15.62 What is used to oxidize iron and/or manganese?
backwashed. Assuming a rate of 15 gallons per sq 15.63 List three factors that affect corrosion:
ft per min and 8 min of backwash is required. What 15.64 Activated carbon removes taste and odor producing
is the amount of water in gallons required for each substances by what method?
backwash? 15.65 To achieve good coagulation in low alkalinity

15.36 If water travels 600 ft in 5 min, the velocity is: waters, an additional source of alkalinity is most
15.37 Where should you look to find information about effective when added:
the hazards associated with the various chemicals 15.66 To prevent media loss, supplemental backwash air
you come into contact with at your treatment plant? flow and surface sweeps should be turned off:
15.38 What two water unit treatment processes have done 15.67 The most common complaint concerning taste and
the most to eradicate or reduce the level of water- odor primarily involves:
borne disease in the United States? 15.68 The concentration of volatile organic compounds
15.39 If the discharge pressure is lower than the pump is (VOCs) is usually greater in groundwater. True or
rated for, the pump will: False?
15.40 The most effective chlorine compound for killing or 15.69 VOCs are suspected of being potential carcinogens.
inactivating pathogens is: True or False?
15.70 A round tank 30ft in diameter is filled with water to 15.95

The most commonly used algaecide is
a depth of 15ft. How many gallons of water are in ______________.
the tank? 15.96 Carbonate hardness can be removed by adding

15.71 What chemical substance would you use to reduce __________ to the water.
trihalomethane formation? 15.97 To destroy coliforms and pathogens, water must be
15.72 The cause of brownish-blackish waters is: ___________.
15.73 Waters that cause bluish-green stains on household 15.98 BOD helps the plant operator determine how much
fixtures often contain: _________ will be needed to stabilize the organic
15.74 Water hardness is caused by: matter.
15.75 When Fe+2 is chemically changed to Fe+3, the iron 15.99 Bacteria are produced by dividing in half, which is
atom: called ____________.
15.76 Alkalinity is caused by:
15.77 If the head loss, in feet, at any level in the filter bed
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15.79 In sedimentation, the ______________ zone
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Journal - American Water Works Association, 85(6), 87–99. Singer, P.C. & Chang, S.D., 1989. Correlations between
Lang, C.L., 1994. The Impact of the Freshwater Macrofouling Zebra Trihalomethanes and Total Organic Halides Formed dur-
Mussel (Dretssena Polymorpha) on Drinking Water Supplies. ing Water Treatment. Journal - American Water Works
Conference Proceedings, AWWA Water Quality Technology Association, 81(8), 61–65.
Conference Part II, San Francisco, CA. Singer, P.C. & Harrington, G.W., 1993. Coagulation of DBP
Lalezary, S., Pirbazari, M., & McGuire, M.J., 1986. Oxidation of Precursors: Theoretical and Practical Considerations.
Five Earthy-Musty Taste and Odor Compounds. Journal - Conference Proceedings, AWWA Water Quality Technology
American Water Works Association, 78(3), 62. Conference, Miami, FL.
Liu, O.C., et al., 1971. Relative Resistance of Twenty Human Snead, M.C., et al., 1980. Benefits of Maintaining a Chlorine Residual
Enteric Viruses to Free Chlorine. Virus and Water A Quality: in Water Supply Systems. Washington, DC: Environmental
Occurrence and Control. Conference Proceedings, Thirteenth Protection Agency. EPA600/2-80-010.
Water Quality Conference, University of Illinois, Urban- Spellman, F.R., 2007. The Science of Water, 2nd ed. Boca Raton,
Champaign, IL. FL: CRC Press.
Stevens, A.A., 1976. Chlorination of Organics in Drinking Water. USEPA, 1999c. Microbial and Disinfection Byproduct
Journal - American Water Works Association, 8(11), 615. Rules Simultaneous Compliance Guidance Manual.
Subramanian, K.D., Viraraghavan, T., Phommavong, T., & Tanjore, Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
S., 1997. Manganese Greensand for Removal of Arsenic in EPA-815-R-99-015.
Drinking Water. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada, USEPA, 1999d. Lead and Copper Rule Minor Revisions: Fact Sheet.
32(3), 551561. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Suffet, I.H., et al., 1986. Removal of Tastes and Odors by Ozonation. EPA 815-F-99-010.
Conference Proceedings, AWWA Seminar on Ozonation: USEPA, 2000. Technologies and Costs for the Removal of Arsenic
Recent Advances and Research Needs, Denver, CO. from Drinking Water. Washington, DC: US Environmental
Thibaud, H., De Laat, J., & Doré, M., 1988. Effects of Bromide Protection Agency. EPA-815-R-00-028.
Concentration on the Production of Chloropicrin during Van Benschoten, J.E., et al., 1995. Zebra Mussel Mortality with
Chlorination of Surface Waters: Formation of Brominated Chorine. Journal - American Water Works Association, 87(5),
Trihalonitromethanes. Water Research, 22(3), 381. 101–108.
USEPA, 1991. Manual of Individual and Non-Public Works Supply Vickers, J.C., et al., 1997. Bench Scale Evaluation of Microfiltration
Systems. Office of Water. Washington, DC. EPA5709-91-004. for Removal of Particles and Natural Organic Matter.
USEPA, 1997. Community Water System Survey—Volumes I and Proceedings Membrane Technology Conference, New
II: Overview. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection Orleans, LA.
Agency. EPA 815-R-97-001a. Watson, H.E., 1908. A Note on the Variation of the Rate of
USEPA, 1998. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations: Disinfection with Change in the Concentration of the
Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Final Rule: 63 Disinfectant. Journal of Hygiene, 8(4), 538.
FR 69477. White, G.C., 1992. Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative
USEPA, 1999a. Turbidity Requirements: OESWTR Guidance Disinfectants. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Manual: Turbidity Provisions. Washington, D.C: U.S. Witherell, L.E., et al., 1988. Investigation of Legionella pneu-
Environmental Protection Agency. mophila in Drinking Water. Journal - American Water Works
USEPA, 1999b. Guidance Manual: Alternative Disinfectants Association, 80(2), 88–93.
and Oxidants, Chapter 1 and 2. Washington, DC: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Part V
Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment
16 Wastewater Treatment Operations
The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 40 CFR Part approaches—trickling filter, activated sludge, and oxidation
403, regulations were established in the late 1970s and ponds—we focus, for instructive and illustrative purposes,
early 1980s to help Publicly Owned Treatment Works on the activated sludge process throughout this handbook.
(POTW) control industrial discharges to sewers. These The purpose of Figure 16.1 is to allow the reader to follow
regulations were designed to prevent pass-through and the treatment process step-by-step as it is presented (and as it
interference at the treatment plants and interference in is actually configured in the real world) and to assist under-
the collection and transmission systems. standing of how all the various unit processes sequentially
follow and tie into each other. Therefore, we begin certain
Pass-through occurs when pollutants literally “pass
sections (which discuss unit processes) with frequent refer-
through” a POTW without being properly treated,
ence to Figure 16.1. It is important to begin these sections in
and cause the POTW to have an effluent violation or
this manner because wastewater treatment is a series of indi-
increase the magnitude or duration of a violation.
vidual steps (unit processes) that treat the wastestream as it
Interference occurs when a pollutant discharge causes a makes its way through the entire process. Thus, it logically
POTW to violate its permit by inhibiting or disrupting follows that a pictorial presentation along with pertinent writ-
treatment processes, treatment operations, or processes ten information enhances the learning process. It should also
related to sludge use or disposal. be pointed out, however, that even though the model shown in
Figure 16.1 does not include all unit processes currently used
Unit operations (unit processes), which are the components
in wastewater treatment, we do not ignore the other major pro-
that are linked together to form a process train (as shown in
cesses: trickling filters, rotating biological contactors (RBCs),
Figure 16.1; keep in mind the caboose attached to this train
and oxidation ponds.
is treated and cleaned wastewater, which when outfall is usu-
ally cleaner than the water in the receiving body), are com-
monly divided on the basis of the fundamental mechanisms WASTEWATER TERMINOLOGY
acting with them (i.e., physical, chemical, and biochemical).
AND DEFINITIONS
Physical operations are those, such as sedimentation, that are
governed by the laws of physics (gravity). Chemical opera- Wastewater treatment technology, like many other techni-
tions are those in which strictly chemical reactions occur, cal fields, has its own unique terms with their own meaning.
such as precipitation. Biochemical operations are those that Though some of the terms are unique, many are common to
use living microorganisms to destroy or transform pollutants other professions. Remember that the science of wastewater
through enzymatically catalyzed chemical reactions (Grady treatment is a combination of engineering, biology, math-
et al., 2011). ematics, hydrology, chemistry, physics, and other disciplines.
Therefore, many of the terms used in engineering, biology,
mathematics, hydrology, chemistry, physics, and others are
WASTEWATER OPERATORS
also used in wastewater treatment. Those terms not listed or
Like waterworks operators, wastewater operators are highly defined in the following section will be defined as they appear
trained and artful practitioners and technicians of their trade. in the text.
Moreover, wastewater operators, again, like waterworks oper-
ators are required by the States to be licensed or certified to Activated sludge the solids formed when microorganisms
operate a wastewater treatment plant. When learning waste- are used to treat wastewater using the activated
water operator skills, there are a number of excellent texts sludge treatment process. It includes organisms,
available to aid in the training process. Many of these texts accumulated food materials, and waste products
are listed in Table 16.1. from the aerobic decomposition process.
Advanced waste treatment treatment technology to produce
an extremely high quality discharge.
The Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model
Aerobic conditions in which free, elemental oxygen is pres-
Figure 16.1 shows a basic schematic of an example wastewater ent. Also used to describe organisms, biological
treatment process providing primary and secondary treatment activity, or treatment processes which require free
using the Activated sludge process. This is the model, the pro- oxygen.
totype, the paradigm used in this book. Though it is true that Anaerobic conditions in which no oxygen (free or com-
in secondary treatment [which provides biochemical oxygen bined) is available. Also used to describe organisms,
demand (BOD) removal beyond what is achievable by sim- biological activity, or treatment processes which
ple sedimentation] there are actually three commonly used function in the absence of oxygen.
499
Primary Treatment Secondary Treatment
Influent Air Chlorine Effluent
Collection Screening & Grit Primary Secondary Chlorine

System Comminution Chamber Settling Aeration
Settling Contact Tank
Activated Sludge
Screenings Grit
Anaerobic Sludge
Thickener
Digester Dewatering
Sludge
Disposal
FIGURE 16.1 Schematic of an example wastewater treatment process providing primary and secondary treatment using the activated
sludge process.
Anoxic conditions in which no free, elemental oxygen is Clarifier a device designed to permit solids to settle or rise
present, the only source of oxygen is combined oxy- and be separated from the flow. Also known as a set-
gen such as that found in nitrate compounds. Also tling tank or sedimentation basin.
used to describe biological activity or treatment pro- Coliform a type of bacteria used to indicate possible human
cesses, which function only in the presence of com- or animal contamination of water.
bined oxygen. Combined sewer a collection system which carries both
Average monthly discharge limitation the highest allowable wastewater and storm water flows.
discharge over a calendar month. Comminution a process to shred solids into smaller, less
Average weekly discharge limitation the highest allowable harmful particles.
discharge over a calendar week. Composite sample a combination of individual samples
BOD5 the amount of organic matter which can be biologi- taken in proportion to flow.
cally oxidized under controlled conditions (5 days @ Daily discharge the discharge of a pollutant measured dur-
20°C in the dark). ing a calendar day or any 24-h period that reasonably
Biosolids From Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, represents a calendar day for the purposes of sam-
Tenth Edition (1998): biosolid n (1977)—solid pling. Limitations expressed as weight is the total
organic matter recovered from a sewage treatment mass (weight) discharged over the day.
process and used especially as fertilizer—usually
used in the plural. Limitations expressed in other units are average measure-
ments of the day.
Note: In this text, biosolids is used in many places (activated
sludge being the exception) to replace the standard term Daily maximum discharge the highest allowable values for
sludge. The author (along with others in the field) views the a daily discharge.
term sludge as an ugly four-letter word that is inappropriate to Detention time the theoretical time water remains in a tank
use in describing biosolids. Biosolids is a product that can be at a given flow rate.
reused; it has some value. Because biosolids has some value, Dewatering the removal or separation of a portion of water
it should not be classified as a “waste” product and when bio- present in a sludge or slurry.
solids for beneficial reuse is addressed, it is not. Discharge Monitoring Report (DMR) the monthly report
required by the treatment plant’s National Pollutant
Buffer a substance or solution which resists changes in pH. Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) discharge
Carbonaceous BOD, CBOD5 the amount of BOD which permit.
can be attributed to carbonaceous material. Dissolved oxygen (DO) free or elemental oxygen, which is
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) the amount of chemically dissolved in water.
oxidizable materials present in the wastewater. Effluent the flow leaving a tank, channel, or treatment process.
Wastewater Treatment Operations 501
Floc solids which join together to form larger particles

TABLE 16.1 which will settle better.
Recommended Reference/Study Materials Flume a flow rate measurement device.
1. Advanced Waste Treatment, A Field Study Program, 2nd ed., Kerri, K. Food-to-microorganism ratio (F/M ratio) an activated
et al. California State University, Sacramento, CA. sludge process control calculation based upon the
2. Aerobic Biological Wastewater Treatment Facilities, Environmental amount of food (BOD5 or COD) available per pound
Protection Agency, EPA 430/9–77-006, Washington, D.C., 1977. of mixed liquor volatile suspended solids.
3. Anaerobic Sludge Digestion, Environmental Protection Agency, Grab sample an individual sample collected at a randomly
EPA-430/9-76-001, Washington, D.C., 1977. selected time.
4. Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Section 11, “Water and Grit heavy inorganic solids such as sand, gravel, eggshells,
Environmental Technology,” American Society for Testing Materials
or metal filings.
(ASTM), Philadelphia, PA.
Industrial wastewater wastes associated with industrial
5. Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of
Pollutants. Federal Register (40 CFR 136), April 4, 1995 Volume 60,
manufacturing processes.
No. 64, Page 17160. Infiltration/inflow extraneous flows in sewers; defined
6. Handbook of Water Analysis, 2nd ed., HACH Chemical Company, by Metcalf & Eddy in Wastewater Engineering:
P.O. Box 389, Loveland, CO, 1992. Treatment, Disposal, Reuse, 3rd. Ed., New York:
7. Industrial Waste Treatment, A Field Study Program, Volume I, Kerri, McGraw-Hill, Inc., pp. 29–31, 1991 as follows:
K. et al. California State University, Sacramento, CA. Infiltration water entering the collection system through
8. Industrial Waste Treatment, A Field Study Program, Volume 2, Kerri, cracks, joints, or breaks.
K. et al. California State University, Sacramento, CA. Steady inflow water discharged from cellar and foundation
9. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes, U.S. drains, cooling water discharges, and drains from
Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Monitoring
springs and swampy areas. This type of inflow is
Systems Laboratory-Cincinnati (EMSL-CL), EPA-6000/4-79-020,
steady and is identified and measured along with
Revised March 1983 and 1979 (where applicable).
10. O & M of Trickling Filters, RBC and Related Processes, Manual of
infiltration.
Practice OM-10, Water Pollution Control Federation (now called Direct flow those types of inflows that have a direct storm
Water Environment Federation), Alexandria, VA, 1988. water runoff connection to the sanitary sewer and
11. Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, A Field Study Program, cause an almost immediate increase in wastewater
Volume I, 4th ed., Kerri, K. et al. California State University, flows. Possible sources are roof leaders, yard and
Sacramento, CA. areaway drains, manhole covers, cross-connections
12. Operation of Wastewater Treatment Plants, A Field Study Program, from storm drains and catch basins, and combined
Volume II, 4th ed., Kerri, K. et al. California State University, sewers.
Sacramento, CA. Total inflow the sum of the direct inflow at any point in
13. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th
the system plus any flow discharged from the sys-
ed., American Public Health Association, American Water Works
tem upstream through overflows, pumping station
Association-Water Environment Federation, Washington, D.C., 1992.
14. Treatment of Metal Wastestreams, K. Kerri, et. al., California State
bypasses, and the like.
University, Sacramento, CA. Delayed inflow storm water that may require several days
15. Basic Math Concepts: For Water and Wastewater Plant Operators. or more to drain through the sewer system. This cat-
Joanne K. Price, Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, egory can include the discharge of sump pumps from
1991. cellar drainage as well as the slowed entry of surface
16. Simplified Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations. Edward J. Haller, water through manholes in ponded areas.
Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, 1995. Influent the wastewater entering a tank, channel, or treat-
17. Wastewater Treatment Plants: Planning, Design, and Operation. Syed ment process.
R. Qasim, Lancaster, PA: Technomic Publishing Company, 1994. Inorganic mineral materials such as salt, ferric chloride,
18. The Science of Water, 3rd ed. F.R. Spellman. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
iron, sand, gravel, etc.
Press, 2014.
License a certificate issued by the State Board of
19. Water and Wastewater Infrastructure: Energy Efficiency and
Sustainability. F.R. Spellman. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 2013.
Waterworks/Wastewater Works Operators authoriz-
ing the holder to perform the duties of a wastewater
treatment plant operator.
Effluent limitation any restriction imposed by the regula- Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) the average length of
tory agency on quantities, discharge rates, or con- time a mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) parti-
centrations of pollutants which are discharged from cle remains in the activated sludge process. May also
point sources into state waters. be known as sludge retention time (SRT).
Facultative organisms that can survive and function in the Mixed liquor the combination of return activated sludge
presence or absence of free, elemental oxygen. (RAS) and wastewater in the aeration tank.
Fecal coliform a type of bacteria found in the bodily dis- MLSS the suspended solids concentration of the mixed
charges of warm-blooded animals. Used as an indi- liquor.
cator organism. MLVSS the concentration of organic matter in the MLSS.
Milligrams/Liter (mg/L) a measure of concentration. It is Storm sewer a collection system designed to carry only
equivalent to parts per million (ppm). storm water runoff.
Nitrogenous oxygen demand (NOD) a measure of the Storm water runoff resulting from rainfall and snowmelt.
amount of oxygen required to biologically oxidize Supernatant in a digester it is the amber-colored liquid
nitrogen compounds under specified conditions of above the sludge.
time and temperature. Wastewater the water supply of the community after it has
NPDES Permit NPDES permit that authorizes the discharge been soiled by use.
of treated wastes and specifies the condition, which Waste Activated Sludge Solids (WASS) the concentration
must be met for discharge. of suspended solids in the sludge, which is being
Nutrients substances required to support living organisms. removed from the activated sludge process.
They usually refer to nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and Weir a device used to measure wastewater flow.
other trace metals. Zoogleal slime the biological slime which forms on fixed
Organic materials which consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxy- film treatment devices. It contains a wide variety of
gen, sulfur, and nitrogen. Many organics are bio- organisms essential to the treatment process.
logically degradable. All organic compounds can
be converted to carbon dioxide and water when sub-
MEASURING PLANT PERFORMANCE
jected to high temperatures.
Pathogenic disease-causing. A pathogenic organism is To evaluate how well a plant or treatment unit process is oper-
capable of causing illness. ating, performance efficiency or percent (%) removal is used.
Point source any discernible, defined, and discrete con- The results can be compared with those listed in the plant’s
veyance from which pollutants are or may be operation and maintenance (O&M) manual to determine if
discharged. the facility is performing as expected. In this chapter, sample
Part per million an alternative (but numerically equivalent) calculations often used to measure plant performance/effi-
unit used in chemistry is milligrams per liter (mg/L). ciency are presented.
As an analogy, think of a ppm as being equivalent to
a full shot glass in a swimming pool.
Plant Performance/Efficiency
Return Activated Sludge Solids (RASS) the concentra-
tion of suspended solids in the sludge flow being The calculation used for determining the performance (per-
returned from the settling tank to the head of the cent removal) for a digester is different from that used for per-
aeration tank. formance (percent removal) for other processes. Care must be
Sanitary wastewater wastes discharged from residences taken to select the right formula.
and from commercial, institutional, and similar
facilities, which include both sewage and industrial % Removal
wastes. é Influent Concentration - Effluent Concentration ùû ´100 (16.1)
Scum the mixture of floatable solids and water, which is =ë
Influent Concentration
removed from the surface of the settling tank.
Septic a wastewater which has no dissolved oxygen present.
Example 16.1
Generally characterized by black color and rotten
egg (hydrogen sulfide) odors. Problem: The influent BOD5 is 247 mg/L and the plant
Settleability a process control test used to evaluate the set- effluent BOD is 17 mg/L. What is the percent removal?
tling characteristics of the activated sludge. Readings
taken at 30–60 min are used to calculate the settled SOLUTION:
sludge volume (SSV) and the sludge volume index
(SVI). ( 247 mg/L - 17 mg/L) ´ 100
% Removal = = 93%
SSV the volume in percent occupied by an activated 247 mg/L
sludge sample after 30–60 min of settling.
Normally written as SSV with a subscript to indi- UNIT PROCESS PERFORMANCE AND EFFICIENCY
cate the time of the reading used for calculation
(SSV60) or (SSV30). Equation 16.1 is used again to determine unit process effi-
Sewage wastewater containing human wastes. ciency. The concentration entering the unit and the concentra-
Sludge the mixture of settleable solids and water, which is tion leaving the unit (i.e., primary, secondary, etc.) are used to
removed from the bottom of the settling tank. determine the unit performance.
SRT See MCRT.
% Removal
SVI a process control calculation, which is used to evaluate
the settling quality of the activated sludge. Requires é Influent Concentration - Effluent Concentration ùû ´100
=ë
the SSV30 and MLSS test results to calculate. Influent Concentration
Example 16.2 Detention Time in Days
Problem: The primary influent BOD is 235 mg/L and the

Tank Volume, ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3
primary effluent BOD is 169 mg/L. What is the percent HDT, Days = (16.3)
removal? Flow, gallons/day
( 235 mg/L - 169 mg/L) ´ 100

% Removal = = 28% Example 16.4
235 mg/L
Problem: An anaerobic digester has a volume of 2,400,000

gal. What is the detention time in days when the influent
PERCENT VOLATILE MATTER flow rate is 0.07 MGD?
REDUCTION IN SLUDGE
The calculation used to determine percent volatile matter SOLUTION:
(VM) reduction is more complicated because of the changes 2,400,000 gal
D.T., Days =
occurring during sludge digestion. 0.07 MGD ´ 1,000,000 gal/MG
D.T., Days = 34 days

%V.M. Reduction
Detention Time in Hours

=
(%V.M.in - %V.M.out ) ´ 100 (16.2)
éë%V.M.in - ( %V.M.in ´ %V.M.out ) ùû HDT, Hours
Tank Volume, ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 24 hours/day (16.4)
V.M. = Volatile Matter =
Flow, gal/day
Problem: Using the digester data provided below, deter- Problem: A settling tank has a volume of 44,000 ft3. What
mine the % Volatile Matter Reduction for the digester. is the detention time in hours when the flow is 4.15 MGD?
Data:
44,000 ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 24 hr/day
D.T., Hours =
Raw Sludge Volatile Matter = 74% 4.15 MGD ´ 1, 000, 000 gal/MG
Digested Sludge Volatile Matter = 54%
D.T., Hours = 1.9 hours
% Volatile Matter Reduction

Detention Time in Minutes
(0.74 - 0.54) ´ 100
= = 59%
[0.74 - (0.74 ´ 0.54))] HDT, minutes
Tank Vol., ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 1,440 min/day (16.5)
Hydraulic Detention Time =
Flow, gal /day
The term, detention time or hydraulic detention time (HDT),
refers to the average length of time (theoretical time) a drop Example 16.6
of water, wastewater, or suspended particles remains in a
tank or channel. It is calculated by dividing the water/waste- Problem: A grit channel has a volume of 1,340 ft3. What
water in the tank by the flow rate through the tank. The units is the detention time in minutes, when the flow rate is 4.3
of flow rate used in the calculation are dependent on whether MGD?
the detention time is to be calculated in seconds, minutes,
hours, or days. Detention time is used in conjunction with SOLUTION:
various treatment processes, including sedimentation and
D.T., Minutes
coagulation-flocculation. Generally, in practice, detention
time is associated with the amount of time required for a 1, 340 ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 ´ 1440 min/day
tank to empty. The range of detention time varies with the =
4, 300, 000 gal/day
process. For example, in a tank used for sedimentation,
detention time is commonly measured in minutes. The cal- = 3.36 min
culation methods used to determine detention time are illus- Note: The tank volume and the flow rate must be in the
trated in the following sections. same dimensions before calculating the HDT.
WASTEWATER SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS Generation of Wastewater

Wastewater treatment is designed to use the natural purifi- Wastewater is generated by five major sources: human and
cation processes (self-purification processes of streams and animal wastes, household wastes, industrial wastes, storm
rivers) to the maximum level possible. It is also designed to water runoff, and groundwater infiltration.
complete these processes in a controlled environment rather
1. Human and animal wastes—contain the solid and
than over many miles of stream or river. Moreover, the treat-
liquid discharges of humans and animals and are
ment plant is also designed to remove other contaminants,
considered by many to be the most dangerous from a
which are not normally subjected to natural processes, as
human health viewpoint. The primary health hazard
well as treating the solids, which are generated through the
is presented by the millions of bacteria, viruses, and
treatment unit steps. The typical wastewater treatment plant is
other microorganisms (some of which may be patho-
designed to achieve many different purposes:
genic) present in the wastestream.
2. Household wastes—are wastes, other than human
• Protect public health
and animal wastes, discharged from the home.
• Protect public water supplies
Household wastes usually contain paper, household
• Protect aquatic life
cleaners, detergents, trash, garbage, and other sub-
• Preserve the best uses of the waters
stances the homeowner discharges into the sewer
• Protect adjacent lands
system.
3. Industrial wastes—include industry-specific mate-
Wastewater treatment is a series of steps. Each of the steps can
rials, which can be discharged from industrial pro-
be accomplished using one or more treatment processes or types
cesses into the collection system. Typically contains
of equipment. The major categories of treatment steps are:
chemicals, dyes, acids, alkalis, grit, detergents, and
highly toxic materials.
• Preliminary Treatment—removes materials that
4. Storm water runoff—many collection systems are
could damage plant equipment or would occupy
designed to carry both the wastes of the community
treatment capacity without being treated.
and storm water runoff. In this type of system when
• Primary Treatment—removes settleable and float-
a storm event occurs, the wastestream can contain
able solids (may not be present in all treatment
large amounts of sand, gravel, and other grit as well
plants).
as excessive amounts of water.
• Secondary Treatment—Removes BOD5 and dis-
5. Groundwater infiltration—groundwater will enter
solved and colloidal suspended organic matter by
older improperly sealed collection systems through
biological action; organics are converted to stable
cracks or unsealed pipe joints. Not only can this add
solids, carbon dioxide, and more organisms.
large amounts of water to wastewater flows but also
• Advanced Waste Treatment—uses physical, chemi-
additional grit.
cal, and biological processes to remove additional
BOD5, solids, and nutrients (not present in all treat- Classification of Wastewater
ment plants).
Wastewater can be classified according to the sources of flows:
• Disinfection—removes microorganisms to eliminate
domestic, sanitary, industrial, combined, and storm water:
or reduce the possibility of disease when the flow is
discharged. 1. Domestic (sewage) Wastewater—mainly contains
• Sludge Treatment—stabilizes the solids removed human and animal wastes, household wastes, small
from wastewater during treatment, inactivates patho- amounts of groundwater infiltration, and small
genic organisms, and/or reduces the volume of the amounts of industrial wastes.
sludge by removing water. 2. Sanitary Wastewater—consists of domestic wastes
and significant amounts of industrial wastes. In many
The various treatment processes described above are dis- cases, industrial wastes can be treated without special
cussed in detail later. precautions. However, in some cases, the industrial
wastes will require special precautions or a pretreat-
ment program to ensure the wastes do not cause com-
Wastewater Sources
pliance problems for the wastewater treatment plant.
The principal sources of domestic wastewater in a community 3. Industrial wastewater—industrial wastes only.
are residential areas and commercial districts. Other impor- Often the industry will determine that it is safer and
tant sources include institutional and recreational facilities more economical to treat its waste independent of
and storm water (runoff) and groundwater (infiltration). Each domestic waste.
source produces wastewater with specific characteristics. In 4. Combined wastewater—is the combination of
this section wastewater sources and the specific characteris- sanitary wastewater and storm water runoff. All
tics of wastewater are described. the wastewater and storm water of the community
is transported through one system to the treatment Chemical Characteristics

plant. When describing the chemical characteristics of wastewater,
5. Storm water—a separate collection system (no sani- the discussion generally includes topics such as organic mat-
tary waste) that carries storm water runoff including ter, the measurement of organic matter, inorganic matter, and
street debris, road salt, and grit. gases. For the sake of simplicity, in this handbook we specifi-
cally describe chemical characteristics in terms of alkalinity,
Wastewater Characteristics BOD,COD, dissolved gases, nitrogen compounds, pH, phos-
phorus, solids (organic, inorganic, suspended, and dissolved
Wastewater contains many different substances, which can be solids), and water.
used to characterize it. The specific substances and amounts
or concentrations of each will vary, depending on the source. • Alkalinity—is a measure of the wastewater’s capa-
Thus, it is difficult to “precisely” characterize wastewater. bility to neutralize acids. It is measured in terms of
Instead, wastewater characterization is usually based on and bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide alkalinity.
applied to an average domestic wastewater. Wastewater is Alkalinity is essential to buffer (hold the neutral pH)
characterized in terms of its physical, chemical, and biologi- of the wastewater during the biological treatment
cal characteristics. processes.
Note: Keep in mind that other sources and types of waste- • BOD—a measure of the amount of biodegrad-
water can dramatically change the characteristics. able matter in the wastewater. Normally measured
by a five-day test conducted at 20°C. The BOD5
Physical Characteristics domestic waste is normally in the range of 100–
The physical characteristics of wastewater are based on color, 300 mg/L.
odor, temperature, and flow. • COD—a measure of the amount of oxidizable mat-
ter present in the sample. The COD is normally in
• Color—fresh wastewater is usually a light brown- the range of 200–500 mg/L. The presence of indus-
ish-gray color. However, typical wastewater is gray trial wastes can increase this significantly.
and has a cloudy appearance. The color of the • Dissolved gases—gases that are dissolved in waste-
wastewater will change significantly if allowed to water. The specific gases and normal concentrations
go septic (if travel time in the collection system are based upon the composition of the wastewater.
increases). Typical septic wastewater will have a Typical domestic wastewater contains oxygen in
black color. relatively low concentrations, carbon dioxide, and
• Odor—odors in domestic wastewater usually are hydrogen sulfide (if septic conditions exist).
caused by gases produced by the decomposition of • Nitrogen compounds—the type and amount of nitro-
organic matter or by other substances added to the gen present will vary from the raw wastewater to the
wastewater. Fresh domestic wastewater has a musty treated effluent. Nitrogen follows a cycle of oxida-
odor. If the wastewater is allowed to go septic, this tion and reduction. Most of the nitrogen in untreated
odor will change significantly—to a rotten egg odor wastewater will be in the form of organic nitrogen
associated with the production of hydrogen sulfide and ammonia nitrogen. Laboratory tests exist for
(H2S). the determination of both of these forms. The sum
• Temperature—the temperature of wastewater is of these two forms of nitrogen is also measured
commonly higher than that of the water supply and is known as total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN).
because of the addition of warm water from house- Wastewater will normally contain between 20 and
holds and industrial plants. However, significant 85 mg/L of nitrogen. Organic nitrogen will normally
amounts of infiltration or storm water flow can cause be in the range of 8–35 mg/L and ammonia nitrogen
major temperature fluctuations. will be in the range of 12–50 mg/L.
• Flow—the actual volume of wastewater is com- • pH—a method of expressing the acid condition of the
monly used as a physical characterization of wastewater. pH is expressed on a scale of 1–14. For
wastewater and is normally expressed in terms of proper treatment, wastewater pH should normally be
gallons per person per day. Most treatment plants in the range of 6.5–9.0 (ideal—6.5–8.0).
are designed using an expected flow of 100–200 gal- • Phosphorus—essential to biological activity and
lons per person per day. This figure may have to be must be present in at least minimum quantities or
revised to reflect the degree of infiltration or storm secondary treatment processes will not perform.
flow the plant receives. Flow rates will vary through- Excessive amounts can cause stream damage and
out the day. This variation, which can be as much as excessive algal growth. Phosphorus will normally
50–200% of the average daily flow, is known as the be in the range of 6–20 mg/L. The removal of
diurnal flow variation. phosphate compounds from detergents has had a
significant impact on the amounts of phosphorus in
Note: Diurnal means occurs in a day or each day; daily. wastewater.
• Solids—most pollutants found in wastewater can be

classified as solids. Wastewater treatment is gener- TABLE 16.2
ally designed to remove solids or to convert solids Typical Domestic Wastewater Characteristics
to a form which is more stable or can be removed. Characteristic Typical Characteristic
Solids can be classified by their chemical compo-
Color Gray
sition (organic or inorganic) or by their physical
Odor Musty
characteristics (settleable, floatable, and colloidal).
Dissolved Oxygen >1.0 mg/L
Concentration of total solids in wastewater is nor-
pH 6.5–9.0
mally in the range of 350–1,200 mg/L. Total suspended solids (TSS) 100–350 mg/L
Organic solids—consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxy- Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) 100–300 mg/L
gen, and nitrogen, and can be converted to car- Chemical oxygen demand (COD) 200–500 mg/L
bon dioxide and water by ignition at 550°C. Also Flow 100–200 gallons/person/day
known as fixed solids or loss on ignition. Total Nitrogen 20–85 mg/L
Inorganic solids—mineral solids which are unaf- Total Phosphorus 6–20 mg/L
fected by ignition. Also known as fixed solids or Fecal Coliform 500,000–3,000,000 MPN/100 ml
ash.
Suspended solids—will not pass through a glass fiber
filter pad. They can be further classified as total
suspended solids (TSS), volatile suspended sol- ciliates, and stalked ciliates), rotifers, and viruses. Table 16.2
ids, and/or fixed suspended solids. They can also is a summary of typical domestic wastewater characteristics.
be separated into three components based on set-
tling characteristics. Settleable solids, floatable
WASTEWATER COLLECTION SYSTEMS
solids, and colloidal solids. TSS in wastewater
are normally in the range of 100–350 mg/L. Wastewater collection systems collect and convey wastewater
Dissolved solids—will pass through a glass fiber fil- to the treatment plant. The complexity of the system depends
ter pad. They can also be classified as total dis- on the size of the community and the type of system selected.
solved solids (TDS), volatile dissolved solids, Methods of collection and conveyance of wastewater include
and fixed dissolved solids. TDS are normally in gravity systems, force main systems, vacuum systems, and
the range of 250–850 mg/L. combinations of all three types of systems.
• Water—always the major constituent of wastewater.
In most cases, water makes up 99.5–99.9% of the
Gravity Collection System
wastewater. Even in the strongest wastewater, the
total amount of contamination present is less than In a gravity collection system, the collection lines are sloped
0.5% of the total and in average strength wastes it is to permit the flow to move through the system with as little
usually less than 0.1%. pumping as possible. The slope of the lines must keep the
wastewater moving at a velocity (speed) of 2–4 ft. per second.
Biological Characteristics and Processes Otherwise, at lower velocities, solids will settle out causing
(Note: The biological characteristics of water were discussed in clogged lines, overflows, and offensive odors. To keep collec-
detail earlier in this text.) After undergoing physical aspects of tion systems lines at a reasonable depth, wastewater must be
treatment (i.e., screening, grit removal, and sedimentation) in lifted (pumped) periodically so that it can continue flowing
preliminary and primary treatment, wastewater still contains downhill to the treatment plant. Pump stations are installed at
some suspended solids and other solids that are dissolved in selected points within the system for this purpose.
the water. In a natural stream, such substances are a source of
food for protozoa, fungi, algae, and several varieties of bacteria.
Force Main Collection System
In secondary wastewater treatment, these same microscopic
organisms (which are one of the main reasons for treating In a typical force main collection system, wastewater is col-
wastewater) are allowed to work as fast as they can to biologi- lected to central points and pumped under pressure to the
cally convert the dissolved solids to suspended solids which treatment plant. The system is normally used for conveying
will physically settle out at the end of secondary treatment. wastewater long distances. The use of the force main system
Raw wastewater influent typically contains millions of allows the wastewater to flow to the treatment plant at the
organisms. The majority of these organisms are non-patho- desired velocity without using sloped lines. It should be noted
genic; however, several pathogenic organisms may also be that the pump station discharge lines in a gravity system are
present (these may include the organisms responsible for dis- considered to be force mains since the content of the lines is
eases such as typhoid, tetanus, hepatitis, dysentery, gastroen- under pressure.
teritis, and others). Many of the organisms found in wastewater Note: Extra care must be taken when performing mainte-
are microscopic (microorganisms); they include algae, bacte- nance on force main systems since the content of the collec-
ria, protozoans (such as amoeba, flagellates, free-swimming tion system is under pressure.
Vacuum System valve is opened and the pressure pushes the wastestream out
the discharge line.
In a vacuum collection system, wastewaters are collected to
central points and then drawn toward the treatment plant under
vacuum. The system consists of a large amount of mechanical Pumping Station Wet Well Calculations
equipment and requires a large amount of maintenance to per- Calculations normally associated with pumping station wet
form properly. Generally, the vacuum-type collection systems well design (determining design lift or pumping capacity,
are not economically feasible. etc.) are usually left up to design and mechanical engineers.
However, on occasion, wastewater operators or interceptor’s
Pumping Stations technicians may be called upon to make certain basic calcula-
tions. Usually these calculations deal with determining either
Pumping stations provide the motive force (energy) to keep pump capacity without influent (e.g., to check the pumping rate
the wastewater moving at the desired velocity. They are used of the station’s constant speed pump) or pump capacity with
in both the force main and gravity systems. They are designed influent (e.g., to check how many gallons per minute the pump
in several different configurations and may use different is discharging). In this section, we use examples to describe
sources of energy to move the wastewater (i.e., pumps, air instances of how and where these two calculations are made.
pressure, or vacuum). One of the more commonly used types
of pumping station designs is the wet well/dry well design.
Example 16.7 Determining Pump
WetWell/DryWell Pumping Stations Capacity without Influent
The wet well/dry well pumping station consists of two separate
Problem: A pumping station wet well is 10 ft. by 9 ft. The
spaces or sections separated by a common wall. Wastewater
operator needs to check the pumping rate of the station’s
is collected in one section (wet well section) and the pumping constant speed pump. To do this, the influent valve to the wet
equipment (and in many cases, the motors and controllers) are well is closed for a 5-min test, the level in the well dropped
located in a second section known as the dry well. There are 2.2ft. What is the pumping rate in gallons per minute?
many different designs for this type of system but in most
cases, the pumps selected for this system are of a centrifugal SOLUTION:
design. There are a couple of major considerations in selecting
Using the length and width of the well, we can find the
centrifugal design: (1) it allows for the separation of mechani- area of the water surface:
cal equipment (pumps, motors, controllers, wiring, etc.) from
the potentially corrosive atmosphere (sulfides) of the waste-
10 ft ´ 9 ft = 90 ft 2
water; and (2) this type of design is usually safer for work-
ers because they can monitor, maintain, operate, and repair The water level dropped 2.2 ft. From this we can find the
equipment without entering the pumping station wet well. volume of water removed by the pump during the test:
Note: Most pumping station wet wells are confined spaces.
To ensure safe entry into such spaces compliance with Area ´ Depth = Volume (16.6)
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)’s 29
CFR 1910.146 (Confined Space Entry Standard) is required. 90 ft 2 ´ 2.2 ft = 198 ft 3
Wet Well Pumping Stations One cubic foot of water holds 7.48 gal. We can convert
Another type of pumping station design is the wet well type. this volume in cubic feet to gallons.
This type consists of a single compartment, which collects the
wastewater flow. The pump is submerged in the wastewater 7.48 gal
198 ft 3 ´ = 1481 gal
with motor controls located in the space or has a weatherproof 1 ft 3
motor housing located above the wet well. In this type of sta- The test was done for 5 min. From this information, a
tion, a submersible centrifugal pump is normally used. pumping rate can be calculated.
Pneumatic Pumping Stations

1481 gal 296.2
The pneumatic pumping station consists of a wet well and = = 296.2 gpm
5 min 1min
a control system, which controls the inlet and outlet value
operations, and provides pressurized air to force or “push” the Example 16.8 Determining Pump
wastewater through the system. The exact method of opera- Capacity with Influent
tion depends on the system design. When operating, wastewa-
ter in the wet well reaches a predetermined level and activates Problem: A wet well is 8.2 ft by 9.6 ft. The influent flow to
an automatic valve, which closes the influent line. The tank the well, measured upstream, is 365 gpm. If the wet well
(wet well) is then pressurized to a predetermined level. When rises 2.2 in. in 5 min, how many gallons per minute is the
the pressure reaches the predetermined level, the effluent line pump discharging?
SOLUTION: Drain
Influent = Discharge + Accumulation (16.7)
365 gal
= Discharge + Accumulation
1min
We want to calculate the discharge. Influent is known and

we have enough information to calculate the accumulation.
Volume accumulated
1 ft 7.48 gal
= 8.2 ft ´ 9.6 ft ´ 2.2 in. ´ ´
12 in. 1 ft 3
= 108 gal
Flow In
108 gal 21.6 gal FIGURE 16.2 Basic bar screen.

Accumulation = = = 21.6 gpm
5 min 1min
have been included to facilitate discussion of major potential
problems with each process and its operation; this is informa-
Using equation 16.7: tion that may be important to the wastewater operator.
Influent = Discharge + Accumulation
Screening
365 gpm = Discharge + 21.6
The purpose of screening is to remove large solids such as
rags, cans, rocks, branches, leaves, roots, etc. from the flow
Subtracting from both sides:
before the flow moves on to downstream processes.
365 gpm - 21.6 gpm Note: Typically, a treatment plant will remove anywhere
from 0.5 to 12 cu ft of screenings for every million gallons of
= Discharge + 21.6 gpm - 21.6 gpm influent received.
A bar screen traps debris as wastewater influent passes
343.4 gpm = Discharge through. Typically, a bar screen consists of a series of parallel,
evenly spaced bars or a perforated screen placed in a channel
The wet well pump is discharging 343.4 gallons each (see Figure 16.2). The wastestream passes through the screen
minute. and the large solids (screenings) are trapped on the bars for
removal.
Note: The screenings must be removed frequently enough
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT to prevent accumulation which will block the screen and cause
The initial stage in the wastewater treatment process (follow- the water level in front of the screen to build up.
ing collection and influent pumping) is preliminary treatment. The bar screen may be coarse (2–4-in. openings) or fine
Raw influent entering the treatment plant may contain many (0.75–2.0-in. openings). The bar screen may be manually
kinds of materials (trash). The purpose of preliminary treat- cleaned (bars or screens are placed at an angle of 30° for eas-
ment is to protect plant equipment by removing these materi- ier solids removal—see Figure 16.2) or mechanically cleaned
als which could cause clogs, jams, or excessive wear to plant (bars are placed at 45°–60° angle to improve mechanical
machinery. In addition, the removal of various materials at cleaner operation).
the beginning of the treatment process saves valuable space The screening method employed depends on the design
within the treatment plant. of the plant, the amount of solids expected and whether the
Preliminary treatment may include many different pro- screen is for constant or emergency use only.
cesses, each designed to remove a specific type of mate-
rial, which is a potential problem for the treatment process. Manually Cleaned Screens
Processes include: wastewater collections—influent pump- Manually cleaned screens are cleaned at least once per shift
ing, screening, shredding, grit removal, flow measurement, (or often enough to prevent buildup which may cause reduced
preaeration, chemical addition, and flow equalization—the flow into the plant) using a long tooth rake. Solids are manu-
major processes are shown in Figure 16.1. In this section, we ally pulled to the drain platform and allowed to drain before
describe and discuss each of these processes and their impor- storage in a covered container. The area around the screen
tance in the treatment process. should be cleaned frequently to prevent a buildup of grease or
Note: As mentioned, not all treatment plants will include other materials, which can cause odors, slippery conditions,
all of the processes shown in Figure 16.1. Specific processes and insect and rodent problems. Because screenings may
contain organic matter as well as large amounts of grease screens also have other problems, including the cleaner will
they should be stored in a covered container. Screenings can not operate at all; and the rake does not operate but the motor
be disposed of by burial in approved landfills or by incinera- does. Obviously, these are mechanical problems that could be
tion. Some treatment facilities grind the screenings into small caused by a jammed cleaning mechanism, broken chain, bro-
particles, which are then returned to the wastewater flow for ken cable, or broken shear pin. Authorized and fully trained
further processing and removal later in the process. maintenance operators should be called in to handle these
types of problems.
Operational Problems
Manually cleaned screens require a certain amount of opera- Screening Safety
tor attention to maintain optimum operation. Failure to clean The screening area is the first location where the operator
the screen frequently can lead to septic wastes entering the is exposed to the wastewater flow. Any toxic, flammable, or
primary; surge flows after cleaning; and/or low flows before explosive gases present in the wastewater can be released at
cleaning. On occasion, when such operational problems this point. Operators who frequent enclosed bar screen areas
occur, it becomes necessary to increase the frequency of the should be equipped with personal air monitors. Adequate ven-
cleaning cycle. Another operational problem is excessive grit tilation must be provided. It is also important to remember
in the bar screen channel. Improper design or construction that, due to the grease attached to the screenings this area
or insufficient cleaning may cause this problem. The correc- of the plant can be extremely slippery. Routine cleaning is
tive action required is either to correct the design problem required to minimize this problem.
or increase the cleaning frequency and flush channel regu- Note: Never override safety devices on mechanical equip-
larly. Another common problem with manually cleaned bar ment. Overrides can result in dangerous conditions, injuries,
screens is their tendency to clog frequently. This may be and major mechanical failures.
caused by excessive debris in the wastewater or the screen
is too fine for its current application. The operator should Screenings Removal Computations
locate the source of the excessive debris and eliminate it. Operators responsible for screenings disposal are typi-
If the screen is the problem, a coarser screen may need to cally required to keep a record of the amount of screen-
be installed. If the bar screen area is filled with obnoxious ings removed from the wastewater flow. To keep and
odors, flies, and other insects, it may be necessary to dispose maintain accurate screenings’ records, the volume of
of screenings more frequently. screenings withdrawn must be determined. Two methods
are commonly used to calculate the volume of screenings
Mechanically Cleaned Screens withdrawn.
Mechanically cleaned screens use a mechanized rake assem-
bly to collect the solids and move them (carries them) out of Screenings Re moved, cu ft /day
the wastewater flow for discharge to a storage hopper. The
Screenings, cu ft (16.8)
screen may be continuously cleaned or cleaned on a time or =
flow controlled cycle. As with the manually cleaned screen, days
the area surrounding the mechanically operated screen must
Screenings Removed, cu ft /MG
be cleaned frequently to prevent a buildup of materials, which
can cause unsafe conditions. As with all mechanical equip- Screenings, cu ft (16.9)
=
ment, operator vigilance is required to ensure proper opera- Flow, MG
tion and that proper maintenance is performed. Maintenance
includes lubricating equipment and maintaining it in accor- Example 16.9
dance with the manufacturer’s recommendations or the plant’s
Operations & Maintenance (O&M) manual. Screenings from Problem: A total of 65 gal of screenings are removed from
mechanically operated barscreens are disposed of in the same the wastewater flow during a 24-h period. What is the
manner as screenings from manually operated screens: land- screenings removal, reported as cu ft/day?
fill disposal, incineration, or ground into smaller particles for
return to the wastewater flow. SOLUTION:
First, convert gallons screenings to cu ft:
Operational Problems
Many of the operational problems associated with mechani- 65 gal
cally cleaned bar screens are the same as those for manual 7.48 gal/cu ft
screens: septic wastes entering the primary; surge flows after
Next, calculate screenings removed as cu ft/day:
cleaning; excessive grit in the bar screen channel; and/or the
screen clogs frequently. Basically the same corrective actions
Screenings Removed (cu ft/day)
employed for manually operated screens would be applied
for these problems in mechanically operated screens. In 8.7 cu ft
= = 8.7 cu ft/day
addition to these problems, however, mechanically operated 1 day
Example 16.10 device cutter alignment and sharpness are critical factors in
effective operation. Cutters must be sharpened or replaced
Problem: During one week, a total of 310 gal of screenings and alignment must be checked in accordance with the man-
were removed from the wastewater screens. What is the ufacturer’s recommendations. Solids, which are not shred-
average screening removal in cu ft/day? ded, must be removed daily, stored in closed containers, and
disposed of by burial or incineration. Barminutor opera-
SOLUTION: tional problems are similar to those listed above for com-
First, gallons screenings must be converted to cubic feet minutors. Preventive and corrective maintenance, as well
of screenings: as lubrication, must be performed by qualified personnel
and in accordance with the plant’s O&M manual. Because
310 gal of higher maintenance requirements the barminutor is less
7.48 gal/cu ft frequently used.
Screenings Re moved, cu ft /day Grit Removal

41.4 cu ft
= = 5.9 cu ft /day The purpose of grit removal is to remove the heavy inorganic
7 solids, which could cause excessive mechanical wear. Grit is
heavier than inorganic solids and includes sand, gravel, clay,
eggshells, coffee grounds, metal filings, seeds, and other sim-
Shredding
ilar materials. There are several processes or devices used for
As an alternative to screening, shredding can be used to grit removal. All of the processes are based on the fact that
reduce solids to a size, which can enter the plant without caus- grit is heavier than the organic solids, which should be kept
ing mechanical problems or clogging. Shredding processes in suspension for treatment in the following processes. Grit
include comminution (comminute means to cut up) and removal may be accomplished in grit chambers or by the cen-
barminution devices. trifugal separation of sludge. Processes use gravity/velocity,
aeration, or centrifugal force to separate the solids from the
Comminution wastewater.
The comminutor is the most common shredding device
used in wastewater treatment. In this device all the waste- Gravity/Velocity-Controlled Grit Removal
water flow passes through the grinder assembly. The grinder Gravity/velocity-controlled grit removal is normally accom-
consists of a screen or slotted basket, a rotating or oscil- plished in a channel or tank where the speed or the veloc-
lating cutter, and a stationary cutter. Solids pass through ity of the wastewater is controlled to about 1 foot per second
the screen and are chopped or shredded between the two (ideal), so that grit will settle while organic matter remains
cutters. The comminutor will not remove solids, which are suspended. As long as the velocity is controlled in the range of
too large to fit through the slots, and it will not remove float- 0.7–1.4 ft per second (fps) the grit removal will remain effec-
ing objects. These materials must be removed manually. tive. Velocity is controlled by the amount of water flowing
Maintenance requirements for comminutors include align- through the channel, the depth of the water in the channel, by
ing, sharpening, and replacing cutters and corrective and the width of the channel, or by the cumulative width of chan-
preventive maintenance performed in accordance with the nels in service.
plant’s O&M manual.
Process Control Calculations
Operational Problems Velocity of the flow in a channel can be determined
Common operational problems associated with comminutors either by the float and stopwatch method or by channel
include output containing coarse solids. When this occurs dimensions.
it is usually a sign that the cutters are dull or misaligned. If
the system does not operate at all, the unit is either clogged,
Example 16.11 Velocity by Float and Stopwatch
jammed, a shear pin or coupling is broken, or electrical power
is shut off. If the unit stalls or jams frequently, this usually
Distance Traveled, (ft)
indicates cutter misalignment, excessive debris in influent, or Velocity, feet/second = (16.10)
Time Required, (sec)
dull cutters.
Note: Only qualified maintenance operators should per- Problem: A float takes 25 sec to travel 34 ft in a grit chan-
form maintenance of shredding equipment. nel. What is the velocity of the flow in the channel?
Barminution SOLUTION:
In barminution, the barminutor uses a bar screen to col-
34 ft
lect solids, which are then shredded and passed through the Velocity, fps = = 1.4 fps
25 sec
bar screen for removal at a later process. In operation, each
Example 16.12 Velocity by Flow Problem: The plant’s grit channel is designed to remove
and Channel Dimensions sand, which has a settling velocity of 0.070 fps. The chan-
nel is currently operating at a depth of 3 ft. The calculated
This calculation can be used for a single channel or tank velocity of flow through the channel is 0.80 fps. The chan-
or multiple channels or tanks with the same dimensions nel is 35 ft long. Is the channel long enough to remove the
and equal flow. If the flows through each unit of the unit desired sand particle size?
dimensions are unequal, the velocity for each channel or
tank must be computed individually. SOLUTION:
3 ft ´ 0.80 fps
Velocity, fps Required Channel Length, ft =
0.070 fps
Flow, MGD ´ 1.55 cfs/MGD (16.11)
= = 34.3 ft
# Chan. in Ser. ´ Chan Width, ft ´ Water D, ft
Yes, the channel is long enough to ensure all of the sand
will be removed.
Problem: The plant is currently using two grit channels. Each
channel is 3 ft wide and has a water depth of 1.2 ft. What is Cleaning
the velocity when the influent flow rate is 3.0 MGD?
Gravity type systems may be manually or mechanically
SOLUTION:
cleaned. Manual cleaning normally requires that the chan-
nel be taken out of service, drained, and manually cleaned.
3.0 MGD ´ 1.55 cfs / MGD Mechanical cleaning systems are operated continuously or on
Velocity, fps =
2 Channels ´ 3 ft ´ 1.2 ft a time cycle. Removal should be frequent enough to prevent
grit carryover into the rest of the plant.
4.65 cfs Note: Before and during cleaning activities always venti-
Velocity, fps = = .65 fps
7.2 ft 2 late the area thoroughly.
Note: The channel dimensions must always be in feet. Operational Observations/Problems/Troubleshooting

Convert inches to feet by dividing by 12 inches per foot.
Gravity/velocity-controlled grit removal normally occurs in a
channel or tank where the speed or the velocity of the waste-
Example 16.13 Required Settling Time water is controlled to about 1 ft per second (ideal), so that grit
settles while organic matters remain suspended. As long as
This calculation can be used to determine the time the velocity is controlled in the range of 0.7–1.4 ft per second
required for a particle to travel from the surface of the liq- (fps), grit removal remains effective. Velocity is controlled by
uid to the bottom at a given settling velocity. In order to the amount of water flowing through the channel, by the depth
compute the settling time, the settling velocity in fps must of the water in the channel, by the width of the channel, or by
be provided or determined experimentally in a laboratory.
the cumulative width of channels in service. During operation,
the operator must pay particular attention to grit characteris-
Liquid Depth in (ft )
Settling Time (sec) = (16.12) tics, for evidence of organic solids in the channel, for evidence
of grit carryover into the plant, for evidence of mechanical
problems, and for grit storage and disposal (housekeeping).
Problem: The plant’s grit channel is designed to remove
sand, which has a settling velocity of 0.085 fps. The chan- Aeration
Aerated grit removal systems use aeration to keep the lighter
seconds will it take for a sand particle to reach the channel
bottom? organic solids in suspension while allowing the heavier grit
particles to settle out. Aerated grit removal may be manually
SOLUTION: or mechanically cleaned; however, the majority of the systems
are mechanically cleaned. During normal operation, adjusting
2.2 ft the aeration rate produces the desired separation. This requires
Settling Time, Seconds = = 25.9 sec
0.085 fps observation of mixing and aeration and sampling of fixed sus-
pended solids. Actual grit removal is controlled by the rate of aer-
Example 16.14 Required Channel Length ation. If the rate is too high, all of the solids remain in suspension.
If the rate is too low, both grit and organics will settle out. The
This calculation can be used to determine the length of
operator observes the same kinds of conditions as those listed for
channel required to remove an object with a specified set-
tling velocity. the gravity/velocity-controlled system, but must also pay close
attention to the air distribution system to ensure proper operation.
Required Channel Length
Centrifugal Force
Channel Depth, ft ´ Flow Velocity, fps (16.13)
= The cyclone degritter uses a rapid spinning motion (centrifu-
Settling Velocity, fps gal force) to separate the heavy inorganic solids or grit from
the light organic solids. This unit process is normally used on Example 16.16
primary sludge rather than the entire wastewater flow. The
critical control factor for the process is the inlet pressure. If Problem: The total daily grit removed for a plant is 250 gal.
the pressure exceeds the recommendations of the manufac- If the plant flow is 12.2 MGD, how many cubic feet of grit
turer, the unit will flood, and grit will carry through with the are removed per MG flow?
flow. Grit is separated from flow, washed, and discharged
directly to a storage container. Grit removal performance is SOLUTION:
determined by calculating the percent removal for inorganic First, convert gallon grit removed to cu ft:
(fixed) suspended solids. The operator observes the same
kinds of conditions listed for the gravity/velocity-controlled 250 gal
= 33 ft 3
and aerated grit removal systems, with the exception of the 7.48 gal/ft 3
air distribution system. Typical problems associated with grit
Next, complete the calculation of ft3/MG:
removal include mechanical malfunctions and rotten egg odor
in the grit chamber (hydrogen sulfide formation), which can
Grit Re moval, ft 3 /MG
lead to metal and concrete corrosion problems. Low recov-
ery rate of grit is another typical problem. Bottom scour, Grit Vol., ft 3 33 ft 3
= = = 2.7 ft 3 /MGD
overaeration, or not enough detention time normally causes Flow, MG 12.2 MGD
this. When these problems occur, the operator must make the
required adjustments or repairs to correct the problem. Example 16.17
Grit Removal Calculations Problem: The monthly average grit removal is 2.5 ft3/MG.
Wastewater systems typically average 1–15 cu ft of grit per If the monthly average flow is 2,500,000 gpd, how many
million gallons of flow (sanitary systems: 1–4 cu ft/million cubic yards must be available for grit disposal pit is to have
gal; combined wastewater systems average from 4 to 15 a 90-day capacity?
cu ft/million gal of flow), with higher ranges during storm
events. Generally, grit is disposed of in sanitary landfills. SOLUTION:
Because of this practice, for planning purposes, operators First, calculate the grit generated each day:
must keep accurate records of grit removal. Most often, the
data is reported as cubic feet of grit removed per million gal-

( 2.5 ft ) (2.5 MGD) = 6.25 ft
3
3
each day
lons of flow: MG
Grit Volume, cu ft The ft3 grit generated for 90 days would be

Cubic Removed, cu ft /MG = (16.14)
Flow, MG

(6.25 ft ) (90 days) = 562.5 ft
3
Over a given period, the average grit removal rate at a plant (at day
least a seasonal average) can be determined and used for plan- Convert ft3 grit to yd3 grit:
ning purposes. Typically, grit removal is calculated as cubic
yards, because excavation is normally expressed in terms of 562.5 ft 3
cubic yards. = 21 yd3
27 ft 3 /yd3
( ) (16.15)
Total Grit ft 3 Preaeration
( )
Grit yd 3 = 3
27 ft /yds 3
In the preaeration process (diffused or mechanical), we aer-
ate wastewater to achieve and maintain an aerobic state (to
freshen septic wastes), strip off hydrogen sulfide (to reduce
Example 16.15 odors and corrosion), agitate solids (to release trapped gases
and improve solids separation and settling), and to reduce
Problem: A treatment plant removes 10 cu ft of grit in one
day. How many cubic feet of grit are removed per million
BOD5. All of this can be accomplished by aerating the waste-
gallons if the plant flow was 9 MGD? water for 10–30 min. To reduce BOD5, preaeration must be
conducted from 45–60 min.
SOLUTION: Operational Observations/Problems/Troubleshooting

Grit Volume, ft 3 In preaeration grit removal systems, the operator is con-
Grit Removed, ft 3 /MG = cerned with maintaining proper operation and must be
Flow, MG
alert to any possible mechanical problems. In addition, the
10 ft 3 operator monitors DO levels and the impact of preaeration
= = 1.1 ft 3 /MG
9 MG on influent.
Chemical Addition rate is adjusted to produce the desired separation, which

requires observation of mixing and aeration and sampling of
Chemical addition to the wastestream is done (either via dry fixed suspended solids. Actual grit removal is controlled by
chemical metering or solution feed metering) to improve set- the rate of aeration. If the rate is too high, all of the solids
tling, reduce odors, neutralize acids or bases, reduce corro- remain in suspension. If the rate is too low, both the grit and
sion, reduce BOD5, improve solids and grease removal, reduce the organics will settle out.
loading on the plant, add or remove nutrients, add organisms,
and/or aid subsequent downstream processes. The particular Cyclone Degritter
chemical and the amount used depend on the desired result. The cyclone degritter uses a rapid spinning motion (centrifu-
Chemicals must be added at a point where sufficient mixing gal force) to separate the heavy inorganic solids or grit from
will occur to obtain maximum benefit. Chemicals typically the light organic solids. This unit process is normally used on
used in wastewater treatment include chlorine, peroxide, acids primary sludge rather than the entire wastewater flow. The
and bases, miner salts (ferric chloride, alum, etc.), and bioad- critical control factor for the process is the inlet pressure. If
ditives and enzymes. the pressure exceeds the recommendations of the manufac-
turer, the unit will flood and grit will carry through with the
Operational Observations/Problems/Troubleshooting flow. Grit is separated from the flow and discharged directly
When adding chemicals to the wastestream to remove grit, the to a storage container. Grit removal performance is deter-
operator monitors the process for evidence of mechanical prob- mined by calculating the percent removal for inorganic (fixed)
lems and takes proper corrective actions when necessary. The suspended solids.
operator also monitors the current chemical feed rate and dos-
age. The operator ensures that mixing at the point of addition
Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing
is accomplished in accordance with standard operating proce-
dures and monitors the impact of chemical addition on influent. During normal operation of grit removal systems (with the
exception of the screening and shredding processes), the plant
operator is responsible for sampling and testing as shown in
Equalization
Table 16.3.
The purpose of flow equalization (whether by surge, diurnal,
or complete methods) is to reduce or remove the wide swings
Other Preliminary Treatment Process
in flow rates normally associated with wastewater treatment
plant loading; it minimizes the impact of storm flows. The Control Calculations
process can be designed to prevent flows above maximum The desired velocity in sewers in approximately 2 fps at peak
plant design hydraulic capacity; to reduce the magnitude flow, because this velocity normally prevents solids from set-
of diurnal flow variations; and to eliminate flow variations. tling from the lines. However, when the flow reaches the grit
Flow equalization is accomplished using mixing or aeration channel, the velocity should decrease to about 1 fps to permit
equipment, pumps, and flow measurement. Normal operation the heavy inorganic solids to settle. In the example calcula-
depends on the purpose and requirements of the flow equal- tions that follow, we describe how the velocity of the flow
ization system. Equalized flows allow the plant to perform
at optimum levels by providing stable hydraulic and organic
loading. The downside to flow equalization is in additional TABLE 16.3
costs associated with the construction and operation of the Sampling and Testing Grit Removal Systems
flow equalization facilities.
Process Location Test Frequency
Operational Observations/Problems/Troubleshooting Grit Removal Influent Suspended Solids (Fixed) Variable

(velocity)
During normal operations, the operator must monitor all
Channel Depth of Grit Variable
mechanical systems involved with flow equalization and
Grit Total Solids—Fixed Variable
must watch for mechanical problems and take the appropriate
Effluent Suspended Solids (Fixed) Variable
corrective action. The operator also monitors DO levels, the
Grit Removal Influent Suspended Solids (Fixed) Variable
impact of equalization on influent, and water levels in equal- (Aerated)
ization basins, and makes necessary adjustments. Channel Dissolved Oxygen Variable
Grit Total Solids—Fixed Variable
Aerated Systems Effluent Suspended Solids (Fixed) Variable
Chemical Influent Jar Test Variable
Aerated grit removal systems use aeration to keep the lighter Addition
organic solids in suspension while allowing the heavier grit Preaeration Influent Dissolved Oxygen Variable
particles to settle out. Aerated grit removal may be manually Effluent Dissolved Oxygen Variable
or mechanically cleaned; however, the majority of the systems Equalization Effluent Dissolved Oxygen Variable
are mechanically cleaned. In normal operation, the aeration
in a channel can be determined, by the float and stopwatch Problem: The plant’s grit channel is designed to remove
method and by channel dimensions. sand, which has a settling velocity of 0.080 fps. The chan-
seconds will it take for a sand particle to reach the channel
Example 16.18 Velocity by float and stopwatch. bottom?
Distance Traveled (ft) SOLUTION:

Velocity, fps = (16.16)
Time required (sec)
2.3 ft
Settling Time, sec = = 28.7 sec
0.080 fps
Problem: A float takes 30 seconds to travel 37 ft in a grit
channel. What is the velocity of the flow in the channel?
SOLUTION: Example 16.21 Required Channel Length
37 ft This calculation can be used to determine the length of

30 sec channel required to remove an object with a specified set-
tling velocity.
Example 16.19 Velocity by flow Required Channel Length

and channel dimensions.
Channel Depth, ft ´ Flow Velocity, fps (16.19)
=
0.080 fps
This calculation can be used for a single channel or tank
or for multiple channels or tanks with the same dimen-
sions and equal flow. If the flow through each of the unit Problem: The plant’s grit channel is designed to remove
dimensions is unequal, the velocity for each channel or sand, which has a settling velocity of 0.080 fps. The chan-
tank must be computed individually. nel is currently operating at a depth of 3 ft. The calculated
velocity of flow through the channel is 0.85 fps. The chan-
Velocity, fps nel is 36 ft long. Is the channel long enough to remove the
desired sand particle size?
Flow, MGD ´ 1.55 cfs/MGD (16.17)
=
# Chan in Ser ´ Chan Width, ft ´ Water Depth, ft SOLUTION:
Problem: The plant is currently using two grit channels. 3 ft ´ 0.85 fps
Required Channel Length =
Each channel is 3 ft wide and has a water depth of 1.3 0.080 fps
ft. What is the velocity when the influent flow rate is 4.0
= 31.9 ft
MGD?
Yes, the channel is long enough to ensure all the sand will
SOLUTION: be removed.
Caution: Before and during cleaning activities, always
4.0 MGD ´ 1.55 cfs/MGD ventilate the area thoroughly.
Velocity, fps =
2 Channels ´ 3 ft ´ 1.3 ft
6.2 cfs PRIMARY TREATMENT (SEDIMENTATION)

7.8 ft 2 The purpose of primary treatment (primary sedimentation
or primary clarification) is to remove settleable organic and
Note: Because 0.79 is within the 0.7–1.4 level, the opera- floatable solids. Normally, each primary clarification unit can
tor of this unit would not make any adjustments. be expected to remove 90–95% settleable solids, 40–60%
Note: The channel dimensions must always be in feet. TSS, and 25–35% BOD5.
Convert inches to feet by dividing by 12 inches per foot.
Note: Performance expectations for settling devices used in
other areas of plant operation are normally expressed as over-
Example 16.20 Required Settling Time all unit performance rather than settling unit performance.
Sedimentation may be used throughout the plant to remove
This calculation can be used to determine the time settleable and floatable solids. It is used in primary treatment,
required for a particle to travel from the surface of the liq- secondary treatment, and advanced wastewater treatment pro-
uid to the bottom at a given settling velocity. To compute cesses. In this section, we focus on primary treatment or pri-
the settling time, settling velocity in fps must be provided mary clarification, which uses large basins in which primary
or determined by experiment in a laboratory.
settling is achieved under relatively quiescent conditions (see
Figure 16.1). Within these basins, mechanical scrapers collect
Liquid Depth in ft
Settling Time, seconds = (16.18) the primary settled solids into a hopper, from which they are
pumped to a sludge-processing area. Oil, grease, and other
floating materials (scum) are skimmed from the surface. The Surface loading rate (gal/d/ft 2 )
effluent is discharged over weirs into a collection trough.
Q (gal/d)
=
Process Description Surface area (ft 2 )
In primary sedimentation, wastewater enters a settling tank or

basin. Velocity is reduced to approximately 1 foot per minute.
Solids Loading Rate lb/d/ft 2( )
Note: Notice that the velocity is based on minutes instead Solids into Clarifier ( lb/d )
of seconds, as was the case in the grit channels. A grit channel =
velocity of 1 ft/sec would be 60 ft/min. Surface Area ft 2 ( )
Solids, which are heavier than water, settle to the bot-
tom while solids which are lighter than water float to the top. Weir overflow rate (gal/d/lineal ft)
Settled solids are removed as sludge and floating solids are Q (gal/d)
removed as scum. Wastewater leaves the sedimentation tank =
Weir length (lineal ft)
over an effluent weir and on to the next step in treatment.
Detention time, temperature, tank design, and condition of the
Types Of Sedimentation Tanks
equipment control the efficiency of the process.
Sedimentation equipment includes septic tanks, two story
Overview of Primary Treatment tanks, and plain settling tanks or clarifiers. All three devices
may be used for primary treatment while plain settling tanks
• Primary treatment reduces the organic loading on are normally used for secondary or advanced wastewater
downstream treatment processes by removing a treatment processes.
large amount of settleable, suspended, and floatable
materials. Septic Tanks
• Primary treatment reduces the velocity of the waste- Septic tanks are prefabricated tanks that serve as a combined
water through a clarifier to approximately 1–2 ft/ settling and skimming tank and as an unheated-unmixed
min, so that settling and floatation can take place. anaerobic digester. Septic tanks provide long settling times
Slowing the flow enhances the removal of suspended (6–8 h or more) but do not separate decomposing solids from
solids in wastewater. the wastewater flow. When the tank becomes full, solids will
• Primary settling tanks remove floated grease and scum, be discharged with the flow. The process is suitable for small
remove the settled sludge solids, and collect them for facilities (i.e., schools, motels, homes, etc.) but, due to the long
pumped transfer to disposal or further treatment. detention times and lack of control, it is not suitable for larger
• Clarifiers used may be rectangular or circular. In applications.
rectangular clarifiers, wastewater flows from one
end to the other, and the settled sludge is moved to a Two Story (Imhoff) Tank
hopper at the one end, either by flights set on parallel The two story or Imhoff tank, named for German engineer
chains or by a single bottom scraper set on a travel- Karl Imhoff (1876–1965), is similar to a septic tank in the
ing bridge. Floating material (mostly grease and oil) removal of settleable solids and the anaerobic digestion of
is collected by a surface skimmer. solids. The difference is that the two story tank consists of a
• In circular tanks, the wastewater usually enters at the settling compartment where sedimentation is accomplished,
middle and flows outward. Settled sludge is pushed a lower compartment where settled solids and digestion takes
to a hopper in the middle of the tank bottom, and a place, and gas vents. Solids removed from the wastewater by
surface skimmer removes floating material. settling pass from the settling compartment into the digestion
• Factors affecting primary clarifier performance compartment through a slot in the bottom of the settling com-
include: partment. The design of the slot prevents solids from returning
• Rate of flow through the clarifier to the settling compartment. Solids decompose anaerobically
• Wastewater characteristics (strength; tempera- in the digestion section. Gases produced as a result of the sol-
ture; amount and type of industrial waste; and ids decomposition are released through the gas vents running
the density, size, and shapes of particles) along each side of the settling compartment.
• Performance of pretreatment processes
• Nature and amount of any wastes recycled to the Plain Settling Tanks (Clarifiers)
primary clarifier The plain settling tank or clarifier optimizes the settling pro-
• Key factors in primary clarifier operation include the cess. Sludge is removed from the tank for processing in other
following concepts: downstream treatment units. Flow enters the tank, is slowed
and distributed evenly across the width and depth of the unit,
(Vol, gal)(24 hr/day) passes through the unit and leaves over the effluent weir.
Retention time (hr) =
flow, gal per day Detention time within the primary settling tank is from 1–3
h (2-h average). Sludge removal is accomplished frequently short-circuiting. The surface loading rate is within
on either a continuous or an intermittent basis. Continuous design specifications.
removal requires additional sludge treatment processes to • Weir condition—Weirs are level; flow over the weir
remove the excess water resulting from removal of sludge is uniform; and weir overflow rate is within design
which contains less than 2–3% solids. Intermittent sludge specifications.
removal requires the sludge be pumped from the tank on a • Scum removal—The surface is free of scum accu-
schedule frequent enough to prevent large clumps of solids mulations; the scum removal does not operate
rising to the surface but infrequent enough to obtain 4–8% continuously.
solids in the sludge withdrawn. • Sludge removal—No large clumps of sludge appear on
Scum must be removed from the surface of the settling the surface; the system operates as designed; the pump-
tank frequently. This is normally a mechanical process but ing rate is controlled to prevent coning or buildup; and
may require manual start-up. The system should be operated sludge blanket depth is within desired levels.
frequently enough to prevent excessive buildup and scum car- • Performance—The unit is removing expected levels
ryover but not so frequent as to cause hydraulic overloading of of BOD5, TSS, and settleable solids.
the scum removal system. Settling tanks require housekeep- • Unit maintenance—Mechanical equipment is main-
ing and maintenance. Baffles (prevent floatable solids, scum, tained in accordance with planned schedules; equip-
from leaving the tank), scum troughs, scum collectors, efflu- ment is available for service as required.
ent troughs, and effluent weirs require frequent cleaning to
prevent heavy biological growths and solids accumulations. To assist the operator in judging primary treatment operation,
Mechanical equipment must be lubricated and maintained as several process control tests can be used for process evalua-
specified in the manufacturer’s recommendations or in accor- tion and control. These tests include the following:
dance with procedures listed in the plant O&M manual.
Process control sampling and testing are used to evaluate • pH—normal range: 6.5–9.0
the performance of the settling process. Settleable solids, DO, • DO—normal range: <1.0 mg/l
pH, temperature, TSS, and BOD5, as well as sludge solids and • Temperature—varies with climate and season
volatile matter testing are routinely carried out. • Settleable solids, ml/l—influent: 5–15 ml/l; effluent:
0.3–5 ml/l
Operator Observations, Process • BOD5, mg/l—influent: 150–400 mg/l; effluent:
Problems, and Troubleshooting 50–150 mg/l
• % solids—4–8%
Before identifying a primary treatment problem and proceed- • % volatile matter—40%–70%
ing with appropriate troubleshooting effort, the operator must • Heavy metals—as required
be cognizant of what constitutes “normal” operation (i.e., is • Jar tests—as required
there a problem or is the system operating as per design?).
Several important items of normal operation can have a strong Note: Testing frequency should be determined on the basis of
impact on performance. In the following section, we discuss the process influent and effluent variability and the available
the important operational parameters and normal observations. resources. All should be performed periodically to provide
reference information for the evaluation of performance.
Primary Clarification: Normal Operation
In primary clarification, wastewater enters a settling tank or
basin. Velocity reduces to approximately 1 ft/min. Process Control Calculations
Note: Notice that the velocity is based on minutes instead As with many other wastewater treatment plant unit processes,
of seconds, as was the case in the grit channels. A grit channel process control calculations aid in determining the perfor-
velocity of 1 ft/sec would be 60 ft/min. mance of the sedimentation process. Process control calcula-
Solids heavier than water settle to the bottom while solids tions are used in the sedimentation process to determine:
lighter than water float to the top. Settled solids are removed
as sludge and floating solids are removed as scum. Wastewater • Percent removal
leaves the sedimentation tank over an effluent weir and on to • Hydraulic detention time (HDT)
the next step in treatment. Detention time, temperature, tank • Surface loading rate (surface settling rate)
design, and condition of the equipment control the efficiency • Weir overflow rate (weir loading rate)
of the process. • Sludge pumping
• Percent total solids (% TS)
Primary Clarification: Operational
Parameters (Normal Observations): In the following sections we take a closer look at a few of
• Flow distribution—Normal flow distribution is these process control calculations and example problems.
indicated by flow to each in-service unit being Note: The calculations presented in the following sec-
equal and uniform. There is no indication of tions allow you to determine the values for each function
performed. Keep in mind that an optimally operated primary Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)
clarifier should have values in an expected range. The weir overflow rate or weir loading rate is the amount
of water leaving the settling tank per linear foot of weir.
Percent Removal The result of this calculation can be compared with design.
The expected range of % removal for a primary clarifier is Normally weir overflow rates of 10,000–20,000 gallons/day/
• Settleable solids 90–95% foot are used in the design of a settling tank.
• Suspended solids 40–60%
• BOD5 25–35% Flow, gal /day
Weir Overflow Rate, gpd /ft = (16.21)
Weir Length, ft
Detention Time
The primary purpose of primary settling is to remove settle- Example 16.24
able solids. This accomplished by slowing the flow down to
approximately 1 ft/min. The flow at this velocity will stay in Problem: The circular settling tank is 90 ft in diameter and
has a weir along its circumference. The effluent flow rate is
the primary tank from 1.5 to 2.5 hr. The length of time the
2.55 MGD. What is the weir overflow rate (gpd/ft)?
water stays in the tank is called the hydraulic detention time.
SOLUTION:
Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling
Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) Weir Overflow, gpd/ft
Surface loading rate is the number of gallons of wastewater 2.55 MGD ´ 1, 000, 000 gal/MG
passing over 1 sq ft of tank per day. This can be used to com- =
3.14 ´ 90 ft
pare actual conditions with design. Plant designs generally
use a surface loading rate of 300–1,200 gallons/day/ft2. Other = 9, 023 gpd /ft
terms used synonymously with surface loading rate include Sludge Pumping
surface overflow rate and surface settling rate.
Determination of sludge pumping (the quantity of solids and
Surface Settling Rate, gpd/ft 2 volatile solids removed from the sedimentation tank) provides
accurate information needed for process control of the sedi-
Flow, Gal Day (16.20) mentation process.
= 2
Settling Tank Area, ft (1) Sol. Pumped, lb /day
Example 16.22 = Pump Rate ´ Pump Time (16.22)
Problem: The settling tank is 120 ft in diameter and the ´ 8.34 lbs /gal ´ % Solids
flow to the unit is 4.5 MGD. What is the surface loading
rate in gallons/day/ft 2? (2) Vol. Solids /lb /day
= Pump Rate ´ Pump Time (16.23)

SOLUTION:
Surface Loading Rate ´ 8.34 ´ % Solids ´ % Vol.
4.5 MGD ´ 1, 000, 000 gal/MGD Example 16.25

=
0.785 ´ 120 ft ´ 120 ft
Problem: The sludge pump operates 20 min/hr. The pump
= 398 gpd/ft 2 delivers 20 gal/min of sludge. Laboratory tests indicate that
the sludge is 5.2% solids and 66% volatile matter. How
Example 16.23 many pounds of volatile matter is transferred from the set-
tling tank to the digester?
Problem: A circular clarifier has a diameter of 50 ft. If the SOLUTION:
primary effluent flow is 2,150,000 gpd, what is the surface
overflow rate in gpd/sq ft? Pump Time = 20 min/hr
Pump Rate = 20 gpm
SOLUTION: % Solids = 5.2%
Area = (0.785)(50 ft )(50 ft ) % VM = 66%
Surface Overflow Rate Vol. Solids, lb /day
Flow, gpd 2,150, 000 = 20 gpm ´ ( 20 min hr ´ 24 hr/day)

= =
Area (ft 2 ) (0.785)(50 ft )(50 ft ) ´ 8.34 lbs/gal ´ 0.052 ´ 0.66
= 1, 096 gpd /ft 2 = 2, 748 lb/day

Percent Total Solids (% TS) identify causes of process malfunctions, to develop solutions,
Example 16.26 and to prevent recurrences. In other words, the operator’s goal
is to perform problem analysis or troubleshooting on unit pro-
Problem: A settling tank sludge sample is tested for sol- cesses when required and to restore the unit processes to optimal
ids. The sample and dish weigh 74.69 g. The dish alone operating conditions. Obviously, the immediate goal in problem
weighed 21.2 g. After drying, the dish with dry solids analysis is to solve the immediate problem. The long-term goal
weighed 22.3 g. is to ensure that the problem does not pop up again, causing poor
What is the percent total solids (% TS) of the sample? performance in the future. In this section, we cover a few indica-
tors or observations of operational problems with the primary
SOLUTION:
treatment process. The observations presented are not all-inclu-
Sample + Dish 74.69 g Dish + Dry Solids 22.3 g sive, but highlight the most frequently confronted problems.
Dish alone -21.2 g Dish Alone -21.2 g
Causal Factors for Poor Suspended
Sample Weight 53.49 g Dry Solids Weight 1 .1 g
Solids Removal (Primary Clarifier)
1 .1 g • Hydraulic overload
´ 100% = 2%
53.49 g • Sludge buildup in tanks and decreased volume and
allows solids to scour out tanks
BOD and SS Removal • Strong recycle flows
• Industrial waste concentrations
To calculate the pounds of BOD or suspended solids removed
• Wind currents
each day, you need to know the mg/L BOD or suspended sol-
• Temperature currents
ids (SS) removed and the plant flow. Then, you can use the
mg/L to lb/day equation. Causal Factors for Floating Sludge
• Sludge becoming septic in tank
SS Removed = mg/l ´ MGD ´8.34 lb/gal (16.24) • Damaged or worn collection equipment
• Recycled waste sludge
Example 16.27 • Primary sludge pumps malfunctions
• Sludge withdrawal line plugged
Problem: If 120 mg/L suspended solids are removed by a • Return of well-nitrified waste-activated sludge
primary clarifier, how many lb/day suspended solids are • Too few tanks in service
removed when the flow is 6,230,000 gpd? • Damaged or missing baffles
SOLUTION: Causal Factors for Septic Wastewater or Sludge

SS Re moved = 120 mg /L ´ 6.25 MGD ´ 8.34 lb /gal • Damaged or worn collection equipment
• Infrequent sludge removal
= 6,255 lb /day
• Insufficient industrial pretreatment
Example 16.28 • Septic sewage from collection system
• Strong recycle flows
Problem: The flow to a secondary clarifier is 1.6 MGD. If • Primary sludge pump malfunction
the influent BOD concentration is 200 mg/L and the efflu- • Sludge withdrawal line plugged
ent BOD concentration is 70 mg/L, how many pounds of • Sludge collectors not run often enough
BOD is removed daily? • Septage dumpers
lb/day BOD removed = 200 mg/L - 70 mg/L Causal Factors for Too Low Primary
Sludge Solids Concentrations
= 130 mg/L
• Hydraulic overload
After calculating mg/L BOD removed, calculate lb/day
• Overpumping of sludge
BOD removed:
• Collection system problems
BOD removed, lb/day
• Decreased influent solids loading
= (130 mg/L )(1.6 MGD )( 8.34 lb/gal) Causal Factors for Too High Primary
Sludge Solids Concentrations
= 1, 735 lb/day
• Excessive grit and compacted material
• Primary sludge pump malfunction
Problem Analysis
• Sludge withdrawal line plugged
In primary treatment (as is also clear in the operation of other • SRT is too long
unit processes), the primary function of the operator is to • Increased influent loadings
Effluent from Settling Tanks are in contact, the organisms remove and oxidize the organic
solids. The media may be stone, redwood, synthetic material,
Upon completion of screening, degritting, and settling in sedi- or any other substance that is durable (capable of withstand-
mentation basins, large debris, grit, and many settleable mate- ing weather conditions for many years), provides a large area
rials have been removed from the wastestream. What is left is for slime growth while providing open space for ventilation,
referred to as Primary Effluent. Usually cloudy and frequently and is not toxic to the organisms in the biomass. Fixed film
gray in color, primary effluent still contains large amounts of devices include trickling filters and rotating biological contac-
dissolved food and other chemicals (nutrients). These nutrients tors (RBCs). Suspended growth systems are processes, which
are treated in the next step in the treatment process (Secondary use a biological growth, which is mixed with the wastewater.
Treatment) which is discussed in the next section. Typical suspended growth systems consist of various modifi-
Note: Two of the most important nutrients left to remove cations of the activated sludge process.
are phosphorus and ammonia. While we want to remove
these two nutrients from the wastestream, we do not want to
remove too much. Carbonaceous microorganisms in second- Treatment Ponds
ary treatment (biological treatment) need both phosphorus Wastewater treatment can be accomplished using ponds (aka,
and ammonia. lagoons). Ponds are relatively easy to build and manage; they
accommodate large fluctuations in flow, and they can also
provide treatment that approaches conventional systems (pro-
SECONDARY TREATMENT
ducing a highly purified effluent) at a much lower cost. It is
The main purpose of secondary treatment (sometimes referred the cost (the economics) that drives many managers to decide
to as biological treatment) is to provide biochemical oxygen on the pond option. The actual degree of treatment provided
demand (BOD) removal beyond what is achievable by pri- depends on the type and number of ponds used. Ponds can
mary treatment. There are three commonly used approaches, be used as the sole type of treatment or they can be used in
all of which take advantage of the ability of microorganisms conjunction with other forms of wastewater treatment, that is,
to convert organic wastes (via biological treatment), into sta- other treatment processes followed by a pond or a pond fol-
bilized, low-energy compounds. Two of these approaches, the lowed by other treatment processes.
trickling filter (and/or its variation, the RBC) and the acti- Stabilization ponds (aka, treatment ponds) have been used
vated sludge process, sequentially follow normal primary for the treatment of wastewater for over 3,000 years. The first
treatment. The third, ponds (oxidation ponds or lagoons), recorded construction of a pond system in the United States
however, can provide equivalent results without preliminary was in San Antonio, Texas, in 1901. Today, over 8,000 waste-
treatment. In this section, we present a brief overview of the water treatment ponds are in place, involving more than 50%
secondary treatment process followed by a detailed discus- of the wastewater treatment facilities in the United States
sion of wastewater treatment ponds (used primarily in smaller (CWNS, 2000). Facultative ponds account for 62%, aerated
treatment plants), trickling filters, and RBCs. We then shift ponds 25%, anaerobic 0.04%, and total containment 12% of
focus to the activated sludge process—the secondary treat- the pond treatment systems. They treat a variety of wastewa-
ment process, which is used primarily in large installations ters from domestic wastewater to complex industrial wastes,
and is the main focus of the handbook. and they function under a wide range of weather conditions,
Secondary treatment refers to those treatment processes from tropical to arctic. Ponds can be used alone or in com-
which use biological processes to convert dissolved, sus- bination with other wastewater treatment processes. As our
pended and colloidal organic wastes to more stable solids understanding of pond operating mechanisms has increased,
which can either be removed by settling or discharged to the different types of ponds have been developed for application
environment without causing harm. Exactly what is second- in specific types of wastewater under local environmental
ary treatment? As defined by the Clean Water Act (CWA), conditions. This handbook focuses on municipal wastewater
secondary treatment produces an effluent with no more than treatment pond systems.
30 mg/L BOD5 and 30 mg/L total suspended solids.
Note: The CWA also states that ponds and trickling filters
will be included in the definition of secondary treatment even if DID YOU KNOW?
they do not meet the effluent quality requirements continuously.
Most secondary treatment processes decompose solids A pond can be judged as an “Attractive Nuisance.” The
aerobically producing carbon dioxide, stable solids, and more term “Attractive Nuisance” is a legal expression that
organisms. Since solids are produced, all of the biological implies the pond could be attractive to potential users,
processes must include some form of solids removal (settling such as duck hunters, fishermen, or playing children.
tank, filter, etc.). Secondary treatment processes can be sepa- Since ponds have fairly steep slopes, the potential for
rated into two large categories: fixed film systems and sus- someone falling-in and drowning is a significant legal
pended growth systems. problem that must be a concern. It is important that
Fixed film systems are processes, which use a biological adequate fencing and signing be provided.
growth (biomass or slime). When the wastewater and slime
While the tendency in the United States has been for Ponds Based on Location and Types
smaller communities to build ponds, in other parts of the of Wastes They Receive
world, including Australia, New Zealand, Mexico, Latin Raw Sewage Stabilization Pond
America, Asia, and Africa, treatment ponds have been built
The raw sewage stabilization pond is the most common type
for large cities. As a result, our understanding of the biologi-
of pond (see Figure 16.3). With the exception of screening
cal, biochemical, physical, and climatic factors that interact to
and shredding, this type of pond receives no prior treatment.
transform the organic compounds, nutrients sand pathogenic
Generally, raw sewage stabilization ponds are designed to pro-
organisms found in sewage into less harmful chemicals and
vide a minimum of 45 days of detention time and to receive
unviable organisms (i.e., dead or sterile) has grown since 1983.
no more than 30 lb of BOD5 per day per acre. The quality of
A wealth of experience has been built up as civil, sanitary, or
the discharge is dependent on the time of the year. Summer
environmental engineers, operators, public works managers,
months produce high BOD5 removal but excellent suspended
and public health and environmental agencies have gained
solids removals. The pond consists of an influent structure,
more experience with these systems. While some of this infor-
pond berm or walls, and an effluent structure designed to per-
mation makes its way into technical journals and textbooks,
mit selection of the best quality effluent. Normal operating
there is a need for a less formal presentation of the subject for
depth of the pond is 3–5 ft. The process occurring in the pond
those working in the field every day (USEPA), 2011).
involves bacteria decomposing the organics in the wastewater
Ponds are designed to enhance the growth of natural eco-
(aerobically and anaerobically) and algae using the products
systems that are either anaerobic (providing conditions for
of the bacterial action to produce oxygen (photosynthesis).
bacteria that grow I the absence of oxygen (O2) environments),
Because this type of pond is the most commonly used in
aerobic (promoting the growth of O2 producing and/or requir-
wastewater treatment, the process that occurs within the pond
ing organs, such as algae and bacteria), or facultative, which
is described in greater detail in the following text.
is a combination of the two. Ponds are managed to reduce
When wastewater enters the stabilization pond, several
concentrations of BOD, TSS, and coliform numbers (fecal or
processes begin to occur. These include settling, aerobic
total) to meet water quality requirements.
decomposition, anaerobic decomposition, and photosynthesis
(see Figure 16.3). Solids in the wastewater will settle to the
Types of Ponds bottom of the pond. In addition to the solids in the wastewater
Ponds can be classified based on their location in the system, entering the pond, solids, which are produced by the biologi-
by the type wastes they receive, and by the main biological cal activity, will also settle to the bottom. Eventually, this will
process occurring in the pond. First, we look at the types of reduce the detention time and the performance of the pond.
ponds according to their location and the type wastes they When this occurs (20–30 years normally) the pond will have
receive: Raw Sewage Stabilization ponds (see Figure 16.3), to be replaced or cleaned.
oxidation ponds, and polishing ponds. Then, in the following Bacteria and other microorganisms use the organic mat-
section, we look at ponds classified by the type of processes ter as a food source. They use oxygen (aerobic decomposi-
occurring within the pond: Aerobic Ponds, Anaerobic Ponds, tion), organic matter, and nutrients to produce carbon dioxide,
Facultative Ponds, and Aerated Ponds. water, and stable solids, which may settle out, and more
FIGURE 16.3 Stabilization pond processes.

organisms. The carbon dioxide is an essential component of photosynthesis and O2 production and to prevent algae from
the photosynthesis process occurring near the surface of the settling and producing an anaerobic bottom layer. The rate of
pond. Organisms also use the solids that settled out as food photosynthetic production of O2 may be enhanced by surface
material; however, the oxygen levels at the bottom of the pond re-aeration; O2 and aerobic bacteria biochemically stabilize
are extremely low, so the process used is anaerobic decompo- the waste. Detention time is typically two to six days.
sition. The organisms use the organic matter to produce gases These ponds are appropriate for treatment in warm, sunny
(hydrogen sulfide, methane, etc.) which are dissolved in the climates. They are used where a high degree of BOD5 removal
water, stable solids, and more organisms. Near the surface is desired but land area is limited. The chief advantage of these
of the pond, a population of green algae will develop which ponds is that they produce a stable effluent during short deten-
can use the carbon dioxide produced by the bacterial population times with low land and energy requirements. However,
tion, nutrients, and sunlight to produce more algae and oxy- their operation is somewhat more complex than that of facul-
gen which is dissolved into the water. The dissolved oxygen is tative ponds and, unless the algae are removed, the effluent
then used by organisms in the aerobic decomposition process. will contain high TSS. While the shallow depths allow pen-
When compared with other wastewater treatment systems etration of ultraviolet (UV) light that may reduce pathogens,
involving biological treatment, a stabilization pond treat- shorter detention times vary work against effective coliform
ment system is the simplest to operate and maintain. O&M and parasite die-off. Since they are shallow, bottom paving
activities include collecting and testing samples for DO, and or veering is usually necessary to prevent aquatic plants form
pH, removing weeds and other debris (scum) from the pond, colonizing the ponds. The Advanced Integrated Wastewater
mowing the berms, repairing erosion, and removing burrow- Pond System® (AIWPS®) uses the high-rate pond to maxi-
ing animals. mize the growth of microalgae using a low-energy paddle-
Note: DO and pH levels in the pond will vary throughout wheel (USEPA, 2011).
the day. Normal operation will result in very high DO and pH
levels due to the natural processes occurring. Anaerobic Ponds
Note: When operating properly the stabilization pond will Anaerobic ponds are normally used to treat high strength
exhibit a wide variation in both DO and pH. This is due to industrial wastes; that is, they receive heavy organic load-
photosynthesis occurring in the system. ing, so much so that there is no aerobic zone—no oxygen is
present and all biological activity is anaerobic decomposition.
Oxidation Pond They are usually 2.5–4.5 m in depth and have detention times
An oxidation pond, which is normally designed using the of 5–50 days. The predominant biological treatment reactions
same criteria as the stabilization pond, receives flows that are bacterial acid formation and methane fermentation.
have passed through a stabilization pond or primary settling Anaerobic ponds are usually used for the treatment of
tank. This type of pond provides biological treatment, addi- strong industrial and agricultural (food processing) wastes,
tional settling, and some reduction in the number of fecal coli- as a pretreatment step in municipal systems, or where an
form present. industry is a significant contributor to a municipal system.
The biochemical reactions in an anaerobic pond produce
Polishing Pond hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and other odorous compounds. To
A polishing pond, which uses the same equipment as a stabi- reduce odors, the common practice is to recirculate water
lization pond, receives flow from an oxidation pond or from from a downstream facultative or aerated pond. This pro-
other secondary treatment systems. Polishing ponds remove vides a thin aerobic layer at the surface of the anaerobic
additional BOD5, solids, and fecal coliform and some nutri- pond, which prevents odors from escaping into the air. A
ents. They are designed to provide 1–3 days detention time cover may also be used to contain odors. The effluent from
and normally operate at a depth of 5–10 ft. Excessive deten- anaerobic ponds usually requires further treatment prior to
tion time or too shallow a depth will result in alga growth, discharge (USEPA, 2011).
which increases influent, suspended solids concentrations.
Facultative Pond
Ponds Based on the Type of Processes Occurring Within The facultative pond, which may also be called an oxidation
The type of processes occurring within the pond may also or photosynthetic pond, is the most common type pond (based
classify ponds. These include aerobic, anaerobic, facultative, on processes occurring). Oxygen is present in the upper por-
and aerated processes. tions of the pond and aerobic processes are occurring. No
oxygen is present in the lower levels of the pond where pro-
Aerobic Ponds cesses occurring are anoxic and anaerobic. Facultative ponds
In aerobic ponds, also known as oxidation ponds or high-rate are usually 0.9–2.4 m deep or deeper, with an aerobic layer
aerobic ponds, which are not widely used, oxygen is present overlying an anaerobic layer. Recommended detention times
throughout the pond. All biological activity is aerobic decom- vary form 5–50 days in warm climates and 90–180 days in
position. They are usually 30–45 cm deep, which allows light colder climates (NEIWPCC, 1998). Aerobic treatment pro-
to penetrate throughout the pond. Mixing is often provided, cesses in the upper layer provide odor control and nutrient
keeping algae at the surface to maintain maximum rates of and BOD removal. Anaerobic fermentation processes, such
as sludge digestion, denitrification, and some BOD removal, Certain pathogenic bacteria and other microbial organisms
occur in the lower layer. The key to successful operation of (viruses, protozoa) associated with human waste enter in that
this type of pond is O2 production by photosynthetic algae system with the influent; the wastewater treatment process is
and/or re-aeration at the surface. designed so that numbers will be reduced adequately to meet
Facultative ponds are used to treat raw municipal waste- public health standards.
water in small communities and for primary or secondary
effluent treatment for small or large cities. They are also used • Aerobic bacteria are found in the aerobic zone of a
in industrial applications, usually in the process line after wastewater pond and are primarily the same type
aerated or anaerobic ponds, to provide additional treatment as those found in an activated sludge process or in
prior to discharge. Commonly achieve effluent BOD values, the zoogleal mass of a trickling filter. The most fre-
as measured in the BOD5 test, range from 20 to 60 mg/L, and quently isolated bacteria include Beggiatoa alba,
TSS levels may range from30 mg/L to150 mg/L. The size of Sphaerotilus natans, Achromobacter, Alcaligenes,
the pond needed to treat BOD loadings depends on specific Flavobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Zoogoea spp.
conditions and regulatory requirements. (Spellman, 2000; Lynch & Poole, 1979; Pearson,
2005). These organisms decompose the organic
Aerated Pond materials present in the aerobic zone into oxidized
Facultative ponds overloaded due to unplanned additional end products.
sewage volume or higher strength influent from a new indus- • Anaerobic bacteria are hydrolytic bacteria that con-
trial connection may be modified by the addition of mechani- vert complex organic material into simple alcohols
cal aeration. Ponds originally designed for mechanical and acids, primarily amino acids, glucose, fatty
aeration are generally 2–6 m deep with detention times of acids, and glycerols (Spellman, 2000; Brockett,
3–10 days. For colder climates, 20–40 days is recommended. 1976; Pearson, 2005; Paterson & Curtis, 2005).
Mechanically aerated ponds require less land area but have Acidogenic bacteria convert the sugars and amino
greater energy requirements. acids into acetate, ammonia (NH3), hydrogen (H),
When aeration is used, the depth of the pond and/or the and carbon dioxide (CO2). Methanogenic bacteria
acceptable loading levels may increase. Mechanical or dif- break down these products further to methane (CH4)
fused aeration is often used to supplement natural oxygen and CO2 (Gallert & Winter, 2005).
production or to replace it. • Cyanobacteria, formerly classified as blue-green
algae, are autotrophic organisms that are able to syn-
thesize organic compounds using CO2 as the major
DID YOU KNOW? carbon source. Cyanobacteria produce O2 as a by-
A pond should be drawn down in fall after the first frost product of photosynthesis, providing an O2 source
and when the algae concentration drops off, the BOD is for other organisms in the ponds. They are found in
still low, and when the receiving stream temperature is very large numbers as blooms when environmen-
low with accompanying high DO. tal conditions are suitable (Gaudy & Gaudy, 1980).
A pond should be drawn down in spring before algae Commonly encountered cyanobacteria include
concentration increases, when the BOD level is accept- Oscillatoria, Arthrospira, Spirulina, and Microcystis
able, and when the receiving stream flows are high (low (Vasconcelos & Pereira, 2001; Spellman, 2000).
temperature with high DO helps). During the actual • Purple Sulfur Bacteria (Chromatiaceae) may grow
discharge, the effluent must be sampled for BOD, sus- in any aquatic environment to which light of the
pended solids, and pH at a frequency specified in the required wavelength penetrates, provided that CO2,
discharge permit. nitrogen (N), and a reduced form of sulfur (S) or
H are available. Purple surf bacteria occupy the
anaerobic layer below the algae, cyanobacteria, and
other aerobic bacteria in a pond. They are commonly
Elements of Pond Processes found at a specific depth, in a thin layer where light
The Organisms and nutrient conditions are at an optimum (Gaudy
Although our understanding of wastewater pond ecology is & Gaudy, 1980; Pearson, 2005). Their biochemical
far from complete, general observations about the interactions conversion of odorous sulfide compounds to elemen-
of macro- and microorganisms in these biologically driven tal S or sulfate (SO4) helps to control odor in faculta-
systems support our ability to design, operate, and maintain tive and anaerobic ponds.
them.
Algae
Bacteria Algae constitute a group of aquatic organisms that may be
In this section, we discuss other types of bacteria found in the unicellular or multicellular, motile or immotile, and, depend-
pond; these organisms help to decompose complex, organic ing on the phylogenetic family, have different combinations
constituents in the influent simple, non-toxic compounds. of photosynthetic pigments. As autotrophs, algae need only
inorganic nutrients, such as N, phosphorus (P), and a suite at greater depths. Settled matter is further broken down and
of microelements, to fix CO2 and grow in the presence of stabilized by the benthic feeding Chironomidae. Predators,
sunlight. Algae do no fix atmospheric N; they require an such as rotifers, often control the population levels of certain
external source of inorganic N in the form of nitrate (NO3) of the smaller life forms in the pond, thereby influencing the
or NH3. Some algal species are able to use amino acids and succession of species throughout the seasons.
other organic N compounds. Oxygen is a by-product of these Mosquitoes can present a problem in some ponds. Aside
reactions. from their nuisance characteristics, certain mosquitoes are
Algae are generally divided into three major groups, based also vectors for such diseases as encephalitis, malaria, and
on the color reflected from the cells by the chlorophyll and yellow fever, and constitute a hazard to public health which
other pigments involved in photosynthesis. Green and brown must be controlled. Gambusia, commonly called mosquito
algae are common to wastewater ponds; red algae occur infre- fish, have been introduced to eliminate mosquito problems
quently. The algal species that is dominant at any particular in some ponds in warm climates (Ullrich, 1967; Pipes, 1961;
time is thought to be primarily a function of temperature, Pearson, 2005), but their introduction has been problematic
although the effects of predation, nutrient availability, and as they can out-compete native fish that also feed on mosquito
toxins are also important. larvae. There are also biochemical controls, such as the lar-
Green algae (Chlorophyta) include unicellular, filamen- vicides Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and Abate®,
tous, and colonial forms. Some green algal genera commonly which may be effective if the product is applied directly to the
found in facultative and aerobic ponds are Euglena, Phacus, area containing mosquito larvae. The most effective means
Chlamydomonas, Ankistrodesmus, Chlorella, Micractinium, of control of mosquitoes in ponds is the control of emergent
Scenedesmus, Selenastrum, Dictyosphaerium, and Volvox. vegetation (USEPA, 2011).
Chrysophytes, or brown algae, are unicellular and may be
flagellated, and include the diatoms. Certain brown algae are Biochemistry in a Pond
responsible for toxic red blooms. Brown algae found in waste-
Photosynthesis
water ponds include the diatoms Navicula and Cyclotella.
Red algae (Rhodophyta) include a few unicellular forms, Photosynthesis is the process whereby organisms use solar
but are primarily filamentous (Gaudy & Gaudy, 1980; energy to fix CO2 and obtain the reducing power to convert it
Pearson, 2005. into organic compounds. In wastewater ponds, the dominant
photosynthetic organisms include algae, cyanobacteria, and
Importance of Interactions between Bacteria and Algae purple sulfur bacteria (Pipes, 1961; Pearson, 2005).
It is generally accepted that the presence of both algae and Photosynthesis may be classified as oxygenic or anoxy-
bacteria is essential for the proper functioning of a treatment genic, depending on the source of reducing power used by a
pond. Bacteria break down the complex organic waste com- particular organism. In oxygenic photosynthesis, water serves
ponents found in anaerobic and aerobic pond environments as the source of reducing power, with O2 as a by-product. The
into simple compounds, which are then available for uptake equation representing oxygenic photosynthesis is:
by the algae. Algae, in turn, produce the O2 necessary for the
survival of aerobic bacteria. H 2O + sunlight ® 1/ 2O2 + 2H + + 2e - (16.25)
In the process of pond reactions of biodegradation and
mineralization of waste material by bacteria and the synthesis Oxygenic photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria convert
of new organic compounds in the form of algal cells a pond CO2 to organic compounds, which serve as the major source
effluent might contain a higher than acceptable TSS. Although of chemical energy for other aerobic organisms. Aerobic bac-
this form of TSS does not contain the same constituents as the teria need the O2 produced to function in their role as primary
influent TSS, it does contribute to turbidity and needs to be consumers in degrading complex organic waste material.
removed before the effluent is discharged. Once concentrated Anoxygenic photosynthesis does not produce O2 and,
and removed, depending on regulatory requirements, algal in fact, occurs in the complete absence of O2. The bacte-
TSS may be used as a nutrient for use in agriculture or as a ria involved in anoxygenic photosynthesis are largely strict
feed supplement (Grolund, 2002). anaerobes, unable to function in the presence of O2. They
obtain energy by reducing inorganic compounds. Many pho-
Invertebrates tosynthetic bacteria utilize reduced S compounds or element
Although bacteria and algae are the primary organisms S in anoxygenic photosynthesis according to the following
through which waste stabilization is accomplished, predator equation:
life forms do play a role in wastewater pond ecology. It has
been suggested that the planktonic invertebrate Cladocera H 2S ® So + 2H + + 2e - (16.26)
spp. and the benthic invertebrate family Chironomidae are the
most significant fauna in the pond community in terms of sta-
bilizing organic material. The cladocerans feed on the algae Respiration
and promote flocculation and settling of particulate matter. Respiration is a physiological process by which organic com-
This in turn results in better light penetration and algal growth pounds are oxidized into CO2 and water. Respiration is also
an indicator of cell material synthesis. It is a complex pro- algae, and (4) biological nitrification-denitrification. Whether
cess that consists of many interrelated biochemical reactions NH4− is assimilated into algal biomass depends on the bio-
(Pearson, 2005). Aerobic respiration, common to species of logical activity in the system and is affected by several factors
bacteria, algae, protozoa, invertebrates, and higher plants and such as temperature, organic load, detention time, and waste-
animals, may be represented by the following equation: water characteristics.
C2H12O6 + 6O2 + enzymes Dissolved Oxygen

(16.27) Oxygen is a partially soluble gas. Its solubility varies in direct
® 6CO2 + 6H 2O + new cells proportion to the atmospheric pressure at any given tempera-
ture. DO concentrations of approximately 8 mg/L are gen-
The bacteria involved in aerobic respiration are primarily erally considered to be the maximum available under local
responsible for the degradation of waste products. ambient conditions. In mechanically aerated ponds, the lim-
In the presence of light, respiration and photosynthesis can ited solubility of O2 determines its absorption rate (Sawyer
occur simultaneously in algae. However, the respiration rate et al., 1994).
is low compared to the photosynthesis rate, which results in a The natural sources of DO in ponds are photosynthetic oxy-
net consumption of CO2 and production of O2. In the absence genation and surface re-aeration. In areas of low wind activity,
of light, on the other hand, algal respiration continues while surface re-aeration may be relatively unimportant, depending
photosynthesis stops, resulting in a net consumption of O2 and on the water depth. Where surface turbulence is created by
production of CO2 (USEPA, 2011). excessive wind activity, surface re-aeration can be significant.
Experiments have shown that DO in wastewater ponds varies
Nitrogen Cycle
almost directly with the level of photosynthetic activity, which
The N cycle occurring in a wastewater treatment pond con- is low at night and early morning and rises during daylight
sists of a number of biochemical reactions mediated by bac- hours to a peak in the early afternoon. At increased depth, the
teria. Organic N and NH3 enter with the influent wastewater. effects of photosynthetic oxygenation and surface re-aeration
Organic N in fecal matter and other organic materials undergo decrease, as the distance from the water-atmosphere interface
conversion to NH3 and ammonium ion NH4+ by microbial increases and light penetration decreases. This can result in
activity. The NH3 may volatilize into the atmosphere. The the establishment of a vertical gradient. The microorganisms
rate of gaseous NH3 loses to the atmosphere is primarily a in the pond will segregate along the gradient.
function of pH, surface to volume ratio, temperature, and the
mixing conditions. An alkaline pH shifts the equilibrium of pH and Alkalinity
NH3 gas and NH4+ towards gaseous NH3 production, while In wastewater ponds, the H ion concentration, expressed as
the mixing conditions affect the magnitude of the mass trans- pH, is controlled through the carbonate buffering system rep-
fer coefficient. resented by the following equations:
Ammonium is nitrified to nitrite (NO2−) by the bacterium where:
Nitrosomonas and then to NO3− by Nitrobacter. The overall
nitrification reaction is:
CO2 + H 2O « H 2CO3 « HCO3- + H + (16.30)
NH +4 + 2O2 ® NO3- + 2H + + H 2O (16.28)
HCO3- « CO3-2 + H + (16.31)
The NO3− produced in the nitrification process, as well as a
portion of the NH4− produced from ammonification, can be CO3-2 + H 2O « HCO3- + OH - (16.32)
assimilated by organisms to produce cell protein and other
N-containing compounds. The NO3− may also be denitri- OH - + H + « H 2O (16.33)
fied to form NO2= and then N gas. Several species of bacte-
ria may be involved in the denitrification process, including The equilibrium of this system is affected by the rate of algal
Pseudomonas, Micrococcus, Achromobacter, and Bacillus. photosynthesis. In photosynthetic metabolism, CO2 is removed
The overall denitrification reaction is: from the dissolved phase, forcing the equilibrium of the first
expression (16.30) to the left. This tends to decrease the
6NO3- + 5CH 3OH ® 3N 2 + 5CO2 + 7H 2 O + 6OH - (16.29) hydrogen ion (H+) concentration and the bicarbonate (HCO3−)
alkalinity. The effect of the decrease in HCO3−concentration
Nitrogen gas may be fixed by certain species of cyanobacteria is to force the third equation (16.32) to the left and the fourth
when N is limited. This may occur in N-poor industrial ponds, but (16.33) to the right, both of which decrease total alkalinity.
rarely in municipal or agricultural ponds (USEPA, 1975, 1993). The decreased alkalinity associated with photosynthesis will
Nitrogen removal in facultative wastewater ponds can simultaneously reduce the carbonate hardness present in the
occur through any of the following processes: (1) gaseous waste. Because of the close correlation between pH and pho-
NH3 stripping to the atmosphere, (2) NH4− assimilation in tosynthetic activity, there is a diurnal fluctuation in pH when
algal biomass, (3) NO3− uptake by floating vascular plants and respiration is the dominant metabolic activity.
Physical Factors bacteria responsible for anaerobic degradation are active in

Light temperatures form 15–65°C. When they are exposed to lower
temperatures, their activity is reduced.
The intensity and spectral composition of light penetrating a
The other major source of heat is the influent water. In sew-
pond surface significantly affect all resident microbial activ-
erage systems with no major inflow or infiltration problems,
ity. In general, activity increases with increasing light inten-
the influent temperature is higher than that of the pond con-
sity until the photosynthetic system becomes light saturated.
tents. Cooling influences are exerted by evaporation, contact
The rate at which photosynthesis increases in proportion to
with cooler groundwater, and wind action.
an increase in light intensity, as well as the level at which an
The overall effect of temperature in combination with light
organism’s photosynthetic system becomes light saturated,
intensity is reflected in the fact that nearly all investigators
depends upon the particular biochemistry of the species
report improved performance during summer and autumn
(Lynch & Poole, 1979; Pearson, 2005). In ponds, photosyn-
months when both temperature and light are at their maxi-
thetic O2 production has been shown to be relatively constant
mum. The maximum practical temperature of wastewater
with the range of 5,380 to 53,8000 lumens/m2 light intensity
ponds is likely less than 30°C, indicating that most ponds
with a reduction occurring at higher and lower intensities
operate at less than optimum temperature for anaerobic activ-
(Pipes, 1961; Paterson & Curtis, 2005).
ity (Oswald 1996; Paterson & Curtis, 2005; Crites et al., 2006;
The spectral composition of available light is also crucial
USEPA, 2011).
in determining photosynthetic activity. The ability of photo-
During certain times of the year, cooler, denser water
synthetic organisms to utilize available light energy depends
remains at depth, while the warmer water stays at the surface.
primarily upon their ability to absorb the available wave-
Water temperature differences may cause ponds to stratify
lengths. This absorption ability is determined by the specific
throughout their depth. As the temperature decreased during
photosynthetic pigment of the organism. The main photosyn-
the fall and the surface water cools, stratification decreases
thetic pigments are chlorophylls and phycobilins. Bacterial
and the deeper water mixes with the cooling surface water.
chlorophyll differs from algal chlorophyll in both chemical
This phenomenon is called mixis, or pond or lake overturn.
structure and absorption capacity. These differences allow
As the density of water decreases and the temperature falls
the photosynthetic bacteria to live below dense algal layers
below 4°C, winter stratification can develop. When the ice
where they can utilize light not absorbed by the algae (Lynch
cover breaks up and the water warms, a spring overturn can
& Poole, 1979; Pearson, 2005).
also occur (Spellman, 1996).
The quality and quantity of light penetrating the pond
Pond overturn, which releases odorous compounds into
surface to any depth depend on the presence of dissolved
the atmosphere, can generate complaints from property
and particulate matter as well as the water absorption char-
owners living downwind of the pond. The potential for pond
acteristics. The organisms themselves contribute to water
overturn during certain times of the year is the reason why
turbidity, further limiting the depth of light penetration.
regulations may specify that ponds be located downwind,
Given the light penetration interferences, photosynthesis is
based on prevailing winds during overturn periods, and
significant only in the upper pond layers. This region of net
away from dwellings.
photosynthetic activity is called the euphotic zone (Lynch &
Poole, 1979; Pearson, 2005). Wind
Light intensity from solar radiation varies with the time of
Prevailing and storm-generated wind should be factored into
day and difference in latitudes. In cold climates, light penetra-
pond design and siting as they influence performance and
tion can be reduced during the winter by ice and snow cover.
maintenance in several significant ways:
Supplementing the treatment ponds with mechanical aeration
may be necessary in these regions during that time of year.
• Oxygen transfer and dispersal—By producing circu-
latory flows, winds provide the mixing needed for O2
Temperature transfer and diffusion below the surface of faculta-
Temperature at or near the surface of the aerobic environment tive ponds. This mixing action also helps disperse
of a pond determines the succession of predominant species microorganisms and augments the movement of
of algae, bacteria, and other aquatic organisms. Algae can sur- algae, particularly green algae.
vive at temperatures of 5–40°C. Green algae show the most • Prevention of short circuiting and reduction of odor
efficient growth and activity at temperatures of 30–35°C. events—Care must be taken during design to posi-
Aerobic bacteria are viable within a temperature range of tion the pond inlet/outlet axis perpendicular to the
10–40°C; 35–40°C is optimum for cyanobacteria (Anderson direction of prevailing winds to reduce short circuit-
& Zwieg, 1962; Gloyna et al., 1976; Paterson & Curtis, 2005; ing, which is the most common cause of poor per-
Crites et al., 2006). formance. Consideration must also be made for the
As the major source of heat for these systems in solar transport and fate of odors generated by treatment
radiation, a temperature gradient can develop in a pond with by-products in anaerobic and facultative ponds.
depth. This will influence the rate of anaerobic decomposi- • Disturbance of pond integrity—Waves generated
tion of solids that have settled at the bottom of the pond. The by strong prevailing or storm winds are capable of
eroding or overtopping embankments. Some protec- the United States is normally enriched in P even though
tive material should extend one or more feet above restrictions on P-containing compound sin laundry deter-
and below the water level to stabilize earthen berms. gents in some states have resulted in reduced concentra-
• A study by Wong & Lloyd (2004) indicates that wind tions since the 1970s. As of 1999, 27 states and the District
effects can reduce hydraulic retention time. of Columbia had passed laws prohibiting the manufacture
and use of laundry detergents containing P. However,
Did You Know? phosphate (PO 4 −3) content limits in automatic dishwashing
The variation in pH in a facultative pond normally occurs in detergents and other household cleaning agents containing
the upper aerobic zone, while the anaerobic and facultative P remain unchanged in most states. With a contribution of
zones will be relatively constant. This variation happens due approximately 15%, the concentration of P from wastewa-
to the changes that occur in the concentration of dissolved ter treatment plants is still adequate to promote growth in
carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide is dissolved in water it aquatic organisms.
forms a weak carbonic acid which would tend to lower pH. In aquatic environments, P occurs in three forms: (1) par-
The relationship between algae and bacteria affect the car- ticulate P, (2) soluble organic P, and (3) inorganic P. Inorganic
bon dioxide levels. During intense photosynthesis, algae use P, primarily in the form of orthophosphate (OP(OR)3), is read-
carbon dioxide and produce oxygen to be used by bacteria to ily utilized by aquatic organisms. Some organisms may store
assimilate organic wastes. The algae use much of the carbon excess P as polyphosphate. At the same time, some PO4−3 is
dioxide and the pH can rise significantly (pH in the 11–12 continuously lost to sediments, where it is locked up in insolu-
range is not uncommon). ble precipitates (Lynch and Poole, 1979; Craggs, 2005; Crites
During the night or during cloudy weather, the algae et al., 2006).
respire and active photosynthesis does not occur. The bacte- Phosphorus removal in ponds occurs via physical
ria continue to use up oxygen and produce carbon dioxide. mechanisms such as adsorption, coagulation, and precipi-
This can cause a significant drop in the pond pH, especially tation. The uptake of P by organisms in metabolic function
if the influent wastewater has low alkalinity. This same as well as for storage can also contribute to its removal.
pH swing can occur in natural ponds, lakes, and stream Removal in wastewater ponds has been reported to range
impoundments. During peak summer algae activity, the DO from 30–95% (Assenzo & Reid, 1966; Pearson, 2005;
of stream impoundments have varied from dawn levels of Crites et al., 2006).
less than 1 mg/L to later afternoon values of 13–15 mu/L Algae discharged in the final effluent may introduce
(supersaturation). organic P to receiving waters. Excessive algal “afterblooms”
observed in waters receiving effluents have, in some cases,
Pond Nutritional Requirements been attributed to N and P compounds remaining in the
In order to function as designed, the wastewater pond must treated wastewater.
provide sufficient macro- and micronutrients for the microor-
ganisms to grow and populate the system adequately. It should Sulfur
be understood that a treatment pond system should be neither Sulfur (S) is a required nutrient for microorganisms, and it is
overloaded nor underloaded with wastewater nutrients. usually present in sufficient concentration in natural waters.
Nitrogen can be a limiting nutrient for primary productiv- Because S is rarely limiting, its removal from wastewater is
ity in a pond. The conversion of organic N to various other usually not considered necessary. Ecologically, S compounds
N forms results in a total net loss (Assenzo & Reid, 1966; such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4)
Pano & Middlebrooks, 1982; Middlebrooks et al., 1982; are toxic, while the oxidation of certain S compounds is an
Middlebrooks & Pano, 1983; Craggs, 2005). This N loss important energy source for some aquatic bacteria (Lynch &
may be due to algal uptake or bacterial action. It is likely Poole, 1979; Pearson, 2005).
that both mechanisms contribute to the overall total N reduc-
tion. Another factor contributing to the reduction of total N Carbon
is the removal of gaseous NH3 under favorable environmen- The decomposable organic C content of a waste is tradition-
tal conditions. Regardless of the specific removal mechanism ally measured in terms of its BOD5, or the amount of O2
involved, NH3 under favorable environmental conditions. required under standardized conditions for the aerobic bio-
Regardless of the specific removal mechanism involved, NH3 logical stabilization of the organic matter over a certain period
removal in facultative wastewater ponds have been observed of time. Since complete treatment by biological oxidation can
at levels greater than 90%, with the major removal occurring take several weeks, depending on the organic material and the
in the primary cell of a multicell pond system (Middlebrooks organism present, standard practice is to use the BOD5 as an
et al., 1982; Shilton, 2005; Crites et al., 2006; USEPA, 2011). index of the organic carbon content or organic strength of a
waste. The removal of BOD5 is a primary criterion by which
Phosphorus treatment efficiency is evaluated.
Phosphorus (P) is most often the growth-limiting nutri- BOD5 reduction in wastewater ponds ranging from
ent in aquatic environments. Municipal wastewater in 50–95% has been reported in the literature. Various factors
affect the rate of reduction of BOD5. A very rapid reduction Example 16.29
occurs in a wastewater pond during the first five to seven days.
Subsequent reductions take place at a sharply reduced rate. Problem: A stabilization pond has a volume of 53.5 ac-ft.
BOD5 removals are generally much lower during winter and What is the detention time in days when the flow is 0.30
early spring than in summer and early fall. Many regulatory MGD?
agencies recommend that pond operations do not include dis-
charge during cold periods. SOLUTION:
Flow, ac-ft/day = 0.30 MGD ´ 3.069
Process Control Calculations for Stabilization
= 0.92 ac-ft/day
Ponds
Process control calculations are an important part of waste-
53.5 acre
water treatment operations, including pond operations. More D.T. Days = = 58.2 days
significantly, process control calculations are an important 0.92 ac-ft/day
part of state wastewater licensing examinations—you simply
cannot master the licensing examinations without being able Hydraulic Loading, Inches/Day (Overflow Rate)
to perform the required calculations. Thus, as with previous
sections (and with sections to follow), whenever possible, Hydraulic Loading, in./Day
example process control problems are provided to enhance
your knowledge and skill. Influent Flow, ac-in./Day (16.39)
=
Pond Area, Ac
Determining Pond Area in Acres
Pop. Loading, People/Acre/Day
Pop. Served by System, People (16.40)
Area, ft 2 =
Area, acres = (16.34)
43, 560 ft 2 /acre Pond Area, Acres
Note: Population loading normally ranges from 50 to 500
Determining Pond Volume in Ac-Ft people per acre.
Volume, ft 3 Organic Loading

Volume, acre-feet = (16.35)
43, 560 ft 3 /ac-ft Organic loading can be expressed as pounds of BOD5 per acre
per day (most common), pounds BOD5 per acre-foot per day
Determining Flow Rate in Acre Feet/Day or people per acre per day.
Organic L, lb BOD 5 /Acre/Day

Flow, ac-ft/day = Flow, MGD ´ 3.069 ac-ft/MG (16.36)
BOD5 , mg/L ´ Infl. flow, MGD ´ 8.34 (16.41)
Note: Acre-feet (ac-ft) is a unit that can cause confusion, espe- =
Poond Area, Acres
cially for those not familiar with pond or lagoon operations.
1 ac-ft is the volume of a box with a 1-acre top and 1 ft of Note: Normal range is 10 to 50 lbs BOD5 per day per acre.
depth—but the top doesn’t have to be an even number of acres
in size to use acre-feet. Example 16.30
Determining Flow Rate in Ac-in./Day Problem: A wastewater treatment pond has an average
width of 380 ft and an average length of 725 ft. The influ-
Flow, acre-inches/day ent flowrate to the pond is 0.12 MGD with a BOD concen-
(16.37) tration of 160 mg/L. What is the organic loading rate to the
= Flow, MGD ´ 36.8 ac-in./MG pond in pounds per day per acre (lb/d/ac)?
HDT in Days SOLUTION:

1 ac
Hydraulic Detention Time, Days 725 ft ´ 380 ft ´ = 6.32 acre
43, 560 ft 2
Pond Volume, ac-ft (16.38)
= 0.12 MGD ´ 160 mg/L ´ 8.34 lb/gal = 160.1lb/d
Influent Flow, ac-ft/Day
160.1lb/d
Note: Normally, HDT ranges from 30 to 120 days for stabili- = 25.3 lb/d/ac
6.32 ac
zation ponds.
wastewater treatment systems, the trickling filter follows pri-

DID YOU KNOW? mary treatment and includes a secondary settling tank or
clarifier as shown in Figure 16.4. Trickling filters are widely
Common maintenance problems associated with pond
used for the treatment of domestic and industrial wastes. The
systems include:
process is a fixed film biological treatment method designed
to remove BOD5 and suspended solids.
• Weed control—cattails and other rooted aquatic
A trickling filter consists of a rotating distribution arm
plants
that sprays and evenly distributes liquid wastewater over a
• Algae control—blue-green and associated float-
circular bed of fist-sized rocks, other coarse materials, or syn-
ing algae mats
thetic media (see Figure 16.5). The spaces between the media
• Burrowing animals—muskrats and turtles
allow air to circulate easily so that aerobic conditions can be
• Duckweed control and removal
maintained. The spaces also allow wastewater to trickle down
• Floating sludge mats
through, around, and over the media. A layer of biological
• Dike vegetation—mowing and removing woody
slime that absorbs and consumes the wastes trickling through
plants
the bed covers the media material. The organisms aerobi-
• Dike erosion—rip rap and proper vegetation
cally decompose the solids producing more organisms and
• Fence maintenance to restrict access
stable wastes, which either become part of the slime or are
• Mechanical equipment—pumps, blowers, etc.
discharged back into the wastewater flowing over the media.
This slime consists mainly of bacteria, but it may also include
algae, protozoa, worms, snails, fungi, and insect larvae. The
accumulating slime occasionally sloughs off (sloughings)
DID YOU KNOW? individual media materials (see Figure 16.6) and is collected
at the bottom of the filter, along with the treated wastewa-
Duckweed must be physically removed with a rake,
ter, and passed on to the secondary settling tank where it is
pushboard, or broom. With sufficient wind, the duck-
removed. The overall performance of the trickling filter is
weed will be pushed to one side or corner of a pond.
dependent on hydraulic and organic loading, temperature, and
This is an ideal time to rake them out. It is important
recirculation.
that duckweed not be allowed to become too abun-
dant, as it reduces oxygen transfer at the water surface, Trickling Filter Definitions
reduces light penetration and photosynthesis, and upon
To clearly understand the correct operation of the trickling
decomposing, can cause both odor and BOD problems.
filter, the operator must be familiar with certain terms.
Note: The following list of terms applies to the trickling
filter process. We assume that other terms related to other
units within the treatment system (plant) are already familiar
Trickling Filters
to operators.
Trickling filters have been used to treat wastewater since the
1890s. It was found that if settled wastewater was passed • Biological towers—It is a type of trickling filter that
over rock surfaces, slime grew on the rocks, and the water is very deep (10–20 ft). Filled with a lightweight
became cleaner. Today we still use this principle but, in many synthetic media, these towers are also known as
installations, instead of rocks, we use plastic media. In most oxidation or roughing towers or (because of their
Waste sludge
Cl2or NaOCl
Bar Racks Grit Primary Trickling Settling Chlorine

Influent Screens Effluent
Chamber sedimentation filter tank contact tank
Sracks
Screenings
Sludge
Grit
Return effluent
FIGURE 16.4 Simplified flow diagram of trickling filter used for wastewater treatment. Spellman, F.R., 2013. Handbook of Water and
Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, 3rd ed. Boca Raton, FL: Lewis Publishers.
Waste sludge
Cl2 or NaOCl
Chlorine
Grit Primary Trickling Settling contact Effluent
Influent Bar Racks
Screenings Chamber sedimentation filter tank tank
Sludge
Grit
Return effluent
FIGURE 16.5 Schematic of cross-section of a trickling filter.
FIGURE 16.6 Filter media showing biological activities that take place on the surface area.
extremely high hydraulic loading) super-rate trick- • High-rate trickling filters—These are a classification
ling filters. (see Table 16.4) in which the organic loading is in
• Biomass—It is the total mass of organisms attached the range of 25–100 pounds of BOD5 per 1,000 cubic
to the media. Similar to solids inventory in the acti- feet of media per day. The standard rate filter may
vated sludge process, it is sometimes referred to as also produce a highly nitrified effluent.
the zoogleal slime. • Media—It is an inert substance placed in the filter
• Distribution arm—It is the device most widely used to provide a surface for the microorganism to grow
to apply wastewater evenly over the entire surface of on. The media can be filed stone, crushed stone, slag,
the media. In most cases, the force of the wastewater plastic, or redwood slats.
being sprayed through the orifices moves the arm. • Organic loading—It is the amount of BOD5 or COD
• Filter underdrain—It is the open space provided applied to a given volume of filter media. It does not
under the media to collect the liquid (wastewater and include theBOD5 or COD contributed to any recircu-
sloughings) and to allow air to enter the filter. It has lated flow and is commonly expressed as pounds of
a sloped floor to collect the flow to a central channel BOD5 or COD per 1,000 cubic feet of media.
for removal. • Recirculation—It is the return of filter effluent back
• Hydraulic loading—It is the amount of wastewa- to the head of the trickling filter. It can level flow
ter flow applied to the surface of the trickling filter variations and assist in solving operational problems,
media. It can be expressed in several ways: flow per such as ponding, filter flies, and odors.
square foot of surface per day (gpd/ft2); flow per • Roughing filters—It is a classification of trickling
acre per day (MGAD); or flow per acre foot per day filters (see Table 16.5) in which the organic is in
(MGAFD). The hydraulic loading includes all flow excess of 200 pounds of BOD5 per 1,000 cubic feet
entering the filter. of media per day. A roughing filter is used to reduce
TABLE 16.4
Trickling Filter Classification
Filter Class Standard Intermediate High Rate Super High Rate Roughing
Hydraulic Loading gpd/ft2 25–90 90–230 230–900 350–2,100 >900
Organic Loading BOD
Per 1,000 ft3 5–25 15–30 25–300 Up to 300 >300
Sloughing Frequency Seasonal Varies Continuous Continuous Continuous
Distribution Rotary Rotary Fixed Rotary Fixed Rotary Rotary Fixed
Recirculation No Usually Always Usually Not Usually
Media Depth, ft 6–8 6–8 3–8 Up to 40 3–20
Media Type Rock Rock Rock Plastic Rock
Plastic Plastic Plastic Plastic
Wood Wood Wood Wood
Nitrification Yes Some Some Limited None
Filter Flies Yes Variable Variable Very few Not Usually
BOD Removal 80–85% 50–70% 65–80% 65–85% 40–65%
TSS Removal 80–85% 50–70% 65–80% 65–85% 40–65%
TABLE 16.5
Activated Sludge Modifications
Parameter Conventional Contact Stabilization Extended Aeration Oxidation Ditch
Aeration Time, h 4–8 0.5–1.5 (contact) 24 24
3–6 (re-aeration)
Settling Time, h 2–4 2–4 2–4 2–4
Return Rate, % of Influent Flow 25–100 25–100 25–100 25–100
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids (MLSS), mg/L 1,500 – 1,000–3,000 2,000–6,000 2,000–6,000
4,000 3,000–8,000
Dissolved Oxygen (DO), mg/L 1–3 1–3 1–3 1–3
Settled sludge volume (SSV30), ml/L 400–700 400–700 400–700 400–700 (contact)
Food: Mass Ratio lbs Biochemical oxygen demand 0.2–0.5 0.2–0.6 0.05–0.15 (contact) 0.05–0.15
(BOD5)/lb Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids
(MLVSS)
Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) (Whole System [d]) 5–15 N/A 20–30 20–30
% Removal BOD5 85–95% 85–95% 85–95% 85–95%
% Removal Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 85–95% 85–95% 85–95% 85–95%
Primary Treatment Yes No No No
the loading on other biological treatment processes most common system is the rotary distributor which moves
to produce an industrial discharge that can be safely above the surface of the media and sprays the wastewater
treated in a municipal treatment facility. on the surface. The force of the water leaving the orifices
• Sloughing—It is the process in which the excess drives the rotary system. The distributor arms usually have
growths break away from the media and wash small plates below each orifice to spread the wastewater
through the filter to the underdrains with the waste- into a fan-shaped distribution system. The second type of
water. These sloughings must be removed from the distributor is the fixed nozzle system. In this system, the
flow by settling. nozzles are fixed in place above the media and are designed
• Staging—It is the practice of operating two or more to spray the wastewater over a fixed portion of the media.
trickling filters in series. The effluent of one filter This system is used frequently with deep bed synthetic
is used as the influent of the next. This practice can media filters.
produce a higher quality effluent by removing addi- Note: Trickling filters that use ordinary rock are normally
tional BOD5 or COD. only about 3 meters in depth because of structural problems
caused by the weight of rocks—which also requires the con-
Trickling Filter Equipment struction of beds that are quite wide, in many applications, up
The trickling filter distribution system is designed to spread to 60 ft in diameter. When synthetic media is used, the bed
wastewater evenly over the surface of the entire media. The can be much deeper.
No matter which type of media is selected, the primary to the items above the normal observation for a settling tank
consideration is that it must be capable of providing the should also be performed.
desired film location for the development of the biomass. Recirculation is used to reduce organic loading, improve
Depending on the type of media used and the filter classifica- sloughing, reduce odors, and reduce or eliminate filter fly
tion, the media may be 3–20 or more ft in depth. or ponding problems. The amount of recirculation is depen-
The underdrains are designed to support the media, col- dent on the design of the treatment plant and the opera-
lect the wastewater and sloughings, and carry them out of the tional requirements of the process. Recirculation flow may
filter, and to provide ventilation to the filter. be expressed as a specific flow rate (i.e., 2.0 MGD). In most
Note: In order to ensure sufficient airflow to the filter the cases, it is expressed as a ratio (3:1, 0.5:1.0, etc.). The recir-
underdrains should never be allowed to flow more than 50% culation is always listed as the first number and the influent
full of wastewater. flow listed as the second number. Because the second number
The effluent channel is designed to carry the flow from in the ratio is always 1.0, the ratio is sometimes written as a
the trickling filter to the secondary settling tank. The second- single number (dropping the: 1.0)
ary settling tank provides 2–4 h of detention time to separate Flows can be recirculated from various points following
the sloughing materials from the treated wastewater. Design, the filter to various points before the filter. The most common
construction, and operation are similar to that of the primary form of recirculation removes flow from the filter effluent or
settling tank. Longer detention times are provided because settling tank and returns it to the influent of the trickling filter
the sloughing materials are lighter and settle more slowly. as shown in Figure 16.7.
Recirculation pumps and piping are designed to recircu- Maintenance requirements include lubrication of mechani-
late (and thus improve the performance of the trickling filter cal equipment, removal of debris from the surface and ori-
or settling tank) a portion of the effluent back to be mixed fices, as well as adjustment of flow patterns and maintenance
with the filter influent. When recirculation is used, obviously, associated with the settling tank.
pumps and metering devices must be provided.
General Process Description
Filter Classifications The trickling filter process involves spraying wastewater over
Trickling filters are classified by hydraulic and organic load- a solid media such as rock, plastic, or redwood slats (or laths).
ing. Moreover, the expected performance and the construction As the wastewater trickles over the surface of the media, a
of the trickling filter are determined by the filter classification. growth of microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, fungi, algae,
Filter classifications include standard rate, intermediate rate, helminths or worms, and larvae) develops. This growth is vis-
high rate, supers high rate (plastic media), and roughing rate ible as a shiny slime very similar to the slime found on rocks
types. Standard rate, high rate, and roughing rate are the fil- in a stream. As the wastewater passes over this slime, the
ter types most commonly used. The standard rate filter has slime adsorbs the organic (food) matter. This organic matter
a hydraulic loading (gpd/cu ft) of from 25 to 90; a seasonal is used for food by the microorganisms. At the same time, air
sloughing frequency; does not employ recirculation; and typi- moving through the open spaces in the filter transfers oxygen
cally has an 80–85% BOD5 removal rate and 80–85% TSS to the wastewater. This oxygen is then transferred to the slime
removal rate. The high rate filter has a hydraulic loading (gpd/ to keep the outer layer aerobic. As the microorganisms use
ft3) of 230 to 900; a continuous sloughing frequency; always the food and oxygen, they produce more organisms, carbon
employs recirculation; and typically has a 65–80% BOD5
removal rate and 65–80% TSS removal rate. The roughing
Influent flow
filter has a hydraulic loading (gpd/ft3) of >900; a continuous
sloughing frequency; does not normally include recirculation;
and typically has a 40–65% removal rate and 40–65% TSS Organic matter
removal rate.
Zoogleal Slime
Standard Operating Procedures
Standard operating procedures for trickling filters include
sampling and testing, observation, recirculation, maintenance,
and expectations of performance. Collection of influent and Media
process effluent samples to determine performance and moni-
tor process condition of trickling filters is required. DO, pH,
and settleable solids testing should be collected daily. BOD5
and suspended solids testing should be done as often as practi-
Sloughing
cal to determine the percent removal.
The operation and condition of the filter should be observed
daily. Items to observe include the distributor movement, uni- Oxygen Air
formity of distribution, evidence of operation or mechanical
problems, and the presence of objectionable odors. In addition FIGURE 16.7 Common forms of recirculation.
dioxide, sulfates, nitrates, and other stable by-products; these Recirculation:

materials are then discarded from the slime back into the
wastewater flow and are carried out of the filter: Recirculation flow, MGD
ratio =
Ave. influent flow, MGD
Organics + Organisms + O2
(16.42)
= More Organisms + CO2 + Solid Wastes Operator Observations
Trickling filter operation requires routine observation, meter
The growth of the microorganisms and the buildup of solid readings, process control sampling and testing, and pro-
wastes in the slime make it thicker and heavier. When this cess control calculations. Comparison of daily results with
slime becomes too thick, the wastewater flow breaks off parts expected “normal” ranges is the key to identifying problems
of the slime. These must be removed in the final settling and appropriate corrective actions.
tank. In some trickling filters, a portion of the filter effluent
is returned to the head of the trickling filter to level out varia- Operator Observations
tions in flow and improves operations (recirculation). (1) Slime—The operator checks the thickness of slime
to ensure that it is thin and uniform (normal) or thick
Overview and Brief Summary of Trickling Filter Process and heavy (indicates organic overload); the operator
A trickling filter consists of a bed of coarse media, usually is also concerned with ensuring that excessive recir-
rocks or plastic, covered with microorganisms. culation is not taking place and checks slime tox-
Note: Trickling filters that use ordinary rock are normally icity (if any). The operator is also concerned about
only about 10 ft in depth because of structural problems the color of the slime: green slime is normal; dark
caused by the weight of rocks, which also requires the con- green/black slime indicates organic overload; other
struction of beds that are quite wide—in many applications, colors may indicate industrial waste or chemical
up to 60 ft in diameter. When synthetic media are used, the additive contamination. The operator should check
bed can be much deeper. the subsurface growth of the slime to ensure that it
is normal (thin and translucent). If growth is thick
• The wastewater is applied to the media at a con- and dark, organic overload conditions are indicated.
trolled rate, using a rotating distributor arm or fixed Distribution arm operation is a system function
nozzles. Organic material is removed by contact with important to slime formation; it must be checked reg-
the microorganisms as the wastewater trickles down ularly for proper operation. For example, the distri-
through the media openings. The treated wastewater bution of slime should be even and uniform. Striped
is collected by an underdrain system. conditions indicate clogged orifices or nozzles.
Note: To ensure sufficient air flow to the filter, the (2) Flow—Flow distribution must be checked to ensure
underdrains should never be allowed to flow more uniformity. If non-uniform, the arms are not level
than 50% full of wastewater. or the orifices are plugged. Flow drainage is also
• The trickling filter is usually built into a tank that important. Drainage should be uniform and rapid. If
contains the media. The filter may be square, rectan- not, ponding may occur from media breakdown or
gular, or circular. debris on the surface.
• The trickling filter does not provide any actual filtra- (3) Distributor—Movement of the distributor is critical
tion. The filter media provides a large amount of sur- to proper operation of the trickling filter. Movement
face area that the microorganisms can cling to and should be uniform and smooth. Chattering, noisy
grow in a slime that forms on the media as they feed operation may indicate bearing failure. The dis-
on the organic material in the wastewater. tributor seal must be checked to ensure there is no
• The slime growth on the trickling filter media peri- leakage.
odically sloughs off and is settled and removed in a (4) Recirculation—The operator must check the rate of
secondary clarifier that follows the filter. recirculation to ensure that it is within design speci-
• Key factors in trickling filter operation include the fications. Rates above design specifications indicate
following concepts: hydraulic overloading; rates under design specifica-
Hydraulic loading rate: tions indicate hydraulic underloading.
Note: Recirculation reduces the organic load-
gal/day flow, gal day (including recirculation) ing, improves sloughing, reduces odors, and reduces
=
Sq. ft media top surface, sq. ft or eliminates filter fly or ponding problems. The
amount of recirculation needed depends on the
Organic loading rate: design of the treatment plant and the operational
requirements of the process. Recirculation flow may
lb/day BOD in filter, lb/day be expressed as a specific flow rate (i.e., 2.0-MGD).
=
1, 000 cu ft Media Vol., 1, 000 cu ft In most cases, it is expressed as a ratio (3:1, 0.5:1.0,
etc.). The recirculation is always listed as the first Ponding

number, and the influent flow is listed as the second Symptoms:
number. • Small pools or puddles of water on the surface
Note: Because the second number in the ratio is of the media
always 1.0, the ratio is sometimes written as a single • Decreased performance in the removal of BOD
number (dropping the: 1.0). and TSS
(5) Media—The operator should check to ensure that • Possible odors due to anaerobic conditions in the
the medium is uniform. media
• Poor air flow through the media
Process Control Sampling and Testing Causal Factors:
To ensure proper operation of the trickling filter, sampling and • Inadequate hydraulic loading to keep the media
scheduling are important. However, for samples and the tests voids flushed clear
derived from the samples to be beneficial, operators must per- • Application of high strength wastes without suf-
form a variety of daily or variable tests. Individual tests and ficient recirculation to provide dilution
sampling may be needed daily, weekly, or monthly, depending • Non-uniform media
on seasonal change. Frequency may be lower during normal • Degradation of the media due to aging or
operations and higher during abnormal conditions. The infor- weathering
mation gathered through the collection and analysis of samples • Medium is uniform but is too small
from various points in the trickling filter process is helpful in • Debris (moss, leaves, sticks) or living organisms
determining the current status of the process as well as identi- (snails) that clog the void spaces
fying and correcting operational problems. The following rou- Corrective Actions (listed in increasing impact on the
tine sampling points and types of tests will permit the operator quality of the plant effluent):
to identify normal and abnormal operating conditions. • Remove all leaves, sticks, and other debris from
the media.
Filter influent tests • Increase recirculation of dilute, high-strength
DO wastes to improve sloughing to keep voids open.
pH • Use high-pressure stream of water to agitate and
Temperature flush the ponded area.
Settleable solids • Rake or fork the ponded area.
BOD5 • Dose the filter with chlorine solution for 2–4 h.
Suspended solids The specific dose of chlorine required will depend
Metals on the severity of the ponding problem. When
Recirculated flow using elemental chlorine, the dose must be suf-
DO ficient to provide a residual at the orifices of 1–50
pH mg/l. If the filter is severely clogged, the higher
Flow rate residuals may be needed to unload the majority of
Temperature the biomass. If the filter cannot be dosed by ele-
Filter effluent mental chlorine, chlorinated lime or HTH powder
DO may be used. Dosing should be in the range of
pH 8–10 lbs of chlorine per 1,000 sq ft of media.
Jar tests • If the filter design permits, the filter media can be
Process effluent flooded for a period of 4 h. Remember, if the filter
DO is flooded, care must be taken to prevent hydraulic
pH overloads of the final settling tank. The trickling
Settleable solids filter should be drained slowly at low flow periods.
BOD5 • Dry the media. By stopping the flow to the filter,
Suspended solids the slime will dry and loosen. When the flow is
restarted, the loosened slime will flow out of the
Troubleshooting Operational Problems
filter. The amount of drying time will be depen-
(Much of the information in this section is based on USEPA’s dent on the thickness of the slime and the amount
Field Manual Performance Evaluation and Troubleshooting of removal desired. Time may range from a few
at Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities. Washington, hours to several days.
DC, current editions.) The following sections are not all
inclusive; they do not cover all of the operational problems
associated with the trickling filter process. They do pro- Note: Portions of the media can be dried without taking the
vide, however, information on the most common operational filter out of service by plugging the orifices that normally ser-
problems. vice the area.
Note: If these corrective actions do not provide the desired Causal factors:
improvement, the media must be carefully inspected. Remove • Recirculated flows are too high, causing hydrau-
a sample of the media from the affected area. Carefully clean lic overloading of the settling tank. In multiple
it, inspect for its solidity, and determine its size uniformity unit operations, the flow is not evenly distributed.
(3–5 in.). If it is acceptable, the media must be carefully • Settling tank baffles or skirts have corroded or
replaced. If the media appear to be decomposing or are not broken.
uniform, then they should be replaced. • Sludge collection mechanism is broken or
malfunctioning.
Odors • Effluent weirs are not level.
Frequent offensive odors usually indicate an operational • Short-circuiting occurs because of temperature
problem. These foul odors occur within the filter periodi- variations.
cally and are normally associated with anaerobic conditions. • Improper sludge withdrawal rate or frequency.
Under normal circumstances, a slight anaerobic slime layer • Excessive solids loading from excessive sloughing.
forms due to the inability of oxygen to penetrate all the way Corrective actions:
to the media. However, under normal operation, the outer • Check hydraulic loading and adjust recirculated
slime layers will remain aerobic, and no offensive odors are flow if hydraulic loading is too high.
produced. • Adjust flow to ensure equal distribution.
• Inspect sludge removal equipment; repair broken
Causal Factors: equipment.
• Excessive organic loading due to poor filter efflu- • Monitor sludge blanket depth and sludge sol-
ent quality (recirculation); poor primary treat- ids concentration; adjust withdrawal rate and/or
ment operation; poor control of sludge treatment frequency to maintain aerobic conditions in set-
process that results in high BOD5 recycle flows tling tank.
• Poor ventilation because of submerged or • Adjust effluent weir to obtain equal flow over all
obstructed underdrains, clogged vent pipes, or parts of the weir length.
clogged void spaces • Determine temperature in the clarifier at vari-
• Filter is overloaded hydraulically and/or ous points and depths throughout the clarifier. If
organically depth temperatures are consistently 1–2°F lower
• Poor housekeeping than surface readings, a temperature problem
Corrective actions: exists. Baffles may be installed to help to break
• Evaluate the operation of the primary treat- up these currents.
ment process. Eliminate any short-circuiting. • High sloughing rates because of biological activ-
Determine any other actions that can be taken to ity or temperature changes may create excessive
improve the performance of the primary process. solids loading. Addition of 1–2 mg/l of a cationic
• Evaluate and adjust control of sludge treatment polymer may be helpful in improving solids cap-
processes to reduce the BOD5 or recycle flows. ture. Remember, if polymer addition is used, sol-
• Increase recirculation rate to add additional DO ids withdrawal must be increased.
(DO) to filter influent. Do not increase recircula- • High sloughings because of organic overloading,
tion rate if the flow rate through the underdrains toxic wastes, or wide variations in influent flow
would cause less than 50% open space. are best controlled at their source.
• Maintain aerobic conditions in filter influent.
• Remove debris from media surface. Filter Flies
• Flush underdrains and vent pipes. Symptoms:
• Add one of the commercially available masking • The trickling filter and surrounding area become
agents to reduce odors and prevent complaints. populated with large numbers of very small fly-
• Add chlorine at a 1–2 mg/l residual for several ing insects (psychoda moths).
hours at low flow. This will reduce activity and Causal factors:
cut down on oxygen demand. Chlorination only • Poor housekeeping
treats symptoms; a permanent solution must be • Insufficient recirculation
determined and instituted. • Intermittent wet and dry conditions
• Warm weather
Corrective actions (note that corrective actions for filter
High Clarifier Effluent Suspended Solids and/or BOD fly problems revolve around the need to disrupt the
Symptom: fly’s life cycle—7–10 days in warm weather):
• The effluent from the trickling filter process- • Increase recirculation rate to obtain a hydraulic
settling unit contains a high concentration of loading of at least 200 gpd/sq ft. At this rate, filter
suspended solids. fly larvae are normally flushed out of the filter.
• Clean filter walls and remove weeds, brush, and Total Flow, MGD
shrubbery around the filter. This removes some
of the areas for fly breeding. = Influent Flow, MGD (16.43)
• Dose the filter periodically with low chlorine
+ Recirculation Flow, MGD
concentrations (less than 1 mg/l). This normally
destroys larvae.
• Dry the filter media for several hours. Total Flow, gpd = Total Flow, MGD

• Flood the filter for 24 h. ´1, 000, 000 gallons /MG
• Spray area around the filter with insecticide.
Do not use insecticide directly on the media, Note: The total flow to the tricking filter includes the influent
because of the chance of carryover and unknown flow and the recirculated flow. This can be determined using
effects on the slime populations. the recirculation ratio.
Freezing Total Flow, MGD

Symptoms:
• Decreased air temperature results in visible ice = influent Flow ´ ( Recirculation Rate + 1.0 )
formation and decreased performance.
• Distributed wastes are in a thin film or spray. Example 16.31
This is more likely to cause ice formation.
Causal factors: Problem: The trickling filter is currently operating with a
• Recirculation causes increased temperature recirculation rate of 1.5. What is the total flow applied to
drops and losses. the filter when the influent flow rate is 3.65 MGD?
• Strong prevailing winds cause heat losses.
• Intermittent dosing allows water to stand too SOLUTION:
long, causing freezing. Total Flow, MGD = 3.65 MGD ´ (1.5 + 1.0 )
Corrective actions (are based upon a need to
reduce heat loss as the wastes move through the = 9.13 MGD
filter):
• Reduce recirculation as much as possible to min- Hydraulic Loading
imize cooling effects. Calculating the hydraulic loading rate is important in account-
• Operate two-stage filters in parallel to reduce ing for both the primary effluent as well as the recirculated
heat loss. trickling filter effluent. Both of these are combined before
• Adjust splash plates and orifices to obtain a being applied to the surface of the filter. The hydraulic load-
coarse spray. ing rate is calculated based on the surface area of the filter.
• Construct a windbreak or plant evergreens or
shrubs in the direction of the prevailing wind. Example 16.32
• If intermittent dosing is used, leave dump gates
open. Problem: A trickling filter 90-ft in diameter is operated
• Cover pump wet wells and dose tanks to reduce with a primary effluent of 0.488 MGD and a recirculated
heat losses. effluent flowrate of 0.566 MGD. Calculate the hydraulic
• Cover filter media to reduce heat loss. loading rate on the filter in units gpd/sq ft.
• Remove ice before it becomes large enough to
cause stoppage of arms. SOLUTION:
The primary effluent and recirculated trickling filter efflu-
Note: During periods of cold weather, the filter will show ent are applied together across the surface of the filter;
decreased performance. However, the filter should not be shut therefore,
off for extended periods. Freezing of the moisture trapped
within the media causes expansion and may cause structural 0.488 MGD + 0.566 MGD = 1.054 MGD
damage.
= 1,054,000 gpd
Process Calculations
Several calculations are useful in the operation of a trickling Circular surface area = 0.785 ´ (diameter)2
filter, these include total flow, hydraulic loading, and organic = 0.785 ´ (90 ft )2
loading.
= 6,359 ft 2
Total Flow 1,054,000 gpd

= 165.7 gpd/ft 2
If the recirculated flow rate is given, the total flow is: 6,359 ft 2

As mentioned earlier, trickling filters are sometimes classified Answer: The days of filling a feedbag of a horse-
by the Organic Loading Rate applied. The organic loading drawn milk wagon being long gone, the sensible use is
rate is expressed as a certain amount of BOD applied to a to float it, the straw portion at least, on your pond, ditch,
certain volume of media. impoundment, or reservoir. Why? Well, as some people
have fond from German Valley to Manchester, Illinois,
and England respectively, your water will be clearer,
Example 16.33 cleaner, and lower in suspended solids due to algae.
Studied in the UK, the decomposition of bar-
Problem: A trickling filter, 50 ft in diameter, receives a
ley straw and the observed effects on algae has been
primary effluent flowrate of 0.445 MGD. Calculate the
organic loading rate in units of pounds of BOD applied per
recorded since the later 1980s by multiple research
day per 900 cu ft of media volume. The primary effluent including Dr. Jonathon Newman, University of Bristol,
BOD concentration is 85 mg/L. The media depth is 9 ft. Department of Agricultural Sciences, Reading, U.K.
Over ten years’ worth of observations has distinguished
SOLUTION: “rotting barley straw” as an effective inhibitor of the
color and suspended solids attributed to various types
of algae. The research was done in “impoundments,”
0.445 MGD ´ 85 mg /L ´ 8.34 lb /gal
slow moving “canals,” and many other bodies of water;
= 315.5 BOD applied /d and has been confirmed by laboratory studies. This
has led researches to propound: “Decomposing barely
Surface Area = 0.785 ´ (50)2 straw inhibits the growth of both filamentous and blue-
green algae species in all types of water bodies so far
= 1962.5 ft 2
assessed” (Newman & Barrett, 1993).
What causes barley to be so effective is not truly iden-
Area ´ Depth = Volume tified. Again, researchers have analyzed many chemi-

1962.5 ft 2 ´ 9 ft = 17,662.5 ( TF Volume ) cal constituents produced by rotting barley straw. No
one chemical is predominant and the combined effect
Note: To determine the pounds of BOD per 1000 cu ft in appears to be the controlling factor. Not the presence
a volume of thousands of cubic feet, we must set up the of the straw, but the decomposition products appears
equation as shown below. to provide the effect. Other straws and plant material
have been tested and dismissed in preference to barley.
315.5 lb BOD/d 1000 For example, green plant materials like alfalfa and hay
´
17,662.5 1000 impart an organic load on the system while wheat straw,
Regrouping the numbers and the units together: corn, and lavender stalks seem to have poorer effects
and longevity. Despite the uncertainty of the exact
315.5 lb ´ 1000 lb BOD/d mechanism or product that produces the benefit, a ben-
= ´
17,662.5 1000 ft 3 efit it is. One easily measured and observed, at that.

Ib BOD/d Transferring the technology, if one can refer to rot-
= 17.9 ting barley straw as technology, to wastewater systems
1000 ft 3
at best would seem a stretch. Newman’s own studies
Settling Tank indicate that algae growth continues with sufficient
nutrient concentrations. Further, algae and fungi
In the operation of settling tanks that follow trickling filters,
appear to be affected while all other aquatic animal and
various calculations are routinely made to determine deten-
plant life are not. Nor is dissolved oxygen. Therefore,
tion time, surface settling rate, hydraulic loading, and sludge
no detrimental conditions would be expected and, if
pumping.
any benefit accrues in wastewater systems, all would
be positive steps.
SIDEBAR 16.1 DEPLOYING BARLEY The application, of this truly natural and beneficial
STRAW TO REDUCE ALGAL GROWTH IN product, to water bodies of all types, is fundamentally
WASTEWATER TREATMENT POND SYSTEM simple. Bundle it, float it, and watch it rot! No need to
search for the “right” type of barley straw or the vintage
(Note: The following guidance document was devel- years, if there is one. Contact the nearest, cheapest, and
oped by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency, most readily available source and have at it. A slight
Author: Charles E. Corley.) oversimplification perhaps, but the years of observation
Question: If you are not Anheuser Busch, what does have demonstrated these few basics. All confirmed by
one do with barley? trials in Illinois communities and industries.
on the surface of a medium, the RBC is instead a fixed film

What a few basics have been displayed in use in biological treatment device—the basic biological process,
Illinois include these: First, the straw must be float- however, is similar to that occurring in the trickling filter. An
ing throughout the application period. When allowed RBC consists of a series of closely spaced (mounted side by
to sink, the thought is that it becomes a detrimental side), circular, plastic (synthetic) disks, that are typically about
organic load. Secondly, since the original uses were in 3.5 m in diameter and attached to a rotating horizontal shaft
surface water ponds and impoundments and not waste- (see Figure 16.8). Approximately 40% of each disk is sub-
water systems, repeated applications are necessary mersed in a tank containing the wastewater to be treated. As
from spring thru warm weather. Warm weather and the RBC rotates, the attached biomass film (zoogleal slime)
wind action on the surface are two necessary ingredi- that grows on the surface of the disk move into and out of the
ents. Also, keeping the straw loosely packed inside a wastewater. While submerged in the wastewater, the micro-
long open-web material such as common snow fence is organisms absorb organics; while they are rotated out of the
ideal and preferred to the more open-weave Christmas wastewater, they are supplied with needed oxygen for aerobic
wrap where straws can escape. decomposition. As the zoogleal slime reenters the wastewater,
Success can be found in all corners of our state. excess solids and waste products are stripped off the media as
From Gardener to Ohio and Sorrento to Hudsonville sloughings. These sloughings are transported with the waste-
barley straw decomposition abounds. Measurable and water flow to a settling tank for removal.
observable benefits without any detrimental environ- Modular RBC units are placed in series (see Figure 16.9).
mental effects abound. First used in Gardner at the Simply because a single contactor is not sufficient to achieve
wastewater pond system, it reduced the use of copper the desired level of treatment; the resulting treatment achieved
sulfate while improving the effluent suspended solids exceeds conventional secondary treatment. Each individual
for weeks in the hottest part of the summer of 2000. The contactor is called a stage and the group is known as a train.
operator at Sorrento experienced similar benefits during Most RBC systems consist of two or more trains with three
the summer of 2002 at the water plant where lower tur- or more stages in each. The key advantage in using RBCs
bidity was demonstrated and few applications of copper instead of trickling filters is that RBCs are easier to operate
sulfate were needed. These two have a sided benefit of under varying load conditions since it is easier to keep the
reduced applications and reduced cost of an admittedly solid medium wet at all times. Moreover, the level of nitrifi-
useful but hazardous material, copper sulfate. Other cation, which can be achieved by an RBC system, is signifi-
wastewater applications include the ash pond treatment cant—especially when multiple stages are employed.
at the Amerens Hudsonville Generating station. Barley
straw here reduced the algae count in the effluent along RBC Equipment
with the suspended solids while positively affecting The equipment that makes up an RBC includes the RBC (the
the pH of the discharge to the Wabash River. Using the media: either standard or high density), a center shaft, drive
straw at Ohio was done late in the summer in 2001. Not system, tank, baffles, housing or cover, and a settling tank.
expecting a huge margin of success as a result of sludge The RBC consists of circular sheets of synthetic material
pockets in all pond cells, the floating barley straw (usually plastic) which are mounted side by side on a shaft.
booms were effective in keeping the effluent suspended The sheets (media) contain large amounts of surface area for
solids from exceeding the permitted limits for weeks. growth of the biomass. The center shaft provides support for
These and others stories could be repeated throughout the disks of media and must be strong enough to support the
Illinois with willing participants and experimentation- weight of the media and the biomass. Experience has indi-
minded communities (Note: No conflict with the EPA cated a major problem has been the collapse of the support
Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act shaft. The drive system provides the motive force to rotate the
(FIFRA) would be exempted when used in the privacy disks and shaft. The drive system may be mechanical or air
of one’s own non-public water-body or pond; which the driven or a combination of each. When the drive system does
above were. In fact, barley straw has been promoted not provide uniform movement of the RBC, major operational
without apparent conflict in the landscape pond industry problems can arise.
for decades.) Who knows, the result might be cleaner, The tank holds the wastewater that the RBC rotates in. It
clearer ponds with fewer green discharges to Illinois’ should be large enough to permit variation of the liquid depth
surface waters. Better water quality. What a concept! and detention time. Baffles are required to permit proper
adjustment of the loading applied to each stage of the RBC
process. Adjustment can be made to increase or decrease the
submergence of the RBC. RBC stages are normally enclosed
in some type of protective structure (cover) to prevent loss
Rotating Biological Contactors
of biomass due to severe weather changes (snow, rain, tem-
The RBC is a biological treatment system (see Figure 16.9) perature, wind, sunlight, etc.). In many instances this hous-
and is a variation of the attached growth idea provided by ing greatly restricts access to the RBC. The settling tank is
the trickling filter. Still relying on microorganisms that grow provided to remove the sloughing material created by the
Primary Trickling Secondary

Settling Filter Settling
Recirculating

Recirculating

Recirculating
FIGURE 16.8 Rotating biological contactor (RBC) cross-section and treatment system.
biological activity and is similar in design to the primary set- access door. Slime color and appearance can indicate process
tling tank. The settling tank provides 2–4-h detention times condition, for example:
to permit settling of lighter biological solids.
• Gray, shaggy slime growth—indicates normal
RBC Operation operation
During normal operation, operator vigilance is required to • Reddish brown, golden shaggy growth—indicates
observe the RBC movement, slime color, and appearance. nitrification
However, if the unit is covered, observations may be limited • White chalky appearance—indicates high sulfur
to that portion of the media, which can be viewed through the concentrations
• No slime—indicates severe temperature or pH
Zoogleal Slime changes
Oxygen
Sampling and testing should be conducted daily for DO con-
tent and pH. BOD5 and suspended solids testing should also
Media
be accomplished to aid in assessing performance.
RBC Expected Performance

The RBC normally produces a high quality effluent with
BOD5 at 85–95% and suspended solids removal at 85–95%.
Sloughings
The RBC treatment process may also significantly reduce (if
Organic designed for this purpose) the levels of organic nitrogen and
matter
ammonia nitrogen.
Wastewater holding tank

Operator Observations
Rotating biological filter operation requires routine observa-
FIGURE 16.9 Rotating biological contactor (RBC) treatment tion, process control sampling and testing, troubleshooting,
system. and process control calculations. Comparison of daily results
with expected “normal” ranges is the key to identifying prob- Troubleshooting at Municipal Wastewater Treatment
lems and appropriate corrective actions. Facilities, Washington, DC, current edition; see Culp & Heim,
Note: If the RBC is covered, observations may be limited 1978). The following sections are not all inclusive; they do
to the portion of the media that can be viewed through the not cover all of the operational problems associated with the
access door. rotating biological contactor process. They do, however, pro-
vide information on the most common operational problems.
(1) Rotation—The operator routinely checks the opera-
tion of the RBC to ensure that smooth, uniform (1) White Slime
rotation is occurring (normal operation). Erratic, Symptoms:
non-uniform rotation indicates a mechanical prob- – white slime on most of the disk area
lem or uneven slime growth. If no movement is Causal Factors:
observed, mechanical problems or extreme excess of – high hydrogen sulfide in influent
slime growth are indicated. – septic influent
(2) Slime Color/Appearance—Gray, shaggy slime • first stage overloaded
growth on the RBC indicates normal operation. Corrective Actions:
Reddish brown or golden brown shaggy growth indi- – aerate RBC or plant influent
cates normal during nitrification. A very dark brown, – add sodium nitrate or hydrogen peroxide to
shaggy growth (with worms present) indicates a very influent
old slime. White chalky growth indicates high influ- – adjust baffles between stages 1 and 2 to
ent sulfur/sulfide levels. No visible slime growth increase fraction of total surface area in first
to the RBC indicates a severe pH or temperature stage
change.
(2) Excessive Sloughing
RBC Process Control Sampling and Testing Symptoms:
For process control, the RBC process does not require large – loss of slime
amounts of sampling and testing to provide the information Causal Factors:
required. The frequency for performing suggested testing – excessive pH variance
depends on available resources and the variability of pro- • toxic influent
cesses. Frequency may be lower during normal operation and Corrective Actions:
higher during abnormal conditions. The following routine – implement/enforce pretreatment program
sampling points and types of tests will permit the operator to – install pH control equipment
identify normal and abnormal operating conditions. – equalize flow to acclimate organisms
(1) RBC train influent tests (3) RBC Rotation

DO Symptoms:
pH – RBC rotation is uneven
Temperature Causal Factors:
Settleable Solids – mechanical growth
BOD5 • uneven growth
Suspended Solids Corrective Actions:
Metals – repair mechanical problem
(2) RBC test – increase rotational speed
Speed of rotation – adjust baffles to decrease loading
(3) RBC train effluent tests – increase sloughing
DO
pH (4) Solids
Jar tests Symptoms:
(4) Process effluent tests – solids accumulating in reactors
DO Causal Factors:
pH – inadequate pretreatment
Settleable solids Corrective Actions:
BOD5 – identify and correct grit removal problem
Suspended solids – identify and correct primary settling problem
Troubleshooting Operational Problems (5) Shaft Bearings

(Much of the information in this section is based on mate- Symptoms:
rial provided by USEPA in Performance Evaluation and – shaft bearings running hot or failing
Causal Factor: solids concentration of 140 mg/L. If the K-value is 0.7, how
– inadequate maintenance many pounds of soluble BOD enter the RBC daily?
Corrective Action:
– follow the manufacturer’s recommendations SOLUTION:
Total BOD = Particulate BOD + Soluble BOD
(6) Drive Motor
Symptoms: 170 mg /l = (140 mg /l) ( 0.7 ) + x mg /l
– drive motor running hot 170 mg /l = 98 mg /l + x mg /l
Causal Factors:
– inadequate maintenance 170 mg /l – 98 mg /l = x
• improper chain drive alignment x = 72 mg /l Soluble BOD
Corrective Actions:
– follow the manufacturer’s recommendations Now, we can determine lb/day soluble BOD:
– adjust alignment
(mg /l Soluble BOD) ( MGD Flow ) ( 8.34 lb /gal)
RBC: Process Control Calculations = lb /day
Several process control calculations may be useful in the opera-
(72 mg /l) ( 2.2 MGD)( 8.34 lb /gal)
tion of an RBC. These include soluble BOD, total media area,
organic loading rate, and hydraulic loading rate. Settling tank = 1,321lb /day soluble BOD
calculations and sludge pumping calculations may be helpful for
the evaluation and control of the settling tank following the RBC. RBC Total Media Area
Several process control calculations for the RBC use the
RBC Soluble BOD
total surface area of all the stages within the train. As was
The soluble BOD5 concentration of the RBC influent can be the case with the soluble BOD calculation, plant design
determined experimentally in the laboratory, or it can be esti- information or information supplied by the unit manufac-
mated using the suspended solids concentration and the “K” turer must provide the individual stage areas (or the total
factor. The “K” factor is used to approximate the BOD5 (par- train area), because physical determination of this would be
ticulate BOD) contributed by the suspended matter. The K extremely difficult.
factor must be provided or determined experimentally in the
laboratory. The K factor for domestic wastes is normally in
the range in the range of 0.5–0.7. Total Area = 1st Stage Area + 2nd Stage Area
(16.45)
+¼+ nth Stage Area
Soluble BOD5
= Total BOD5 (16.44) RBC Organic Loading Rate
If the soluble BOD concentration is known, the organic load-
- ( K Factor ´ Total Suspended Solids )
ing on an RBC can be determined. Organic loading on an
RBC based on soluble BOD concentration can be in the range
Example 16.34
of 3–4 lbs per day per 1,000 sq ft.
Problem: The suspended solids concentration of a waste-
water is 250 mg/L. If the normal K-value at the plant is 0.6, Example 16.36
what is the estimated particulate BOD concentration of
the wastewater? Problem: A RBC has a total media surface area of
102,500 ft 2 and receives a primary effluent flowrate of
SOLUTION: 0.269 MGD. If the soluble BOD concentration of the
Note: The K-value of 0.6 indicates that about 60% of the RBC influent is 159 mg/L, what is the organic loading
suspended solids are organic suspended solids (particulate rate in lbs/1000 ft 2?
BOD).
SOLUTION:
( 250 mg /l) ( 0.6 ) = 150 mg /l Particulate BOD 8.34 lb
0.269 MGD ´ 159 mg/L ´ = 356.7 lb/d
1 gal
Example 16.35 356.7 lb/d 1000 (number)

´
102,500 ft 2 1000 (unit )
Problem: A rotating biological contactor receives a flow of
2.2 MGD with a BOD content of 170 mg/L and suspended = 3.48 lb/d/1000 ft 2
RBC Hydraulic Loading Rate Left uncontrolled, the number of organisms would eventu-
The manufacturer normally specifies the RBC media surface ally become too great; therefore, some must periodically be
area and the hydraulic loading rate is based on the media sur- removed (wasted). A portion of the concentrated solids from
face area, usually in square feet (ft2). Hydraulic loading on an the bottom of the settling tank must be removed from the pro-
RBC can range from 1 to 3 gpd/sq ft. cess (waste activated sludge or WAS). Clear supernatant from
the final settling tank is the plant effluent.
Example 16.37
Activated Sludge Terminology
Problem: A RBC treats a primary effluent flowrate of 0.233
To better understand the discussion of the activated sludge pro-
MGD. What is the hydraulic loading rate in gpd/sq ft if the
media surface area is 96,600 sq ft?
cess presented in the following sections, you must understand
the terms associated with the process. Some of these terms
SOLUTION: have been used and defined earlier in the text, but we list them
here again to refresh your memory. Review these terms and
233, 000 gpd remember them. They are used throughout the discussion.
= 2.41 gpd/ft 2
96, 600 ft 2
• Adsorption—It is the process of taking in or recep-
tion of one substance into the body of another by
ACTIVATED SLUDGE molecular or chemical actions and distribution
throughout the absorber.
The biological treatment systems discussed to this point • Activated—To speed up a reaction. When applied to
(ponds, trickling filters, and RBCs) have been around for sludge, it means that many aerobic bacteria and other
years. The trickling filter, for example, has been around and microorganisms are in the sludge particles.
successfully used since the late 1800s. The problem with • Activated sludge—It is a floc or solid formed by the
ponds, trickling filters and RBCs is that they are temperature microorganisms. It includes organisms, accumulated
sensitive, remove less BOD and, trickling filters, for example, food materials, and waste products from the aerobic
cost more to build than the activated sludge systems that were decomposition process.
later developed. • Activated sludge process—It is a biological waste-
Note: Although trickling filters and other systems cost water treatment process in which a mixture or influ-
more to build than activated sludge systems, it is important ent and activated sludge is agitated and aerated. The
to point out that activated sludge systems cost more to oper- activated sludge is subsequently separated from
ate because of the need for energy to run pumps and blowers. the treated mixed liquor by sedimentation and is
As shown in Figure 16.1, the activated sludge process fol- returned to the process as needed. The treated waste-
lows primary settling. The basic components of an activated water overflows the weir of the settling tank in which
sludge sewage treatment system include an aeration tank separation from the sludge takes place.
and a secondary basin, settling basin, or clarifier (see Figure • Adsorption—It is the adherence of dissolved, colloi-
16.10). Primary effluent is mixed with settled solids recycled dal, or finely divided solids to the surface of solid
form the secondary clarifier and is then introduced into the bodies when they are brought into contact.
aeration tank. Compressed air is injected continuously into • Aeration—It is the mixing of air and a liquid by one
the mixture through porous diffusers located at the bottom of of the following methods: spraying the liquid in the
the tank, usually along one side. air; diffusing air into the liquid; or agitating the liq-
Wastewater is fed continuously into an aerated tank, where uid to promote surface adsorption of air.
the microorganisms metabolize and biologically flocculate • Aerobic—It is a condition in which “free” or dis-
the organics. Microorganisms (activated sludge) are settled solved oxygen is present in the aquatic environment.
from the aerated mixed liquor under quiescent conditions Aerobic organisms must be in the presence of dis-
in the final clarifier and are returned to the aeration tank. solved oxygen to be active.
Rotating biological contactors Cl2
Influent Primary Secondary Effluent

Settling Settling
Tank Tanks
Solids disposal
FIGURE 16.10 The activated sludge process.

• Bacteria—These are single-cell plants that play a • Gould sludge age—It is a process control calculation
vital role in the stabilization of organic waste. used to evaluate the amount of influent suspended
• BOD—It is a measure of the amount of food avail- solids available per pound of MLSS.
able to the microorganisms in a particular waste. It • MCRT—It is the average length of time MLSS par-
is measured by the amount of dissolved oxygen used ticle remains in the activated sludge process. This is
up during a specific time period (usually five days, usually written as MCRT and may also be referred to
expressed as BOD5). as sludge retention rate (STR).
• Biodegradable—from “degrade” (to wear away or
break down chemically) and “bio” (by living organ- Solids in Activated Sludge Process, lb
MCRT, days =
isms). Put it all together, and you have a “substance, Solids Removed from Process, lb/day
usually organic, which can be decomposed by bio-
logical action.” • Mixed liquor—It is the contribution of RAS and
• Bulking—It is a problem in activated sludge wastewater (either influent or primary effluent) that
plants that results in poor settleability of sludge flows into the aeration tank.
particles. • MLSS—These are the suspended solids concentra-
• Coning—It is a condition that may be established tion of the mixed liquor. Many references use this
in a sludge hopper during sludge withdrawal when concentration to represent the amount of organisms
part of the sludge moves toward the outlet while the in the liquor. Many references use this concentration
remainder tends to stay in place. Development of a to represent the amount of organisms in the activated
cone or channel of moving liquids surrounded by sludge process. This is usually written MLSS.
relatively stationary sludge. • MLVSS—It is the organic matter in the MLSS. This
• Decomposition—Generally, in waste treatment, can also be used to represent the amount of organ-
decomposition refers to the changing of waste matter isms in the process. This is normally written as
into simpler, more stable forms that will not harm MLVSS.
the receiving stream. • Nematodes—These are microscopic worms that may
• Diffuser—It is a porous plate or tube through which appear in biological waste treatment systems.
air is forced and divided into tiny bubbles for distri- • Nutrients—These are substances required to support
bution in liquids. Commonly made of carborundum, plant organisms. Major nutrients are carbon, hydro-
aluminum, or silica sand. gen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
• Diffused air aeration—It is a diffused air activated • Protozoa—These are single-cell animals that are
sludge plant that takes air, compresses it, then dis- easily observed under the microscope at a magnifi-
charges the air below the water surface to the aerator cation of 100×. Bacteria and algae are prime sources
through some type of air diffusion device. of food for advanced forms of protozoa.
• Dissolved oxygen—It is atmospheric oxygen dis- • RAS—These are the solids returned from the set-
solved in water or wastewater, usually abbreviated tling tank to the head of the aeration tank. This is
as DO. normally written as RAS.
Note: The typical required DO for a well-oper- • Rising sludge—This rising sludge occurs in the sec-
ated activated sludge plant is between 2.0 and ondary clarifiers or activated sludge plant when the
2.5 mg/l. sludge settles to the bottom of the clarifier, is com-
• Facultative—Facultative bacteria can use either pacted, and then rises to the surface in a relatively
molecular (dissolved) oxygen or oxygen obtained short time.
from food materials. In other words, faculta- • Rotifers—These are multicellular animals with flex-
tive bacteria can live under aerobic or anaerobic ible bodies and cilia near their mouths used to attract
conditions. food. Bacteria and algae are their major source of
• Filamentous bacteria—These are organisms that food.
grow in a thread or filamentous form. • Secondary treatment—It is a wastewater treatment
• Food-to-microorganisms ratio—It is a process con- process used to convert dissolved or suspended
trol calculation used to evaluate the amount of food materials into a form that can be removed.
(BOD or COD) available per pound of MLVSS. This • Settleability—It is a process control test used to
may be written as F/M ratio. evaluate the settling characteristics of the activated
sludge. Readings taken at 30–60 min are used to cal-
Food BOD, lb/day
= culate the SSV and the SVI.
Microorganism MLVSS, lb • SSV—It is the volume of ml/l (or percent) occupied

Flow, MGD ´ BOD, mgl ´88.34 lb/gal by an activated sludge sample after 30 or 60 min of
= settling. Normally written as SSV with a subscript to
Vol, MG ´ MLVSS, mgl ´ 8.34 lb/gal
indicate the time of the reading used for calculation
• Fungi—These are multicellular aerobic organisms. (SSV30 or SSV60).
• Shock load—It is the arrival at a plant of a waste Aeration

toxic to organisms, in sufficient quantity or strength Aeration can be mechanical or diffused. Mechanical aeration
to cause operating problems, such as odor or slough- systems use agitators or mixers to mix air and mixed liquor.
ing off of the growth of slime on the trickling filter Some systems use a sparge ring to release air directly into the
media. Organic overloads also can cause a shock mixer. Diffused aeration systems use pressurized air released
load. through diffusers near the bottom of the tank. Efficiency is
• SVI—It is a process control calculation used to directly related to the size of the air bubbles produced. Fine
evaluate the settling quality of the activated sludge. bubble systems have a higher efficiency. The diffused air sys-
Requires the SSV30 and MLSS test results to calculate. tem has a blower to produce large volumes of low pressure
air (5–10 psi), air lines to carry the air to the aeration tank,
Sludge Vol. Index (SVI), mL/g headers to distribute the air to the diffusers which release the
air into the wastewater.
(30 min settled vol., m1/L) (1,, 000 mg/g)
=
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, mg/L Settling Tank
Activated sludge systems are equipped with plain settling
tanks designed to provide 2–4 h HDT.
• Solids—These are materials in the solid state.
Dissolved—These are solids present in solution. Return Sludge
Solids that will pass through a glass fiber filter.
The return sludge system includes pumps, a timer or variable
Fixed—These are also known as the inorganic sol-
speed drive to regulate pump delivery and a flow measure-
ids. The solids that are left after a sample is
ment device to determine actual flow rates.
ignited at 550° Celsius (centigrade) for 15 min.
Floatable solids—These are solids that will float to Waste Sludge
the surface of still water, sewage, or other liquid.
In some cases the waste activated sludge withdrawal is
Usually composed of grease particles, oils, light
accomplished by adjusting valves on the return system. When
plastic material, etc. Also called scum.
a separate system is used it includes pump(s), timer or variable
Non-settleable—These are finely divided suspended
speed drive and a flow measurement device.
solids that will not sink to the bottom in still
water, sewage, or other liquid in a reasonable
period, usually 2h. Non-settleable solids are also Overview of Activated Sludge Processes
known as colloidal solids. The activated sludge process is a treatment technique in
Suspended—These are the solids that will not pass which wastewater and reused biological sludge full of liv-
through a glass fiber filter. ing microorganisms are mixed and aerated. The biological
Total—The total solids in water, sewage, or other solids are then separated from the treated wastewater in a
liquids; it includes the suspended solids and dis- clarifier and are returned to the aeration process or wasted.
solved solids. The microorganisms are mixed thoroughly with the incom-
Volatile—These are organic solids. Measured as the ing organic material, and they grow and reproduce by using
solids that are lost on ignition of the dry solids the organic material as food. As they grow and are mixed
at 550°C. with air, the individual organisms cling together (floccu-
• WAS—These are the solids being removed from the late). Once flocculated, they more readily settle in the sec-
activated sludge process. This is normally written as ondary clarifiers.
WAS. The wastewater being treated flows continuously into an
aeration tank where air is injected to mix the wastewater with
the returned activated sludge and to supply the oxygen needed
Activated Sludge Process: Equipment
by the microbes to live and feed on the organics. Aeration can
The equipment requirements for the activated sludge process be supplied by injection through air diffusers at the bottom
are more complex than other processes discussed. Equipment of the tank or by mechanical aerators located at the surface.
includes an aeration tank, aeration, system-settling tank, The mixture of activated sludge and wastewater in the aera-
return sludge, and waste sludge system. These are discussed tion tank is called the “mixed liquor.” The mixed liquor flows
in the following. to a secondary clarifier where the activated sludge is allowed
to settle.
Aeration Tank The activated sludge is constantly growing, and more is
The aeration tank is designed to provide the required deten- produced than can be returned for use in the aeration basin.
tion time (depends on the specific modification) and ensure Some of this sludge must, therefore, be wasted to a sludge
that the activated sludge and the influent wastewater are thor- handling system for treatment and disposal. The volume of
oughly mixed. Tank design normally attempts to ensure no sludge returned to the aeration basins is normally 40 to 60%
dead spots are created. of the wastewater flow. The rest is wasted.
Factors Affecting Operation of the Note: Air requirements in an activated sludge basin are
Activated Sludge Process governed by (1) BOD loading and the desired removal efflu-
ent; (2) volatile suspended solids concentration in the aera-
A number of factors affect the performance of an activated tor; and (3) suspended solids concentration of the primary
sludge system. These include the following: effluent.
• Temperature
• Return rates Activated Sludge Formation
• Amount of oxygen available The formation of activated sludge is dependent on three steps
• Amount of organic matter available on three steps. The first step is the transfer of food from waste-
• pH water to organisms. Second is the conversion of wastes into a
• Waste rates usable form. Third is the flocculation step.
• Aeration time
• Wastewater toxicity (1) Transfer—Organic matter (food) is transferred
from the water to the organisms. Soluble material is
To obtain the desired level of performance in an activated absorbed directly through the cell wall. Particulate
sludge system, a proper balance must be maintained between and colloidal matter is adsorbed to the cell wall,
the amount of food (organic matter), organisms (activated where it is broken down into simpler soluble forms,
sludge), and oxygen DO. The majority of problems with the then absorbed through the cell wall.
activated sludge process result from an imbalance between (2) Conversion—Food matter is converted to cell mat-
these three items. ter by synthesis and oxidation into end products such
To fully appreciate and understand the biological process as CO2, H2O, NH3, stable organic waste, and new
taking place in a normally functioning activated sludge pro- cells.
cess, the operator must have knowledge of the key players in (3) Flocculation—Flocculation is the gathering of fine
the process: the organisms. This makes a certain amount of particles into larger particles. This process begins
sense when you consider that the heart of the activated sludge in the aeration tank and is the basic mechanism for
process is the mass of settleable solids formed by aerating removal of suspended matter in the final clarifier.
wastewater containing biological degradable compounds in The concentrated biofloc that settles and forms the
the presence of microorganisms. Activated sludge consists sludge blanket in the secondary clarifier is known as
of organic solids plus bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifers, and activated sludge.
nematodes.
Activated Sludge: Performance-Controlling
Growth Curve Factors
To understand the microbiological population and its function To maintain the working organisms in the activated sludge
in an activated sludge process, the operator must be famil- process, the operator must ensure that a suitable environment
iar with the microorganism growth curve. In the presence of is maintained by being aware of the many factors influencing
excess organic matter, the microorganisms multiply at a fast the process and by monitoring them repeatedly “Control” is
rate. The demand for food and oxygen is at its peak. Most defined as maintaining the proper solids (floc mass) concen-
of this is used for the production of new cells. This condi- tration in the aerator for the incoming water (food) flow by
tion is known as the log growth phase. As time continues, adjusting the return and waste sludge pumping rate and regu-
the amount of food available for the organisms declines. Floc lating the oxygen supply to maintain a satisfactory level of DO
begins to form while the growth rate of bacteria and protozoa in the process.
begins to decline. This is referred to as the declining growth
phase. The endogenous respiration phase occurs as the food Aeration
available becomes extremely limited and the organism mass The activated sludge process must receive sufficient aeration
begins to decline. Some of the microorganisms may die and to keep the activated sludge in suspension and to satisfy the
break apart, thus releasing organic matter that can be con- organisms’ oxygen requirements. Insufficient mixing results
sumed by the remaining population. in dead spots, septic conditions, and/or loss of activated
The actual operation of an activated-sludge system is sludge.
regulated by three factors: (1) the quantity of air supplied
to the aeration tank, (2) the rate of activated-sludge recir- Alkalinity
culation, and (3) the amount of excess sludge withdrawn The activated sludge process requires sufficient alkalinity to
from the system. Sludge wasting is an important opera- ensure that pH remains in the acceptable range of 6.5–9.0. If
tional practice because it allows the operator to establish organic nitrogen and ammonia are being converted to nitrate
the desired concentration of MLSS, food/microorganism (nitrification), sufficient alkalinity must be available to sup-
ratio, and sludge age. port this process, as well.
Nutrients of solids in the effluent degrades effluent quality and reduces

The microorganisms of the activated sludge process require the amount of activated sludge in the system, in turn, reducing
nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and other trace met- process performance.
als) to function. If sufficient nutrients are not available, the
process will not perform as expected. The accepted mini- Organic Loading
mum ratio of carbon to nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron is Organic loading is the amount of organic matter entering
100 parts carbon to five parts nitrogen, one part phospho- the treatment plant. It is usually measured as BOD. An
rus, and 0.5 parts iron. organic overload occurs when the amount of BOD entering
the system exceeds the design capacity of the system. An
pH organic underload occurs when the amount of BOD enter-
The pH of the mixed liquor should be maintained within the ing the system is significantly less than the design capac-
range of 6.5–9.0 (6.0–8.0 is ideal). Gradual fluctuations within ity of the plant. Organic overloading may occur when the
this range will normally not upset the process. Rapid fluctua- system receives more waste than it was designed to handle.
tions or fluctuations outside this range can reduce organism It can also occur when an industry or other contributor dis-
activity. charges more wastes to the system than originally planned.
Wastewater treatment plant processes can also cause
Temperature organic overloads returning high-strength wastes from the
As temperature decreases, the activity of the organisms will sludge treatment processes.
also decrease. Cold temperatures also require longer recovery Regardless of the source, organic overloading of the plant
time for systems that have been upset. Warm temperatures results in increased demand for oxygen. This demand may
tend to favor denitrification and filamentous growth. exceed the air supply available from the blowers. When this
Note: The activity level of bacteria within the activated occurs, the activated sludge process may become septic.
sludge process increases with the rise in temperature. Excessive wasting can also result in a type of organic over-
load. The food available exceeds the number of activated
Toxicity sludge organisms, resulting in increased oxygen demand and
Sufficient concentrations of elements or compounds that enter very rapid growth.
a treatment plant that have the ability to kill the microorgan- Organic underloading may occur when a new treatment
isms (the activated sludge) are known as toxic waste (shock plant is initially put into service. The facility may not receive
level). Common to this group are cyanides and heavy metals. enough waste to allow the plant to operate at its design level.
Note: A typical example of a toxic substance added by Underloading can also occur when excessive amounts of acti-
operators is the uninhabited use of chlorine for odor control or vated sludge are allowed to remain in the system. When this
control or control of filamentous organisms (prechlorination). occurs, the plant will have difficulty in developing and main-
Chlorination is for disinfection. Chlorine is a toxicant and taining a well activated sludge.
should not be allowed to enter the activated sludge process; it
is not selective with respect to the type of organisms damaged
Activated Sludge Modification
or killed. If may kill the organisms that should be retained in
the process as workers. Chlorine is very effective in disinfect- First developed in 1913, the original activated sludge pro-
ing the plant effluent after treatment by the activated sludge cess has been modified over the years to provide better per-
process, however. formance for specific operating conditions or with different
influent waste characteristics.
Hydraulic Loading
Hydraulic loading is the amount of flow entering the treat- 1. Conventional Activated Sludge
ment process. When compared with the design capacity of the • Employing conventional activated sludge modi-
system, it can be used to determine if the process is hydrauli- fication requires primary treatment.
cally overloaded or underloaded. If more flow is entering the • Conventional activated sludge provides excellent
system than it was designed to handle, the system is hydrauli- treatment; however, large aeration tank capacity
cally overloaded. If less flow is entering the system than it is required, and construction costs are high.
was designed for, the system is hydraulically underloaded. • In operation, initial oxygen demand is high. The
Generally, the system is more affected by overloading than process is also very sensitive to operational prob-
by underloading. Overloading can be caused by storm water, lems (e.g., bulking).
infiltration of groundwater, excessive return rates, or many 2. Step Aeration
other causes. Underloading normally occurs during periods • Step aeration requires primary treatment.
of drought or in the period following the initial startup when • It provides excellent treatment.
the plant has not reached its design capacity. Excess hydrau- • Operation characteristics are similar to
lic flow rates through the treatment plant will reduce the effi- conventional.
ciency of the clarifier by allowing activated sludge solids to • It distributes organic loading by splitting influ-
rise in the clarifier and pass over the effluent weir. This loss ent flow.
• It reduces oxygen demand at the head of the system. Table 16.5 lists the process parameters for each of the four
• It reduces solids loading on settling tanks. most commonly used activated sludge modifications.
3. Complete Mix
• May or may not include primary treatment. Extended Aeration: Package Plants
• Distributes waste, return, and oxygen evenly One of the most common types of modified active sludge pro-
throughout the tank. cesses, which provides biological treatment for the removal of
• Aeration may be more efficient. biodegradable organic waste under aerobic conditions, is the
• Maximizes tank use. extended aeration process called the package plant. Package
• Permits higher organic loading. plants are premanufactured treatment facilities used to treat
Note: During the complete mix, activated wastewater in small communities or on individual properties.
sludge process organisms are in the declining According to manufacturers, package plants can be designed
phase on the growth curve. to treat flows as low as 0.002 MGD or as high as 0.5 MGD,
4. Pure Oxygen although they more commonly treat flows between 0.01 and
• Requires primary treatment. 0.25 MGD (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991).
• Permits higher organic loading. In operation, air may be supplied to the extended aeration
• Uses higher solids levels. package plant by mechanical or diffused aeration to provide
• Operates at higher F: M ratios. the oxygen required to sustain the aerobic biological process.
• Uses covered tanks. Mixing must be provided by aeration or mechanical means
• Potential safety hazards (pure oxygen). to maintain the microbial organisms in contact with the dis-
• Oxygen production is expensive. solved organics. In addition, the pH must be controlled to
5. Contact Stabilization optimize the biological process and essential nutrients must
• Contact stabilization does not require primary be present to facilitate biological growth and the continua-
treatment. tion of biological degradation. Wastewater enters the treat-
• During operation, organisms collect organic ment system and is typically screened immediately to remove
matter (during contact). large suspended, settleable, or floating solids that could inter-
• Solids and activated sludge are separated from fere with or damage equipment downstream in the process.
flow via settling. Wastewater may then pass through a grinder to reduce large
• Activated sludge and solids are aerated for 3–6 particles that are not captured in the screening process. If the
h (stabilization). plant requires the flow to be regulated, the effluent will then
Note: Return sludge is aerated before it is flow into equalization basins which regulate peak wastewa-
mixed with influent flow. ter flow rates. Wastewater then enters the aeration chamber,
• The activated sludge oxidizes available organic where it is mixed and oxygen is provided to the microorgan-
matter. isms. The mixed liquor then flows to a clarifier or settling
• While the process is complicated to control, it chamber where most microorganisms settle to the bottom of
requires less tank volume than other modifica- the clarifier and a portion is pumped back to the incoming
tions and can be prefabricated as a package unit wastewater at the beginning of the plant. This returned mate-
for flows of 0.05–1.0 MGD. rial is the RAS. The material that is not returned, the WAS, is
• A disadvantage is that common process control removed for treatment and disposal. The clarified wastewater
calculations do not provide useful information. then flows over a weir and into a collection channel before
being diverted to the disinfection system (USEPA, 2000)
Typically located in small municipalities, suburban sub-
Extended Aeration divisions, apartment complexes, highway rest areas, trailer
• Does not require primary treatment. parks, small institutions, and other sites where follow rates
• Used frequently for small flows such as schools and are below 0.1 MGD, extended aeration package plants consist
subdivisions. of a steel tank that is compartmentalized into flow equaliza-
• Uses 24-h aeration. tion, aeration, clarification, disinfection, and aerated sludge
• Produces low BOD effluent. holding/digestion segments. Extended aeration systems are
• Produces the least amount of WAS. typically manufactured to treat wastewater flow rates between
• Process is capable of achieving 95% or more remov- 0.002 and 0.1 MGD. Use concrete tanks may be preferable for
als of BOD. large sizes (Sloan, 1999).
• Can produce effluent low in organic and ammonia Extended aeration plants are usually started up using “seed
nitrogen. sludge” from another sewage plant. It may take as many as
two to four weeks from the time it is seeded for the plant
Oxidation Ditch to stabilize (Sloan, 1999). These systems are also useful for
• Does not require primary treatment. areas requiring nitrification.
• The oxidation ditch process is similar to the extended Key internal components of extended aeration treatment
aeration process. package plants consist of the following: transfer pumps to
move wastewater between the equalization and aeration Preliminary treatment, such as bar screens and grit removal,
zones; a bar screen and/or grinder to decrease the size of large normally precedes the oxidation ditch. Primary settling prior
solids; an aeration system consisting of blowers and diffus- to an oxidation ditch is sometimes practiced, but is not typical
ers for the equalization, aeration, and sludge holding zones; in this design. Tertiary filters may be required after clarifica-
transfer pumps to move wastewater between the equalization tion, depending on the effluent requirements. Disinfection is
and aeration zones; an airlift pump for returning sludge; a required and re-aeration may be necessary prior to final dis-
skimmer and effluent weir for the clarifier; and UV, liquid charge. Flow to the oxidation ditch is aerated and mixed with
hypochlorite, or tablet modules used in the disinfection zone. return sludge from a secondary clarifier. Surface aerators,
Blowers and the control panel containing switches, lights, and such as brush rotors, disc aerators, draft tube aerators, or fine
motor starters are typically attached to either the top or one bubble diffusers are used to circulate the mixed liquor. The
side of the package plant (Sloan, 1999). mixing process entrains oxygen into the mixed liquor to foster
microbial growth and the motive velocity ensures contact of
Advantages and Disadvantages microorganisms with the incoming wastewater. The aeration
Advantages: sharply increases the DO concentration but decreases as bio-
• Plants are easy to operate, as many are manned mass uptake oxygen as the mixed liquor travels through the
for a maximum of 2–3 h per day. ditch. Solids are maintained in suspension as the mixed liquor
• Extended aeration processes are often better at travels through the ditch. Solids are maintained in suspen-
handling organic loading and flow fluctuations, sion as the mixed liquor circulated around the ditch. If design
as there is a greater detention time for the nutri- SRTs are selected for nitrification, a high degree of nitrifica-
ents to be assimilated by microbes. tion will occur. Oxidation ditch effluent is usually settled in a
• Systems are easy to install, as they are shipped separate secondary clarifier. An anaerobic tank may be added
in one or two pieces and then mounted on an prior to the ditch to enhance biological phosphorus removal.
onsite concrete pad, above or below grade. An oxidation ditch may also be operated to achieve partial
• Systems are odor free, can be installed in most denitrification. One of the most common design modifica-
locations, have a relatively small footprint, and tions for enhanced nitrogen removal is known as the Modified
can be landscaped to match the surrounding Ludzack-Ettinger (MLE) process. In this process an anoxic
area. tank is added upstream of the ditch along with mixed liquor
• Extended aeration systems have a relatively recirculation for the aerobic zone to the tank to achieve higher
low sludge yield due to long sludge ages, can levels of denitrification. In the aerobic basin, autotrophic bacte-
be designed to provide nitrification, and do not ria (nitrifiers) convert ammonia-nitrogen to nitrate-nitrogen and
require a primary clarifier. then to nitrate-nitrogen. In the anoxic zone, heterotrophic bac-
Disadvantages: teria convert nitrate-nitrogen to nitrogen gas which is released
• Extended aeration plants do not achieve deni- to the atmosphere. Some mixed liquor from the aerobic basin is
trification of phosphorus removal without addi- recirculated to the anoxic zone to provide mixed liquor with a
tional unit processes. high-concentration of nitrate-nitrogen to the anoxic zone.
• Flexibility is limited to adapt to changing efflu- Several manufacturers have developed modifications to
ent requirements resulting from regulatory the oxidation ditch design to remove nutrient sin conditions
changes. cycled or phased between the anoxic and aerobic states. While
• A longer aeration period requires more energy. the mechanics of operation differ by manufacturer, in gen-
• Systems require a larger amount of space and eral, the process consists of two separate aeration basins, the
tankage that other “higher rate” processes, which first anoxic and the second aerobic. Wastewater and RAS
have shorter aeration detention times. are introduced into the first reactor which operates under
anoxic conditions. Mixed liquor then flows into the second
Oxidation Ditches reactor operating under aerobic conditions. The process is
An oxidation ditch is a modified extended aeration activated then reversed and the second reactor begins to operate under
sludge biological treatment process that utilizes longs solids anoxic conditions.
retention times (SRTs) to remove biodegradable organics. With regard to applicability, the oxidation ditch process is
Oxidation ditches are typically complete mix systems, but a fully demonstrated secondary wastewater treatment tech-
they can be modified to approach plug flow conditions. (Note: nology, applicable in any situation where activated sludge
as conditions approach plug flow, diffused air must be used treatment (conventional or extended aeration) is appropriate.
to provide enough mixing. The system will also no longer Oxidation ditches are applicable in plants that require nitri-
operate as an oxidation ditch.) Typical oxidation ditch treat- fication because the basins can be sized using an appropri-
ment systems consist of a single or multi-channel configu- ate SRT to achieve nitrification at the mixed liquor minimum
ration within a ring, oval, or horseshoe-shaped basin. As a temperature. This technology is very effective in small instal-
result, oxidation ditches are called “racetrack type” reactors. lations, small communities, and isolated institutions, because
Horizontally or vertically mounted aerators provide circula- it requires more land than conventional treatment plants
tion, oxygen transfer, and aeration in the ditch. (USEPA, 2000).
There are currently more than 9,000 municipal oxidation Dissolved Oxygen
ditch installations in the United States (Spellman, 2007). The activated sludge process is an aerobic process that
Nitrification to less than 1 mg/L ammonia nitrogen consis- requires some DO to be present at all times. The amount of
tently occurs when ditches are designed and operated for oxygen required is dependent on the influent food (BOD),
nitrogen removal. An excellent example of an upgrade to the activity of the activated sludge, and the degree of treat-
the MLE process is to provide in the following case. Keep ment desired.
in mind that the motivation for this upgrade was twofold: to
increase optimal plant operation (DO optimization) and to pH
conserve energy. Activated sludge microorganisms can be injured or destroyed
by wide variations in pH. The pH of the aeration basin will
Advantages and Disadvantages normally be in the range of 6.5–9.0. Gradual variations within
Advantages: this range will not cause any major problems; however, rapid
The main advantage of the oxidation ditch is the changes of one or more pH units can have a significant impact
ability to achieve removal performance objectives on performance. Industrial waste discharges, septic wastes,
with low operational requirements and operation or significant amounts of storm water flows may produce
and maintenance costs. Some specific advantages of wide variations in pH. pH should be monitored as part of
oxidation ditches include: the routine process control-testing schedule. Sudden changes
• An added measure of reliability and performance or abnormal pH values may indicate an industrial discharge
over other biological processes owing to a con- of strongly acidic or alkaline wastes. Because these wastes
stant water level and continuous discharge which can upset the environmental balance of the activated sludge,
lowers the weir overflow rate and eliminates the the presence of wide pH variations can result in poor perfor-
periodic effluent surge common to other biologi- mance. Processes undergoing nitrification may show a signifi-
cal processes, such as SBRS. cant decrease in effluent pH.
• Long hydraulic retention time and complete
mixing minimize the impact of a shock load or MLSS, MLVSS, and Mixed Liquor TSS
hydraulic surge. The MLSS (MLSS) or MLVSS can be used to represent the
• Produces less sludge than other biological treat- activated sludge or microorganisms present in the process.
ment processes owing to extended biological Process control calculations, such as sludge age and SVI,
activity during the activated sludge process. cannot be calculated unless the MLSS is determined. Adjust
• Energy efficient operations result in reduced the MLSS and MLVSS by increasing or decreasing the waste
energy costs compared with other biological sludge rates. The mixed liquor TSS or MLTSS is an important
treatment processes. activated sludge control parameter. To increase the MLTSS,
Disadvantages: for example, the operator must decrease the waste rate and/or
• Effluent suspended solids concentrations are rel- increase the MCRT. The MCRT must be decreased to prevent
atively high compared to other modifications of the MLTSS from changing when the number of aeration tanks
the activated sludge process. in service is reduced.
• Requires a larger land area than other activated Note: In performing the Gould Sludge Age Test, assume
sludge treatment options. This can prove costly, that the source of the MLTSS in the aeration tank is influent
limiting the feasibility of oxidation ditches in solids.
urban, suburban, or other areas where land
acquisition costs are relatively high (USEPA, RAS Rate and Concentration
2000). The sludge rate is a critical control variable. The operator
must maintain a continuous return of activated sludge to the
aeration tank or the process will show a drastic decrease in
performance. If the rate is too low, solids remain in the set-
Activated Sludge Process Control Parameters
tling tank, resulting in solids loss and a septic return. If the
When operating an activated sludge process, the operator rate is too high, the aeration tank can become hydraulically
must be familiar with the many important process control overloaded, causing reduced aeration time and poor perfor-
parameters, which must be monitored frequently and adjusted mance. The return concentration is also important because it
occasionally to maintain optimal performance. may be used to determine the return rate required to maintain
the desired MLSS.
Alkalinity
Monitoring alkalinity in the aeration tank is essential to con- Waste-Activated Sludge Flow Rate
trol of the process. Insufficient alkalinity will reduce organ- Because the activated sludge contains living organisms that
ism activity and may result in low effluent pH and, in some grow, reproduce, and produce waste matter, the amount
cases, extremely high chlorine demand in the disinfection of activated sludge is continuously increasing. If the acti-
process. vated sludge is allowed to remain in the system too long, the
performance of the process will decrease. If too much acti- system. Waste characteristics (BOD, solids, pH, metals, tox-
vated sludge is removed from the system, the solids become icity, and temperature), volume, and discharge pattern (con-
very light and will not settle quickly enough to be removed in tinuous, slug, daily, weekly, etc.) should be evaluated when
the secondary clarifier. determining if a waste will require pretreatment by the indus-
try or adjustments to operational control levels.
Temperature
Because temperature directly affects the activity of the micro- Industrial Contributions
organisms, accurate monitoring of temperature can be helpful One or more industrial contributors produce a significant
in identifying the causes of significant changes in organiza- portion of the plant loading (in many systems). Identifying
tion populations or process performance. and characterizing all industrial contributors is important.
Remember that the volume of waste generated may not be as
Sludge Blanket Depth important as the characteristics of the waste. Extremely high-
The separation of solids and liquid in the secondary clarifier strength wastes can result in organic overloading and/or poor
results in a blanket of solids. If solids are not removed from the performance because of insufficient nutrient availability. A
clarifier at the same rate they enter, the blanket will increase second consideration is the presence of materials that even
in depth. If this occurs, the solids may carry over into the in small quantities are toxic to the process microorganisms
process effluent. The sludge blanket depth may be affected by or that create a toxic condition in the plant effluent or plant
other conditions, such as temperature variation, toxic wastes, sludge. Industrial contributions to a biological treatment sys-
or sludge bulking. The best sludge blanket depth is dependent tem should be thoroughly characterized prior to acceptance,
upon such factors as hydraulic load, clarifier design, sludge monitored frequently, and controlled by either local ordinance
characteristics, and many more. The best blanket depth must or by the implementation of a pretreatment program.
be determined on an individual basis by experimentation.
Note: In measuring sludge blanket depth, it is general prac- Process Sidestreams
tice to use a 15–20 ft long clear plastic pipe marked at 6-in. Process sidestreams are flows produced in other treatment
intervals, the pipe is equipped with a ball valve at the bottom. processes that must be returned to the wastewater system for
treatment prior to disposal. Examples of process sidestreams
Activated Sludge Operational Control Levels include the following:
(Much of the information in this section is based on Activated
Sludge Process Control, Part II, 2nded. Virginia Water • Thickener supernatant
Control Board, 1990.) The operator has two methods available • Aerobic and anaerobic digester supernatant
to operate an activated sludge system. The operator can wait • Liquids removed by sludge dewatering processes (fil-
until the process performance deteriorates and make drastic trate, centrate, and subnate)
changes, or the operator can establish normal operational lev- • Supernatant from heat treatment and chlorine oxida-
els and make minor adjustments to keep the process within tion sludge treatment processes
the established operational levels.
Note: Control levels can be defined as the upper and lower Testing these flows periodically to determine both their quan-
values for a process control variable that can be expected to tity and strength is important. In many treatment systems, a
produce the desired effluent quality. significant part of the organic and/or hydraulic loading for the
Although the first method will guarantee plant perfor- plant is generated by sidestream flows. The contribution of
mance will always be maintained within effluent limitations, the plant sidestream flows can significantly change the opera-
the second method has a much higher probability of achieving tional control levels of the activated sludge system.
this objective. This section discusses methods used to estab-
lish normal control levels for the activated sludge process. Seasonal Variations
Several major factors should be considered when establishing Seasonal variations in temperature, oxygen solubility, organ-
control levels for the activated sludge system. These include ism activity, and waste characteristics may require several
the following: normal control levels for the activated sludge process. For
example, during cold months of the year, aeration tank solids
• Influent characteristics levels may have to be maintained at significantly higher levels
• Industrial contributions than are required during warm weather. Likewise, the aera-
• Process sidestreams tion rate may be controlled by the mixing requirements of the
• Seasonal variations system during the colder months and by the oxygen demand
• Required effluent quality of the system during the warm months.
Influent Characteristics Control Levels at Startup

Influent characteristics were discussed earlier. However, a Control levels for an activated sludge system during startup
major area to consider when evaluating influent characteris- are usually based upon design engineer recommendations or
tics is the nature and volume of industrial contributions to the information available from recognized reference sources.
Although these levels provide a starting point, you should Sludge Color and Odor
recognize that both the process control parameter sensitivity and Though not as reliable an indicator of process operations
control levels should be established on a plant-by-plant basis. as foam, sludge colors, and odor are also useful indicators.
During the first 12 months of operation, you should evalu- Colors and odors that are important include the following:
ate all potential process control options, to determine the
following: (1) Chocolate brown/earthy odor indicates normal
operation.
• Sensitivity to effluent quality changes (2) Light tan or brown/no odor indicates sand and clay
• Seasonal variability from infiltration/inflow.
• Potential problems Adjustment: extremely young sludge, decrease
wasting.
Visual Indicators for Influent or Aeration Tank (3) Dark brown/earthy odor indicates old sludge, high
solids.
Wastewater operators are required to monitor or to make cer- Adjustment: Increase wasting.
tain observations of treatment unit processes to ensure opti- (4) Black color/rotten egg odor indicates septic condi-
mum performance—and to make adjustments when required. tions; low DO concentration; airflow rate too low.
In monitoring the operation of an aeration tank, the operator Adjustment: Increase aeration.
should look for three physical parameters (turbulence, sur-
face foam and scum, and sludge color and odor), that aid in Mixed Liquor Color
determining how the process is operating and indicate if any A light chocolate brown mixed liquor color indicates a well-
operational adjustments should be made. This information operated activated sludge process.
should be recorded each time operational tests are performed.
We summarize aeration tank and secondary settling tank
observations in the following sections. Remember that many Final Settling Tank (Clarifier) Observations
of these observations are very subjective and must be based Settling tank observations include flow pattern (normally uni-
upon experience. Plant personnel must be properly trained on form distribution), settling, amount, and type of solids leaving
the importance of ensuring that recorded information is con- with the process effluent (normally very low) and the clar-
sistent throughout the operating period. ity or turbidity of the process effluent (normally very clear).
Observations should include the following conditions:
Turbulence
Normal operation of an aeration basin includes a certain (1) Sludge bulking—occurs when solids are evenly dis-
amount of turbulence. This turbulent action is, of course, tributed throughout the tank and leaving over the
required to ensure a consistent mixing pattern. However, weir in large quantities.
whenever excessive, deficient, or non-uniform mixing occurs, (2) Sludge Solids Washout—sludge blanket is down
adjustments may be necessary to airflow, or diffusers may but solids are flowing over the effluent weir in large
need cleaning or replacement. quantities. Control tests indicate good quality sludge.
(3) Clumping—large “clumps” or masses of sludge (sev-
Surface Foam and Scum eral inches or more) rise to the top of the settling
The type, color, and amount of foam or scum present may tank.
indicate the required wasting strategy to be employed. Types (4) Ashing—fine particles of gray to white material
of foam include the following: flowing over the effluent weir in large quantities.
(5) Straggler Floc—small, almost transparent, very
• Fresh, crisp, white foam—moderate amounts of fluffy, buoyant solids particles (1/8” to 1/4” diameter
crisp white foam are usually associated with acti- rising to the surface). Usually is accompanied by a
vated sludge processes producing an excellent final very clean effluent. Usually new growth most noted
effluent. in the early morning hours. Sludge age is slightly
Adjustment: None, normal operation. below optimum.
• Thick, greasy, dark tan foam—a thick greasy dark (6) Pin Floc—very fine solids particles usually less than
tan or brown foam or scum normally indicates an 1/32” in diameter) suspended throughout lightly
old sludge that is over-oxidized; high mixed liquor turbid liquid. Usually the result of an over-oxidized
concentration; waste rate too high. sludge.
Adjustment: Indicates old sludge, more wasting
required.
Process Control Testing And Sampling
• White billowing foam—large amounts of a white,
soap suds-like foam, indicate a very young, under- The activated sludge process generally requires more sampling
oxidized sludge. and testing to maintain adequate process control than any of
Adjustment: Young sludge, less wasting required. the other unit processes in the wastewater treatment system.
During periods of operational problems, both the parameters Under normal conditions, sludge settles as a mass, produc-
tested and the frequency of testing may increase substantially. ing clear supernatant with SSV60 in the range of 400–700
Process control testing may include settleability testing to ml/L. When higher values are indicated, this may indicate
determine the settled sludge volume (SSV); suspended solids excessive solids (old sludge) and/or bulking conditions.
testing to determine influent and mixed liquor suspended sol- Rising solids (if sludge is well oxidized) may rise after two
ids (MLSS); return activated sludge solids (RASS) and waste or more hours. However, rising solids in less than 1 h indi-
activated sludge (WAS) concentrations; determination of the cate a problem.
volatile content of the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS); Note: Running the settleability test with a diluted sample
dissolved oxygen (DO) and pH of the aeration tank; BOD5 can assist in determining if the activated sludge is old (too
and/or chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the aeration tank many solids) or bulking (not settling). Old sludge will settle to
influent and process effluent; and microscopic evaluation of a more compact level when diluted.
the activated sludge to determine the predominant organism.
The following sections describe most of the common process Centrifuge Testing
control tests. The centrifuge test provides a quick, relatively easy control
test for the solids level in the aerator, but does not usually
Aeration Influent Sampling correlate with MLSS results. Results are directly affected by
pH is tested daily with a sample taken from the aeration tank variations in sludge quality.
influent and process effluent. pH is normally close to 7.0
(normal) with the best pH range from 6.5 to 8.5 (however, Alkalinity
a pH range of 6.5–9.0 is satisfactory). A pH of >9.0 may Alkalinity is essential to biological activity. Nitrification
indicate toxicity from an industrial waste contributor. A pH needs 7.3-mg/L alkalinity per mg/L TKN.
of <6.5 may indicate loss of flocculating organisms; poten-
tial toxicity; industrial waste contributor; or acid storm flow. BOD5
Keep in mind that the effluent pH may be lower because of Testing showing an increase in BOD5 indicates increased
nitrification. organic loading; a decrease in BOD5 indicates decreased
organic loading.
Temperature
Temperature is important because as the: Total Suspended Solids
An increase in TSS indicates an increase in organic load-
Temperature Increases: Organism Activity Increases ing; a decrease in TSS indicates a decrease in organic
Aeration Efficiency Decreases loading.
Oxygen Solubility Decreases
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Temperature Decreases: Organism Activity Decreases TKN determination is required to monitor process nitrifica-
Aeration Efficiency Increases tion status and to determine alkalinity requirements.
Oxygen Solubility Increases
Ammonia Nitrogen
Dissolved Oxygen Determination of ammonia nitrogen is required to monitor
The content of DO in the aeration process is critical to per- process nitrification status.
formance. DO should be tested at least daily (peak demand).
Optimum is determined for individual plants, but normal is Metals
from 1 to 3 mg/L. If the system contains too little DO, the Metal contents are measured to determine toxicity levels.
process will become septic. If it contains too much DO,
energy and money are wasted. Aeration Tank
pH
Settled Sludge Volume (Settleability) Normal pH range in the aeration tank is 6.5 to 9.0 pH
SSV is determined at specified times during sample test- decreases indicate process sidestreams or insufficient alkalin-
ing. 30- and 60-minute observations are used for control. ity available.
Subscript (SSV30 and SSV60) indicates settling time. The test
is performed on an aeration tank effluent sample. Dissolved Oxygen
The normal range of DO in an aeration tank is 1–3 mg/L;
however, keep in mind that typical required DO for a well
Milliliters of Settled Sludge 1, 000 mL/L operated activated sludge plant is between 2.0 and 2.5
SSV = (16.46)
Milliliters of Sample mg/L. DO level decreases may indicate increased activ-
ity, increased temperature, increased organic loading, or
Milliliters of Settled Sludge ´100 decreased MLSS/MLVSS. An increase in DO could be
%SSV = (16.47)
Milliliters of Sample indicative of decreased activity, decreased temperature,
decreased organic loading, increased MLSS/MLVSS, or

influent toxicity. AERATION TANK COLOR
CONDITION INDICATOR
DO Profile
• Black aeration tank color indicates low DO
All DO profile readings should be >0.5 mg/L. Readings of
concentration.
<0.5 mg/L indicate inadequate aeration or poor mixing.
• Dark greasy aeration tank foam indicates high
Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids mixed liquor concentration.
• Red aeration tank color indicates ferric chloride
The range of MLVSS is determined by the process modifica-
spill.
tion used. When MLSS levels increase, more solids, organ-
• White foam on aeration tank indicates waste rate
isms, and an older, more oxidized sludge are typical.
too high.
Microscopic Examination • Dark greasy foam on the aeration tank indicates
the waste rate is too low.
The activated sludge process cannot operate as designed
• Black color of mixed liquor indicates air flow rate
without the presence of microorganisms. Thus, the micro-
is too low.
scopic examination of an aeration basin sample, to deter-
mine the presence and the type of microorganisms, is
important. Different species prefer different conditions;
therefore, the presence of different species can indicate pro- Interpretation
cess conditions. Routine process control identification can be limited to the
Note: It is important to point out that during microscopic general category of organisms present. For troubleshooting
examination, identifying of all organisms present is not more difficult problems, a more detailed study of organism
required, but identification of the predominant species is distribution may be required (the knowledge required to per-
required. form this type of detailed study is beyond the scope of this
Table 16.6 lists process conditions indicated by the pres- text). The major categories of organisms found in the acti-
ence and population of certain microorganisms. vated sludge are:
• Protozoa
• Rotifers
• Filamentous organisms
TABLE 16.6
Process Condition versus Organisms Present/Population Note: Bacteria are the most important microorganisms in the
Process Condition Organism Population activated sludge. They perform most of the stabilization or
Poor Biochemical oxygen Predominance of amoeba and flagellates oxidation of the organic matter and are normally present in
demand (BOD5) and Total extremely large numbers. They are not, however, normally
Suspended Solids (TSS) visible with a conventional microscope operating at the rec-
Removal ommended magnification and are not included in Table 16.6
No floc formation Mainly dispersed bacteria in the list of indicator organisms.
Very cloudy effluent A few ciliates present Note: The presence of free-swimming and stalked ciliates,
Poor Quality Effluent Predominance of amoeba and flagellates some flagellates, and rotifers in mixed liquor indicate a bal-
Dispersed bacteria Some free-swimming ciliates anced, properly settling environment.
Some free-swimming ciliates
Some floc formation Protozoa
Cloudy effluent Protozoa are secondary feeders in the activated sludge pro-
Satisfactory Effluent Predominance of free-swimming ciliates
cess (secondary as feeders, but nonetheless definitely impor-
Good floc formation Few amoeba and flagellates
tant to the activated sludge process). Their principal function
Good settleability
is to remove (eat or crop) dispersed bacteria and help to pro-
Good Clarity
duce a clear process effluent. To help gain an appreciation for
High-Quality Effluent Predominance of stalked ciliates
the role of protozoa in the activated sludge process, consider
Excellent floc formation Some free-swimming ciliates
Excellent Settleability A few rotifers
the following explanation.
High effluent clarity A few flagellates
The activated sludge process is typified by the successive
Effluent High TSS and Low Predominance of rotifers development of protozoa and mature floc particles. This suc-
BOD5 cession can be indicated by the presence of the type of domi-
High settled sludge volume Large numbers of stalked ciliates nant protozoa present. At the start of the activated process
Cloudy effluent A few free-swimming ciliates No (or recovery from an upset condition), the amoebas dominate.
flagellates Note: Amoebas have very flexible cell walls and move by
shifting fluids within the cell wall. Amoeba predominates
during process startup or during recovery from severe to appear in large numbers. They can survive on smaller quan-
plant upsets. tities of bacteria because their energy requirements are lower
As the process continues uninterrupted or without upset, than other protozoan types. Because few bacteria are present,
small populations of bacteria begin to grow in logarithmic competition for dissolved substrates is low. However, as the
fashion, which, as the population increases, develop into bacteria population increases, these protozoa are not able to
mixed liquor. When this occurs, the flagellates dominate. compete for available food. This is when the next group of
Note: Flagellated protozoa typically have single hair-like protozoa (the free-swimming protozoa) enters the scene.
flagella or “tail” that they use for movement. The flagellate The free-swimming protozoa take advantage of the large
predominates when the MLSS and bacterial populations are populations of bacteria because they are better equipped with
low and organic load is high. As the activated sludge gets food-gathering mechanisms than the amoebas and flagellates.
older and denser, the flagellates decrease until they are sel- The free swimmers are important for their insatiable appetites
dom used. for bacteria and also in floc formation. Secreting polysaccha-
When the sludge attains an age of about three days, lightly rides and mucoproteins that are absorbed by bacteria—which
dispersed floc particles begin to form (flocculation “grows” make the bacteria “sticky” through biological agglutination
fine solids into larger, more settleable solids), and bacteria (biological gluing together)—allows them to stick together
increase. At this point, free-swimming ciliates dominate. and, more importantly, to stick to floc. Thus, large quantities
Note: The free-swimming ciliated protozoa have hair-like of floc are prepared for removal from secondary effluent and
projections (cilia) that cover all or part of the cell. The cilia are either returned to aeration basins or wasted. The crawlers
are used for motion and create currents that carry food to the and stalked ciliates succeed the free swimmers.
organism. The free-swimming ciliates are sometimes divided Note: Stalked ciliated protozoa are attached directly to the
into two sub-categories: free swimmers and crawlers. The activated sludge solids by a stalk. In some cases, the stalk is
free swimmers are usually seen moving through the fluid por- rigid and fixed in place, while in others, the organism can
tion of the activated sludge, while the crawlers appear to be move (contract or expand the stalk) to change its position. The
“walking” or “grazing” on the activated sludge solids. The stalked ciliated protozoa normally have several cilia that are
free-swimming ciliated protozoa usually predominate when used to create currents, which carry bacteria and organic mat-
a large number of dispersed bacteria are present that can be ter to it. The stalked ciliated protozoa predominate when the
used as food. Their predominance indicates a process nearing dispersed bacteria population decreases and does not provide
optimum conditions and effluent quality. sufficient food for the free swimmers. Their predominance
The process continues with floc particles beginning to sta- indicates a stable process, operating at optimum conditions.
bilize, taking on irregular shapes, and starting to show fila- The free swimmers are replaced in part because the
mentous growth. At this stage, the crawling ciliates dominate. increasing level of mature floc retards their movement.
Eventually, mature floc particles develop and increase in size, Additionally, the type of environment that is provided by
and large numbers of crawling and stalked ciliates are pres- the presence of mature floc is more suited to the needs of the
ent. When this occurs, the succession process has reached crawlers and stalked ciliates. The crawlers and stalked ciliates
its terminal point. The succession of protozoan and mature also aid in floc formation by adding weight to floc particles,
floc particle development just described details of the occur- thus enabling removal.
rence of phases of development in a step-by-step progression.
Protozoan succession is also based on other factors, including Rotifers
DO and food availability. Rotifers are a higher life form normally associated with
Probably the best way to understand protozoan succession clean, unpolluted waters. Significantly larger than most of
based on DO and food availability is to view the wastewater the other organisms observed in activated sludge; rotifers
treatment plant’s aeration basin as a “stream within a con- can use other organisms, as well as organic matter, as their
tainer.” Using the saprobity system to classify the various food source. Rotifers are usually the predominant organism;
phases of the activated sludge process in relation to the self- the effluent will usually be cloudy (pin of ash floc) and will
purification process that takes place in a stream, you are able have very low BOD5.
to see a clear relationship between the two processes based
on available DO and food supply. Any change in the rela- Filamentous Organisms
tive numbers of bacteria in the activated sludge process has Filamentous organisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.) occur when-
a corresponding change to the microorganism’s population. ever the environment of the activated sludge favors their pre-
Decreases in bacteria increase competition between protozoa dominance. They are normally present in small amounts and
and result in the secession of dominant groups of protozoa. provide the basic framework for floc formation. When the
The success or failure of protozoa to capture bacteria environmental conditions (i.e., pH, nutrient levels, DO, etc.)
depends on several factors. Those with more advanced loco- favor their development, they become the predominant organ-
motion capability are able to capture more bacteria. Individual isms. When this occurs, they restrict settling, and the condi-
protozoan feeding mechanisms are also important in the com- tion known as “bulking” occurs.
petition for bacteria. At the beginning of the activated sludge Note: A microorganism examination of activated sludge is
process, amoebas and flagellates are the first protozoan groups a useful control tool. In attempting to identify the microscopic
contents of a sample, the operator should try to identify the Note: Running the settleability test with a diluted sample can
predominant groups of organisms. assist in determining if the activated sludge is old (too many
Note: During microscopic examination of the activated solids) or bulking (not settling). Old sludge will settle to a
sludge, a predominance of amoebas indicates that the acti- more compact level when diluted.
vated sludge is very young.
Flow
Settling Tank Influent Monitoring flow in settling tank influent is important for
Dissolved Oxygen determination of mass balance.
The DO level of the activated sludge-settling tank should be 1
to 3 mg/L; lower levels may result in rising sludge. Jar Tests
Jar tests are performed as required on settling tank influent
pH
and are beneficial in determining the best flocculant aid and
Normal pH range in an activated sludge-settling tank should appropriate doses to improve solids capture during periods of
be maintained between 6.5 and 9.0. Decreases in pH may poor settling.
indicate alkalinity deficiency.
Settling Tank
Alkalinity
Sludge Blanket Depth
A lack of alkalinity in an activated sludge-settling tank will
As mentioned, sludge blanket depth refers to the distance from
prevent nitrification.
the surface of the liquid to the solids-liquid interface or the
Total Suspended Solids thickness of the sludge blanket as measured from the bottom
MLSS sampling and testing are required for determining sol- of the tank to the solids-liquid interface. Part of the operator’s
ids loading, mass balance, and return rates. sampling routine, this measurement is taken directly in the
final clarifier. Sludge blanket depth is dependent upon hydrau-
Settled Sludge Volume (Settleability) lic load, return rate, clarifier design, waste rate, sludge charac-
SSV is determined at specified times during sample testing. teristics, and temperature. If all other factors remain constant,
Thirty- and 60-minute observations the blanket depth will vary with the amount of solids in the
system and the return rate; thus, it will vary throughout the day.
• Normal operation—When the process is operat- Note: Depth of sludge blanket provides an indication of
ing properly, the solids will settle as a “blanket” (a sludge quality; it is used as a trend indicator. Many factors
mass), with a crisp or sharp edge between the solids affect the test result.
and the liquor above. The liquid over the solids will
Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids
be clear, with little or no visible solids remaining in
suspension. SSV at the end of 30–60 min will be in Suspended solids and volatile suspended solids concentrations
the range of 400–700 ml. of the mixed liquor (MLSS), the RAS, and WAS are routinely
• Old or over-oxidized activated sludge—When the sampled and tested because they are critical to process control.
activated sludge is over-oxidized, the solids will settle Settling Tank Effluent
as discrete particles. The edge between the solids and
liquid will be fuzzy, with a large number of visible BOD5and TSS
solids (pin floc, ash floc, etc.) in the liquid. The SSV BOD5 and TSS testing are conducted variably (daily, weekly, and
at the end of 30 or 60 min will be greater than 700 ml. monthly). Increases indicate treatment performance is decreas-
• Young or under-oxidized activated sludge—When the ing; decreases indicate treatment performance is increasing.
activated sludge is under-oxidized, the solids settle as
discrete particles, and the boundary between the sol- Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
ids and the liquid is poorly defined. Large amounts of TKN sampling and testing are variable. An increase in TKN
small visible solids are suspended in the liquid. The indicates nitrification is decreasing; a decrease in TKN indi-
SSV after 30–60 min will usually be less than 400 ml. cates nitrification is increasing.
• Bulking activated sludge—When the activated
sludge is experiencing a bulking condition, very little Nitrate Nitrogen
or no settling is observed. Nitrate-nitrogen sampling and testing are variable. Increases
in nitrate-nitrogen indicate nitrification is increasing or indus-
Milliliters of Settled Sludge 1, 000 mL trial contribution of nitrates. A decrease indicates reduced
SSV = (16.48) nitrification.
Milliliters of Sample
Flow
Milliliters of Settled Sludge ´100 Settling tank effluent flow is sampled and tested daily. Results
%SSV = (16.49)
Milliliters of Sample are required for several process control calculations.
Return-Activated Sludge and Waste-Activated Sludge – Decreased MCRT

Total Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids – Increased F: M Ratio
Condition: Waste rate too low
Total suspended solids and total volatile suspended solids
Result:
concentrations of the mixed liquor (MLSS), the RAS, and
– Increased MLSS
WAS are routinely sampled (using either grab or compos-
– Increased sludge density
ite samples) and tested because they are critical to process
– Decreased SVI
control. The results of the suspended and volatile sus-
– Increased MCRT
pended tests can be used directly or to calculate such pro-
– Decreased F: M ratio
cess control figures as MCRT or food or mass ratio (F:M).
In most situations, increasing the MLSS produces an older, Aeration Rate
denser sludge, while decreasing MLSS produces a younger,
Condition: Aeration rate too high
less dense sludge.
Result:
Note: Control of the sludge wasting rate by constant
– Wasted energy
MLVSS concentration involves maintaining a certain concen-
– Increased operating cost
tration of volatile suspended solids in the aeration tank.
– Rising solids
Note: The activated sludge aeration tank should be
– Breakup of activated sludge
observed daily. Included in this daily observation should be
Condition: Aeration rate too low
a determination of the type and amount of foam, mixing uni-
Result:
formity, and color.
– Septic aeration tank
– Poor performance
Flow
– Loss of nitrification
The flow of RAS is tested daily. Test results are required to
determine mass balance and for control of sludge blanket, Troubleshooting Operational Problems
MLSS, and MLVSS. For WAS, flow is sampled and tested Without a doubt, the most important dual function performed
whenever sludge is wasted. Results are required to determine by the wastewater operator is the identification of process
mass balance and to control the solids level in the process. control problems and implementing the appropriate actions to
correct the problem(s). In this section typical aeration system
Process Control Adjustments operational problems are listed with their symptoms, causes,
In the routine performance of their duties, wastewater and the appropriate corrective actions required to restore the
operators make process control adjustments to various unit unit process to a normal or optimal performance level.
processes, including the activated sludge process. In the fol-
lowing a summary is provided of the process controls avail- Symptom 1
able for the activated sludge process and the result which will The solids blanket is flowing over the effluent
occur from the adjustment of each. weir (classic bulking). Settleability test shows no
settling.
Return Rate 1. Cause: Organic overloading
Condition: Return rate too high Corrective action: Reduce organic loading
Result: 2. Cause: Low pH
– Hydraulic overloading of aeration and set- Corrective action: Add alkalinity
tling tanks 3. Cause: Filamentous growth
– Reduced aeration time Corrective action: Add nutrients; add chlo-
– Reduced settling time rine or peroxide to return
– Loss of solids over time 4. Cause: Nutrient deficiency
Condition: Return rate too low Corrective action: Add nutrients
Result: 5. Cause: Toxicity
– Septic return Corrective action: Identify source; imple-
– Solids buildup in settling tank ment pretreatment
– Reduced MLSS in aeration tank 6. Cause: Overaeration
– Loss of solids over weir Corrective Action: Reduce aeration during low
flow periods
Waste Rate Symptom 2
Condition: Waste rate too high Solids settled properly in settleability test but large
Result: amounts of solids lost over effluent weir.
– Reduced MLSS 1. Cause: Billowing solids due to short-circuiting.
– Decreased sludge density Corrective Action: Identify short circuiting
– Increased SVI cause and eliminate if possible.
Symptom 3 Symptom 10
Large amounts of small pinhead sized solids leaving Large “clouds” of billowing white foam on the sur-
settling tank. face of the aeration tank.
1. Cause: Old sludge. 1. Cause: Young activated sludge
Corrective Action: Reduce sludge age (grad- Corrective Action: Increase sludge age;
ual change is best); increase waste rate. decrease wasting; use foam control sprays.
2. Cause: Excessive turbulence 2. Cause: Low solids in aeration tank
Corrective Action: Decrease turbulence (adjust Corrective Action: Increase sludge age;
aeration during low flows). decrease wasting; use foam control sprays.
Symptom 4 3. Cause: Surfactants (detergents)
Large amount of light floc (low BOD5 and high sol- Corrective Action: Eliminate surfactants; use
ids) leaving settling tank. foam control sprays; add antifoam.
1. Cause: Extremely old sludge
Corrective Action: Reduce age; increase waste. Process Control Calculations
Symptom 5
As with other wastewater treatment unit processes, process
Large amount of small translucent particles (1/16–
control calculations are important tools used by the operator
1/8”) are leaving the settling tank.
to optimize and control process operations. In this section we
1. Cause: Rapid solids growth
review the most frequently used activated sludge calculations.
Corrective Action: Increase sludge age.
2. Cause: Slightly young activated sludge Settled Sludge Volume
Corrective Action: Decrease waste.
SSV is the volume that a settled activated sludge occupies
Symptom 6
after a specified time. The settling time may be shown as a
Solids settling properly but rise to surface within a
subscript (i.e., SSV60 indicates the reported value was deter-
short time. Many small (1/4”) to large (several feet)
mined at 60 min). The SSV can be determined for any time
clumps of solids on surface of settling tank.
interval; however, the most common values are the 30-min
1. Cause: Denitrification
reading (SSV30) and 60-min reading (SSV60). The SSV can be
Corrective Action: Increase rate of return;
reported as milliliters of sludge per liter of sample (Ml/L) or
adjust sludge age to eliminate nitrification.
as a percent SSV.
2. Cause: Overaeration
Corrective Action: Reduce aeration.
Settled Sludge Volume (mL/L)
Symptom 7
Return activated sludge has a rotten egg odor. Settled Sludge Vol (mL) (16.50)
=
1. Cause: Return is septic Settled Sludge Vol (L)
Corrective Action: Increase aeration rate
Note: 1,000 milliliters = 1 Liter
2. Cause: Return rate is too low
Corrective Action: Increase rate of return
Sample Volume in milliliter
Symptom 8 Sample Vol. (L) = (16.51)
Activated sludge organisms die during a short 1, 000 mL/Liter
time.
1. Cause: Influent contained toxic material % Settled Sludge Volume
Corrective Action: Isolate activated sludge (if Settled Sludge Volume, mL ´100 (16.52)
possible); return all available solids; stop wast- =
ing; increase return rate; implement pretreat- Sample Volume, mL
ment program.
Symptom 9 Example 16.38
Surface of aeration tank covered with thick, greasy
foam. Problem: Using the information provided in the table, cal-
culate the SSV 30 and the % SSV 60.
1. Cause: Extremely old activated sludge
Corrective Action: Reduce activated sludge
age; increase wasting; use foam control sprays.
2. Cause: Excessive grease and oil in system Time Milliliters
Corrective Action: Improve grease removal; Start 2,500
use foam control sprays; implement pretreatment 15 min 2,250
program. 30 min 1,800
3. Cause: Froth forming bacteria 45 min 1,700
Corrective Action: Remove froth forming 60 min 1,600
bacteria.
SOLUTION: the sludge becomes denser, settling is more rapid, and the
sludge is becoming older. SVI is the volume in milliliters
1, 800 mL
Settled Sludge vol. (SSV30 ) = =720 mL/L occupied by 1 gram of activated sludge. The SSV, mL/L and
2.5 L
the MLSS, mg/L are required for this calculation.
% Settled Sludge Vol., ( SSV60 ) SSV, mL ´ 1,000

Sludge Volume Index (SVI) = (16.53)
1, 600 mL ´ 100 MLSS mgL
= = 64%
2, 500 mL
Estimated Return Rate Example 16.40

Many different methods are available for estimation of the proper
return sludge rate. A simple method described in the Operation Problem: The SSV30 is 365 mL/L and the MLSS is 2,365
of Wastewater Treatment Plants, Field Study Program (1986)— mg/L. What is the SVI?
developed by the California State University, Sacramento
SOLUTION:
uses the 60-minute percent SSV. The %SSV60 can provide an
approximation of the appropriate RAS rate. The results of this 365 mL /L ´ 1, 000
Sludge Volume Index =
calculation can then be adjusted based upon sampling and visual 2, 365 mg /L
observations to develop the optimum return sludge rate.
= 154.3
Note: The %SSV60 must be converted to a decimal percent
and total flow rate (wastewater flow and current return rate in SVI equals 154.3—what does this mean? It means is that
million gallons per day must be used). the system is operating normally with good settling and
low effluent turbidity. How do we know this? Another
Est. Return Rate, MGD good question. We know this because we compare the
154.3 result with the parameters listed below to obtain the
= ( Infl. Flow, MGD + Current Return Flow, MGD ) expected condition (the result).
´ %SSV60
• Assumes %SSV60 is representative Sludge volume index (SVI) Value Expected Condition (indicates)
• Assumes return rate, in percent equals %SSV60 Less than 100 Old sludge–Possible Pin Floc
Effluent Turbidity Increasing
Actual return rate is normally set slightly higher to ensure 100–200 Normal Operation–Good Settling
organisms are returned to the aeration tank as quickly as pos- Low Effluent Turbidity
sible. The rate of return must be adequately controlled to pre- Greater than 250 Bulking sludge–Poor Settling
vent the following: High Effluent Turbidity
• Aeration and settling hydraulic overloads

• Low MLSS levels in the aerator The SVI is best used as a trend indicator to evaluate what
• Organic overloading of aeration is occurring compared to previous SVI values. Based upon
this evaluation, the operator may determine if the SVI trend
• Solids loss due to excessive sludge blanket depth
is increasing or decreasing (refer to the following chart).
Example 16.39
SVI Value Result Adjustment
Problem: The influent flow rate is 4.2 MGD and the cur- Increasing Sludge is becoming less dense Decrease waste
rent RAS flow rate is 1.5 MGD. The SSV60 is 38%. Based
Sludge is either younger or bulking Increase return
upon this information what should be the return sludge
rate
rate in million gallons per day (MGD)?
Sludge will settle more slowly
Sludge will compact less
SOLUTION:
Decreasing Sludge is becoming denser Increase waste
Return, MGD = ( 4.2 MGD + 1.5 MGD ) ´ 0.38 rate
Sludge is becoming older
= 2.2 MGD Sludge will settle more rapidly Decrease return
rate
Sludge Volume Index Sludge will compact more with no
SVI is a measure of the settling quality (a quality indicator) of other process changes
the activated sludge. As the SVI increases the sludge settles Holding Sludge should continue to have its No changes
slower, does not compact as well, and is likely to result in an constant current characteristics indicated
increase in effluent suspended solids. As the SVI decreases
Waste Activated Sludge Example 16.42

The quantity of solids removed from the process, as waste
activated sludge is an important process control parameter Problem: Given the following data, what is the F/M ratio?
that operators need to be familiar with—and, more impor-
tantly, know how to calculate Primary Effluent Flow 2.5 MGD Aeration Volume 0.65 MG
Primary Effluent BOD 145 mg/L Settling Volume 0.30 MG
Primary Effluent TSS 165 mg/L MLSS 3,650 mg/L
Waste, lb /Day = WAS Conc., mg /L
Effluent Flow 2.2 MGD MLVSS 2,550 mg/L
´ WAS Flow, MGD (16.54) Effluent BOD 22 mg/L % Waste Volatile 71%
´8.34 lb /MG /mg /L Effluent TSS 16 mg/L Desired F/M 0.3
SOLUTION:
Example 16.41
145 mg/L ´ 2.2 MGD ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG
F /M Ratio =
Problem: The operator wastes 0.44 MGD of activated 2, 550 mg/L ´ 0.65 MG ´ 8.3
34 lb/mg/L/MG
sludge. The WAS has a solids concentration of 5,540 mg/L. = 0.19 lb BOD /lb MLVSS
How many pounds of WAS are removed from the process?
Note: If the MLVSS concentration is not available, it can
be calculated if % volatile matter (% V.M) of the MLSS is
SOLUTION:
known (see equation 16.56).
Waste, lb /day = 5, 540 mg /L ´ 0.44 MGD
´ 8.34 lb /MG/mg /L MLVSS = MLSS ´ % ( decimal) Volatile Matter ( V.M ) (16.56)
= 20, 329.6 lb /day
Note: The “F” value in the F/M ratio for computing load-
ing to an activated sludge process can be either BOD or
COD. Remember that the reason for sludge production in
Food to Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) the activated sludge process is to convert BOD to bacte-
The F/M ratio is a process control calculation used in many ria. One advantage of using COD over BOD for analysis
activated sludge facilities to control the balance between of organic load is that COD is more accurate. However,
overall, an advantage of the BOD test over the COD test is
available food materials (BOD or COD) and available organ-
the BOD test shows the actual impact of the wastewater.
isms (MLVSS). The COD test is sometimes used because the
results are available in a relatively short period of time. To cal-
culate the F/M ration, the following information is required:
Example 16.43
• Aeration tank influent flow rate, MGD
• Aeration tank influent BOD or COD, mg/L Problem: The aeration tank contains 2,985 mg/L of MLSS.
• Aeration tank MLVSS, mg/L Laboratory tests indicate the MLSS is 66% volatile matter.
• Aeration tank volume, MG What is the MLVSS concentration in the aeration tank?
F/M Ratio SOLUTION:

Prim. Eff. COD/BOD mg/L ´ Flow MGD ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG (16.55)
=
MLVSS mg/L Aerator Volume, MG ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG MLVSS, mg / L = 2, 985 mg /L ´ 0.66

= 1, 970 mg /L
Typical F/M Ratio for activated sludge processes is shown in
the following: F/M Ratio Control
Maintaining the F/M ratio within a specified range can be an
excellent control method. Although the F/M ratio is affected
lb BOD5 lb COD by an adjustment of the return rates, the most practical method
for adjusting the ratio is through waste rate adjustments.
Process lb MLVSS lb MLVSS
Conventional 0.2–0.4 0.5–1.0 Increasing the rate will:
Contact Stabilization 0.2–0.6 0.5–1.0 (1) Decrease the MLVSS
Extended Aeration 0.05–0.15 0.2–0.5 (2) Increase the F/M ratio
Oxidation Ditch 0.05–0.15 0.2–0.5 Decreasing the waste rate will:
Pure Oxygen 0.25–1.0 0.5–2.0 (1) Increase the MLVSS
(2) Decrease the F/M ratio
The desired F/M ratio must be established on a plant-by-plant Practical considerations require that the required waste
basis. Comparison of F/M ratios with plant effluent quality quantity be converted to a required volume to waste per day.
is the primary means to identify the most effective range for This is accomplished by converting the waste pounds to flow
individual plants, when the range of F/M values that produce rate in million gallons per day or gallons per minute.
the desired effluent quality is established.
Waste, MGD
Required MLVSS Quantity (Pounds)
The pounds of MLVSS required in the aeration tank to achieve Waste Volatile, lb/day (16.60)
=
optimum F/M ration can be determined from the average éë Waste Volatile Concentration, mg/L ´ 8.34 ùû
influent food (BOD or COD) and the desired F/M ratio.
Note: When the F/M ratio is used for process control, the vol-
MLVSS, lb atile content of the WAS should be determined.
Primary Effluent BOD or COD ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34 (16.57)
=
Desired F/M Ratio Example 16.45
The required pounds of MLVSS determined by this calcula- Problem: Given the following information, determine the
tion can then be converted to a concentration value by: required waste rate in gallons per minute to maintain an
F/M ration of 0.17-lb COD/lb MLVSS:
Desired MLVSS in Pounds

MLVSS, mg/L = (16.58) Primary Effluent COD 140 mg/L
éë Aeration Volume, MG ´ 8.34 ùû
Primary Effluent Flow 2.2 MGD
MLVSS, mg/l 3,549 mg/l
Example 16.44 Aeration Tank Volume 0.75 MG
Waste Volatile Concentration 4,440 mg/l (Volatile Solids)
Problem: The aeration tank influent flow is 4.0 MGD, and
the influent COD is 145 mg/L. The aeration tank volume is
0.65 MG. The desired F/M ration is 0.3 lb COD/lb MLVSS.
SOLUTION:
(1) How many pounds of MLVSS must be main- Actual MLVSS, lb = 3.549 mg /L ´ 0.75 MG ´ 8.34
tained in the aeration tank to achieve the desired
F/M ratio? = 22,199 lb
(2) What is the required concentration of MLVSS in
the aeration tank? 140 mg/1´ 2.2 MGD ´ 8.34
Required MLVSS, lb =
0.17 lb COD/lb MLVSS
SOLUTION:
= 15,110 lb MLVSS
145 mg/l ´ 4.0 MGD ´ 8.34 lb/gal
MLVSS, lb =
0.3 lb COD/lb MLVSS Waste, lb /day = 22,199 lb - 15,110 lb

= 16,124 lb MLVSS = 7, 089 lb
16,124 MLVSS 7, 089 lb/day

MLVSS, mg/L = Waste, MGD =
éë0.65 MG ´ 8.34ùû éë4, 440 mg/L ´ 8.34ùû

= 2,974 mg/L MLVSS = 0.19 MGD
Calculating Waste Rates Using F/M Ratio 0.19 MGD ´ 1, 000, 000 gpd/MGD
Waste, gpm =
Maintaining the desired F/M ratio is accomplished by con- 1, 440 min/day
trolling the MLVSS level in the aeration tank. This may be
= 132 gpm
accomplished by adjustment of return rates; however, the
most practical method is by proper control of the waste rate.
Mean Cell Residence Time
Waste Vol. Solids, lb /day
(16.59) Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT), sometimes referred to
= Actual MLVSS, lb - Desired MLVSS, lb as sludge retention time (SRT), is a process control calcula-
tion used for activated sludge systems. The MCRT calcula-
If the desired MLVSS is greater than the actual MLVSS, wast- tion illustrated in Example 16.46 uses the entire volume of the
ing is stopped until the desired level is achieved. activated sludge system (aeration and settling).
MRCT, d Typical MCRT Values

é MLSS mg /L ´ ( Aeration Vol., MG + Clarifier Vol., MG ) ´ 8.34 ù The following chart lists the various aeration process modifi-
ë û
= é( WAS, mg /L ´ WAS flow, MGD ´ 8.34 ) (16.61) cations and associated MCRT values.
ë
+ ( TSS out, mg /L ´ Flow ´ 8.34 )ùû
Process MCRT, Days

Conventional 5–15
Note: Due to the length of the MCRT equation the units for Step Aeration 5–15
the conversion factor 8.34 have not been included. The dimen- Contact Stabilization (Contact) 5–15
sions for the 8.34 conversion factor are lb/mg/L/MG. Extended Aeration 20–30
Note: MCRT can be calculated using only the aeration Oxidation Ditch 20–30
tank solids inventory. When comparing plant operational lev- Pure Oxygen 8–20
els to reference materials, it is important to determine which
calculation the reference manual uses to obtain its example
values. Other methods are available to determine the clarifier
solids concentration. However, the simplest method assumes Control Values for MCRT
that the average suspended solids concentration is equal to the Control values for the MCRT are normally established based
aeration tank’s solids concentration. on effluent quality. Once the MCRT range required to pro-
duce the desired effluent quality is established, it can be used
Example 16.46 to determine the waste rate required to maintain it.
Problem: Given the following data, what is the MCRT? Waste Quantities/Requirements
MCRT for process control requires the determination of the
Influent Flow 4.2 MGD Aeration Volume 1.20 MG optimum range for MCRT values. This is accomplished by
Influent BOD 135 mg/L Settling Volume 0.60 MG comparison of the effluent quality with MCRT values. When
Influent TSS 150 mg/L MLSS 3,350 mg/L the optimum MCRT is established, the quantity of solids to be
Effluent Flow 4.2 MGD Waste Rate 0.080 MGD removed (wasted) is determined by
Effluent BOD 22 mg/L Waste Conc. 6,100 mg/L
Effluent TSS 10 mg/L Desired MCRT 8.5 days é MLSS ´ ( Aer., MG + C lar ., MG ) ´ 8.34 ù
Waste, lb /d = ê ú
êë Desired MCRT úû (16.62)
é3, 350 mg/L ´ (1.2 MG + 0.6 MG) ´ 8.34ùû - éë TSSout ´ Flow ´ 8.34 ùû
MRCT = ë
éë(6,100 mg/L ´ 0.08 MGD ´ 8.334)

+ (10 mg/L ´ 4.2 MGD ´ 8.34)ùû
Example 16.47
MRCT = 11.4 days
3, 400 mg/l ´ (1.4 MG + 0.50 MG) ´ 8.34

MCRT Control
8.6 days
Because it provides an accurate evaluation of the process
condition and takes all aspects of the solids inventory into - éë10 mg/l ´ 5.0 MGD ´ 8.34ùû
account, the MCRT is an excellent process control tool.
Increases in the waste rate will decrease the MCRT, as will Waste Quality, lb /day = 5, 848 lb
large losses of solids over the effluent weir. Reductions in
waste rate will result in increased MCRT values.
Note: You should remember these important process con- Waste Rate in Million Gallons/Day
trol parameters. When the quantity of solids to be removed from the system is
known, the desired waste rate in million gallons per day can
be determined. The unit used to express the rate (MGD, gpd,
Process Parameters and Impact on MCRT/
and gpm) is a function of the volume of waste to be removed
MCRT Impact on Parameters and the design of the equipment.
• To increase F/M, decrease MCRT.
• To increase MCRT, decrease waste rate.
Waste Pounds/day
• MCRT is increased, MLTSS and 30-min setting Waste, MGD = (16.63)
increases. WAS Concentrations, mg/L ´ 8.34
• Return sludge rate has no impact on MCRT.
• MCRT has no impact on F/M change when the num- Waste MGD ´1, 000, 000 gpd/MGD
Waste, gpm = (16.64)
ber of aeration tanks in service is reduced. 1, 440 minutes/day
Example 16.48 are accurate and representative, and process control and
operation are appropriate, the quantity of suspended solids
Problem: Given the following data, determine the required entering the settling tank should equal (plus or minus 10%)
waste rate to maintain an MCRT 8.8 days. the quantity of suspended solids leaving the settling tanks as
sludge, scum, and effluent TSS.
Note: In most instances, the amount of suspended solids
MLSS, mg/l 2,500 mg/l leaving the process as scum is so small that it is ignored in
Aeration Volume 1.20 MG the calculation.
Clarifier Volume 0.20 MG
Effluent TSS 11 mg/l Mass Balance Calculation
Effluent Flow 5.0 MGD
Waste 6,000 mg/l Total Suspended Solids in, lb
Concentrations (16.65)
= TSSin ´ Flow, MGD ´8.34
Total Suspended Solids out, lb

SOLUTION:
= TSSout ´ Flow, MGD ´8.34
2, 500 mg/l ´ (1.20 + 0.20) ´ 8.34
Waste, lb/day =
8.8 days
Sludge Solids = Sludge Pumped, gal
- éë11mg /l ´ 5.0 MGD ´ 8.34ùû
´ %Solids ´ 8.34
= 3, 317 lb /day - 459 lb /day
= 2, 858 lb /day % Mass Balance

é TSSin , lb - ( TSSout , lb + Sludge Sol, lb ) ù ´ 100
=ë û
2, 858 lb/day TSSin , lb
Waste, MGD =
éë6, 000 mg/l ´ 8.34ùû
Explanation of Results
= 0.057 MGD
(1) If the mass balance is ±15% or less: The process is
considered to be in balance. Sludge removal should
0.057 MGD ´ 1, 000, 000 gpd/MGD be adequate with the sludge blanket depth remaining
Waste, gpm =
1, 440 min/day stable. Sampling is considered to be producing rep-
= 40 gpm resentative samples that are being tested accurately.
(2) If the mass balance is greater than±15%: It indicates
Mass Balance that more solids are entering the settling tank than
Mass balance is based upon the fact that solids and BOD are are being removed. Sludge blanket depth should be
not “lost” in the treatment system. In simple terms, the mass increasing, effluent solids may also be increasing,
balance concept states that “what comes in must equal waste and effluent quality should be decreasing.
that goes out.” The concept can be used to verify operational If changes described are not occurring, the mass
control levels and to determine if potential problems exist balance may indicate that sample type, location,
within the plant’s process control monitoring program. times, or procedures and/or testing procedures are
Note: If influent values and effluent values do not correlate not producing representative results.
within 10–15%, if usually indicates either a sampling or test- (3) If the mass balance is greater than—15%: It indi-
ing error or a process control discrepancy. cates that fewer solids are entering the settling tank
Mass balance procedures for evaluating the operation of than are being removed. Sludge blanket depth should
a settling tank and a biological process are described in this be decreasing; sludge solids concentration may also
section. Operators should recognize that, although the proce- be decreasing. This could adversely impact sludge
dures are discussed in reference to the activated sludge pro- treatment processes.
cess, the concepts can be applied to any settling or biological If changes described are not occurring, the mass
process. may indicate that sample type, location, times, or
procedures and/or testing procedures are not produc-
Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids ing representative results.
The settling tank mass balance calculation assumes that no
suspended solids are produced in the settling tank. Any set- Example 16.49
tling tank operation can be evaluated by comparing the solids
entering the unit with the solids leaving the tank as effluent Problem: Given the following data, determine the solids
suspended solids or as sludge solids. If sampling and testing mass balance for the settling tank.
Influent Flow = 2.6 MGD

TSS = 2,445 mg/l TABLE 16.7
Effluent Flow = 2.6 MGD Conversion Factors K
TSS = 17 mg/l
Return Flow = 0.5 MGD lb Solids/lb Biochemical oxygen
TSS = 8,470 mg/l Process demand (BOD5) Removed
Primary 1.7
SOLUTION: Activated Sludge with Primary 0.7
Activated Sludge without
Solids in, lb /day = 2,445 mg /l ´ 2.6 MGD ´ 8.34
Primary
= 53,017 lb /day Conventional 0.85
Step Feed 0.85
Solids out, lb/day = 17 mg/l ´ 2.6 MGD ´ 8.34 Extended Aeration 0.65
Oxidation Ditch 0.65
= 369 lb/day Contact Stabilization 1.00
Trickling Filter 1.00
Sludge Solids out , lb /day Rotating Biological Contactor 1.00
= 8, 470 mg /l ´ 0.5 MGD ´ 8.34
= 35, 320 lb /day

Conversion Factor
Mass Balance Conversion factors depend on the activated sludge modifica-
tion involved. Factors generally range from 0.5 to 1.0 lb of
é53, 017 lb/day - ( 369 lb/day + 35, 320 lb/day )ù ´ 100
= ë û solids per pound of BOD removed.
53, 017 lb/day
= 32.7% Mass Balance Calculation
The value indicates that: BOD5 in, lb = BOD, mg /l ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34 (16.66)
(1) The sampling point/collection procedure or lab-
oratory procedure is producing inaccurate data BOD5 out, lb = BOD, mg /l ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34
upon which to make process control decisions.
• Or, more solids are entering the settling Solids Produced, lb /day
tank each day than are being removed. This
should result in either (1) a solids buildup in = éë BOD in, lb - BOD out, lb ùû ´ K
the settling tank, or (2) a loss of solids over
the effluent weir. TSS out, lb /day
Investigate further to determine the specific cause of
the imbalance. = TSSout , mg /l ´ Flow, MGD ´8.34
Mass Balance: Biological Process Waste, lb /day

Solids are produced whenever biological processes are used = waste, mg /l ´ Flow, MGD ´8.34
to remove organic matter from wastewater. Mass balance
for an aerobic biological process must take into account Solids Removed, lb /day
both the solids removed by physical settling processes and
= TSSout , lb /day + Waste, lb /day
the solids produced by biological conversion of soluble
organic matter to insoluble suspended matter or organisms.
% Mass Balance
Research has shown that the amount of solids produced per
pound of BOD5 removed can be predicted based upon the ( Solids Produced - Solids Removed ) ´100
type of process being used. Although the exact amount of =
Solids Produced
solids produced can vary from plant to plant, research has
developed a series of K factors that can be used to estimate
the solids production for plants using a particular treatment
process. These average factors provide a simple method Explanation of Results
to evaluate the effectiveness of a facility’s process con- If the mass balance is ±15% or less, then the process sam-
trol program. The mass balance also provides an excellent pling, testing, and process control are within acceptable lev-
mechanism to evaluate the validity of process control and els. If the balance is greater than±15%, investigate further
effluent monitoring data generated. Table 16.7 lists average to determine if the discrepancy represents a process control
K factors in pounds of solids produced per pound of BOD problem or is the result of non-representative sampling and
removed for selected processes. inaccurate testing.
Sludge Waste Based upon Mass Balance The mass balance indicates that:
The mass balance calculation predicts the amount of sludge
that will be produced by a treatment process. This informa- (1) The sampling point(s), collection methods, and/
or laboratory testing procedures are producing
tion can then be used to determine what, under current operat-
non-representative results.
ing conditions, that waste rate must be to maintain the current (2) The process is removing significantly more sol-
solids level. ids than is required. Additional testing should
be performed to isolate the specific cause of the
Waste Rate, MGD imbalance.
Solids Produced, lb/day (16.67)
= To assist in the evaluation, the waste rate based upon the
( Waste Concentration ´88.34 ) mass balance information can be calculated.
Example 16.50 Solids Produced, lb/day

Waste, GPD = (16.68)
( Waste TSS, mg/L ´ 8.34)
Problem: Given the following data, determine the mass
balance of the biological process and the appropriate
1, 204 lb/day ´ 1, 000, 000
waste rate to maintain current operating conditions: Waste, GPD =
8, 710 mg/L ´ 8.34
Influent Flow = 1.1 MGD = 16, 575 gpd
BOD5 = 220 mg/l
TSS = 240 mg/l
Effluent Flow = 1.5 MGD Solids Concentration: Secondary Clarifier
BOD5 = 18 mg/l
The solids concentration in the secondary clarifier can be
TSS = 22 mg/l
Waste Flow = 24,000 gpd
assumed to be equal to the solids concentration in the aera-
Waste TSS = 8,710 mg/l tion tank effluent. It may also be determined in the laboratory
using a core sample taken from the secondary clarifier. The
BOD5 in = 220 mg /L ´ 1.1 MGD ´ 8.34 secondary clarifier solids concentration can be calculated as
an average of the secondary effluent suspended solids and the
= 2, 018 lb /day RAS suspended solids concentration.
BOD5 out = 18 mg /L ´ 1.1 MGD ´ 8.34
Activated Sludge Process Recordkeeping Requirements
= 165 lb /day
Wastewater operators soon learn that recordkeeping is a
BOD5 Removed = 2,018 lb /day – 165 lb /day major requirement and responsibility of their jobs. Records
are important (essential) for process control, for providing
= 1, 853 lb /day
information on the cause of problems, for providing informa-
tion for making seasonal changes, and for compliance with
Solids Produced = 1, 853 lb /day ´ 0.65 lb /lb BOD5
regulatory agencies. Records should include sampling and
= 1, 204 lb solids /day testing data, process control calculations, meter readings, pro-
cess adjustments, operational problems and corrective action
Solids Out , lb /day = 22 mg /l ´ 1.1 MGD ´ 8.34 taken, and process observations.

= 202 lb /day
DISINFECTION OF WASTEWATER
Sludge Out , lb /day Like drinking water, liquid wastewater effluent is disin-
= 8, 710 mg /l ´ 0.024 MGD ´ 8.34 fected. Unlike drinking water, wastewater effluent is disin-
= 1, 743 lb /day fected not to directly (direct end-of-pipe connection) protects
a drinking water supply, but instead is treated to protect
Solids Removed, lb /day public health in general. This is particularly important when
the secondary effluent is discharged into a body of water
= ( 292 lb /day + 1, 743 lb /day )
used for swimming or water supply for a downstream water
= 1, 945 lb /day supply. In the treatment of water for human consumption,
Mass Balance treated water is typically chlorinated (although ozonation is
also currently being applied in many cases). Chlorination is
=
(1, 204 lb Solids/day - 1, 945 lb/day ) ´ 100 the preferred disinfection in potable water supplies because
1, 204 lb/day of chlorine’s unique ability to provide a residual. This chlo-
= 62% rine residual is important because when treated water leaves
the waterworks facility and enters the distribution system; Wastewater Chlorination: Facts and Process Description
the possibility of contamination is increased. The residual Chlorine Facts
works to continuously disinfect water right up to the con-
• Elemental chlorine (Cl2—gaseous) is a yellow-green
sumer’s tap.
gas, 2.5 times heavier than air.
In this section, we discuss basic chlorination and
• The most common use of chlorine in wastewater
dechlorination. In addition, we describe UV irradiation,
treatment is for disinfection. Other uses include
ozonation, bromine chlorine, and no disinfection. Keep
odor control and activated sludge bulking control.
in mind that much of the chlorination material presented
Chlorination takes place prior to the discharge
in the following is similar to the chlorination information
of the final effluent to the receiving waters (see
presented earlier.
Figure 16.1).
• Chlorine may also be used for nitrogen removal,
Chlorine Disinfection through a process called breakpoint chlorination.
For nitrogen removal, enough chlorine is added to
Chlorination for disinfection, as shown in Figure 16.1, follows
the wastewater to convert all the ammonium nitro-
all other steps in conventional wastewater treatment. The pur-
gen gas. To do this, approximately 10 mg/l of chlo-
pose of chlorination is to reduce the population of organisms
rine must be added for every 1 mg/l of ammonium
in the wastewater to levels low enough to ensure that patho-
nitrogen in the wastewater.
genic organisms will not be present in sufficient quantities to
• For disinfection, chlorine is fed manually or auto-
cause disease when discharged.
matically into a chlorine contact tank or basin, where
Note: Chlorine gas is heavier than (vapor density of 2.5).
it contacts flowing wastewater for at least 30 min to
Therefore, exhaust from a chlorinator room should be taken
destroy disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens)
from floor level.
found in treated wastewater.
Note: The safest action to take in the event of a major chlo-
• Chorine may be applied as a gas, a solid, or in liquid
rine container leak is to call the fire department.
hypochlorite form.
Note: You might wonder why it is that chlorination of criti-
• Chorine is a very reactive substance. It has the poten-
cal waters such as natural trout streams is not normal practice.
tial to react with many different chemicals (includ-
This practice is strictly prohibited because chlorine and its
ing ammonia), as well as with organic matter. When
by-products (i.e., chloramines) are extremely toxic to aquatic
chlorine is added to wastewater, several reactions
organisms.
occur:
Chlorination Terminology (1) Chlorine will react with any reducing agent (i.e.,
sulfide, nitrite, iron, and thiosulfate) present in
Remember that there are several terms used in the discussion
wastewater. These reactions are known as chlo-
of disinfection by chlorination. Because it is important for the
rine demand. The chlorine used for these reac-
operator to be familiar with these terms, we repeat key terms
tions is not available for disinfection.
again.
(2) Chlorine also reacts with organic compounds
and ammonia compounds to form chlor-organ-
• Chlorine—a strong oxidizing agent which has a
ics and chloramines. Chloramines are part of
strong disinfecting capability. A yellow-green gas
the group of chlorine compounds that have dis-
which is extremely corrosive, and is toxic to humans
infecting properties and show up as part of the
in extremely low concentrations in air.
chlorine residual test.
• Contact Time—the length of time the disinfecting
(3) After all of the chlorine demands are met, the
agent and the wastewater remain in contact.
addition of more chlorine will produce free
• Demand—the chemical reactions, which must be
residual chlorine. Producing free residual chlo-
satisfied before a residual or excess chemical will
rine in wastewater requires very large additions
appear.
of chlorine.
• Disinfection—refers to the selective destruction of
disease-causing organisms. All the organisms are
not destroyed during the process. This differentiates
disinfection from sterilization, which is the destruc- Hypochlorite Facts
tion of all organisms. Hypochlorite, though there are some minor hazards associ-
• Dose—the amount of chemical being added in ated with its use (skin irritation, nose irritation, and burning
milligrams/liter. eyes), is relatively safe to work with. It is normally available
• Feed Rate—the amount of chemical being added in in dry form as a white powder, pellet, or tablet or in liquid
pounds per day. form. It can be added directly using a dry chemical feeder or
• Residual—the amount of disinfecting chemi- dissolved and fed as a solution.
cal remaining after the demand has been satisfied. Note: In most wastewater treatment systems, disinfection
• Sterilization—the removal of all living organisms. is accomplished by means of combined residual.
Wastewater Chlorination Process Description into the wastewater through a diffuser. Larger facilities may
Chlorine is a very reactive substance. Chlorine is added to withdraw the liquid form of chlorine and use evaporators
wastewater to satisfy all chemical demands, that is, to react (heaters) to convert to the gas form. Small facilities will nor-
with certain chemicals (such as sulfide, sulfite, ferrous iron, mally draw the gas form of chlorine from the cylinder. As gas
etc.). When these initial chemical demands have been satis- is withdrawn liquid will be converted to the gas form. This
fied, the chlorine will react with substances such as ammonia requires heat energy and may result in chlorine line freeze-up
to produce chloramines and other substances which, although if the withdrawal rate exceeds the available energy levels.
not as effective as chlorine, have disinfecting capability. This
produces a combined residual, which can be measured using Chlorination: Operation
residual chlorine test methods. If additional chlorine is added, In either type of system, normal operation requires adjust-
free residual chlorine can be produced. Due to the chemicals ment of feed rates to ensure the required residual levels are
normally found in wastewater, chlorine residuals are nor- maintained. This normally requires chlorine residual test-
mally combined rather than free residuals. Control of the dis- ing and adjustment based upon the results of the test. Other
infection process is normally based upon maintaining total activities include the removal of accumulated solids from the
residual chlorine of at least 1.0 mg/L for a contact time of at contact tank, collection of bacteriological samples to evaluate
least 30 min at design flow. process performance and maintenance of safety equipment
Note: Residual level, contact time, and effluent quality (respirator-air pack, safety lines, etc.). Hypochlorite operation
affect Disinfection. Failure to maintain the desired residual may also include make-up solutions (solution feed systems),
levels for the required contact time will result in lower effi- adding powder or pellets to the dry chemical feeder or tablets
ciency and an increased probability that disease organisms to the tablet chlorinator.
will be discharged. Chlorine operations include adjustment of chlorinator feed
Based on water quality standards, total residual limita- rates, inspection of mechanical equipment, testing for leaks
tions on chlorine are: using ammonia swab (white smoke means leaks), chang-
ing containers (requires more than one person for safety)
• Fresh Water—Less than 11 ppb total residual and adjusting the injector water feed rate when required.
chlorine. Chlorination requires routine testing of plant effluent for total
• Estuaries—Less than7.5ppb for halogen produced residual chlorine and may also require collection and analysis
oxidants. of samples to determine the fecal coliform concentration in
• Endangered Species—Use of chlorine is prohibited. the effluent.
Troubleshooting Operation Problems

Chlorination Equipment On occasion operational problems with the plant’s disinfec-
Hypochlorite Systems tion process develop. The wastewater operator must not only
Dependent on the form of hypochlorite selected for use, spe- be able to recognize these problems but also correct them.
cial equipment, which will control the addition of hypochlo- For proper operation, the chlorination process requires rou-
rite to the wastewater, is required. Liquid forms require the tine observation, meter readings, process control and testing,
use of metering pumps, which can deliver varying flows of and various process control calculations. Comparison of daily
hypochlorite solution. Dry chemicals require the use of a feed results with expected “normal” ranges is the key to identify-
system designed to provide variable doses of the form used. ing problems during the troubleshooting process and taking
The tablet form of hypochlorite requires the use of a tablet the appropriate corrective action (if required). In this section,
chlorinator designed specifically to provide the desired dose we review normal operational and performance factors, point
of chlorine. The hypochlorite solution or dry feed systems dis- out various problems that can occur with the plant’s disin-
pense the hypochlorite, which is then mixed with the flow. fection process, the causes, and the corrective action(s) that
The treated wastewater then enters the contact tank to provide should be taken.
the required contact time.
Operator Observations
Chlorine Systems The operator should consider the following items:
Because of the potential hazards associated with the use of
chlorine, the equipment requirements are significantly greater (1) Flow Distribution—the operator monitors the flow
than those associated with hypochlorite use. The system most to ensure that it is evenly distributed between all units
widely used is a solution feed system. In this system chlorine in service, that the flow through each individual unit
is removed from the container at a flow rate controlled by a is uniform, with no indication of short-circuiting.
variable orifice. Water moving through the chlorine injector (2) Contact Tank—the contact tanks or basins must be
creates a vacuum, which draws the chlorine gas to the injector checked to ensure that no excessive accumulation
and mixes it with the water. The chlorine gas reacts with the of scum is on the surface; that no indication of sol-
water to form hypochlorous and hydrochloric acid. The solu- ids accumulation is on the bottom; and that mixing
tion is then piped to the chlorine contact tank and dispersed appears to be adequate.
(3) Chlorinator—the operator should check to ensure (2) Cause: Inadequate chlorine residual control
there is no evidence of leakage; operating pressure/ Corrective Action: Use chlorine residual analyzer to
vacuum is within specified levels; current chlorine monitor and control chlorine dosage automatically.
feed settling is within expected levels; in-line cyl- (3) Cause: Short circuiting in chlorine contact chamber
inders have sufficient chlorine to ensure continuous Corrective Action: Install baffling in the chlo-
feed; and the exhaust system is operating as designed. rine contact chamber; install mixingdevice in
chlorine contact chamber.
Factors Affecting Performance (4) Cause: Solids buildup in contact chamber
Operators must be familiar with those factors that affect chlo- Corrective Action: Clean contact chamber.
rination performance. Any item that interferes with the chlo- (5) Cause: Chlorine residual is too low
rine reactions or increases the demand for chlorine can affect Corrective Action: Increase contact time and/or
performance and, in turn, may produce non-disinfectant increase chlorine feed rate.
products. Factors affecting chlorination performance include: Symptom 2
Low chlorine gas pressure at the chlorinator.
(1) Effluent Quality—Poor quality effluents have higher (1) Cause: Insufficient number of cylinders con-
chlorine demands; high concentrations of solids nected to the system
prevent chlorine-organism contact; and incomplete Corrective Action: Connect enough c ylinders to
nitrification can cause extremely high chlorine system so that feed rate does not exceed the rec-
demand. ommended withdrawal rate for cylinders.
(2) Mixing—To be effective, chlorine must be in con- (2) Cause: Stoppage or restriction of flow between
tact with the organisms. Poor mixing results in poor cylinders and chlorinator
chlorine distribution. Installation of baffles and using Corrective Action: Disassemble chlorine header
a high length-to-width ratio will improve mixing and system at the point where cooling begins, locate
contact. stoppage, and clean with solvent.
(3) Contact Time—The chlorine disinfection process is Symptom 3
time dependent. As the contact time decreases, pro- No chlorine gas pressure at the chlorinator.
cess effectiveness decreases. A minimum of 30 min (1) Cause: Chlorine cylinders empty or not con-
of contact must be available at design flow. nected to the system
(4) Residual Levels—The chlorine disinfection process Corrective Action: Connect cylinders or replace
is total residual chlorine (TRC) dependent. The con- empty cylinders.
centration of residual must be sufficient to ensure the (2) Cause: Plugged or damaged pressure reducing
desired reactions occur. At the design contact time, valve
the required minimum total residual chlorine con- Corrective Action: Repair reducing valve after
centration is 1.0 mg/L. shutting cylinder valves and decreasing gas in
the header system.
Process Control Sampling and Testing Symptom 4
To ensure proper operation of the chlorination process, the Chlorinator will not feed any chlorine.
operator must perform process control testing for the chlori- (1) Cause: Pressure reducing valve in chlorinator is
nation process. [Note: The process performance evaluation is dirty
based on the bacterial content (fecal coliform) of the final efflu- Corrective Action: Disassemble chlorinator and
ent.] Process control testing consists of performing a total chlo- clean valve stem and seat; precede valve with fil-
rine residual test on chlorine contact effluent. The frequency of ter/sediment trap.
the testing is specified in the plant permit. The normal expected (2) Cause: Chlorine cylinder is hotter than chlorine
range of results is also specified in the plant permit. control apparatus (chlorinator)
Corrective Action: Reduce temperature in cylin-
Troubleshooting der area; do not connect a new cylinder, which
The following sections present common operational prob- has been sitting in the sun.
lems, symptoms, causal factors, and corrective actions asso- Symptom 5
ciated with chlorination system use in wastewater treatment. Chlorine gas escaping from the chlorine pressure
reducing valve (CPRV).
Symptom 1 (1) Cause: Main diaphragm of CPRV ruptured
Coliform count fails to meet required standards for Corrective Action: Disassemble valve and dia-
disinfection. phragm; inspect chlorine supply system for
(1) Cause: Inadequate chlorination equipment capacity moisture intrusion.
Corrective Action: Replace equipment as neces- Symptom 6
sary to provide treatment based on maximum Inability to maintain chlorine feed rate without icing
flow through the pipe. of chlorine system.
(1) Cause: Insufficient evaporator capacity (4) Cause: Flow proportioning control device not
Corrective Action: Reduce feed rate to 75% of zeroed or spanned correctly
evaporator capacity. If this eliminates problem Corrective Action: Re-zero and span the
then main diaphragm of CPRV is ruptured. device in accordance with the manufacturer’s
(2) Cause: External CPRV cartridge is clogged instructions.
Corrective Action: Flush and clean cartridge. Symptom 12
Symptom 7 Unable to obtain chlorine residual.
Chlorinator system is unable to maintain suffi- (1) Cause: High chemical demand
cient water bath temperature to keep external CPRV Corrective Action: Locate and correct the
open. source of the high demand.
(1) Cause: Heating element malfunction (2) Cause: Test interference
Corrective Action: Remove and replace heating Corrective Action: Add sulfuric acid to samples
element. to reduce interference.
Symptom 8 Symptom 13
Inability to obtain maximum feed rate from Chlorine residual analyzer, recorder, controller
chlorinator. does not control chlorine residual properly.
(1) Cause: Inadequate chlorine gas pressure (1) Cause: Electrodes fouled
Corrective Action: Increase pressure, replace Corrective Action: Clean electrodes.
empty or low cylinders. (2) Cause: Loop time is too long
(2) Cause: Water pump injector clogged with Corrective Action: Reduce control loop time
deposits by:
Corrective Action: Clean injector parts using 1. Moving the injector closer to the point of
muriatic acid. Rinse parts with fresh water and application.
place back in service. 2. Increasing the velocity in the sample line to
(3) Cause: Leak in vacuum relief valve the analyzer.
a. Corrective Action: Disassemble vacuum relief 3. Move the cell closer to the sample point.
valve and replace all springs. 4. Move the sample point closer to the point of
(4) Cause: Vacuum Leak in joints, gaskets, tubing, application.
etc. in chlorinator system (3) Cause: Insufficient potassium iodide being
Corrective Action: Repair all vacuum leaks by added for the amount of residual being measured
tightening joints, replacing gaskets, replacing Corrective Action: Adjust potassium iodide feed
tubing and/or compression nuts. to correspond with the chlorine residual being
Symptom 9 measured.
Inability to maintain adequate chlorine feed rate. (4) Cause: Buffer additive system is malfunctioning
(1) Cause: Malfunction or deterioration of chlorine Corrective Action: Repair buffer additive system.
water supply pump (5) Cause: Malfunctioning of analyzer cell
Corrective Action: Overhaul pump (if turbine Corrective Action: Call authorized service per-
pump is used, try closing valve to maintain sonnel to repair electrical components.
proper discharge pressure). (6) Cause: Poor mixing of chlorine at point of
Symptom 10 application
Chlorine residual too high in plant effluent to meet Corrective Action: Install mixing device to cause
requirements. turbulence at point of application.
(1) Cause: Chlorine residual too high (7) Cause: Rotameter tube range is improperly set
Corrective Action: Install dechlorination Corrective Action: Replace rotameter with a
facilities. proper range of feed rate.
Symptom 11
Wide variation in chlorine residual produced in the
effluent. Dechlorination
(1) Cause: Chlorine flow proportion meter capacity The purpose of dechlorination is to remove chlorine
inadequate to meet plant flow rates and reaction products (chloramines) before the treated
Corrective Action: Replace with higher capacity wastestream is discharged into its receiving waters.
chlorinator meter. Dechlorination follows chlorination—usually at the end of
(2) Cause: Malfunctioning controls the contact tank to the final effluent. Sulfur dioxide gas,
Corrective Action: Call manufacturer technical sodium sulfate, sodium metabisulfate, or sodium bisulfates
representative. are the chemicals used to dechlorinate. No matter which
(3) Cause: Solids settled in chlorine contact chamber chemical is used to dechlorinate, its reaction with chlorine
Corrective Action: Clean chlorine contact tank. is instantaneous.
Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety (14) Except to repair a leak, do not tamper with the fus-
Chlorine is an extremely toxic substance which can, when ible plugs on chlorine cylinders.
released to the environment, cause severe damage. For this (15) Wear SCBA whenever changing a chlorine cylinder
reason, most state regulatory agencies have established a chlo- and have at least one other person with a standby
rine water quality standard (e.g., in Virginia, 0.011 mg/L in SCBA unit outside the immediate area.
fresh waters for total residual chlorine and 0.0075 mg/L for (16) Inspect all threads and surfaces of chlorine cylinder
chlorine produced oxidants in saline waters). Studies have and have at least one other person with a standby
indicated that above these levels chlorine can reduce shellfish SCBA unit outside the immediate area.
growth and destroy sensitive aquatic organisms. This standard (17) Use new lead gaskets each time a chlorine cylinder
has resulted in many treatment facilities being required to connection is made.
add an additional process to remove the chlorine prior to dis- (18) Use only the specified wrench to operate chlorine
charge. As mentioned, the process, known as dechlorination, cylinder valves.
uses chemicals, which react quickly with chlorine to convert it (19) Open chlorine cylinder valves slowly; no more than
to a less harmful form. Elemental chlorine is a chemical with one full turn.
potentially fatal hazards associated with it. For this reason (20) Do not hammer, bang, or force chlorine cylinder
many different State and Federal agencies regulate the trans- valves under any circumstances.
port, storage, and use of chlorine. All operators required to (21) Check for chlorine leaks as soon as the chlorine
work with chlorine should be trained in proper handling tech- cylinder connection is made. Leaks are checked for
niques. They should also be trained to ensure that all proce- by gently expelling ammonia mist from a plastic
dures for storage transport, handling, and use of chlorine are squeeze bottle filled with approximately 2 ounces of
in compliance with appropriate State and Federal regulations. liquid ammonia solution. Do not put liquid ammonia
on valves or equipment.
Chlorine: Safe Work Practice (22) Correct all minor chlorine leaks at the chlorine cyl-
inder connection immediately.
Because of the inherent dangers involved with handling
(23) Except for automatic systems, draw chlorine from
chlorine, each facility using chlorine (for any reason) should
only one manifold chlorine cylinder at a time. Never
ensure that a written safe work practice is in place and is fol-
simultaneously open two or more chlorine cylinders
lowed by plant operators. A sample safe work practice for
connected to a common manifold pulling liquid chlo-
handling chlorine is provided in the following below:
rine. Two or more cylinders connected to a common
manifold pulling gaseous chlorine are acceptable.
Work: Chemical Handling—Chlorine
(24) Wear SCBA and chemical protective clothing cov-
Practice ering face, arms, and hands before entering an
(1) Plant personnel must be trained and instructed on the enclosed chlorine area to investigate a chlorine odor
use and handling of chlorine, chlorine equipment, or chlorine leak—two-person rule required.
chlorine emergency repair kits, and other chlorine (25) Provide positive ventilation to a contaminated chlo-
emergency procedures. rine atmosphere before entering whenever possible.
(2) Use extreme care and caution when handling (26) Have at least two personnel present before entering
chlorine. a chlorine atmosphere: One person to enter the chlo-
(3) Lift chlorine cylinders only with an approved and rine atmosphere, the other to observe in the event of
load-tested device. an emergency. Never enter a chlorine atmosphere
(4) Secure chlorine cylinders into position immediately. unattended. Remember: OSHA mandates that only
Never leave a cylinder suspended. fully qualified Level III HAZMAT responders are
(5) Avoid dropping chlorine cylinders. authorized to aggressively attack a hazardous mate-
(6) Avoid banging chlorine cylinders into other objects. rials leak such as chlorine.
(7) Store chlorine 1-ton cylinders in a cool dry place (27) Use supplied-air-breathing equipment when entering
away from direct sunlight or heating units. Railroad a chlorine atmosphere. Never use canister-type gas
tank cars are direct sunlight compensated. masks when entering a chlorine atmosphere.
(8) Store chlorine 1-ton cylinders on their sides only (28) Ensure that supplied-air-breathing apparatus has
(horizontally). been properly maintained in accordance with
(9) Do not stack unused or used chlorine cylinders. the plant’s Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus
(10) Provide positive ventilation to the chlorine storage Inspection Guidelines as specified in the plant’s
area and chlorinator room. Respiratory Protection Program.
(11) Always keep chlorine cylinders at ambient tempera- (29) Stay upwind from all chlorine leak danger areas
ture. Never apply direct flame to a chlorine cylinder. unless involved with making repairs. Look to plant
(12) Use the oldest chlorine cylinder in stock first. windsocks for wind direction.
(13) Always keep valve protection hoods in place until (30) Contact trained plant personnel to repair chlorine
the chlorine cylinders are ready for connection. leaks.
(31) Roll uncontrollable leaking chlorine cylinders so SOLUTION:

that the chlorine escapes as a gas, not as a liquid. Chlorine Demand mg /L = 7.1mg /L - 1.0 mg /L
(32) Stop leaking chlorine cylinders or leaking chlorine
equipment (by closing off valve(s) if possible) prior = 6.1mg /L
to attempting to repair.
(33) Connect uncontrollable leaking chlorine cylinders to Chlorine Feed Rate
the chlorination equipment and feed the maximum The chlorine feed rate is the amount of chlorine added to the
chlorine feed rate possible. wastewater in pounds per day.
(34) Keep leaking chlorine cylinders at the plant site.
Chlorine cylinders received at the plant site must Chlorine Feed Rate = Dose, mg /L ´ Flow, MGD
be inspected for leaks prior to taking delivery from (16.70)
´ 8.34 lb /mg /L /MG
the shipper. Never ship a leaking chlorine cylinder
back to the supplier after it has been accepted (bill of
lading has been signed by plant personnel) from the Example 16.52
shipper; instead, repair or stop the leak first.
(35) Keep moisture away from a chlorine leak. Never put Problem: The current chlorine dose is 5.55 mg/L. What is
water onto a chlorine leak. the feed rate in pounds per day if the flow is 22.89 MGD?
(36) Call the fire department or rescue squad if a person
is incapacitated by chlorine. SOLUTION:
(37) Administer CPR (use barrier mask if possible) imme- Feed, lbs /day = 5.55 mg /L ´ 22.89 MGD
diately to the person who has been incapacitated by
´ 8.34 lb /mg /L /MG
chlorine.
(38) Breathe shallow rather than deep if exposed to chlo- = 1, 060 lb /day
rine without the appropriate respiratory protection. Chlorine Dose
(39) Place a person who does not have difficulty breath-
Chlorine dose is the concentration of chlorine being added to
ing and is heavily contaminated with chlorine into a
the wastewater. It is expressed in milligrams per liter.
deluge shower. Remove their clothing under the water
and flush all body parts that were exposed to chlorine.
Chlorine Feed Rate in Pounds/Day
(40) Flush eyes contaminated with chlorine with copi- Dose, mg/L = (16.71)
Flow in Million Gal/D ´ 8.34 lbs/mg/L/MG
ous quantities of lukewarm running water for at least
15 min.
(41) Drink milk if throat is irritated by chlorine. Example 16.53
(42) Never store other materials in chlorine cylinder stor-
age areas; substances like acetylene and propane are Problem: Three hundred twenty (320) pounds of chlorine
not compatible with chlorine. are added per day to a wastewater flow of 5.60 MGD.
What is the chlorine does in milligrams per liter?
Chlorination Process Calculations
There are several calculations that may be useful in operat- 320 lb/day
Dose, mg/L =
ing a chlorination system. Many of these calculations are dis- 5.60 MGD ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG
cussed and illustrated in this section.
= 6.9 mg/L
Chlorine Demand Available Chlorine
Chlorine demand is the amount of chlorine in milligrams per When hypochlorite forms of chlorine are used, the available
liter that must be added to the wastewater to complete all of chlorine is listed on the label. In these cases, the amount of
the chemical reactions that must occur prior to producing a chemical added must be converted to the actual amount of
residual. chlorine using the following calculation.
Chlorine Demand = Chlorine Dose, mg /L Available Chlorine = Amount of Hypochlorite
(16.69) (16.72)
- Chlorine Residual, mg /L ´% Available Chlorine
Problem: The plant effluent currently requires a chlorine Problem: The calcium hypochlorite used for chlorination
dose of 7.1 mg/L to produce the required 1.0 mg/L chlo- contains 62.5% available chlorine. How many pounds of
rine residual in the chlorine contact tank. What is the chlo- chlorine are added to the plant effluent if the current feed
rine demand in milligrams per liter? rate is 30 pounds of calcium hypochlorite per day?
SOLUTION: Step 2 If an increase in flow and/or required dosage

Quantity of Chlorine = 30 pounds ´ 0.625
is projected, current flow rate and/or dose must be
adjusted to reflect the projected change.
= 18.75 lb Chlorine Step 3Calculate the projected flow and dose:
Required Quantity of Dry Hypochlorite Projected Flow = Current Flow, MGD

(16.75)
This calculation is used to determine the amount of hypochlo- ´ (1.0 + % Change )
rite needed to achieve the desired dose of chlorine:
Hypochlorite Quantity, lb /day Projected Dose = Current Dose, mg /L

Required Chlorine Dose, mg /L ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34 lb /mg /L /MG ´ (1.0 + % Change )
=
(16.73)
Example 16.57
Example 16.55 Problem: Based on the available information for the past
twelve months the operator projects that the effluent flow
Problem: The laboratory reports that the chlorine dose rate will increase by 7.5% during the next year. If the aver-
required to maintain the desired residual level is 8.5 mg/L. age daily flow has been 4.5 MGD, what will be the pro-
Today’s flow rate is 3.25 MGD. The hypochlorite powder jected flow for the next twelve months?
used for disinfection is 70% available chlorine. How many
pounds of hypochlorite must be used? SOLUTION:
SOLUTION: Projected Flow, MGD = 4.5 MGD ´ (1.0 + 0.075)

8.5 mg/L ´ 3.25 MGD ´ 8.34 = 4.84 MGD
Hypochlorite Quantity =
0.70 To determine the amount of chlorine required for a given
= 329 lb/day period:
Required Quantity of Liquid Hypochlorite Chlorine Required = Feed Rate, lb/ day

´ no. of days required
Hypochlorite needed, gal /day
Required Chlorine Dose, mg /L ´ Flow, MGD ´ 8.34 lb /mg /L /MG Example 16.58
=
% Available Chlorine ´ 8.34 ´ Hypochlorite solution spec. gravity
Problem: The plant currently uses 90 lb of chlorine per
(16.74)
day. The Town wishes to order enough chlorine to supply
the plant for four months (assume 31 days/month). How
Example 16.56 many pounds of chlorine should be ordered to provide the
needed supply?
Problem: The chlorine dose is 8.8 mg/L and the flow rate
is 3.28 MGD. The hypochlorite solution is 71% available SOLUTION:
chlorine and has a specific gravity of 1.25. How many
pounds of hypochlorite must be used? Chlorine required = 90 lb /day ´ 124 days

= 11160
, lb
SOLUTION:
Hypochlorite Quantity Note: In some instances, projections for flow or dose
changes are not available but the plant operator wishes
8.8 mgL ´ 3.28 MGD ´ 8.34 lb/mg/L/MG to include an extra amount of chlorine as a safety factor.
=
34 lb/gal ´ 1.25
0.71´ 8.3 This safety factor can be stated as a specific quantity or
as a percentage of the projected usage. Safety Factor as a
= 32.5 gal/day specific quantity can be expressed as:
Ordering Chlorine Total Required Cl2 = Chlorine Required, lbs

Because disinfection must be continuous, the supply of chlo-
+ Safety Factor
rine must never be allowed to run out. The following calcula-
tion provides a simple method for determining when additional Note: Because chlorine is only shipped in full containers,
supplies must be ordered. The process consists of three steps: unless asked specifically for the amount of chlorine actu-
ally required or used during a specified period, all deci-
Step 1 Adjust the flow and use variations if projected mal parts of a cylinder are rounded up to the next highest
changes are provided. number of full cylinders.
UV Irradiation disinfection alternatives) is the toe of the same foot. UV main-

tenance requires that the tubes be cleaned on a regular basis or
Although UV disinfection was recognized as a method for as needed. In addition, periodic acid washing is also required
achieving disinfection in the late nineteenth century, its appli- to remove chemical buildup.
cation virtually disappeared with the evolution of chlorination Routine monitoring is required. Monitoring to check on
technologies. However, in recent years, there has been a resur- bulb burnout, a buildup of solids on quartz tubes, and UV
gence in its use in the wastewater field, largely as a consequence light intensity is necessary.
of concern for the discharge of toxic chlorine residual. Even Note: UV light is extremely hazardous to the eyes. Never
more recently, UV has gained more attention because of the enter an area where UV lights are in operation without proper
tough new regulations on chlorine use imposed by both OSHA eye protection. Never look directly into the UV light.
and USEPA. Because of this relatively recent increased regula-
tory pressure, many facilities are actively engaged in substitut- Advantages and Disadvantages
ing chlorine for other disinfection alternatives. Moreover, UV Advantages:
technology itself has made many improvements, which now • UV disinfection is effective at inactivating most
makes UV attractive as a disinfection alternative. Ultraviolet viruses, spores, and cysts.
light has very good germicidal qualities and is very effective in • UV disinfection is a physical process rather
destroying microorganisms. It is used in hospitals, biological than a chemical disinfectant, which eliminates
testing facilities, and many other similar locations. In waste- the need to generate, handle, transport, or store
water treatment, the plant effluent is exposed to UV light of toxic/hazardous or corrosive chemicals.
a specified wavelength and intensity for a specified contact • There is no residual effect that can be harmful to
period. The effectiveness of the process is dependent upon: humans or aquatic life.
• UV disinfection is user-friendly for operators.
• UV light intensity. • UV disinfection has a shorter contact time when
• Contact time. compared with other disinfectants (approxi-
• Wastewater quality (turbidity). mately 20–30 seconds with low-pressure lamps).
• For any one treatment plant, disinfection success is • UV disinfection equipment requires less space
directly related to the concentration of colloidal and than other methods.
particulate constituents in the wastewater. Disadvantages:
• Low dosages may not effectively inactivate some
The Achilles’ heel of UV for disinfecting wastewater is turbidity. viruses, spores, and cysts.
If the wastewater quality is poor, the UV light will be unable to • Organisms can sometimes repair and reverse
penetrate the solids and the effectiveness of the process decreases the destructive effects of UV through a “repair
dramatically. For this reason, many states limit the use of UV mechanism,” known as photo reactivation, or in
disinfection to facilities that can reasonably be expected to pro- the absence of light known as “dark repairs.”
duce an effluent containing ≤30 mg/l, or less of BOD5 and TSS. • A preventive maintenance program is necessary
The main components of a UV disinfection system are mer- to control fouling of tubes.
cury arc lamps, a reactor, and ballasts. The source of UV radia- • Turbidity and TSS in the wastewater can render
tion is either the low-pressure or medium-pressure mercury arc UV disinfection ineffective. UV disinfection with
lamp with low or high intensities. Note that in the operation of UV low-pressure lamps is not as effective for second-
systems, UV lamps must be readily available when replacements ary effluent with TSS levels above 30 mg/L.
are required. The best lamps are those with a stated operating • UV disinfection is not as cost competitive when
life of at least 7,500 h and those that do not produce significant chlorination dechlorination is used and fire
amounts of ozone or hydrogen peroxide. The lamps must also codes are met (USEPA, 1999a).
meet technical specifications for intensity, output, and arc length.
If the UV light tubes are submerged in the wastestream, they
must be protected inside quartz tubes, which not only protect the
lights but also make cleaning and replacement easier. MICROBIAL REPAIR
Contact tanks must be used with UV disinfection. They must Many microorganisms have enzyme systems that repair
be designed with the banks of UV lights in a horizontal posi- damage caused by UV light. Repair mechanisms are
tion, either parallel or perpendicular to the flow or with banks classified as either photorepair to dark repair (Knudson,
of lights placed in a vertical position perpendicular to the flow. 1985). Microbial repair can increase the UV dose
Note: The contact tank must provide, at a minimum, needed to achieve a given degree of inactivation of a
10-second exposure time. pathogen, but the process does not prevent activation.
We stated earlier that turbidity problems have been the Even though microbial repair can occur, neither photo-
problem with using UV in wastewater treatment—and this repair nor dark repair is anticipated to affect the perfor-
is the case. However, if turbidity is its Achilles’ heel, then mance of drinking water UV disinfection.
the need for increased maintenance (as compared to other
Applicability
PHOTOREPAIR When choosing a UV disinfection system, there are three crit-
In photorepair (or photoreactivation), enzymes ener- ical areas to be considered. The first is primarily determined
gized by exposure to light between 310 and 490 nm by the manufacturer; the second, by design and Operation
(near and in the visible range) break the covalent bonds and Maintenance (O&M); and the third has to be controlled
that form the pyrimidine dimmers. Photoreceptor at the treatment facility. Choosing a UV disinfection system
requires reactivating light and repairs only pyrimidine depends on three critical factors listed below:
dimmers (Jagger, 1967). Knudson (1985) found that
• Hydraulic properties of the reactor: Ideally, a UV
bacteria have the enzymes necessary for photorepair.
disinfection system should have a uniform flow with
Unlike bacteria, viruses lack necessary enzymes for
enough axial motion (radial mixing) to maximize
repair but can repair using the enzymes of a host cell
exposure to UV radiation. The path that an organism
(Rauth, 1965). Linden et al., (2002) did not observe
takes in the reactor determines the amount of UV
photorepair of Giardia at UV does typical of UV dis-
radiation it will be exposed to before inactivation. A
infection applications (16 and 40 mJ/cm 2). However,
reactor must be designed to eliminate short-circuit-
unpublished data from the same study show Giardia
ing and/or dead zones, which can result in inefficient
reactivation in light conditions at very low UV doses
use of power and reduced contact time.
(0.5 mJ/cm 2, USEPA, 2006). Shin et al., (2001)
• Intensity of the UV radiation: Factors affecting the
reported that Cryptosporidium does not regain infec-
intensity are the age of the lamps, lamp fouling,
tivity after inactivation by UV light. One study showed
and the configuration and placement of lamps in the
that Cryptosporidium can undergo some DNA photo-
reactor.
repair (Oguma et al., 2001). Even though the DNA is
• Wastewater characteristics: These include the flow
repaired, however, infectivity is not restored.
rate, suspended and colloidal solids, initial bacterial
density, and other physical and chemical parameters.
Both the concentration of TSS and the concentration
of particle-associated microorganisms determine
how much UV radiation ultimately reaches the tar-
DARK REPAIR get organisms. The higher these concentrations, the
lower the UV radiation absorbed by the organisms.
Dark repair is defined as any repair process that does UV disinfection can be used in plants of various
not require the presence of light. The term is some- sizes that provide secondary or advanced levels of
what misleading because dark repair can also occur treatment.
in the presence of light. Excision repair, a form of
dark repair, is an enzyme-mediated process in which Operation and Maintenance
the damaged section of DNA is removed and regen- The proper O&M of a UV disinfection system ensures that
erated using the existing complementary strand of sufficient UV radiation is transmitted to the organisms to ren-
DNA. As such, excision repair can occur only with der them sterile. All surfaces between the UV radiation and
double-stranded DNA and RNA. The extent of dark the target organism must be clean, and the ballasts, lamps, and
repair varies with the microorganism. With bacteria reactors must be functioning at peak efficiency. Inadequate
and protozoa, dark repair enzymes start to act imme- cleaning is one of the most common causes of a UV system’s
diately following exposure to UV light; therefore, ineffectiveness. The quartz sleeves or Teflon tubes need to be
reported dose-response data are assumed to account cleaned regularly by mechanical wipes, ultrasonics, or chemi-
for dark repair. cals. The cleaning frequency is very site-specific; some sys-
Knudson (1985) found that bacteria can undergo tems need to be cleaned more often than others.
dark repair, but some lack the enzymes needed for dark Chemical cleaning is most commonly done with citric
repair. Viruses also lack the necessary enzymes for acid. Other cleaning agents include mild vinegar solutions
repair but can repair using the enzymes of a host cell and sodium hydrosulfite. A combination of cleaning agents
(Rauth, 1965). Oguma et al., (2001) used an assay that should be tested to find the agent most suitable for the waste-
measures the number of dimmers formed in nucleic acid water characteristics without producing harmful or toxic by-
to show that dark repair occurs in Cryptosporidium, products. Noncontact reactor systems are most effectively
even though the microorganism did not regain infectiv- cleaned by using sodium hydrosulfite.
ity. Linden et al., (2002) did not observe dark repair of Any UV disinfection should be pilot tested prior to full-
Giardia at UV does typical for UV disinfection applica- scale platform to ensure that it will meet discharge permit
tions (16 and 40 mJ/cm2). Shin et al. (2001) reported requirements for a particular site.
Cryptosporidium does not regain infectivity after inac- The average lamp life ranges from 8,760 to 14,000 work-
tivation by UV light. ing h, and the lamps are usually replaced after 12,000 h of
use. Operating procedures should be set to reduce the on/off
cycles of the lamps, since efficacy is reduced with repeated • Ozone is generated onsite, and thus, there are
cycles. fewer safety problems associated with shipping
The ballast must be compatible with the lamps and should and handling.
be ventilated to protect it from excessive heating, which may • Ozonation elevates the (DO) concentration of the
shorten its life or even result in fires. Although the life cycle effluent. The increase in DO can eliminate the
of ballasts is approximately 10 to 15 years, they are usually need for re-aeration and also raise the level of
replaced every 10 years. Quartz sleeves will last about five DO in the receiving stream.
to eight years but are generally replaced every five years Disadvantages:
(USEPA, 1999a). • Low dosage may not effectively inactivate some
viruses, spores, and cysts.
• Ozonation is a more complex technology than is
Ozonation chlorine or UV disinfection, requiring compli-
Ozone is a strong oxidizing gas that reacts with most organic cated equipment and efficient contacting systems.
and many inorganic molecules. It is produced when oxygen • Ozone is very reactive and corrosive, thus requir-
molecules separate, collide with other oxygen atoms, and form ing corrosion-resistant material such as stainless
a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms. For high-quality steel.
effluents, ozone is a very effective disinfectant. Current regu- • Ozonation is not economical for wastewater with
lations for domestic treatment systems limit the use of ozona- high levels of suspended soils, BOD, chemical
tion to filtered effluents unless the system’s effectiveness can oxygen demand, or total organic carbon.
be demonstrated prior to installation. • Ozone is extremely irritating and possibly toxic,
Note: Effluent quality is the key performance factor for so off-gases from the contactor must be destroyed
ozonation. to prevent worker exposure.
For the ozonation of wastewater, the facility must have the • The cost of treatment can be relatively high in
capability to generate pure oxygen along with an ozone gen- capital and in power intensiveness.
erator. A contact tank with ≥10-minute contact time at design
average daily flow is required. Off-gas monitoring for process
Applicability
control is also required. In addition, safety equipment capable
of monitoring ozone in the atmosphere and a ventilation sys- Ozone disinfection is generally used at medium to large sized
tem to prevent ozone levels exceeding 0.1 ppm is required. plants after at least secondary treatment. In addition to disin-
The actual operation of the ozonation process consists of fection, another common use for ozone in wastewater treat-
monitoring and adjusting the ozone generator and monitoring ment is odor control.
the control system to maintain the required ozone concentra- Ozone disinfection is the least used method in the United
tion in the off-gas. The process must also be evaluated peri- States although this technology has been widely accepted
odically using biological testing to assess its effectiveness. in Europe for decades. Ozone treatment has the ability to
Note: Ozone is an extremely toxic substance. Concentrations achieve higher levels of disinfection than either chlorine or
in the air should not exceed 0.1 ppm. It also has the potential UV; however, the capital costs, as well as maintenance expen-
to create an explosive atmosphere. Sufficient ventilation and ditures, are not competitive with available alternatives. Ozone
purging capabilities should be provided. is therefore used only sparingly, primarily in special cases
Note: Ozone has certain advantages over chlorine for where alternatives are not effective (USEPA, 1999b).
disinfection of wastewater: (1) Ozone increases DO in the
Operation and Maintenance
effluent; (2) ozone has a briefer contact time; (3) ozone has
no undesirable effects on marine organisms; and (4) ozone Ozone generation uses a significant amount of electrical
decreases turbidity and odor. power. Thus, constant attention must be given to the system
to ensure that power is optimized for controlled disinfection
performance.
Advantages and Disadvantages There must be no leaking connections in or surrounding the
Advantages: ozone generator. The operator must on a regular basis monitor
• Ozone is more effective than chlorine in destroy- the appropriate subunits to ensure that they are not overheated.
ing viruses and bacteria. Therefore, the operator must check for leaks routinely, since a
• The ozonation process utilizes a short contact very small leak can cause unacceptable ambient ozone concen-
time (approximately 10–30 min). trations. The ozone monitoring equipment must be tested and
• There are no harmful residuals that need to be calibrated as recommended by the equipment manufacturer.
removed after ozonation because ozone decom- Like oxygen, ozone has limited solubility and decomposes
poses rapidly. more rapidly in water than in air. This factor, along with ozone
• After ozonation, there is no regrowth of micro- reactivity, requires that the ozone contactor be well covered
organisms, except for those protected by the par- and that the ozone diffuses into the wastewater as effectively
ticulates in the wastewater stream. as possible.
Ozone in gaseous form is explosive once it reaches a concen- No Disinfection

tration of 240 g/m3. Since most ozonation systems never exceed
a gaseous ozone concentration of 50–200 g/m3, this is generally In a very limited number of cases, treated wastewater dis-
not a problem. However, ozone in gaseous form will remain charges without disinfection are permitted. These are approved
hazardous for a significant amount of time; thus extreme cau- on a case-by-case basis. Each request must be evaluated based
tion is needed when operating the ozone gas systems. upon the point of discharge, the quality of the discharge, the
It is important that the ozone generator, distribution, con- potential for human contact, and many other factors.
tracting, off-gas, and ozone destructor inlet piping be purged
before opening the various systems or subsystems. When enter-
ADVANCED WASTEWATER TREATMENT
ing the ozone contactor, personnel must recognize the potential
for oxygen deficiencies or trapped ozone gas in spite of the best Advanced wastewater treatmentis defined as the method(s)
efforts to purge the system. The operator should be aware of all and/or process(es) that remove more contaminants (suspended
emergency operating procedures required if a problem occurs. and dissolved substances) from wastewater than are taken
All safety equipment should be available for operators to use in out by conventional biological treatment. Put another way,
case of an emergency. Key O&M parameters include: advanced wastewater treatment is the application of a process
or system that follows secondary treatment or that includes
• Clean feed gas with a dew point of −60°C (−76°F), phosphorus removal or nitrification in conventional second-
or lower, must be delivered to the ozone generator. If ary treatment.
the supply gas is moist, the reaction of the ozone and Advanced wastewater treatment is used to augment con-
the moisture will yield a very corrosive condensate ventional secondary treatment because secondary treatment
on the inside of the ozonator. The output of the gen- typically removes only between 85% and 95% of the BOD
erator could be lowered by the formation of nitrogen and TSS in raw sanitary sewage. Generally, this leaves 30
oxides (such as nitric acid). mg/l or less of BOD and TSS in the secondary effluent. To
• Maintain the required flow of generator coolant (air, meet stringent water quality standards, this level of BOD and
water, or other liquid). TSS in secondary effluent may not prevent violation of water
• Lubricate the compressor or blower in accordance quality standards—the plant may not make permit. Thus,
with the manufacturer’s specifications. Ensure that advanced wastewater treatment is often used to remove addi-
all compressor sealing gaskets are in good condition. tional pollutants from treated wastewater.
• Operate the ozone generator within its design param- In addition to meeting or exceeding the requirements of
eters. Regulatory inspect and clean the ozonator, air water quality standards, treatment facilities use advanced
supply, and dielectric assemblies, and monitor the wastewater treatment for other reasons as well. For example,
temperature of the ozone generator. sometimes, conventional secondary wastewater treatment is
• Monitor the ozone gas-feed and distribution system not sufficient to protect the aquatic environment. In a stream,
to ensure that the necessary volume comes into suf- for example, when periodic flow events occur, the stream may
ficient contact with the wastewater. not provide the amount of dilution of effluent needed to main-
• Maintain ambient levels of ozone below the limits of tain the necessary DO levels for aquatic organism survival.
applicable safety regulations. Secondary treatment has other limitations. It does not
significantly reduce the effluent concentration of nitrogen
Bromine Chloride and phosphorus (important plant nutrients) in sewage. An
Bromine chloride is a mixture of bromine and chlorine. It over-abundance of these nutrients can over-stimulate plant
forms hydrocarbons and hydrochloric acid when mixed with and algae growth such that they create water quality prob-
water. Bromine chloride is an excellent disinfectant that lems. For example, if discharged into lakes, these nutrients
reacts quickly and normally does not produce any long-term contribute to algal blooms and accelerated eutrophication
residuals. (lake aging). Also, the nitrogen in the sewage effluent may
Note: Bromine chloride is an extremely corrosive com- be present mostly in the form of ammonia compounds. If in
pound in the presence of low concentrations of moisture. high enough concentration, ammonia compounds are toxic
The reactions occurring when bromine chloride is added to to aquatic organisms. Yet another problem with these com-
the wastewater are similar to those occurring when chlorine is pounds is that they exert a nitrogenous oxygen demand in the
added. The major difference is the production of bromamine receiving water, as they convert to nitrates. This process is
compounds rather than chloramines. The bromamine com- called nitrification.
pounds are excellent disinfectants but are less stable and dissi- Note: The term tertiary treatment is commonly used as a
pate quickly. In most cases, the bromamines decay into other, synonym for advanced wastewater treatment. However, these
less toxic compounds rapidly and are undetectable in the two terms do not have precisely the same meaning. Tertiary
plant effluent. The factors that affect performance are similar suggests a third step that is applied after primary and second-
to those affecting the performance of the chlorine disinfec- ary treatment.
tion process. Effluent quality, contact time, etc. have a direct Advanced wastewater treatment can remove more than
impact on the performance of the process. 99% of the pollutants from raw sewage and can produce an
effluent of almost potable (drinking) water quality. However, floc formation, settling characteristics, removal in the settling
obviously, advanced treatment is not cost-free. The cost of tank, and sludge (in settling tank) turning anaerobic. To cor-
advanced treatment, for O&M as well as for retrofit of pres- rect these problems, the operator must be able to recognize
ent conventional processes, is very high (sometimes doubling the applicable problem indicators through proper observation.
the cost of secondary treatment). Therefore, a plan to install In the following sections, we list common indicators/obser-
advanced treatment technology calls for careful study—the vations of operational problems, along with the applicable
benefit-to-cost ratio is not always big enough to justify the causal factors and corrective actions.
additional expense.
Even considering the expense, the application of some 1. Poor Floc Formation and Settling Characteristics
form of advanced treatment is not uncommon. These treat- Causal Factors:
ment processes can be physical, chemical, or biological. The – insufficient chemical dispersal during rapid
specific process used is based upon the purpose of the treat- mix
ment and the quality of the effluent desired. – excessive detention time in rapid mix
– improper coagulant dosage
Chemical Treatment • excessive flocculator speed
Corrective Actions (where applicable):
The purpose of chemical treatment is to remove: – increase speed of rapid mixer
– reduce detention time to15–60 seconds
• BOD – correct dosage (determine by jar testing)
• TSS – reduce flocculator speed
• Phosphorus
• Heavy metals 2. Good Floc Formation, Poor Removal in Settling
• Other substances that can be chemically converted Tank
to a settleable solid Causal Factors:
– excessive velocity between flocculation and
Chemical treatment is often accomplished as an “add-on” to settling
existing treatment systems or by means of separate facilities • settling tank operational problem
specifically designed for chemical addition. In each case, the Corrective Action:
basic process necessary to achieve the desired results remains – reduce velocity to acceptable range
the same:
3. Settling Tank Sludge is Turning Anaerobic
• Chemicals are thoroughly mixed with the wastewater. Causal Factors:
• The chemical reactions that occur form solids – a sludge blanket has developed in settling
(coagulation). tank
• The solids are mixed to increase particle size – excessive organic carryover from secondary
(flocculation). treatment
• Settling and/or filtration (separation) then remove the – increase sludge withdrawal to eliminate
solids. blanket
– correct secondary treatment operational
The specific chemical used depends on the pollutant to be problems
removed and the characteristics of the wastewater. Chemicals
may include the following:
Microscreening
• Lime Microscreening (also called microstraining) is an advanced
• Alum (aluminum sulfate) treatment process used to reduce suspended solids. The
• Aluminum salts microscreens are composed of specially woven steel wire fab-
• Ferric or ferrous salts ric mounted around the perimeter of a large revolving drum.
• Polymers The steel wire cloth acts as a fine screen, with openings as
• Bioadditives small as 20 micrometers (or millionths of a meter)—small
enough to remove microscopic organisms and debris. The
Operation, Observation, and rotating drum is partially submerged in the secondary efflu-
Troubleshooting Procedures ent, which must flow into the drum then outward through the
Operation and observation of the performance of chemi- microscreen. As the drum rotates, captured solids are carried
cal treatment processes are dependent on the pollutant to the top where a high-velocity water spray flushes them into
being removed and on process design. Operational prob- a hopper or backwash tray mounted on the hollow axle of the
lems associated with chemical treatment processes used in drum. Backwash solids are recycled to plant influent for treat-
advanced treatment usually revolve around problems with ment. These units have found the greatest application in the
treatment of industrial waters and final polishing filtration 5. Erratic Drum Rotation
of wastewater effluents. The expected performance for sus- Causal Factors:
pended solids removal is 95–99%, but the typical suspended – Improper drive belt adjustment
solids removal achieved with these units is about 55%. The • Drive belts worn out
normal range is from 10% to 80%. Corrective Actions:
According to Metcalf & Eddy (2003), the functional design – Adjust tension to specified level
of the microscreen unit involves the following considerations: – Replace drive belts
(1) The characterization of the suspended solids with respect
to the concentration and degree of flocculation; (2) the selec- 6. Sudden Increase in Effluent Solids
tion of unit design parameter values that will not only ensure Causal Factors:
capacity to meet maximum hydraulic loadings with critical – Hole in screen fabric
solids characteristics, but also provide desired design perfor- – Screws that secure fabric are loose
mance over the expected range of hydraulic and solids load- • Solids collection trough is overflowing
ings; (3) the provision of backwash and cleaning facilities to Corrective Actions (where applicable):
maintain the capacity of the screen. – Repair fabric
– Tighten screws
Operation, Observation, and – Reduce microscreen influent flow rate
Troubleshooting Procedures
Microscreen operators typically perform sampling and test- 7. Decreased Screen Capacity after High-Pressure
ing on influent and effluent TSS and monitor screen operation Washing
to ensure proper operation. Operational problems generally Causal Factor:
consist of a gradual decrease in throughput rate, leakage at – Iron or manganese oxide film on fabric
ends of the drum, reduced screen capacity, hot or noisy drive Corrective Action:
systems, erratic drum rotation, and sudden increases in efflu- – Clean screen with inhibited acid cleaner.
ent solids. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions.
1. Decrease in Throughput Rate (from Slime

Filtration
Growth)
Causal Factors: The purpose of filtration processes used in advanced treat-
– inadequate cleaning ment is to remove suspended solids. The specific operations
• spray nozzles plugged associated with a filtration system are dependent on the equip-
Corrective Actions (where applicable): ment used. A general description of the process follows.
– increase backwash pressure (60–120 psi)
– add hypochlorite upstream of the unit Filtration Process Description
– unclog nozzles Wastewater flows to a filter (gravity or pressurized). The fil-
ter contains single, dual, or multimedia. Wastewater flows
2. Decreased Performance from Leakage at Ends of through the media, which removes solids. The solids remain
the Drum in the filter. Backwashing the filter as needed removes trapped
Causal Factor: solids. Backwash solids are returned to the plant for treatment.
– defective/leaking units Processes typically remove 95–99% of the suspended matter.
Corrective Actions:
– tighten tension on sealing bands Operation, Observation, and
– replace sealing bands if excessive tension is Troubleshooting Procedures
required Operators routinely monitor filter operation to ensure opti-
mum performance and to detect operational problems based
3. Screen Capacity Reduced after Shutdown Period on indication or observation of equipment malfunction or
Causal Factor: process sub-optimal performance. Operational problems typi-
– Screen is fouled. cally encountered in filter operations are discussed in the sec-
Corrective Actions: tions that follow.
– Clean screen prior to shutdown.
– Clean screen with hypochlorite. 1. High Effluent Turbidity
Causal Factors:
4. Drive System is Running Hot or Noisy – Filter requires backwashing.
Causal Factor: • Prior chemical treatment inadequate.
– Inadequate lubrication Corrective Actions (where applicable):
Corrective Action: – Backwash unit as soon as possible.
– Fill to specified level with recommended oil – Adjust/control chemical dosage properly.
2. High Head Loss through the Filter Corrective Actions (where applicable):
Causal Factor: – Increase chemical dosage.
– Filter requires backwashing. – Repair feed system.
Corrective Action: – Adjust filter aid dose rate (do jar test).
– Backwash unit as soon as possible.
8. Mud Ball Formation
3. High Head Loss through Unit Right after Causal Factors:
Backwashing – Inadequate backwash flow rate
Causal Factors: • Inadequate surface wash
– Backwash cycle was insufficient. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
• Surface scour/wash arm inoperative. – Increase backwash flow to specified levels.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – Increase surface wash cycle.
– Increase backwash time.
– Repair air scour or surface scrubbing arm.
9. Gravel Displacement
4. Backwash Water Requirement Exceeds 5% Causal Factor:
Causal Factors: – Air is entering the underdrains during back-
– excessive solids in filter influent wash cycle.
– excessive filter aid dosage Corrective Actions:
– surface washing/air scour not operating – Control backwash volume.
– surface washing/air scour not operated long – Control backwash water head.
enough during backwash cycle – Replace media (severe displacement).
• excessive backwash cycle used
Corrective Actions (where applicable): 10. Medium is Lost during Backwash Cycle
– Improve treatment prior to filtration. Causal Factors:
– Reduce control/filter aid dose rates. – Excessive backwash flows
– Repair mechanical problem. – Excessive auxiliary scour
– Increase surface wash cycle time. • Air attached to filter media, causing it to float
– Adjust backward cycle length. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Reduce backwash flow rate.
5. Filter Surface Clogging – Stop auxiliary scour several minutes before
Causal Factors: end of backwash cycle.
– Inadequate prior treatment (single media – Increase backwash frequency to prevent
filters) bubble displacement and/or maintain maxi-
– Excessive filter aid dosage (dual or mixed mum operating water depth above filter
media filters) surface.
– Inadequate surface wash cycle
• Inadequate backwash cycle 11. Filter Backwash Cycle not Effective during Warm
Corrective Actions (where applicable): Weather
– Improve prior treatment. Causal Factor:
– Replace single media with dual/mixed – Decreased water viscosity due to higher
media. temperatures
– Reduce or eliminate filter aid. Corrective Action:
– Provide adequate surface wash cycle. – Increase backwash rate until required bed
– Provide adequate backwash cycle. expansion is achieved.
6. Short Filter Runs

12. Air Binding Causes Premature Headloss Increase
Causal Factor:
Causal Factors:
– High head loss
– Air bubble produced by exposing an influent
Corrective Action:
containing high DO levels to less than atmo-
– See corrective actions, Sections 5.
spheric pressure
• Pressure drops occurring during changeover to
7. Filter Effluent Turbidity Increases Rapidly
backwash cycle
Causal Factors:
– Inadequate filter aid dosage.
– Increase backwash frequency.
– Filter aid system mechanical failure.
– Maintain maximum operating water depth.
• Filter aid requirement has changed.
BIOLOGICAL DENITRIFICATION – Correct pH problem in nitrification process.

– Adjust pH at process influent.
Biological denitrification removes nitrogen from the waste- – Correct denitrification sludge return.
water. When bacteria come in contact with a nitrified element – Increase denitrification sludge waste rate.
in the absence of oxygen, they reduce the nitrates to nitrogen – Decrease denitrification sludge waste rate.
gas, which escapes the wastewater. The denitrification pro- – Transfer sludge from carbonaceous units to
cess can be done in either an anoxic activated sludge system denitrification unit.
(suspended growth) or in a column system (fixed growth). – Reduce mixer speed.
The denitrification process can remove up to 85% or more – Remove some mixers from service.
of nitrogen. After effective biological treatment, little oxygen
demanding material is left in the wastewater when it reaches 3. High Head Loss (Packed Bed Nitrification)
the denitrification process. The denitrification reaction will Causal Factors:
only occur if an oxygen demand source exists when no DO – Excessive solids in unit
is present in the wastewater. An oxygen demand source is • Nitrogen gas accumulating in unit
usually added to reduce the nitrates quickly. The most com- Corrective Action:
mon demand source added is soluble BOD or methanol. – Backwash unit 1–2 min, then return to
Approximately 3 mg/l of methanol is added for every 1 mg/l service.
of nitrate-nitrogen. Suspended growth denitrification reactors
are mixed mechanically, but only enough to keep the biomass 4. Out of Service Packed Bed Unit Binds on Startup
from settling without adding unwanted oxygen. Submerged Causal Factor:
filters of different types of media may also be used to provide – Solids have floated to top during shutdown.
denitrification. A fine media downflow filter is sometimes Corrective Action:
used to provide both denitrification and effluent filtration. A – Backwash units before removing from ser-
fluidized sand bed where wastewater flows upward through a vice and immediately before placing in
media of sand or activated carbon at a rate to fluidize the bed service.
may also be used. Denitrification bacteria grow on the media.
Observational Operations, Problems, Note: The following case study demonstrates how retrofit-
ting an existing aeration system for biological phosphorus
and Troubleshooting
removal and nitrogen removal (with a developed denitrifica-
Operators monitor performance by observing various param- tion sludge blanket) can make a significant innovative con-
eters. Parameters or other indicators/observations that dem- tribution to BNR methodology. For those seeking a more
onstrate process malfunction or sub-optimal performance in-depth treatment of this case study it can be obtained from
indicate the need for various corrective actions. We discuss USEPA (2008)Municipal Nutrient removal Technologies
several of these indicators/observations of poor process per- Reference Document Volume 2—Appendices. Washington,
formance, their causal factors, and corrective actions in the DC: Environmental Protection Agency.
sections that follow.
1. Process Effluent: Sudden Increase in BOD5 Carbon Adsorption

Causal Factor: The main purpose of carbon adsorption used in advanced
– Excessive methanol or other organic matter treatment processes is the removal of refractory organic
present compounds (non-BOD5) and soluble organic materials that
Corrective Actions (as required) are difficult to eliminate by biological or physical/chemi-
– Reduce methanol addition. cal treatment. In the carbon adsorption process, wastewater
– Install automated methanol control system. passes through a container filled either with carbon pow-
– Install aerated stabilization unit for removal der or carbon slurry. Organics adsorb onto the carbon (i.e.,
of excess methanol. organic molecules are attracted to the activated carbon sur-
face and are held there) with sufficient contact time. A car-
2. Sudden Increase in Effluent Nitrate Concentration bon system usually has several columns or basins used as
Causal Factors: contactors. Most contact chambers are either open concrete
– Inadequate methanol control. gravity-type systems or steel pressure containers applicable
– Denitrification pH is outside the 7.0–7.5 to either upflow or downflow operation. With use, carbon
range required for the process. loses its adsorptive capacity. The carbon must then be regen-
– Loss of solids from the denitrification pro- erated or replaced with fresh carbon. As head loss develops
cess due to pump failure. in carbon contactors, they are backwashed with clean effluent
• Excessive mixing introducing DO. in much the same way the effluent filters are backwashed.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): Carbon used for adsorption may be in a granular form or in
– Identify/correct control problem. a powdered form.
Note: Powdered carbon is too fine for use in columns and is 4. Corrosion of Metal Parts/Damage to Concrete in
usually added to the wastewater, then later removed by coagu- Contactors
lation and settling. Causal Factors:
– Hydrogen sulfide in carbon contactors
Operational, Observations, and Troubleshooting • Holes in protective coatings exposed to dewa-
With regard to carbon adsorption system for advanced waste- tered carbon
water treatment, operators are primarily interest in monitor- Corrective Actions:
ing the system to prevent excessive head loss, to reduce levels – See corrective actions in number 2 above.
of hydrogen sulfide in the carbon contactor, to ensure that the – Repair protective coatings.
carbon is not fouled, and to ensure corrosion of metal parts
and damage to concrete in contactors is minimal.
Land Application
1. Excessive Head Loss The application of secondary effluent onto a land surface can
Causal Factors: provide an effective alternative to the expensive and com-
– Highly turbid influent plicated advanced treatment methods discussed previously
– Growth and accumulation of biological sol- and the biological nutrient removal (BNR) system discussed
ids in unit later. A high-quality polished effluent (i.e., effluent with high
– Excessive carbon fines due to deterioration levels of TSS, BOD, phosphorus, and nitrogen compounds
during handling as well as refractory organics are reduced) can be obtained
• Inlet or outlet screens plugged by the natural processes that occur as the effluent flows over
Corrective Actions (where applicable): the vegetated ground surface and percolates through the soil.
– Backwash unit vigorously. Limitations are involved with land application of wastewater
– Correct problem in prior treatment steps. effluent. For example, the process needs large land areas. Soil
– Operate as an expanded upflow bed to type and climate are also critical factors in controlling the
remove solids continuously. design and feasibility of a land treatment process.
– Increase frequently of backwashing for
downflow beds. Type and Modes of Land Application
– Improve soluble BOD5 removal in prior Three basic types or modes of land application or treatment
treatment steps. are commonly used: Irrigation (slow rate), overland flow,
– Remove carbon from unit and wash out fines. and infiltration-percolation (rapid rate). The basic objectives
– Replace carbon with harder carbon. of these types of land applications and the conditions under
– Backflush screens. which they can function vary. In irrigation (also called slow
rate), wastewater is sprayed or applied (usually by ridge-and-
2. Hydrogen Sulfide in Carbon Contactor furrow surface spreading or by sprinkler systems) to the sur-
Causal Factors: face of the land. Wastewater enters the soil. Crops growing on
– Low/no DO and/or nitrate in contactor the irrigation area utilize available nutrients. Soil organisms
influent stabilize the organic content of the flow. Water returns to the
– High influent BOD5 concentrations hydrologic (water) cycle through evaporation or by entering
• Excessive detention time in carbon contactor the surface water or groundwater.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): The irrigation land application method provides the best
– Add air, oxygen, or sodium nitrate to unit results (compared with the other two types of land applica-
influent. tion systems) with respect to advanced treatment levels of
– Improve soluble BOD5 removal in prior pollutant removal. Not only are suspended solids and BOD
treatment steps. significantly reduced by filtration of the wastewater, but also
– Precipitate sulfides already formed with iron biological oxidation of the organics in the top few inches of
on chlorine. soil occurs. Nitrogen is removed primarily by crop uptake,
– Reduce detention time by removing and phosphorus is removed by adsorption within the soil.
contactor(s) from service. Expected performance levels for irrigation include:
– Backwash units more frequently and more
violently, using air scour or surface wash. • BOD5—98%
• Suspended solids—98%
3. Large Decrease in COD Removed/lb of Carbon • Nitrogen—85%
Regenerated • Phosphorus—95%
Causal Factor: • Metals—95%
– Carbon is fouled and losing efficiency.
Corrective Action: The overland flow application method utilizes physical, chem-
– Improve regeneration process performance. ical, and biological processes as the wastewater flows in a thin
film down the relatively impermeable surface. In the process, – Repair drainage wells.
wastewater sprayed over sloped terraces flows slowly over the – Increase drainage well pumping rates.
surface. Soil and vegetation remove suspended solids, nutri- – Repair damaged drain tiles.
ents, and organics. A small portion of the wastewater evapo- – Repair pipe.
rates. The remainder flows to collection channels. Collected
effluent is discharged to surface waters. Expected perfor-
2. Deterioration of Distribution Piping
mance levels for overflow flow include:
Causal Factors:
• BOD5—92% – Effluent remains in pipe for long periods
• Suspended solids—92% • Different metals used in same line
• Nitrogen—70–90% Corrective Actions (where applicable):
• Phosphorus—40–80% – Drain pipe after each use.
• Metals—50% – Coat steel valves.
– Install cathodic/anodic protection.
In the infiltration-percolation(rapid rate) land application pro-
cess, wastewater is sprayed/pumped to spreading basins (aka,
3. No Flow from Source Sprinkler Nozzles
recharge basins or large ponds). Some wastewater evaporates.
• Nozzles clogged
The remainder percolates/infiltrates into the soil. Solids are
Corrective Action:
removed by filtration. Water recharges the groundwater system.
– Repair/replace screen on irrigation pump
Most of the effluent percolates to the groundwater; very little of
inlet.
it is absorbed by vegetation. The filtering and adsorption action
of the soil removes most of the BOD, TSS, and phosphorous
from the effluent; however, nitrogen removal is relatively poor. 4. Wastes Running Off Irrigation Area
Expected performance levels for infiltration-percolation include: Causal Factors:
– High sodium adsorption ratio has caused
• BOD5—85–99% clay soil to become impermeable.
• Suspended solids—98% – Solids seal soil surface.
• Nitrogen—0–50% – Application rate is greater than soil infiltra-
• Phosphorus—60–95% tion rate.
• Metals—50–95% – Break in distribution piping.
Operational Observations, Problems, – Soil permeability has decreased because of
and Troubleshooting continuous application of wastewater.
• Rain has saturated the soil.
Performance levels are dependent on the land application pro-
cess used. To be effective, operators must monitor the opera-
– Feed calcium and magnesium to maintain
tion of the land application process employed. Experience has
sodium adsorption ration (SAR) to less
shown that these processes can be very effective, but prob-
than 9.
lems exist when the flow contains potentially toxic materials
– Strip crop area.
that may become concentrated in the crops being grown on
– Reduces application rate to acceptable level.
land. Along with this problem, other problems are common,
– Repair system.
including ponding, deterioration of distribution piping sys-
– Allow 2–3 days’ rest period between each
tems, malfunctioning sprinkler heads, waste runoff, irrigated
application.
crop die-off, poor crop growth, and too much flow rate.
– Store wastewater until soil has drained.
1. In Irrigated Areas, Water is Ponding
Causal Factors: 5. Irrigated Crop is Dead
– Excessive application rate Causal Factors:
– Inadequate drainage because of groundwater – Too much or not enough water has been
levels applied.
– Damaged drainage wells – Wastewater contains toxic materials in toxic
– Inadequate well withdrawal rates concentrations.
– Damaged drain tiles – Excessive insecticide or herbicide applied.
• Broken pipe in distribution system • Inadequate drainage has flooded root zone of
Corrective Actions (where applicable): crop.
– Reduce application rate to acceptable level. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Irrigate in portions of site where groundwa- – Adjust application rate to appropriate level.
ter is not a problem. – Eliminate source of toxicity.
– Store wastewater until condition is corrected. – Apply only as permitted/directed.
6. Poor Crop Growth – Install cover over discharge point; collect

Causal Factors: and treat gases before release.
– Too little nitrogen (N) or phosphorus (P). – Improve pretreatment.
• Timing of nutrient applications does not coin- – Aerate storage reservoirs.
cide with plant nutrient needs.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): 12. Center Pivot Irrigation Rigs Stuck in Mud
– Increase application rate to supply N and P. Causal Factors:
– Augment N and P of wastewater with com- – Excessive application rates
mercial fertilizer applications. – Improper rig or tires
– Adjust application schedule to match crop • Poor drainage
needs. Corrective Actions:
– Reduce application rate.
7. Irrigation Pump: Normal psi but Above Average – Install tire with higher flotation capabilities.
Flow Rate
Causal Factors: 13. Nitrate in Groundwater near Irrigation Site
– Broken main, riser, or lateral. Increasing
– Leaking gasket. Causal Factors:
– Sprinkler head or nozzle is missing. – Nitrogen application rate does not balance
• Too many distribution laterals are in service at with crop need.
one time. – Applications are occurring during dormant
Corrective Actions (where applicable): periods.
– Locate and repair problems. • Crop is not being properly harvested and
– Locate and replace defective gasket. removed.
– Correct valving to adjust number of laterals Corrective Actions (where applicable):
in service. – Change to crop with higher nitrogen
requirements.
8. Irrigation Pump: Above Average psi, Below – Adjust schedule to apply only during active
Average Flow growth periods.
Causal Factor: – Harvest and remove crops as required.
– Blockage in system
Corrective Action:
Biological Nutrient Removal
– Locate and correct blockage.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the primary causes of cultural
9. Irrigation Pump: Below Average psi and Flow eutrophication (i.e., nutrient enrichment due to human activi-
Rate ties) in surface waters. The most recognizable manifestations
Causal Factors: of this eutrophication are algal blooms that occur during the
– Worn impeller summer. Chronic symptoms of over-enrichment include low
• Partially clogged pump inlet screen. DO, fish kills, murky water, and depletion of desirable flora
Corrective Actions (where applicable): and fauna. In addition, the increase in algae and turbidity
– Replace impeller. increases the need to chlorinate drinking water, which, in
– Clean screen. turn, leads to higher levels of disinfection by-products that
have been shown to increase the risk of cancer (USEPA,
10. Excessive Erosion Occurring 2007c). Excessive amounts of nutrients can also stimulate the
Causal Factors: activity of microbes, such as Pfiesteria, which may be harm-
– Excessive application rates ful to human health (USEPA, 2001d).
• Inadequate crop coverage Approximately 25% of all water body impairments are due
Coverage Actions (where applicable): to nutrient-related causes (e.g., nutrients, oxygen depletion,
– Reduce application rate. algal growth, ammonia, harmful algal blooms, biological
integrity, and turbidity) (USEPA, 2007d). In efforts to reduce
11. Odor Complaints the number of nutrient impairments, many point source dis-
Causal Factors: charges have received more stringent effluent limits for nitro-
– Wastes are turning septic during transport to gen and phosphorus. To achieve these new, lower effluent
treatment/irrigation site. limits, facilities have begun to look beyond traditional treat-
• Storage reservoirs are septic. ment technologies.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): Recent experience has reinforced the concept that biologi-
– Aerate or chemically treat wastes during cal nutrient removal (BNR) systems are reliable and effective
transport. in removing nitrogen and phosphorus. The process is based
upon the principle that, under specific conditions, microor-

ganisms will remove more phosphorus and nitrogen than is TABLE 16.8
required for biological activity; thus, treatment can be accom- Mechanisms Involved in the Removal of Total Nitrogen
plished without the use of chemicals. Not having to use and Common removal
therefore having to purchase chemicals to remove nitrogen Form of Nitrogen Mechanism Technology Limit (mg/L)
and phosphorus potentially has numerous cost-benefit impli- Ammonia-N Nitrification <0.5
cations. In addition, because chemicals are not required to be
Nitrate-N Denitrification 1–2
used, chemical waste products are not produced, reducing the
Particulate organic-N Solids separation <1.0
need to handle and dispose of waste. Several patented pro-
Soluble organic-N None 00.5–1.5
cesses are available for this purpose. Performance depends on
the biological activity and the process employed. Source: USEPA (2007c); Jeyanayagam (2005).
Description
As mentioned, BNR removes total nitrogen (TN) and total
phosphorus (TP) from wastewater through the use of micro- TABLE 16.9
organisms under different environmental conditions in the Mechanisms Involved in the Removal of Total
treatment process (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). Phosphorus
Common Removal Technology Limit
Nitrogen Removal Form of Phosphorus Mechanism (mg/L)
Total effluent nitrogen comprises ammonia, nitrate, par-
Soluble phosphorus Microbial uptake 0.1
ticulate organic nitrogen, and soluble organic nitrogen. The
Chemical precipitation
biological processes that primarily remove nitrogen are nitri-
Particulate phosphorus Solids removal <0.05
fication and denitrification. During nitrification, ammonia is
oxidized to nitrate by one group of autotrophic bacteria, most Source: USEPA (2007c); Jeyanayagam (2005).
commonly Nitrosomonas (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). Nitrite is
then oxidized to nitrite by another autotrophic bacteria group,
the most common being Nitrobacter. Biological phosphorus removal relies on phosphorus
Denitrification involves the biological reduction of nitrite uptake by anaerobic heterotrophs capable of storing ortho-
to nitric oxide, nitrous oxide, and nitrogen gas (Metcalf & phosphate in excess of their biological growth requirements.
Eddy, 2003). Both heterotrophic and autotrophic bacteria The treatment process can be designed to promote the
are capable of denitrification. The most common and widely growth of these organisms, known as phosphate-accumu-
distributed denitrifying bacteria are Pseudomonas species, lating organisms (PAOs) in mixed liquor. Under anaerobic
which can use hydrogen, methanol, carbohydrates, organic conditions, PAOs convert readily available organic mat-
acids, alcohols, benzoates, and other aromatic compounds for ter [e.g., volatile fatty acids (VFAs)] to carbon compounds
denitrification (Metcalf & Eddy, 2003). called polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). PAOs use energy
In BNR systems, nitrification is the controlling reaction generated throughout the breakdown of polyphosphate mol-
because ammonia-oxidizing bacteria lack functional diversity, ecules to create PHAs. This breakdown results in the release
have stringent growth requirements, and are sensitive to envi- of phosphorus.
ronmental considerations. Note that nitrification by itself does Under subsequent aerobic conditions in the treatment pro-
not actually remove nitrogen from wastewater. Rather, deni- cess, PAOs use the stored PHAs as energy to take up the phos-
trification is needed to convert the oxidized form of nitrogen phorus that was released in the anaerobic zone, as well as any
(nitrate) to nitrogen gas. Nitrification occurs in the presence of additional phosphate present in the wastewater. In addition to
oxygen under aerobic conditions, and denitrification occurs in reducing the phosphate concentration, the process renews the
the absence of oxygen under anoxic conditions (USEPA, 2007c). polyphosphate pool in the return sludge so that the process
Table 16.8 summarizes the removal mechanisms applica- can be repeated.
ble to each form of nitrogen. Some PAOs use nitrate instead of free oxygen to oxidize
Note that organic nitrogen is not removed biologically; stored PHAs and take up phosphorus. These denitrifying
rather only the particulate fraction can be removed through PAOs remove phosphorus in the anoxic zone, rather than the
solids separate via sedimentation or filtration. aerobic zone.
As shown in Table 16.9, phosphorus can also be removed
Phosphorus Removal from wastewater through chemical precipitation. Chemical
Total effluent phosphorus comprises soluble and particulate precipitation primarily uses aluminum and iron coagulants or
phosphorus. Particulate phosphorus can be removed from lime to form chemical flocs with phosphorus. These flocs are
wastewater through solids removal. To achieve low effluent then settled out to remove phosphorus from the wastewater.
concentrations, the soluble fraction of phosphorus must also However, compared to the biological removal of phospho-
be targeted. Table 16.9 shows the removal mechanisms for rus, chemical processes have higher operating costs, produce
phosphorus. more sludge, and result in added chemicals in sludge (Metcalf
& Eddy, 2003). When TP levels close to 0.1 mg/L are needed, and TP effluent concentrations are required. Sand filtration
a combination of biological and chemical processes may be can also be combined with attached growth denitrification fil-
less costly than either process by itself. ters to further reduce soluble nitrates and effluent TN levels.
Choosing which system is most appropriate for a particu-
Process lar facility primarily depends on the target effluent concentra-
There are a number of BNR process configurations available. tions, and whether the facility will be constructed as new or
Some BNR systems are designed to remove only TN or TP, retrofit with BNR to achieve more stringent effluent limits.
while others remove both. The configuration most appropri- New plants have more flexibility and options when deciding
ate for any particular system depends on the target effluent which BNR configuration to implement because they are not
quality, operator experience, influent quality, and exiting constrained by existing treatment units and sludge handling
treatment processes, if retrofitting an existing facility. BNR procedures.
configuration varies based on the sequencing of environmen- Retrofitting an existing plant with BNR capabilities should
tal conditions (i.e., aerobic, anaerobic, and anoxic) and timing involve consideration of the following factors (Park, 2012):
(USEPA, 2007c).
Note: Anoxic is a condition in which oxygen is available • Aeration basin size and configuration
only in the combined form (e.g., NO2− or NO3−). However, • Clarifier capacity
anaerobic is a condition in which neither free nor combined • Type of aeration system
oxygen is available. • Sludge processing units
Common BNR system configurations include: • Operator skills
• MLE Process—continuous-flow suspended-growth The aeration basin size and configuration dictate which BNR
process with an initial anoxic stage followed by an configurations are the most economical and feasible. Available
aerobic stage; used to remove nitrogen. excess capacity reduces the need for additional basins, and
• A2/O Process—MLE process preceded by an initial may allow for more configurations (e.g., 5-stage Bardenpho
anaerobic stage; used to remove both TN and TP versus 4-state Bardenpho configuration). The need for addi-
• Step Feed Process—alternating anoxic and aerobic tional basins can result in the need for more land if the space
stages; however, influent flow is split to several feed needed is not available. If land is not available, another BNR
locations and the recycle sludge stream is sent to the process configuration may have to be considered.
beginning of the process; used to remove TN Clarifier capacity influences the RAS rate and effluent
• Bardenpho Process (Four-Stage)—continuous-flow suspended solids, which, in turn, affects effluent TN and TP
suspended-growth process with alternating anoxic/ levels. If the existing facility configuration does not allow for
aerobic/anoxic/aerobic stages; used to remove TN a preanoxic zone so that nitrates can be removed prior to the
• Modified Bardenpho Process—Bardenpho process anaerobic zone, then the clarifier should be modified to have
with addition of an initial anaerobic zone; used to a sludge blanket just deep enough to prevent the release of
remove both TN and TP phosphorus to the liquid. However, if a preanoxic zone is fea-
• Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) Process—sus- sible, a sludge blanket in the clarifier may not be necessary.
pended-growth batch process sequenced to simu- The exiting clarifiers also remove suspended solids including
late the four-stage process; used to remove TN (TP particulate nitrogen and phosphorus, and thus, reduce total
removal is inconsistent) nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations.
• Modified University of Cape Town (UCT) Process— The aeration system will most likely need to be modified to
A2/O Process with a second anoxic stage where the accommodate an anaerobic zone and to reduce the DO concen-
internal nitrate recycle is returned; used to remove tration in the return sludge. Such modifications could be as sim-
both TN and TP ple as removing aeration equipment from the zone designated
• RBC Process—continuous-flow process using for anaerobic conditions or changing the type of pump used for
RBCs with sequential anoxic/aerobic stages; used to the recycled sludge stream (to avoid introduction oxygen).
remove TN The manner in which sludge is processed at a facility is
• Oxidation Ditch—continuous-flow process using important in designing nutrient removal systems. Sludge is
looped channels to create time sequenced anoxic, recycled within the process to provide the organisms neces-
aerobic, and anaerobic zones; used to remove both sary for the TN and TP removal mechanism to occur. The
TN and TP content and volume of sludge recycled directly impacts the
system’s performance. Thus, sludge handling processes may
Although the exact configurations of each system differ, BNR be modified to achieve optimal TN and TP removal effi-
systems designed to remove TN must have an aerobic zone for ciencies. For example, some polymers in sludge dewater-
nitrification and anoxic zone for denitrification, and BNR sys- ing could inhibit nitrification when recycled. Also, because
tems designed to remove TP must have an anaerobic zone free aerobic digestion of sludge processes nitrates, denitrifica-
of DO and nitrate. Often, sand or other media filtration is used tion and phosphorus uptake rates may be lowered when the
as a polishing step to remove particulate matter when low TN sludge is recycled.
Operators should be able to adjust the process to compen- The limit of technology (LOT), at least for larger treat-
sate for constantly varying conditions. BNR processes are ment plants, is 3 mg/L for TN and 0.1 mg/L for TP. However,
very sensitive to influent conditions which are influenced by some facilities may be able to achieve concentrations lower
weather events, sludge processing, and other treatment pro- than these levels due to site-specific conditions. Table 16.11
cesses (e.g., recycling after filter backwashing). Therefore, provides TN and TP effluent concentrations for various facili-
operator skills and training are essential for achieving target ties using BNR processes.
TN and TP effluent concentrations (USEPA, 2007c). LOT levels (i.e., TN less than 3 mg/L and TP less than 0.1
mg/L) have not been demonstrated at treatment plants with
Performance capacities of less than 0.1 mgd. BNR for TN removal may be
Table 16.10 provides a comparison of the TN and TP removal feasible and cost effective. However, BNR for TP removal is
capacities of common BNR configurations. Note that site-spe- often not cost effective at small treatment plants. Therefore,
cific conditions dictate the performance of each process, and performance data for TP removal at small treatment plants
that the table is only meant to provide a general comparison of is limited. Table 16.12 summarizes the TN levels achievable
treatment performance among the various BNR configurations. with various BNR configurations.
Operation and Maintenance

TABLE 16.10 For BNR systems to result in low TN and TP effluent con-
Comparison of Common BNR Configurations centrations, proper operation and control of the systems are
essential. Operators should be trained to understand how
Process Nitrogen Removal Phosphorus Removal
temperature, DO levels, pH, filamentous growth, and recycle
Modified Ludzack- Good None loads affect system performance.
Ettinger (MLE) Biological nitrogen removal reaction rates are tempera-
A2/O Good Good ture depended. Nitrification and denitrification rates increase
Step Feed Moderate None at temperature increases (until a maximum temperature
Four-Stage Bardenpho Excellent None is reached). In general, nitrification rates double for every
Modified Bardenpho Excellent Good
8–10°C rise in temperature. The effect of temperature on
SBR Moderate Inconsistent
biological phosphorus removal is not completely understood,
Modified UCT Good Excellent
although rates are usually slow at temperatures above 30°C.
Oxidation Ditch Excellent Good
DO must be present in the aerobic zone for phospho-
Source: USEPA (2007a); Jeyanayagam (2005). rus uptake to occur. However, it is important not to over-
aerate. DO concentrations around 1 mg/L are sufficient.
TABLE 16.11
Treatment Performance of Various BNR Process Configurations
Average Effluent Concentrationa
Treatment Plant
(State) Treatment Process Flow (mgd) Total Nitrogen (TN) Total Phosphate (TP)
Annapolis (MD) Bardenpho (4-Stage) 13 7.1 0.66
Back Rick (MD) MLE 180 7.6 0.19
Bowie (MD) Oxidation Ditch 3.3 6.6 0.20
Cambridge (MD) MLE 8.1 3.2 0.34
Cape Coral (FL) Modified Bardenpho 8.5 1.0 0.2
Cox Creek (MD) MLE 15 9.7 0.89
Cumberland (MD) Step Feed 15 7.0 1.0
Frederick (MD) A2O 7 7.2 1.0
Freedom District (MD) MLE 3.5 7.8 0.51
Largo (FL) A2/O 15 2.3 no data
Medford Lakes (NJ) Bardenpho (5-Stage) 0.37 2.6 0.09
Palmetto (FL) Bardenpho (4-Stage) 1.4 3.2 0.82
Piscataway (MD) Step Feed 30 2.7 0.09
Seneca (MD) MLE 20 6.4 0.08
Sod Run (MD) Modified A2/O 20 9.2 0.86
Westminster (MD) MLE-A2/O 5 5.3 0.79
Source: USEPA (2006); Gannett Fleming (2012); Park (2012).

a (mg/L—represents 2003–2006 average)
Enhanced Biological Nutrient Removal

TABLE 16.12
BNR Performance of Small Systems (Less than 0.1 mgd) Removing phosphorus from wastewater in secondary treat-
ment processes has evolved into innovative EBNR technolo-
Biological nutrient removal gies. An ENBR treatment process promotes the production
(BNR) Process Achievable TN Effluent Quality
of phosphorus accumulating organisms which utilize more
MLE 10 mg/L phosphorus in their metabolic processes than a conventional
Four-Stage Bardenpho 6 mg/L secondary biological treatment process (USEPA, 2007b).
Three-Stage Bardenpho 6 mg/L The average total phosphorus concentration in raw domes-
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR) 8 mg/L tic wastewater is usually between 6 and 8 mg/L and the total
Rotating biological contactor (RBC) 12 mg/L phosphorus concentration in municipal wastewater after con-
Source: USEPA (2007c). ventional secondary treatment is routinely reduced to 3–4
mg/L. Whereas, EBNR incorporated into the secondary treat-
ment system can often reduce total phosphorus concentrations
Overaeration can lead to secondary release of phosphor due to 0.3 mg/L and less. Facilities using EBNR significantly
to cell lysis, high DO levels in the internal mixed liquor reduced the amount of phosphorus to be removed through
recycle (which could reduce TP and TN removal rates), and the subsequent chemical addition and tertiary filtration pro-
increased O&M costs. cess. This improved the efficiency of the tertiary process and
There is evidence that both nitrification and phospho- significantly reduced the costs of chemicals used to remove
rus removal rates decrease when pH levels drop below 6.9. phosphorus. Facilities using EBNR reported that their chemi-
Nitrification results in the consumption of alkalinity. As alka- cal dosing was cut in half after EBNR was installed to remove
linity is consumed, pH decreases. Thus, treatment plants with phosphorus (USEPA, 2007b).
low influent alkalinity may have reduced nitrification rates. Treatment provided by these WWTPs also removes other
Glycogen-accumulating organisms may also compete with pollutants which commonly affect water quality to very low
PAOs at pH values less than 7. levels (USEPA, 2007b). BOD and TSS are routinely less than
Filamentous growth can cause poor settling of particulate 2 mg/L and fecal coliform bacteria less than 10 fcu/100 mL.
nitrogen and phosphorus in final clarifiers. However, many Turbidity of the final effluent is very low which allows for
conditions necessary to achieve good BNR rates, such as low effective disinfection using UV light, rather than chlorina-
DO, longer solids retention times, good mixing, also promote tion. Recent studies report that wastewater treatment plants
filament growth. Therefore, operators may need to identify using EBNR also significantly reduced the amount of phar-
the dominant filaments present in the system so that they can maceuticals and personal healthcare products from munici-
design strategies to target their removal (e.g., chlorinating pal wastewater, as compared to the removal accomplished
recycle streams, chemical addition as polishing step) while by conventional secondary treatment. The following section
still maintaining nutrient removal rates. describes some of the EBNR treatment technologies presently
Nitrogen and phosphorus removal efficiencies are a function being used in various U.S. locations is presented.
of the percentage and content of the mixed liquor recycle rate
to the anoxic zone and the RAS recycle rate to the anaerobic 0.5-MGD Capacity Plant
zone. The mixed liquor recycle stream supplies active biomass • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology:
that enables nitrification and denitrification. Optimizing the per- Chemical addition, two-stage filtration
centage and content of this recycle stream results in optimal TN • Treatment process description (liquid only): treat-
removal. The RAS recycle rate should be kept as low as possible ment consists of grit removal and screening; extended
to reduce amount of nitrates introduced to the anaerobic zone aeration and secondary clarification (in combined
because nitrates interfere with TP removal. In addition, the type aeration basin/clarifier); chemical addition for floc-
of pump used to recycle the activated sludge is important to avoid culation using polyaluminum silicate sulfate (PASS)
aeration and increased DO concentrations in the anaerobic zone. and filtration through two-stage DynaSand® filters.
Note: The following case study illustrates how Kalispell,
Montana, developed ways to minimize recycle loads from its 1.5-MGD Capacity Plant
sludge-handling processes while producing the lowest phos- • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
phorus concentration achieved entirely by a biological pro- chemical addition, tertiary settlers, and filtration
cess. This facility was selected as a case study because of • Treatment process description (liquid side only):
good biological phosphorus removal and nitrification using a accomplished by screening and grit removal in the
modified University of Cape Town (UCT) process with the headworks; activated sludge biological treatment;
fermenter technology in a cold region. For those seeking a biological aerated filter (IDI BioFor™ for nitrifica-
more in depth treatment of this case study it can be obtained tion); chemical coagulation using alum; flocculation
from USEPA (2008)Municipal Nutrient removal Technologies and clarification using tube settler (IDI Densadeg™);
Reference Document Volume 2—Appendices. Washington, filtration (Single Stage Parkson DynaSand® filters);
DC: Environmental Protection Agency. disinfection and dechlorination. The DynaSand
filter reject rate is reported to be about 15–20%. The 2.6-MGD Capacity Plant
DynaSand filters are configured in four, two-cell • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
units for a total of eight filters beds which are each chemical addition, tertiary settlers, and filtration
8 ft deep. Influent concentrations of total phospho- • Treatment process description (liquid side only):
rus are typically measured at about 6 mg/L (very treatment includes screening and grit removal; aera-
typical value for untreated domestic wastewater. tion basins; secondary clarification; chemical coagu-
The aeration basins are operated with an anoxic lation and flocculation using with alum and polymer;
zone to provide for the biological removal of phos- tertiary clarification (rectangular convention with
phorus. About 60% of the influent phosphorus is including plate settlers); mixed media bed filters
removed through the biological treatment process. (5 ft deep); and disinfection (the filtration process
About 60% of the influent phosphorus was reported removes enough fecal coliform so that conventional
to be removed through the biological treatment pro- disinfection is not normally required). The average
cess. Sodium sulfate is added to maintain alkalin- alum dose is 70 mg/L in the wastewater and var-
ity through the treatment process for phosphorus ies from 50 to 180 m/L. A greater dose of alum is
removal. Approximately 100–120 mg/L sodium applied during the winter period. The polymer dose
sulfate is applied to the wastewater just upstream concentration is about 0.1 mg/L.
of where alum is added. Alum is used to precipitate
phosphorus. Alum is used to precipitate phosphorus. 3-MGD Capacity Plant
The alum dose is typically 135 mg/L and is used with • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
0.5–1.0 mg/L cationic polymer. chemical addition, tertiary settlers, and filtration
• Treatment process description (liquid side only): treat-
Note: A DynaSand® filter is a continuous backwash, upflow, ment consists of screening and grit removal; BNR;
deep bed, granular media filter. chemical coagulation and flocculation using poly-
mer and alum; clarification via tube settlers; filtration
1.55-MGD Capacity Plant through mixed media bed filters; disinfection with
• Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: chlorine and dechlorination (using sodium bisulfate).
Chemical addition, two-stage filtration
4.8-MGD Capacity Plant
• Treatment process description (liquid only):
Treatment consists of grit removal and screen- • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: multi-
ing; extended aeration and secondary clarification; point chemical addition, tertiary settling, and filtration
chemical addition for flocculation using aluminum • Treatment process description (liquid only): treat-
chloride (added to the wastewater at both the sec- ment consists of screening and grit removal; primary
ondary clarifiers and the distribution header for the clarification; trickling filers; intermediate clarifica-
DynaSand filters); and filtration through two-stage tion (with polymer addition to aid settling); RBCs;
DynaSand filters; disinfection with chlorine and secondary clarification; chemical addition using poly-
dechlorination with sulfur dioxide. Chlorine is added aluminum chloride; filtration through mixed media
to the filter influent to control biological growth in traveling bed filters; UV disinfection. The final efflu-
the filters. ent is discharged down a cascading outfall to achieve
re-aeration prior to missing in the receiving water.
Approximately 1 mgd per day of final effluent is uti-
2-MGD Capacity Plant lized by the local power company for cooling water.
• Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
chemical addition, two-stage filtration 5-MGD Capacity Plant
• Treatment process (liquid side only)—Screening • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
and grit removal; BNR activated sludge filtration
(BardenPho™ 5 Stage [anaerobic basin, anoxic • Treatment process description (liquid side only):
basin, oxidation ditch aeration basin, anoxic basin, involves screening and grinding; primary clarification;
re-aeration basin]); Clarifiers (two, parallel, rect- BNR in the contact basins; secondary clarification; fil-
angular); Chemical addition using alum and poly- tration through single pass DynaSand filters (four cells
mer; Effluent polishing and filtration (using 4 US with four filters per each cell); UV disinfection.
Filter Memcor™ filter modules); and UV disinfec-
tion. The US Filter units utilize two-stage filtration 24-MGD Capacity Plant
in which the first stage is upflow through a plastic • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
media with air scour. The second stage filtration is chemical addition, filtration
through a downflow, mixed media with backwash • Treatment process description (liquid only): treat-
cleaning. The concentration of alum used for coag- ment consists of screening and grit removal; primary
ulation was reported to be 95 mg/L. clarification; biological treatment with enhanced
BNR; secondary clarification; chemical addition of recarbonation to lower pH to 7; storage in ballast

alum and polymer for phosphorus removal; tertiary ponds. Physical advanced treatment to meet strin-
clarification; filtration through dual media gravity gent limits for TSS (1 mg/L) and COD (10 mg/L)
bed filters and disinfection. Lime is added to the including alum and/or polymer addition; multimedia
biological process to maintain pH and alkalinity. A filters; activated carbon contactors. Disinfection is
two-stage fermenter is operated to produce VFAs by chlorination/dechlorination process.
which are added to the biological contact basin.
The enhanced BNR process at times reduces total 54-MGD Capacity Plant
phosphorus to levels that are less than the 0.11 mg/L • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
permit limitation. However, this performance is not multi-point chemical addition, tertiary settling, and
achieved during the entire period when the seasonal filtration
phosphorus limitations are in effect. The tertiary • Treatment process description (liquid only):
treatment with chemical addition and filtration pro- Treatment consists of screening; grit removal; pri-
vides assurance that the final effluent t is of consis- mary settling with possible addition of ferric chloride
tently good quality. Some of the treated effluent is and polymer; methanol or VFA added to biological
reclaimed for irrigation. reactor basins to aid BNR; ferric chloride and poly-
mer addition prior to secondary settling; alum addi-
39-MGD Capacity Plant tion and mixing; tertiary clarification with inclined
• Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: plate settlers; dual media gravity bed filtration; UV
Chemical addition, filtration disinfection post aeration.
• Treatment process description (liquid only):
Treatment consists of screening and grit removal; 67-MGD Capacity Plant
alum addition; primary clarification; extended aera- • Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: BNR,
tion; secondary clarification; flocculation using chemical addition, tertiary clarification and filtration
alum and polymer; tertiary clarification; filtration; • Treatment process description (liquid only):
disinfection (with chlorine) and dechlorination. Treatment consists of screening; primary clarifi-
Wastewater is treated in two separate trains. Four cation; biological treatment with enhanced BNR;
60 foot diameter ClairiCone® tertiary clarifiers are polymer addition as needed; secondary clarification;
used on one treatment train to provide contact with equalization and storage in retention ponds; tertiary
six monomedia anthracite gravity flow bed filters. clarification with ferric chloride addition to remove
The other treatment train uses conventional clarifi- phosphorus; disinfection with sodium hypochlo-
ers for tertiary settling followed by filtration through rite; filtration through dual/mono media gravity bed
four dual media gravity flow bed filters. Phosphorus filters.
is removed in four locations within this system: alum
enhanced removal in the primary clarifiers; biologi-
SOLIDS (SLUDGE/BIOSOLIDS) HANDLING
cal removal in the aeration basins; chemical floc-
culation and removal in the tertiary clarifiers; and The wastewater treatment unit processes described to this
removal through filtration. point remove solids and BOD from the wastestream before
the liquid effluent is discharged to its receiving waters. What
42-MGD Capacity Plant remains to be disposed of is a mixture of solids and wastes,
• Advanced Phosphorus Treatment Technology: called process residuals—more commonly referred to as
Chemical (high lime) and tertiary filtration sludge or biosolids.
• Treatment process description (liquid only): treat- Note: Sludge is the commonly accepted name for wastewa-
ment consists of conventional that removes 90% of ter solids. However, if wastewater sludge is used for beneficial
most incoming pollutants; screening; grit removal; reuse (e.g., as a soil amendment or fertilizer), it is commonly
primary clarification; aerobic biological selectors; called biosolids.
activated sludge aeration basins with nitrification/ The most costly and complex aspects of wastewater treat-
denitrification processes; secondary clarification. A ment can be the collection, processing, and disposal of sludge.
chemical advanced treatment—high lime process— This is the case because the quantity of sludge produced
to reduce phosphorus to below 0.10 mg/L, to capture may be as high as 2% of the original volume of wastewater,
organics from secondary treatment, to precipitate depending somewhat on the treatment process being used.
heavy metals and to serve as a barrier to viruses: Because sludge can be as much as 97% water content, and
lime slurry added to rapid mix basins (to achieve because the cost of disposal will be related to the volume of
pH of 11); anionic polymer added in flocculation sludge being processed, one of the primary purposes or goals
basins; chemical clarification; first stage recarbon- (along with stabilizing it so it is no longer objectionable or
ation to lower pH to 10; recarbonation clarifiers to environmentally damaging) of sludge treatment is to sepa-
collect precipitated calcium carbonate; second stage rate as much of the water from the solids as possible. Sludge
treatment methods may be designed to accomplish both of the settleable form, these solids are removed in the secondary
these purposes. clarifier. The sludge at the bottom of the secondary clarifier
Note: Sludge treatment methods are generally divided is called secondary sludge. Secondary sludges are light and
into three major categories: thickening, stabilization, and fluffy and more difficult to process than primary sludges—in
dewatering. Many of these processes include complex sludge short, secondary sludges do not dewater well.
treatment methods (i.e., heat treatment, vacuum filtration, The addition of chemicals and various organic and inor-
incineration, and others). ganic substances prior to sedimentation and clarification may
increase the solids capture and reduce the amount of solids lost
in the effluent. This chemical addition results in the formation
Sludge: Background Information
of heavier solids, which trap the colloidal solids or convert
When we speak of sludge or biosolids, we are speaking of the dissolved solids to settleable solids. The resultant solids are
same substance or material; each is defined as the suspended known as chemical sludges. As chemical usage increases, so
solids removed from wastewater during sedimentation, and does the quantity of sludge that must be handled and disposed
then concentrated for further treatment and disposal or reuse. of. Chemical sludges can be very difficult to process; they do
The difference between the terms sludge and biosolids is not dewater well and contain lower percentages of solids.
determined by the way they are managed.
Note: The task of disposing of, treating, or reusing waste-
SLUDGE CHARACTERISTICS
water solids is called sludge or biosolids management.
Sludge is typically seen as wastewater solids that are The composition and characteristics of sewage sludge vary
“disposed” of. Biosolids is the same substance managed for widely and can change considerably with time. Notwithstanding
reuse—commonly called beneficial reuse (e.g., for land appli- these facts, the basic components of wastewater sludge remain
cation as a soil amendment, such as biosolids compost). Note the same. The only variations occur in quantity of the vari-
that even as wastewater treatment standards have become ous components as the type of sludge and the process from
more stringent because of increasing environmental regu- which it originated changes. The main component of all slud-
lations, so has the volume of wastewater sludge increased. ges is water. Prior to treatment, most sludges contain 95–99+%
Note also that before sludge can be disposed of or reused, it water (see Table 16.13). This high water content makes sludge
requires some form of treatment to reduce its volume, to sta- handling and processing extremely costly in terms of both
bilize it, and to inactivate pathogenic organisms. money and time. Sludge handling may represent up to 40% of
Sludge forms initially as a 3–7% suspension of solids, the capital cost and 50% of the operation cost of a treatment
and with each person typically generating about 4 gallons of plant. As a result, the importance of optimum design for han-
sludge per week, the total quantity generated each day, week, dling and disposal of sludge cannot be overemphasized. The
month, and year is significant. Because of the volume and water content of the sludge is present in a number of different
nature of the material, sludge management is a major factor in forms. Some forms can be removed by several sludge treat-
the design and operation of all water pollution control plants. ment processes, thus allowing the same flexibility in choosing
Note: Wastewater solids treatment, handling, and disposal the optimum sludge treatment and disposal method.
account for more than half of the total costs in a typical sec- The various forms of water and their approximate percent-
ondary treatment plant. ages for a typical activated sludge are shown in Table 16.14.
The forms of water associated with sludge include:
SOURCES OF SLUDGE
• Free water—water that is not attached to sludge sol-
Wastewater sludge is generated in primary, secondary, and ids in any way. This can be removed by simple gravi-
chemical treatment processes. In primary treatment, the solids tational settling.
that float or settle are removed. The floatable material makes
up a portion of the solid waste known as scum. Scum is not
normally considered sludge; however, it should be disposed of TABLE 16.13
in an environmentally sound way. The settleable material that Typical Water Content of Sludges
collects on the bottom of the clarifier is known as primary
sludge. Primary sludge can also be referred to as raw sludge Water Treatment % Moisture lb Water/lb Sludge Solids
Process of Sludge Generated
because it has not undergone decomposition. Raw primary
sludge from a typical domestic facility is quite objectionable Primary Sedimentation 95 19
and has a high percentage of water, two characteristics that Trickling Filter
make handling difficult. Humus—low rate 93 13.3
Solids not removed in the primary clarifier are carried out Humus—high rate 97 32.3
of the primary unit. These solids are known as colloidal sus- Activated Sludge 99 99
pended solids. The secondary treatment system (i.e., trickling Source: USEPA’s Operational Manual: Sludge Handling and Conditioning.
filter, activated sludge, etc.) is designed to change those colloi- EPA-430/9–78-002 (1978).
dal solids into settleable solids that can be removed. Once in
may also reduce the number of pathogens in sewage sludge by

TABLE 16.14 creating adverse conditions for pathogen survival.
Distribution of Water in an Activated Sludge Nevertheless, the resulting biological sewage sludges may
Water Type % Volume still contain sufficient levels of pathogens to pose a public
health and environmental concern. Moreover, insects, birds,
Free Water 75
rodents, and domestic animals may transport sewage sludge
Floc Water 20
and pathogens from sewage sludge to humans and to animals.
Capillary Water 2
Vectors are attracted to sewage sludge as a food source, and
Particle Water 2.5
Solids 0.5
the reduction of the attraction of vectors to sewage sludge to
prevent the spread of pathogens is a focus of current regula-
Total 100
tions. Sludge-borne pathogens and vector attraction are dis-
Source: USEPA’s Operations Manual, Sludge Handling and cussed in the following section.
Conditioning. EPA-430/9-78-002(1978).
Sludge Pathogens and Vector Attraction

• Floc water—water that is trapped within the floc and A discussed earlier, a pathogen is an organism capable of
travels with them. Its removal is possible by mechan- causing disease. Pathogens infect humans through several
ical dewatering. different pathways including ingestion, inhalation, and der-
• Capillary water—water that adheres to the individ- mal contact. The infective dose, or the number of pathogenic
ual particles and can be squeezed out of shape and organisms to which a human must be exposed to become
compacted. infected, varies depending on the organism and on the health
• Particle water—water that is chemically bound to status of the exposed individual.
the individual particles and can’t be removed without Pathogens that propagate in the enteric or urinary system
inclination. so humans and are discharged in feces or urine pose the great-
est risk to public health with regard to the use and disposal of
From a public health view, the second and probably sewage sludge. Pathogens are also found in the urinary and
more important component of sludge is the solids matter. enteric systems of other animals and may propagate in non-
Representing 1–8% of the total mixture, these solids are enteric settings.
extremely unstable. Wastewater solids can be classified into As mentioned earlier, the four major types of human
two categories based on their origin—organic and inorganic. pathogenic (disease-causing) organisms (bacteria, viruses,
Organic solids in wastewater, simply put, are materials that protozoa, and helminths) all may be present in domestic sew-
are or were at one time alive and that will burn or volatilize at age. The actual species and quantity of pathogens present in
550°C after 15 min in a muffle furnace. The percent organic the domestic sewage form a particular municipality (and the
material within sludge will determine how unstable it is. sewage sludge produced when treating the domestic sweater)
The inorganic material within sludge will determine how depend on the health status of the local community and may
stable it is. The inorganic solids are those solids that were vary substantially at different times. The level of pathogens
never alive and will not burn or volatilize at 550°C after 15 present in treated sewage sludge (biosolids) also depends on
min in a muffle furnace. Inorganic solids are generally not the reductions achieved by the wastewater and sewage sludge
subject to breakdown by biological action and are considered treatment processes.
stable. Certain inorganic solids, however, can create problems If improperly treated sewage sludge was illegally applied
when related to the environment, for example, heavy metals to land or placed on a surface disposal site, humans and ani-
such as copper, lead, zinc, mercury, and others. These can be mals could be exposed to pathogens directly by coming into
extremely harmful if discharged. contact with sewage sludge, or indirectly by consuming drink-
Organic solids may be subject to biological decompo- ing water or food contaminated by sewage sludge pathogens,
sition in either an aerobic or an anaerobic environment. insects, birds, rodents, and even farm workers could contrib-
Decomposition of organic matter (with its production of ute to these exposure routes by transporting sewage sludge
objectionable by-products) and the possibility of toxic organic and sewage sludge pathogens away from the site. Potential
solids within the sludge compound the problems of sludge routes of exposure include:
disposal.
The pathogens in domestic sewage are primarily associated
with insoluble solids. Primary wastewater treatment processes
Direct Contact
concentrate these solids into sewage sludge, so untreated or • Touching the sewage sludge.
raw primary sewage sludges have higher quantities of patho- • Walking through an area—such as a filed, forest,
gens than the incoming wastewater. Biological wastewater or reclamation area—shortly after sewage sludge
treatment processes such as lagoons, trickling filters, and acti- application.
vated sludge treatment may substantially reduce the number • Handling soil from fields where sewage sludge has
of pathogens in wastewater (USEPA, 1989). These processes been applied.
• Inhaling microbes that become airborne (via aero- and do not add to the dusty condition, and by the time biosolids
sols, dust, etc.) during sewage sludge spreading or by have dried sufficiently to create fine particulates, the patho-
strong winds, plowing or cultivating the soils after gens have been reduced (Yeager & Ward, 1981).
application. With regard to vector attraction reduction, it can be accom-
plished in two ways: by treating the sewage sludge to the point
at which vectors will no longer be attracted to the sewage sludge
Indirect Contact
and by placing a barrier between the sewage sludge and vectors.
• Consumption of pathogen-contaminated crops Note: Before moving on to a discussion of the fundamen-
grown on sewage sludge-amended soil or of other tals of sludge treatment methods, it is important to begin by
food products that have been contaminated by con- covering sludge pumping calculations. It is important to point
tact with these crops or field workers, etc. out that it is difficult (if not impossible) to treat the sludge
• Consumption of pathogen-contaminated milk or unless it is pumped to the specific sludge treatment process.
other food products from animals contaminated by
grazing in pastures or fed crops grown on sewage
Sludge Pumping Calculations
sludge-amended fields.
• Ingestion of drinking water or recreational waters Wastewater operators are often called upon to make vari-
contaminated by runoff from nearby land application ous process control calculations. An important calculation
sites or by organisms from sewage sludge migrating involves sludge pumping. The sludge pumping calculations
into ground-water aquifers. the operator may be required to make during plant operations
• Consumption of inadequately cooked or uncooked (and should be known for licensure examinations) are covered
pathogen-contaminated fish form water contaminated in this section.
by runoff from a nearby sewage sludge application site.
• Contact with sewage sludge or pathogens transported Estimating Daily Sludge Production
away from the land application or surface disposal The calculation for estimation of the required sludge pumping
site by rodents, insects, or other vectors, including rate provides a method to establish an initial pumping rate or
grazing animals or pets. to evaluate the adequacy of the current withdrawal rate:
Est. Pump Rate

(Influent TSS Conc. - Effluent TSS Conc.) ´ Flow ´ 8.34 (16.76)
DID YOU KNOW? =
% Solids in Sludge ´ 8.34 ´ 1, 440 min/Day
The purpose of USEPA’s Part 503 regulation is to place
barriers in the pathway of exposure either by reducing
Example 16.59
the number of pathogens in the treated sewage sludge
(biosolids) to below detectable limits, in the case of
Problem: The sludge withdrawn from the primary set-
Class A treatment, or, in the case of Class B treatment, tling tank contains 1.4% solids. The unit influent contains
by preventing direct or indict contact with any patho- 285 mg/L TSS and the effluent contains 140 mg/L TSS. If
gens possibly present in the biosolids. Each potential the influent flow rate is 5.55 MGD, what is the estimated
pathway has been studied to determine how the poten- sludge withdrawal rate in gallons per minute (assuming the
tial for public health risk can be alleviated. pump operates continuously)?
SOLUTION:
Sludge Rate, gpm
One of the lesser impacts on public health can be from inhala-
tion of airborne pathogens. Pathogens may become airborne ( 285 mg/L - 140 mg/L) ´ 5.55 ´ 8.34
=
via the spray of liquid biosolids from a splash plate or high 0.014 ´ 8.34 ´ 1, 440
0 min/day
pressure hose, or in fine particulate dissemination as dewa-
= 40 gpm
tered biosolids are applied or incorporated. While high-pres-
sure spray applications may result in some aerosolization of
pathogens, this type of equipment is generally used on large, Note: The following information is used for example
remote sites such as forests, where the impact on the public is 16.60–16.65
minimal. Fine particulates created by the application of dewa-
tered biosolids or the incorporation of biosolids into soil may Operating Time 15 min/cycle
cause very localized fine particulate/dusty conditions, but par- Frequency 24 times/day
ticles in dewatered biosolids are too large to travel far, and the Pump Rate 120 gpm
fine particulates do not spread beyond the immediate area. The Solids 3.70%
activity of applying and incorporating biosolids may create Volatile Matter 66%
dusty conditions. However, the biosolids are moist materials
Sludge Pumping Time SOLUTION:

The Sludge Pumping Time is the total time the pump operates Solids Pumpedlb /day = 360,300lb/day ´ 0.0370
during a 24-h period in minutes.
= 13, 331lb /day
Pump Op. Time = Time /Cycle, minutes
(16.77) Pounds Volatile Matter (VM) Pumped per Day
´ Frequency, cycles /day
Example 16.60 Vol. Matter ( lb /Day ) = Solids Pumped, lbs /day

(16.81)
´ % Volatile Matter
Problem: What is the pump operating time?

Pump operating time
Problem: What is the volatile matter in pounds per day?
= 15 min /hour ´ 24 (cycles)/day
= 360 minutes /day SOLUTION:

Volatile Matter, lb /day = 13, 331lb /day ´ 0.66
Gallons of Sludge Pumped per Day
= 8, 798 lb /day
Sludge, gpd = Operating Time, min /day Note: If we wish to calculate the pounds of solids or the
(16.78)
´ Pump Rate, gpm pounds of volatile solids removed per day, the individual
equations demonstrated above can be combined into a
single calculation.
Example 16.61
Solids, lb /day = Pump Time, min/cycle
Problem: What is the sludge pumped/Day in gallons? ´ Frequency, cycles /day
SOLUTION: ´ Rate, gpm ´ 8.34 lb /gal
Sludge, gpd = 360 minutes/ day ´ 120 gpm ´ solids

(16.82)
= 43, 200 gpd Vol. Matter, lb /day = Time, min /cyc.
´ Freq. Cycles /day

Pounds Sludge Pumped per Day
´ Rate, gpm ´ 8.34 ´ % Solids
Sludge, lb /day = Gallons of Sludge Pumped ´ % V.M.

(16.79)
´8.34 lb /gal Example 16.65
Solids, lb /day = 15 min /cyc. ´ 24 cyc /day

Example 16.62
´ 120 gpm ´ 8.34 ´ 0.0370
Problem: What is the sludge pumped per day in gallons? = 13, 33
31lb/ day

SOLUTION: V.M., lb/day = 15 min /cyc ´ 24 cyc /day
Sludge, lb /day = 43, 200 gal/day ´ 8.34 lb /gal ´ 120 gpm ´ 8.34 ´ 0.0370 ´ .66

= 360, 300 lb /day = 8,798 lb /day
Pounds of Solids Pumped per Day Sludge Production in Pounds/Million Gallons

A common method of expressing sludge production is in
Solids Pumped, lbs /day pounds of sludge per million gallons of wastewater treated.
(16.80)
= Sludge Pumped, gpd ´ % Solids
Total Sludge Production, lb
Sludge, lb /MG = (16.83)
Total Wastewater Flow, MG
Example 16.63
Problem: Records show that the plant has produced 85,000
Problem: What are the solids pumped per day? gallons of sludge during the past 30 days. The average daily
flow for this period was 1.2 MGD. What was the plant’s sludge can lead to the discharge of large quantities of solids to
production in pounds per million gallons? receiving waters. Even with proper design and capabilities
in place, no system can be effective unless it is properly
SOLUTION: operated. Proper operation requires proper operator per-
formance. Proper operator performance begins and ends
85, 000 gallons ´ 8.34 lb/gallon with proper training.
Sludge, lb/MG =
1.2 MGD ´ 30 days
= 19, 6992 lb/MG Sludge Thickening
The solids content of primary, activated, trickling-filter, or
Sludge Production in Wet Tons/Year
even mixed sludge (i.e., primary plus activated sludge) var-
Sludge production can also be expressed in terms of the ies considerably, depending on the characteristics of the
amount of sludge (water and solids) produced per year. This is sludge. Note that the sludge removal and pumping facilities
normally expressed in wet tons per year. and the method of operation also affect the solids content.
Sludge thickening (or concentration) is a unit process used to
Sludge, Wet Tons /year
increase the solids content of the sludge by removing a portion
Sludge Prod., lb/MG ´ Ave. Daily Flow, MGD ´ 3665 days/year (16.84) of the liquid fraction. By increasing the solids content, more
=
2, 000 lb/ton economical treatment of the sludge can be effected. Sludge
thickening processes include:
Example 16.66
• Gravity thickeners
Problem: The plant is currently producing sludge at the • Flotation thickeners
rate of 16,500 lb/MG. The current average daily wastewa- • Solids concentrators
ter flow rate is 1.5 MGD. What will be the total amount of
sludge produced per year in wet tons per year?
Gravity Thickening
SOLUTION: Gravity thickening is most effective on primary sludge. In
operation, solids are withdrawn from primary treatment (and
Sludge, Wet Tons /year
sometimes secondary treatment) and pumped to the thickener.
16, 500 lb/MG ´ 1.5 MGD ´ 365 days/year The solids buildup in the thickener forms a solids blanket on
=
2, 000 lb/ton the bottom. The weight of the blanket compresses the solids
= 4, 517 Wet Tons /year
on the bottom and “squeezes” the water out. By adjusting the
blanket thickness the percent solids in the underflow (solids
withdrawn from the bottom of the thickener) can be increased
Important Note: Release of wastewater solids with-
or decreased. The supernatant (clear water) which rises to the
out proper treatment could result in severe damage to
the environment. Obviously, we must have a system to surface is returned to the wastewater flow for treatment. Daily
treat the volume of material removed as sludge through- operations of the thickening process include pumping, obser-
out the system. Release without treatment would defeat vation, sampling and testing, process control calculations,
the purpose of environmental protection. A design engi- maintenance, and housekeeping.
neer can choose from many processes when developing Note: The equipment employed in thickening depends on
sludge treatment systems. No matter what the system or the specific thickening processes used.
combination of systems chosen, the ultimate purpose will Equipment used for gravity thickening consists of a thick-
be the same: the conversion of wastewater sludges into a ening tank, which is similar in design to the settling tank used
form that can be handled economically and disposed of
in primary treatment. Generally the tank is circular and pro-
without damage to the environment or creating nuisance
conditions. Leaving either condition unmet will require vides equipment for continuous solids collection. The collec-
further treatment. The degree of treatment will generally tor mechanism uses heavier construction than that in a settling
depend on the proposed method of disposal. Sludge treat- tank because the solids being moved are more concentrated.
ment processes can be classified into a number of major The gravity thickener pumping facilities (i.e., pump and flow
categories. In this handbook, we discuss the processes of measurement) are used for the withdrawal of thickened solids.
thickening, digestion (or stabilization), dewatering, incin- Solids concentrations achieved by gravity thickening are
eration, and land application. Each of these categories typically 8–10% solids from primary underflow, 2–4% solids
has then been further subdivided according to the spe- from WAS, 7–9% solids from trickling filter residuals, and
cific processes that are used to accomplish sludge treat-
4–9% from combined primary and secondary residuals. The
ment. As mentioned, the importance of adequate, efficient
sludge treatment cannot be overlooked when designing performance of gravity thickening processes depends on vari-
wastewater treatment facilities. The inadequacies of a ous factors, including:
sludge treatment system can severely affect a plant’s over-
all performance capabilities. The inability to remove and • Type of sludge
process solids as fast as they accumulate in the process • Condition of influent sludge
• Temperature make routine adjustments of sludge addition and withdrawal

• Blanket depth rates to achieve desired blanket thickness. Sampling and analy-
• Solids loading sis of influent sludge, supernatant, and thickened sludge are also
• Hydraulic loading required. Sludge addition and withdrawal should be continuous
• Solids retention time if possible to achieve optimum performance. Mechanical main-
• Hydraulic detention time tenance is also required. Expected performance ranges for grav-
ity and dissolved air flotation thickeners are:
Flotation Thickening
Flotation thickening is used most efficiently for waste sludges • Primary sludge—8–19% solids
from suspended-growth biological treatment processes, such as • Waste-activated sludge—2–4% solids
the activated sludge process. In operation, recycled water from • Trickling filter sludge—7–9% solids
the flotation thickener is aerated under pressure. During this • Combined sludges—4–9% solids
time the water absorbs more air than it would under normal
pressure. The recycled flow together with chemical additives Typical operational problems with sludge thickeners include
(if used) is mixed with the flow. When the mixture enters the odors, rising sludge, thickened sludge below desired solids
flotation thickener, the excess air is released in the form of fine concentration, dissolved air concentration too low, effluent
bubbles. These bubbles become attached to the solids and lift flow contains excessive solids, and torque alarm conditions.
them toward the surface. The accumulation of solids on the sur-
face is called the float cake. As more solids are added to the Indicators of Poor Process Performance
bottom of the float cake it becomes thicker and water drains 1. Odors and Rising Sludge
from the upper levels of the cake. The solids are then moved up Causal Factors:
an inclined plane by a scraper and discharged. The supernatant – Sludge withdrawal rate is too low.
leaves the tank below the surface of the float solids and is recy- – Overflow rate is too low.
cled or returned to the wastestream for treatment. Typically, • Septicity in the thickener.
flotation thickener performance is 3–5% solids for WAS with Corrective Actions (where applicable):
polymer addition and 2–4% solids without polymer addition. – Increase sludge withdrawal rate.
The flotation thickening process requires pressurized air, a – Increase influent flow rate.
vessel for mixing the air with all or part of the process resid- – Add chlorine, permanganate, or peroxide to
ual flow, a tank for the flotation process to occur, solids col- influent.
lector mechanisms to remove the float cake (solids) from the
top of the tank and accumulated heavy solids from the bottom 2.
Thickened Sludge below Desired Solids
of the tank. Since the process normally requires chemicals to Concentration
be added to improve separation, chemical mixing equipment, Causal Factors:
storage tanks, and metering equipment to dispense the chemi- – Overflow rate is too high.
cals at the desired dose are required. The performance of dis- – Sludge withdrawal rate is too high.
solved air-thickening process depends on various factors: • Short-circuiting.
• Bubble size – Decrease influent sludge flow rate.
• Solids loading – Decrease pump rate for sludge withdrawal.
• Sludge characteristics – Identify cause and correct.
• Chemical selection
• Chemical dose 3. Torque Alarm Activated
Causal Factors:
Solids Concentrators – Heavy sludge accumulation
Solids concentrators (belt thickeners) usually consist of a • Collector mechanism jammed
mixing tank, chemical storage and metering equipment, and a Corrective Actions (where applicable):
moving porous belt. In operation, the process residual flow is – Agitate sludge blanket to decrease density.
chemically treated and then spread evenly over the surface of – Increase sludge withdrawal rate.
the moving porous belt. As the flow is carried down the belt – Attempt to locate and remove obstacle.
(similar to a conveyor belt) the solids are mechanically turned – Dewater tank and remove obstacle.
or agitated and water drains through the belt. This process is
primarily used in facilities where space is limited.
Dissolved Air Flotation Thickener
Operational Observations, Problems, 1. Float Solids Concentration Too Low
and Troubleshooting Procedures Causal Factors:
As with other unit treatment processes, proper operation of sludge – Skimmer speed is too high.
thickeners depends on operator observation. The operator must – Unit is overloaded.
– Insufficient polymer dose. withdrawal rate in gallons per minute (assuming the pump
– Excessive air-to-solids ratio. operates continuously)?
• Low dissolved air levels.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): SOLUTION:
– Adjust skimmer speed to permit concentra- Sludge Rate, gpm
tion to occur.
– Stop sludge flow through unit/purge with =
( 280 mg/l - 141mg/l) ´ 5.55 MGD ´ 8.34
recycles flow. 0.015 ´ 8.34 ´ 1, 440 min/day
– Determine proper chemical dose and adjust.
= 36 gpm
– Reduce airflow to pressurization tank.
– Identify malfunction and correct. Surface Loading Rate (gpd/ft2)
The surface loading rate (surface settling rate) is hydraulic
2. Dissolved Air Concentration Too Low loading—the amount of sludge applied per square foot of
Causal Factor: gravity thickener:
– mechanical malfunction
Corrective Action: Surface Loading, gal /day /ft 2
– Identify cause and correct
Sludge Applied to the Thickener, gpd (16.86)
=
3. Effluent (Subnatant) Flow Contains Excessive Solids Thickener Area, ft 2
Causal Factors:
– Unit is overloaded. Example 16.68
– Chemical dose is too low.
– Skimmer is not operating. Problem: The 70-ft-diameter gravity thickener receives
– Low solids: air ratio. 32,000 gpd of sludge. What is the surface loading in gal-
• Solids buildup in thickener. lons per square foot per day?
– Turn off sludge flow. SOLUTION:
– Purge unit with recycle. 32, 000 gpd
Surface Loading =
– Determine proper chemical dose and blow. 0.785 ´ 70 ft ´ 70 ft
– Turn skimmer on.
– Adjust skimmer speed. = 8.32 gpd/ft 2
– Increase airflow to pressurization system. Solids Loading Rate, lb/day/ft2
– Remove sludge form tank.
The solids loading rate is the pounds of solids per day being
Process Calculations (Gravity/Dissolved Air Flotation) applied to 1 square foot of tank surface area. The calculation
uses the surface area of the bottom of the tank. It assumes the
Sludge thickening calculations are based on the concept that
floor of the tank is flat and has the same dimensions as the
the solids in the primary of secondary sludge are equal to the
surface.
solids in the thickened sludge. Assuming a negligible amount
of solids are lost in the thickener overflow, the solids are the Solids Ldg Rate, lb/day/ft
same. Note that the water is removed to thicken the sludge and
% Sludge Solids ´ Sludge Flow, gpd ´ 8.34 lb/gal (16.87)
results in higher percent solids. =
Thickener Area, ft 2
Estimating Daily Sludge Production
Equation 16.85 provides a method to establish an initial pump- Example 16.69
ing rate or to evaluate the adequacy of the current pump rate.
Problem: The thickener influent contains 1.6% solids. The
Est. Pump Rate influent flow rate is 39,000 gpd. The thickener is 50 ft
in diameter and 10 ft deep. What is the solid loading in

=
( Infl. TSS Conc. - Eff. TSS Conc.) ´ Flow ´ 8.34 (16.85) pounds per day?
% Solids in Sludge ´ 8.34 ´ 1, 440 min/day
SOLUTION:
Example 16.67 Solids Ldg Rate, lb/day/ft 2
Problem: The sludge withdrawn from the primary settling 0.016 ´ 39, 000 gpd ´ 8.34 lb/gal
=
tank contains 1.5% solids. The unit influent contains 280 0.785 ´ 50 ft ´ 50 ft
mg/l TSS, and the effluent contains 141 mg/l. If the influ-
ent flow rate is 5.55 MGD, what is the estimated sludge = 2.7 lb/ft 2
Concentration Factor Sludge Stabilization

The concentration factor (CF) represents the increase in con- The purpose of sludge stabilization is to reduce volume, sta-
centration resulting from the thickener: bilize the organic matter, and eliminate pathogenic organisms
to permit reuse or disposal. The equipment required for stabi-
Thickened Sludge Concentration, % lization depends on the specific process used. Sludge stabili-
CF = (16.88)
Influent Sludge Concentration, % zation processes include:
• Aerobic Digestion
Example 16.70 • Anaerobic Digestion
• Composting
Problem: The influent sludge contains 3.5% solids. The
thickened sludge solids concentration is 7.7%. What is the
• Lime Stabilization
concentration factor? • Wet Air Oxidation (Heat Treatment)
• Chemical Oxidation (Chlorine Oxidation)
SOLUTION: • Incineration
7 .7 % Aerobic Digestion
CF = = 2 .2
3 .5 % Equipment used for aerobic digestion consists of an aera-
tion tank (digester) which is similar in design to the aeration
Air-to-Solids Ratio tank used for the activated sludge process. Either diffused or
The air-to-solids ratio is the ratio of air being applied to the mechanical aeration equipment is necessary to maintain the
pounds of solids entering the thickener: aerobic conditions in the tank. Solids and supernatant removal
equipment are also required. In operation, process residu-
Air:Solids Ratio als (sludge) are added to the digester and aerated to main-
tain a dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of 1.0 mg/L.
Air Flow ft 3 / min´ 0.075 lb/ft 3 (16.89)
= Aeration also ensures that the tank contents are well mixed.
Sludge Flow, gpm ´ % Solids ´ 8.34 lb/gal Generally, aeration continues for approximately 20 days of
retention time. Periodically, aeration is stopped and the sol-
Example 16.71 ids are allowed to settle. Sludge and the clear liquid super-
natant are withdrawn as needed to provide more room in the
Problem: The sludge pumped to the thickener is 0.85% digester. When no additional volume is available, mixing is
solids. The airflow is 13 cfm. What is the air-to-solids ratio stopped for 12–24 h before solids are withdrawn for disposal.
if the current sludge flow rate entering the unit is 50 gpm? Process control testing should include alkalinity, pH, percent
solids, percent volatile solids for influent sludge, supernatant,
SOLUTION: digested sludge, and digester contents. Normal operating lev-
els for an aerobic digester are listed in Table 16.15.
13 cfm ´ 0.075 lb/ft
Air:Solids Ratio = A typical operational problem associated with an aerobic
50 gpm ´ 0.0085 ´ 8.34 lb/gal
digester is pH control. When pH drops, for example, this may
= 0.2
28 indicate normal biological activity or low influent alkalinity.
This problem is corrected by adding alkalinity (lime, bicar-
Recycle Flow in Percent bonate, etc.).
The amount of recycle flow expressed as a percent:
Process Control Calculations for the Aerobic Digester
Recycle Flow Rate , gpm ´ 100 Wastewater operators who operate aerobic digesters are required
Recycle, % = to make certain process control calculations. Moreover, licens-
Sludge Flow, gpm (16.90) ing examinations typically include aerobic digester problems
= 175%
TABLE 16.15
Example 16.72 Aerobic Digester Normal Operating Levels
Parameter Normal Levels
Problem: The sludge flow to the thickener is 80 gpm. The
recycle flow rate is 140 gpm. What is the % recycle? Detention Time, Days 10–20
Volatile Solids Loading lbs/ft3/day 0.1–0.3
SOLUTION: Dissolved oxygen (DO) mg/L 1.0
pH 5.9–7.7
140 gpm ´ 100
% Recycle = = 175% Volatile Solids Reduction 40–50%
80 gpm
for determining volatile solids loading, digestion time, digester % Reduction

efficiency, and pH adjustment. These process control calcula-
tions are explained in the following sections.

=
(% Volatile Matterin - % Volatile Matterout ) ´100 (16.93)
é% Vol. Matterin - ( % Vol. Matterin ´ % Vol. Matterout ) ù
ë û
Volatile Solids Loading
Volatile solids loading for the aerobic digester is expressed Example 16.75
in pounds of volatile solids entering the digester per day per
cubic foot of digester capacity: Problem: Using the digester data provided below, deter-
mine the % Volatile Matter Reduction for the digester.
Raw Sludge Volatile Matter = 71%
Volatile Solids Added, lb/day (16.91) Digested Sludge Volatile Matter = 53%
=
Digester Volume, ft 3
SOLUTION:
Example 16.73
% Vol. Matter Reduction =
( 0.71 - 0.53) ´ 100
é0.71 - ( 0.71 ´ 0.53 ) ù
Problem: The aerobic digester is 25 ft in diameter and has ë û
an operating depth of 24 ft. The sludge added to the digester
= 533.9 or 54%
daily contains 1,350 lb of volatile solids. What is the volatile
solids loading in pounds per day per cubic foot?
Step 2: Calculate Moisture Reduction
SOLUTION:
% Moisture Reduction

=
(% Moisture in - % Moistureout ) ´ 100 (16.94)
1, 350 lb/day é% Moisturein - ( % Moisturein ´ % Moisture out ) ù
= ë û
.785 ´ 25 ft ´ 25 ft ´ 24 ft
= 0.11lb /day /ft 3 Example 16.76

Digestion Time, Days Problem: Using the digester data provided below, deter-
Digestion time is the theoretical time the sludge remains in mine the % Moisture Reduction for the
the aerobic digester: digester.
Note: Percent moisture = 100% − percent solids
Digestion Time, Days
SOLUTION:
Digester Volume, gallons (16.92)
=
Sludge Added, gpd Raw Sludge
% Solids = 6%
% Moisture = 94% (100% − 6%)
Example 16.74 Digested Sludge
% Solids = 15%
Problem: Digester volume is 240,000 gal. Sludge is being % Moisture = 85% (100% − 15%)
added to the digester at the rate of 13,500 gpd. What is the
digestion time in days? % Reduction =
( 0.94 - 0.85) ´ 100 = 64%
éë0.94 - ( 0.94 ´ 0.85) ùû
SOLUTION:
240, 000 gal
pH Adjustment
Digestion Time, Days = Occasionally, the pH of the aerobic digester will fall below the
13, 500 gpd
levels required for good biological activity. When this occurs,
= 17.8 days the operator must perform a laboratory test to determine the
Digester Efficiency (% Reduction) amount of alkalinity required to raise the pH to the desired
level. The results of the lab test must then be converted to
To determine digester efficiency or the % of reduction, a two-
the actual quantity of chemical (usually lime) required by the
step procedure is required. First the % VM Reduction must be
digester.
calculated and then the % moisture reduction.
Chem. Required, lb
Step 1: Calculate Volatile Matter
Chemical Used in Lab Test, mg
Because of the changes occurring during sludge digestion, the = (16.95)
Sample Volume, Liters
calculation used to determine percent volatile matter reduc-
tion is more complicated. ´ Dig. Vol, MG ´8.34
Example 16.77
TABLE 16.16
Problem: The lab reports that it took 225 milligrams of lime Anaerobic Digester—Sludge Parameters
to increase pH of a 1-liter sample of the aerobic digester
Raw Sludge Solids Impact
contents to pH 7.2. The digester volume is 240,000 gallons.
How many pounds of lime will be required to increase the <4% Solids Loss of alkalinity
digester pH to 7.2? Decreased sludge retention time
Increased heating requirements
SOLUTION: Decreased Volatile Acid: Alk Ratio
4–8% Solids Normal Operation
Chemical Required, lb
>8% Solids Poor mixing
225 mg ´ 240, 000 gal ´ 3.785 L/gal Organic Overloading
=
1L ´ 454 g/lb ´ 1, 000 mg/gram Decreased Volatile Acid: Alk Ratio
= 450 lb
Anaerobic Digestion procedures. Normal operating procedures include sludge

Anaerobic digestion is the traditional method of sludge stabi- additions, supernatant withdrawal, sludge withdrawal, pH
lization. It involves using bacteria that thrive in the absence control, temperature control, mixing, and safety requirements.
of oxygen and is slower than aerobic digestion, but has the Important performance parameters are listed in Table 16.16.
advantage that only a small percentage of the wastes are con-
verted into new bacterial cells. Instead, most of the organics Sludge Additions
are converted into carbon dioxide and methane gas. Sludge must be pumped (in small amounts) several times
Note: In an anaerobic digester, the entrance of air should be each day to achieve the desired organic loading and optimum
prevented because of the potential for air mixed with the gas pro- performance.
duced in the digester which could create an explosive mixture. Note: Keep in mind that in fixed cover operations additions
Equipment used in anaerobic digestion includes a sealed must be balanced by withdrawals. If not, structural damage
digestion tank with either a fixed or a floating cover, heating occurs.
and mixing equipment, gas storage tanks, solids and super-
natant withdrawal equipment, and safety equipment (e.g., Supernatant Withdrawal
vacuum relief, pressure relief, flame traps, explosion proof Supernatant withdrawal must be controlled for maximum
electrical equipment). SRT. When sampling, sample all drawoff points and select
In operation, process residual (thickened or unthickened levels with the best quality.
sludge) is pumped into the sealed digester. The organic mat-
ter digests anaerobically by a two-stage process. Sugars, Sludge Withdrawal
starches, and carbohydrates are converted to volatile acids, Digested sludge is withdrawn only when necessary—always
carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. The volatile acids are leave at least 25% seed.
then converted to methane gas. This operation can occur in
a single tank (single stage) or in two tanks (two stages). In a pH Control
single stage system, supernatant and/or digested solids must pH should be adjusted to maintain 6.8–7.2 pH by adjusting
be removed whenever flow is added. In a two-stage operation, feed rate, sludge withdrawal or alkalinity additions.
solids and liquids from the first stage flow into the second Note: The buffer capacity of an anaerobic digester is indi-
stage each time fresh solids are added. Supernatant is with- cated by the volatile acid/alkalinity relationship. Decreases in
drawn from the second stage to provide additional treatment alkalinity cause a corresponding increase in ratio.
space. Periodically, solids are withdrawn for dewatering or
disposal. The methane gas produced in the process may be Temperature Control
used for many plant activities. If the digester is heated, the temperature must be controlled
Note: The primary purpose of a secondary digester is to to a normal temperature range of 90–95°F. Never adjust the
allow for solids separation. temperature by more than 1°F per day.
Various performance factors affect the operation of the
anaerobic digester. For example, percent volatile matter in Mixing
raw sludge, digester temperature, mixing, volatile acids/alka- If the digester is equipped with mixers, mixing should be
linity ratio, feed rate, percent solids in raw sludge and pH are accomplished to ensure organisms are exposed to food
all important operational parameters that the operator must materials.
monitor.
Along with being able to recognize normal/abnormal Safety
anaerobic digester performance parameters, wastewater Anaerobic digesters are inherently dangerous—several cata-
operators must also know and understand normal operating strophic failures have been recorded. To prevent such failures,
safety equipment such as pressure relief and vacuum relief Corrective Actions:
valves, flame traps, condensate traps, and gas collection safety – Add alkalinity (digested sludge, lime, etc.);
devices are installed. It is important that these critical safety improve temperature control; improve mix-
devices be checked and maintained for proper operation. ing; eliminate toxicity; clean digester.
Note: Because of the inherent danger involved with work- Symptom 2
ing inside anaerobic digesters, they are automatically clas- Gray foam oozing form digester.
sified as permit-required confined spaces. Therefore, all Cause:
operations involving internal entry must be made in accor- – Rapid gasification
dance with OSHA’s confined space entry standard. – Foam producing organisms present
– Foam producing chemical present
Process Control Monitoring/Testing/Troubleshooting Corrective Actions:
During operation, anaerobic digesters must be monitored – Reduce mixing; reduce feed rate; mix slowly
and tested to ensure proper operation. Testing should be by hand; clean all contaminated equipment.
accomplished to determine supernatant pH, volatile acids,
alkalinity, BOD or COD, total solids and temperature. Anaerobic Digester: Process Control Calculations
Sludge (in and out) should be routinely tested for percent Process control calculations involved with anaerobic digester
solids and percent VM. Normal operating parameters are operation include determining the required seed volume, vol-
listed in Table 16.17. atile acid to alkalinity ratio, SRT, estimated gas production,
As with all other unit processes, the wastewater operator volatile matter reduction, and percent moisture reduction in
is expected to recognize problematic symptoms with anaero- digester sludge. Examples of how to make these calculations
bic digesters and effect the appropriate corrective action(s). are provided in the following sections.
Symptoms, causes, and corrective actions are discussed below.
Required Seed Volume in Gallons
Symptom 1
Digester gas production is reduced; pH drops Seed Volume ( Gallons ) = Digester Volume
below 6.8; and/or volatile acids/alkalinity ratio (16.96)
increases. ´ % Seed
Cause:
– Digester souring Example 16.78
– Organic overloading
– Inadequate mixing Problem: The new digester requires a 25% seed to achieve
– Low alkalinity normal operation within the allotted time. If the digester
– Hydraulic overloading volume is 266,000 gal, how many gallons of seed material
– Toxicity will be required?
– Loss of digestion capacity
SOLUTION:
Seed Volume = 266, 000 ´ 0.25 = 66, 500 gal
TABLE 16.17
Anaerobic Digester: Normal Operating Ranges
Parameter Normal Range
Volatile Acids to Alkalinity Ratio
Sludge Retention Time
The volatile acids to alkalinity ratio can be used to control the
operation of an anaerobic digester.
Heated 30–60 days
Unheated 180+ days
Volatile Acids Concentration
Volatile Solids Loading 0.04–0.1 lbs V.M/day/ft3 Ratio = (16.97)
Operating Temperature Alkalinity Concentration
Heated 90–95 °F
Unheated Varies with season Example 16.79
Mixing
Heated - primary Yes Problem: The digester contains 240 mg/L volatile acids
Unheated - secondary No and 1,860-mg/L alkalinity. What is the volatile acids-to-
% Methane in Gas 60–72%
alkalinity ratio?
% Carbon Dioxide in Gas 28–40%
240 mg/L
pH 6.8–7.2 Ratio = = 0.13
Volatile Acids: Alkalinity Ratio ≤0.1 1, 860 mg/L
Volatile Solids Reduction 40–60% Note: Increases in the ratio normally indicate a potential
Moisture Reduction 40–60% change in the operating condition of the digester as shown
in Table 16.18.
Example 16.82
TABLE 16.18
Operating condition for Alkalinity Ratio Problem: Using the data provided below, determine the %
Volatile Matter Reduction for the digester.
Operating Condition VA/Alkalinity Ratio
Optimum ≤0.1 Raw Sludge Volatile Matter 74%
Acceptable range 0.1–0.3 Digested Sludge Volatile Matter 55%
% Carbon dioxide in gas increases ≥0.5
pH decreases ≥0.8 % Volatile Matter Reduction

=
( 0.74 - 0.55) ´ 100 = 57%

éë0.74 - ( 0.74 ´ 0.55) ùû
Sludge Retention Time
SRT is the length of time the sludge remains in the digester. Percent Moisture Reduction in Digested Sludge
Digester Vol (Gal) % Moisture Reduction

SRT, Days = (16.98)
Sludge Vol. Added per Day (gpd)
(% Moisture in - %Moisture out ) ´ 100 (16.101)
=
Example 16.80 é% Moisture in - ( % Moisturein ´ %Moisture out ) ù
ë û
Problem: Sludge is added to a 525,000-gal digester at the

rate of 12,250 gal per day. Example 16.83
SOLUTION: Problem: Using the digester data provide below, deter-

mine the % Moisture Reduction and % Volatile Matter
525, 000 gal Reduction for the digester.
SRT = = 42.9 days
12, 250 gpd
SOLUTION:
Estimated Gas Production in Cubic Feet/Day Raw Sludge % Solids 6%
The rate of gas production is normally expressed as the volume Digested Sludge % Solids 14%
of gas (ft3) produced per pound of volatile matter destroyed.
The total cubic feet of gas a digester will produce per day can Note: Percent Moisture = 100% − Percent Solids
be calculated by:
% Moisture Reduction =
( 0.94 - 0.86 ) ´ 100
Gas Prod. (ft 3 ) = Vol. Matter In, lb /day éë0.94 - ( 0.94 ´ 0.86 ) ùû
´ % Vol. Matter Red. (16.99) = 61%
´ Prod. Rate ft /lb
3
Other Sludge Stabilization Processes

Example 16.81 In addition to aerobic and anaerobic digestion, other sludge
stabilization processes include composting, lime stabiliza-
Problem: The digester receives 11,450 lb of volatile matter tion, wet air oxidation, and chemical (chlorine) oxidation.
per day. Currently the volatile matter reduction achieved These other stabilization processes are briefly described in
by the digester is 52%. The rate of gas production is 11.2 this section.
ft3 of gas per pound of volatile matter destroyed.
Composting
SOLUTION:
The purpose of composting sludge is to stabilize the organic
Gas Prod. = 11, 450 lb /day ´ 0.52 ´ 11.2 ft 3 /lb matter, reduce volume, and to eliminate pathogenic organ-
isms. In a composting operation dewatered solids are usually
= 66,685 ft 3 /day mixed with a bulking agent (i.e., hardwood chips) and stored
until biological stabilization occurs. The composting mixture
Percent Volatile Matter Reduction is ventilated during storage to provide sufficient oxygen for
Because of the changes occurring during sludge digestion, the oxidation and to prevent odors. After the solids are stabilized,
calculation used to determine percent volatile matter reduc- they are separated from the bulking agent. The composted
tion is more complicated. solids are then stored for curing and applied to farmlands
or other beneficial uses. Expected performance of the com-
% VM Reduction =
(%VMin - %VMout ) ´ 100 (16.100) posting operation for both percent VM reduction and percent
é%VM in - ( %VM in ´ %VMout ùû moisture reduction ranges from 40 to 60%.
ë
DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS decomposition of cellulose and lignin (found in

woody-like substances).
Aerated static pile (ASP): Composting system using con- Curing Air: Curing piles are aerated primarily for moisture
trolled aeration from a series of perforated pipes run- removal to meet final product moisture requirements
ning underneath each pile and connected to a pump and to keep odors from building up in the compost
that draws or blows air through the piles. pile as biological activity is dissipating. Final prod-
Aeration (for composting): Bringing about contact of air and uct moisture requirements and summer ambient con-
composted solid organic matter by means of turning ditions are used to determine air requirements for
or ventilating to allow microbial aerobic metabolism moisture removal for the curing process.
(bio-oxidation). Endotoxins: A toxin produced within a microorganism and
Aerobic: Composting environment characterized by bacteria released upon destruction of the cell in which it is
active in the presence of oxygen (aerobes); gener- produced. Endotoxins can be carried by airborne
ates more heat and is a faster process than anaerobic dust particles at composting facilities.
composting. EPA’s 503 Regulation: In order to ensure that sew-
Anaerobic: Composting environment characterized by bacte- age sludge (biosolids) is used or disposed of in
ria active in the absence of oxygen (anaerobes). a way that protects both human health and the
Bagged biosolids: Biosolids that is sold or given away in a environment, under the authority of the CWA as
bag or other container (i.e., either an open or closed amended, the USEPA promulgated, at 40 CFR
vessel containing 1 metric ton or less of biosolids). Part 503, Phase I of the risk-based regulation that
Bioaerosols: Biological aerosols that can pose potential governs the final use or disposal of sewage sludge
health risks during the composting and handling of (biosolids).
organic materials. Bioaerosols are suspensions of EQ Sludge (Biosolids): Although this term is not used in 40
particles in the air consisting partially or wholly of CFR Part 503, it has become a shorthand term for
microorganisms. The bioaerosols of concern dur- biosolids that meet the pollutant concentrations in
ing composting include actinomycetes, bacteria, Table 3 of Part 503.13(b)(3); one of the six class A
viruses, molds, and fungi. pathogen reduction alternatives in 503.32(a); and one
Biosolids Composting: Is the process involving the aero- of the vector attraction reduction options in 503.33(b)
bic biological degradation or bacterial conversion (1)-(8).
of dewatered biosolids, which works to produce Feedstock: Decomposable organic material used for the man-
compost that can be used as a soil amendment or ufacture of compost.
conditioner. Heat Removal and Temperature Control: The biologi-
Biosolids quality parameters: The EPA determined that three cal oxidation process for composting biosolids is
main parameters of concern should be used in gaug- an exothermic reaction. The heat given off by the
ing biosolids quality: (1) The relevant presence or composting process can raise the temperature of
absence of pathogenic organisms, (2) pollutants, and the compost pile high enough to destroy the organ-
(3) and the degree of attractiveness of the biosolids to isms responsible for biodegradation. Therefore, the
vectors. There can be a number of possible biosolids compost pile cells are aerated to control the tem-
qualities. In order to express or describe those biosol- perature of the composting process by removing
ids meeting the highest quality for all three of these excess heat to maintain the optimum temperature
biosolids quality parameters the term Exceptional for organic solids degradation and pathogen reduc-
Quality or EQ has come into common use. tion. Optimum temperatures are typically between
Bulking Agents: Materials, usually carbonaceous such as 50 and 60°C (122 and 140°F). Using summer ambi-
sawdust or woodchips, added to a compost system to ent air conditions, aeration requirements for heat
maintain airflow by preventing settlement and com- removal can be calculated.
paction of the compost. Metric Ton: One (1) metric ton, or 1,000 Kg, equals about
Bulk biosolids: Biosolids that is not sold or given away in a 2205 lbs, which is larger than the short ton (2,000 lb)
bag or other container for application to the land. usually referred to in the British system of units. The
Carbon to Nitrogen Ration (C:N Ratio): Ratio representing metric ton unit is used throughout this text.
the quantity of carbon (C) in relation to the quantity Moisture Removal: When temperature increases, the quan-
of nitrogen (N) in a soil or organic material; deter- tity of moisture in saturated air increases. Air is
mines the composting potential of a material and required for the composting process to remove
serves to indicate product quality. water that is present in the mix and produced by
Compost: Is the end product (innocuous humus) remaining the oxidation of organic solids. The quantity of
after the composting process is completed. air required for moisture removal is calculated
Curing: Late stage of composting, after much of the readily based on the desired moisture content for the
metabolized material has been decomposed, which compost product and the psychometric proper-
provides additional stabilization and allows further ties of the ambient air supply. Air requirements
for moisture removal are calculated from summer

ambient air conditions and required final compost DID YOU KNOW?
characteristics.
Aeration is an important process control parameter
Oxidation air: The composting process requires oxygen
in the aerated static pile composting system. Air is
to support aerobic biological oxidation of degrad-
required to supply oxygen for the biological degrada-
able organics in the biosolids and wood chips.
tion of organic solids in the biosolids and wood chips.
Stoichiometric requirements for oxygen are related
Aeration is also needed for the removal of heat gener-
to the extent of organic solids degradation expected
ated by the biological activity in the compost pile and
during the composting cycle time.
excess moisture from the compost mix. Fans are used
Pathogenic Organisms: specifically, salmonella and E. coli
to ensure that sufficient quantities of air are supplied to
bacteria, enteric viruses, or visible helminth ova.
meet composting process requirements and to provide
Peaking Air: The rate of organic oxidation, and therefore the
the process control flexibility necessary for optimizing
heat release, can vary greatly for the composting
operations.
process. If sufficient aeration capacity is not pro-
vided to meet peak requirements for heat or moisture
removal, temperature limits for the process may be The ASP Model Composting Facility uses the homogenized
exceeded. Peaking air rates are typically 1.9 times mixture of bulking agent (coarse hardwood wood chips) and
the average aeration rate for heat removal. dewatered biosolids is piled by front-end loaders onto a large
Pollutant: An organic substance, an inorganic substance, a concrete composting pad where it is mechanically aerated via
combination of organic and inorganic substances, or PVC plastic pipe embedded within the concrete slab. This
a pathogenic organism that, after discharge and upon ventilation procedure is part of the 26-day period of “active”
exposure, ingestion, inhalation, or assimilation into composting when adequate air and oxygen are necessary to
an organism either directly from the environment support aerobic biological activity in the compost mass and to
or indirectly by ingestion through the food chain, reduce the heat and moisture content of the compost mixture.
could, on the basis of information available to the Keep in mind that a compost pile without a properly sized air
EPA, cause death, disease, behavioral abnormalities, distribution system can lead to the onset of anaerobic condi-
cancer, genetic mutations, physiological malfunctions and the appearance of putrefactive odors.
tions, or physical deformations in either organisms For illustration and discussion purposes, we assume a typi-
or offspring of the organisms. cal overall composting pad area is approximately 200 ft by
Stability: State or condition in which the composted mate- 240 ft consisting of 11 blowers and 24 pipe troughs (troffs).
rial can be stored without giving rise to nuisances or Three blowers are 20 hp 2400 cfm, variable speed drive units
can be applied to the soil without causing problems capable of operating in either the positive or negative aera-
there; the desired degree of stability for finished tion mode. Blowers A, B, and C are each connected to two
compost is one in which the readily decomposed piping troughs that run the full length of the pad. The two
compounds are broken down and only the decompo- troughs are connected at the opposite ends of the composting
sition of the more resistant biologically decompos- pad to create an “aeration pipe loop.” The other eight blowers
able compounds remains to be accomplished. are rated at 3 hp 1200 cfm and are arranged one blower per
Vectors: Refer to the degree of attractiveness of biosolids to six troughs at half-length feeding 200 cfm per trough. These
flies, rats, and mosquitoes that could come into con- blowers can be operated in the positive or negative aeration
tact with pathogenic organisms and spread disease. mode. Aeration piping within the six pipe troughs is perfo-
rated PVC plastic pipe, 6 in. inside diameter and 1/4 in. wall
Aerated Static Pile thickness. Perforation holes/orifices vary in size from 7/32
Three methods of composting wastewater biosolids are com- in. to 1/2 in., increasing in diameter as the distance from the
mon. Each method involves mixing dewatered wastewater blower increases.
solids with a bulking agent to provide carbon and increase The variable speed motor drives installed with blowers A,
porosity. The resulting mixture is piled or placed in a ves- B, and C are controlled by five thermal probes mounted at
sel where microbial activity cases the temperatures of the various depths in the compost pile and various parameters are
mixture to rise during the “active composing” period. The fed back to the recorder whereas the other eight blowers are
specific temperatures that must be achieved and maintained constant speed, controlled by a timer that cycles them on and
for successful composting vary based on the method and off. To ensure optimum composting operations it is important
use of the end product. After active composting the material to verify that these thermal probes are calibrated on a regu-
is cured and distributed. Again, there are three commonly lar basis. In the constant speed system, thermal probes are
employed composting methods but we only described the installed but all readings are taken and recorded manually.
ASP method because it is commonly used. For an in depth For water and leachate drainage purposes, all aeration
treatment of the other two methods, windrow and in-vessel, piping within the troughs slopes downward with the highest
we refer you to F.R. Spellman’s Wastewater Biosolids to point at the center of the composting pad. Drain caps located
Compost (1997). at each end of the pipe length are manually removed on a
regular basis so that any buildup of debris or moisture will previously. Then loosely place compost mixture
not interfere with the airflow. next to the previous pile to form an extended pile
The actual construction process involved in building the with a trapezoidal cross-section. As the piles
compost pile will be covered in detail later but for now a few are made, blanket the tops and ends with 8–12
key points should be made. For example, prior to the piling of in. of cured screened compost or 16–20 in. of
the mixture on the composting pad, an 18-in. layer of wood unscreened compost or bulking agent.
chips is used as a base material. The primary purpose of the 8. Hand rake the top and sides of the piles smooth
wood chips base is to keep the composting mixture clear of to prevent water pockets from forming. Sweep
the aeration pipes, which reduces clogging of the air distribu- excess woodchips from around the base of the
tion openings in the pipes and allows free air circulation. A piles.
secondary benefit is that the wood chips insulate the compost- 9. At the end of each day, dust the uncovered side
ing mixture from the pad. The compost pad is like a heat sink of the compost pile with approximately 1–3 in.
and this insulating barrier improves the uniformity of heat of screened or unscreened compost or bulking
distribution within the composting mixture. agent for overnight control.
10. Place appropriate sign on pile to indicate date
Construction of Composting Pile started and date to be taken down (26 days).
The ASP model uses extended pile construction. The follow- 11. Close aeration dampers in troughs which have
ing discussion details the procedure used in their formation no compost piles.
and in operation. Compost Pile Operation Procedure:
1. Set blowers to operate intermittently. Aeration
Compost Pile Formation Procedure: rates may vary from 200–1,200 cf/hr/dry ton.
1. Check to ensure the non-perforated section of Generally, the blowers operate 3–25 min each
the aeration pipe will extend at least 8–10 ft ½-h cycle. The blower operating cycle should be
under the slope at each end of the compost pile. adjusted depending on interior oxygen levels. As
This practice is necessary to prevent short-cir- a guideline: If the oxygen level is <5%, blower
cuiting of air which could result in “cold spots” on time should be increased; if oxygen level is
with inadequate pathogen destruction. >15%, blower on time should be decreased.
2. Check to ensure aeration pipe is not damaged. 2. Check all blowers each day to ensure they are
Replace pipe if necessary. operating correctly.
3. Fill the trough area around the aeration pile with 3. Adjust aeration dampers as necessary to ensure
a suitable bulking agent such as woodchips. even distribution of air.
Replace when bulking agent or composted mate- 4. Check all drains each day to ensure they are
rial becomes compacted in troughs. operating properly. Drain water from 8 in. fiber-
4. Place a 3–18 in. base layer of bulking agent in an glass headers as necessary.
area approximately 4 ft on either side of the aera- 5. Compost is to be sampled and tested as directed.
tion troughs. The purpose of installing a bulking 6. Temperatures should increase to 50 degrees
agent base is to improve air distribution, absorb within a few days.
moisture and prevent clogging of the trenches. 7. If temperatures of 55 degrees C have been main-
5. Construct over the bulking agent base with a tained at all pile monitoring points for a mini-
front-end loader an initial pile with a triangu- mum of three days, the compost pile can be
lar cross-section to a convenient height of 7–10 removed after 21–26 days.
ft. Be careful not to compact the compost mix. Note: Piles are to be removed with front-end
A compacted mix will not compost properly. If loader. Care should be taken to break into pileon
compost pile is constructed outdoors, care should upwind side.
be taken while forming piles to ensure that tops 8. Compost that has not maintained pile temperatures
of piles form peaks or rounded dome-like tops to of 55 degrees C for at least three days, must be
allow for rainwater runoff; otherwise, unwanted recycled back through the composting process.
moisture may pool in pile tops, retarding the
composting process.
6. Blanket both ends and the exterior side of the Advantages and Disadvantages
first pile with either 8–12 in. of cured screened Biosolids composting has grown in popularity for the follow-
compost or 16–20 in. of unscreened compost or ing reasons (WEF, 1995):
bulking agent. The purpose of this “blanket” is
to provide insulation and prevent the escape of • Lack of availability of landfill space for solids
odorous gases. disposal.
7. Form subsequent piles parallel to the first. Extend • Composting economics are more favorable when
the base following procedures 1–4 outlined landfill tipping fees escalate.
• Emphasis on beneficial reuse at federal, state, and a wide range of animals including horses, cattle, sheep,
local levels. and poultry. The disease caused by the aspergillus
• Ease of storage, handling, and use of composted organism is an acute or chronic inflammatory infection
product. primarily of the respiratory tract and the ear (Burnett &
• Addition of biosolids compost to soil increases the Schuster, 1973). Aspergillus fumigatus has been found
soil’s phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, and organic to grow on wood, grass, compost, rubber, and green
carbon content. leaves (Epstein, 1994).
It is interesting to note that Aspergillus fumigatus is
Composted biosolids can also be used in various land appli- not considered a hazard to healthy individuals. It is the
cations. Compost mixed with appropriate additives creates susceptible individuals (for example, those with chronic
a material useful in wetland and mine land restoration. The pulmonary function problems) that can be infected and
high organic matter content and low nitrogen content com- that must be protected. To aid in preventing infection,
mon in compost provide a strong organic substrate that decision-makers involved with managing biosolids-
mimics wetland soils, prevents overloading of nitrogen, and derived composting facilities should incorporate a
absorbs ammonium to prevent transport to adjacent surface medical screening process into their hiring procedure.
waters (Peot, 1998). Compost amended strip-mine spoils pro- Prescreening compost workers prior to their assignment
duce a sustainable cover of appropriate grasses, in contrast at the compost site and the requirement for subsequent
to inorganic-only amendments which seldom provide such a annual physical examinations, including annual pulmo-
good or sustainable cover (Sopper, 1993). nary function testing is prudent practice.
Compost-enriched soil can also help suppress diseases With regard to protecting the public from infec-
and ward off pests. These beneficial uses of compost can tion by Aspergillus fumigatus, decision-makers at the
help growers save money, reduce the use of pesticides, and composting site should take certain measures to con-
conserve natural resources. Compost also plays a role in the trol generation and exposure. For example, when siting
bioremediation of hazardous sites and pollution prevention. new facilities, critical evaluations should be made on
Compost has proven effective in degrading or altering many their proximity to private residences and public facili-
types of contaminants, such as wood-preservatives, solvents, ties. Because there is a potential risk of increased expo-
heavy metals, pesticides, petroleum products, and explosives. sure to Aspergillus spores in areas located downwind
Some municipalities are using compost to filter storm water from a composting site, meteorological conditions that
runoff before it is discharged to remove hazardous chemicals could transport bioaerosols off-site should be evaluated
picked up when storm water flows over surfaces such as roads, (Toomey, 1994).
parking lots, and lawns. Additional uses for compost include Additional preventive measures are available. For
soil mulch for erosion control, silviculture crop establishment, example, the inclusion of a sufficient buffer area around
and production media (USEPA, 1997a). Limitations of biosol- the compost site should be incorporated. However, if an
ids composting may include: adequate buffer area is not feasible because of a lack of
available land, enclosing the process, increasing mech-
• Odor production at the composting site. anization of the process, and good management prac-
• Survival and presence of primary pathogens in the tices can help to mitigate the dispersion of bioaerosols
product. (Millner, 1995).
• Dispersion of secondary pathogens such as Table 16.19 shows locations where Aspergillus
Aspergillus fumigatus, particulate matter, other air- fumigatus are usually present and the typical levels that
borne allergens. can be expected at a biosolids composting facility. From
Lack of consistency in product quality with reference to met- TABLE 16.19

als, stability, and maturity.
Levels of Aspergillus f.at a Biosolids Composting
Facility
Location Concentration (Colony-Forming Units/m2)
SIDEBAR 16.2 ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS
Mixing Area 110 to 120
Compost facility workers and the public who live near Near Tear Down Pile 8 to 24
a composting facility can be impacted by Aspergillus Compost Pile 12 to 15
fumigatus exposure. More specifically, Aspergillus Front-End Loader 11 to 79
fumigatus can cause aspergillosis in man. Aspergillosis Operation
is a disease usually caused by the inhalation of air- Periphery of Compost 2
borne spores, but can also occur through ingestion or Site
via wounds (Singleton & Sainsbury, 1994). Man is not Source: Adapted from: Epstein & Epstein (1989).
the only species affected by aspergillosis; it can affect
Table 16.19 it should be apparent that there is a direct community or industrial setting, there can be a decrease in
relationship between Aspergillus fumigatus levels and values of existing property. (2) A dollar cost involved with the
compost site activities. loss of use of surrounding open land; that is, some areas sur-
rounding industrial complexes are designated for recreational
use, but how many people are going to seek recreation in an
DID YOU KNOW? area where the odor is offensive? (3) The direct personal effect
More than 7.3 billion chickens, ducks, and turkeys are of offensive odor production is another factor that must be
raised for commercial sale in the United States each considered. For example, it is not unusual for people to com-
year, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s plain that malodors cause them to experience a loss of sleep,
National Agricultural Service. About 37 million birds loss of appetite, and nausea. When the public begins to com-
(18–25%) die from disease or other natural causes plain, and when their complaints turn into lawsuits, obviously,
before they are marketable. As more poultry is con- the industrial complex responsible for the production of the
sumed, these numbers are expected to climb. offensive odors can be put in a serious financial bind.
Composting is a viable and cost-effective option for How do industrial managers prevent such serious reper-
disposing of poultry mortalities as compared to incin- cussions? Finstein et al., (1986) may have the answer: When
eration or burial. Pathogens in poultry carcasses are a specific, objective criterion of process performance is
destroyed during composting by the high temperatures instituted, unnecessary expense and widespread problems,
(130–155°F) inherent in the process. particularly related to the generation of noxious odors can
During composting, various odor control techniques be avoided. Because the major operational problem associ-
can be used. As a result, this type of compost is not only ated with composting is reportedly the production of odors,
safe for crop application, but it also can be safely sold composting process odor control is a matter that must be
by farmers. In fact, selling excess compost could even given serious consideration (McGhee, 1991). Those planners,
be a source of additional income for farmers. Markets designers, decision-makers, and engineers who are tasked
for high-quality compost include professional grow- with the responsibility of planning, designing, engineering,
ers (such as horticultural greenhouses and nurseries), and funding composting facilities generally take into account
home-owners, turf growers, and crop farmers (such as the need to “site” the proposed composting facility in a loca-
corn and wheat farmers). Professional growers alone tion that is suitable for its intended operation. This suitabil-
purchase US$250 million per year in compost products. ity of location is important. For example, when a compost
site is in the planning stages, consideration must be given to
accessibility. That is, can the truck loads of biosolids’ cake be
delivered economically to the proposed site? Are the roads
Composting Odor Problems compatible with small private vehicles as well as large Ram-
Odors from a composting operation can be a nuisance and a E-Jec-type trucks and trailers? Does the proposed site afford
potential irritant. Consider the following: enough room for the entire composting operation? Can bulk-
ing agents be easily obtained, transported, and stored on site?
When a backyard cookout is canceled because of a local mal- Is there enough surrounding land to form an adequate buffer-
odor, or when the homeowner feels he must close his windows zone around the site?
and install air purifiers, or when he operates his air-condi- When potential odor problems become a planning, design-
tioning system when outside temperatures do not require air ing, and engineering concern (as they should be in the biosol-
cooling, these behaviors may be translated into dollar costs. ids composting process), conventional practice calls for the
In fact, the courts often recognize such actions as evidence inclusion of an adequate plant site buffer zone. The question
that odorous emissions are damaging and that compensation becomes: What exactly is an adequate buffer zone?
should be made by the offender.
In years past, when cities were smaller than they are today,
(Cheremisinoff & Young, 1981) finding a composting site with a large enough natural buf-
fer zone was not a difficult undertaking. Today, however, the
In the preceding statement, Cheremisinoff and Young point situation is different. This difference can be seen in present
out (with regard to the interface between the public and indus- day cities in the United States where suburban areas have
try) a well-known fact: when impairment of use and enjoy- expanded in population and in size. In the past, it was not
ment of property results from the operation of an industrial unusual to build a composting facility in an area where few
process, such as composting, serious complaints from politi- people lived and where hundreds of acres of undeveloped for-
cal leaders, community administrators, and the public are est and wide open spaces were the norm. With the passage of
almost guaranteed to occur. time, however, the population and suburbia grew in all direc-
It should be pointed out that impairment of use and enjoy- tions. What might have been an isolated composting facility
ment of property is only one of the effects associated with with an extensive buffer zone twenty years ago today is sur-
the industrial production of nuisance conditions, such as rounded on all sides by urban sprawl.
malodors. As an example, consider the effects of malodors The point is that in the past when composting facilities
with respect to dollar costs: (1) When malodors pervade a were built, in most cases, little thought was given to future
growth near or around the composting site. Thus, when origi- When a person, for the first time—not knowing the source,
nally built, the composting facility had little to worry about in detects the heavy, earthy smell of biosolids-derived compost,
relation to odor complaints from the public. Today, this is no he or she may like it or dislike it. The point is each person per-
longer the case. ceives odor differently. For those who are not offended by the
In addressing odor control problems with biosolids-derived odor of composting biosolids, they may not give it a second
composting facilities, two main scenarios are addressed in thought. However, a few days or weeks later, if this same per-
this text: new construction and established facilities. son is driving to work with a neighbor who is familiar with the
In new construction, the planners, designers, and engineers source of that heavy, earthy compost odor and the informed
have the luxury of basing their plans, designs, and processes passenger passes this information on to the unknowing per-
on data (lessons-learned) derived from other composting son, then the unknowing person’s perception has a good
operations. This is a huge advantage in that for the past 25 chance of changing. This phenomenon should not come as a
years several biosolids-derived composting operations have surprise, considering that most individuals do not associate
been in operation throughout the United States. Data obtained flushing their toilets with wastewater treatment and its ancil-
from these composting operations can be used to select the lary processes (composting). However, when one finds out,
proper process, design the proper facility, and properly train like the unknowing person in the car, people may perceive
managers in site operations—all of which may result in an the heavy, earthy biosolids-derived compost odor in a very
operation free of malodors (Corbitt, 1990). different way.
However, new construction does face one major hurdle that Along with knowledge of the odor’s source having a bear-
is not normally experienced by older operations: siting. As ing on a person’s sensitivity to odor, odor has another char-
pointed out earlier, the potential problems of finding a suit- acteristic that may impact people: the individual’s sensitivity.
able site with an accompanying buffer zone are very real and As far as sensitivity is concerned, the key point to remember
troublesome. The never-ending encroachment of population is that odor is subjective; that is, what is offensive to one indi-
and industry on what originally was “virgin” land space is a vidual may not be to another (Outwater, 1994).
reality. The Not-In-My-Backyard (NIMBY) syndrome is real. When attempting to address the factors that completely
This is especially the case when there is the perception that characterize an odor, it may be wise to refer to the four inde-
the new site will not be free of malodors. The reality is that if pendent factors described by Metcalf & Eddy (1991) and
a community perceives the siting of a compost facility in its listed here as follows: “intensity, character, hedonics, and
“backyard” as a potential nuisance that will pollute the envi- detectability” (p. 58).
ronment, decrease land values, and affect the quality of life, Intensity refers to the perceived strength of the odor as
then the planners, designers, and engineers may be up against measured by an olfactometer. The character of an odor refers
overwhelming opposition (Outwater, 1994). Even when plan- to any mental associations made by the subject sensing the
ners, designers, and engineers go to the citizens and openly odor. Hedonics refers to the relative degree of pleasantness or
and honestly present their plans, designs, and processes, the unpleasantness as perceived by the subject, which is usually
struggle facing them to bring the public onboard, to get them determined “by using a scale estimating the magnitudes of
to buy-in on having a composting facility as a neighbor is not the aesthetic qualities found in odors” (Lue-Hing et al., 1992,
to be underestimated. p.197). Odor detectability refers to the number of dilutions that
The second scenario deals with established facilities. are needed to reduce an odor to its minimum detection point.
There is an old saying: odors are not a problem until the
neighbors complain. Long established composting facilities Measuring Odors
may have enjoyed, at earlier times, a lack of neighbors and In measuring odors, usually the panel or dilution methods are
thus a lack of public awareness of their facility and the odors used. The dilution method is used in the water treatment pro-
generated by their composting process. In most cases, this is cess to detect odors in water and will not be discussed here.
no longer the case. As stated earlier, massive expansion of The panel method involves using ten or more people who
urban development has encroached upon what used to be make a judgment about the odor. These individual judgments
remote areas around most composting facilities. It is prob- are recorded and then analyzed. According to Vesilind (1980),
ably safe to say that if the local community has expanded into the results of the panel method can be used to determine an
and has become a close neighbor of an existing compost facil- “average opinion of the strength and nuisance value” of cer-
ity and if the composting process is not carefully managed tain odors (p. 42).
(controlled), the production of odors can become a definite When the panel method is used to measure odor, the
problem (Tchobanoglous et al., 1993); that is, the neighbors parameter normally used for detecting odor is expressed as
will complain. the number of effective dilutions-50 (ED-50). ED-50 is the
Another issue arises when attempting to get people number of fresh air dilutions required to reduce the odor level
to agree on the desirability or undesirability of an odor. of a sample so that only 50% of the panel can smell it. Odor
Perception of odor and how well it might be received by standards are based on odor control parameters such as ED
people has a lot to do with the association of the odors with 50, ED 10, ED 5, and others.
their sources (Vesilind, 1980). As a case in point, consider Note: In setting the odor control parameter for a compost
the following example. facility that is to be constructed or for an existing facility, a
set-point of ED-50 is not practical. The point is that at an odor process areas at a composting facility are enclosed. Keep in
control set-point of ED-50 the odor level would be reduced mind, these open areas, e.g., biosolids handling and mixing
(diluted) for only 50% of those who live near or come in close areas, can also cause odor control problems.
proximity to the compost facility. For this reason, ED-5 was
created so that only 5% of the exposed subjects would per- Lime Stabilization
ceive the composting odors (Wilber & Murray, 1990). Lime or alkaline stabilization can achieve the minimum
requirements for both Class A (no detectable pathogens) and
Malodorous Compounds in Biosolids-Derived Compost Class B (a reduced level of pathogens) biosolids with respect
To characterize composting as a smelly process is to correctly to pathogens, depending on the amount of alkaline material
state the case. Whether or not this smelly process is offensive added and other processes employed. Generally, alkaline sta-
to the subject is another issue; it depends, almost entirely, on bilization meets the Class B requirements when the pH of the
individual sensitivity. mixture of wastewater solids and alkaline material is at 12 or
It is interesting to note that ingredients important to the above after 2 h of contact.
composting process itself all smell. These smelly but impor- Class A requirements can be achieved when the pH of the
tant ingredients include the following: amines, aromatics, ter- mixture is maintained at or above 12 for at least 72 h, with a
penes, organic and inorganic sulfur, and fatty acids. temperature of 52°C maintained for at least 12 h during this
Generally associated with fats and oils-based industrial time. In one process, the mixture is air dried to over 50%
operations, amines are more commonly known for their dis- solids after the 72-h period of elevated pH. Alternatively, the
tinct fishy odor. In composting, amines are a by-product of process may be manipulated to maintain temperatures at or
microbial decomposition and generally form during anaero- above 70°F for 30 or more min, while maintaining the pH
bic fermentation. Aromatics are usually present in biosolids requirement of 12. This higher temperature can be achieved
and are volatilized during aeration. When woodchips are used by overdosing with lime (that is, adding more than is needed
as the bulking agent in the biosolids mix, aromatics are pro- to reach a pH of 12), by using a supplemental heat source,
duced during the aerobic composting as the lignins (in wood- or by using a combination of the two. Monitoring for fecal
chips) breakdown. Likewise, terpenes (which are products of coliforms or Salmonella sp. is required prior to release by the
wood) are also present in compost piles that use woodchips as generator for use.
the bulking agent. Materials that may be used for alkaline stabilization
Probably, most wastewater operators have been exposed to include hydrated lime, quicklime (calcium oxide), fly ash,
hydrogen sulfide and its characteristic rotten egg odor. Under lime, and cement kiln dust, and carbide lime. Quicklime is
normal circumstances, when biosolids are received at the commonly used because it has a high heat of hydrolysis (491
composting site, any hydrogen sulfide emissions are quickly British thermal units) and can significantly enhance pathogen
reduced when the biosolids and bulking agent are mixed and destruction. Fly ash, lime kiln dust, or cement kiln dust are
formed into aerobic piles. However, there can be a problem often used for alkaline stabilization because of their availabil-
with hydrogen sulfide emissions, if the mix is incorrect or if ity and relatively low cost.
the biosolids are too wet. When the biosolids is wet, it has The alkaline stabilized product is suitable for application
the tendency to form into clumps. These clumps can become in many situations, such as landscaping, agriculture, and mine
anaerobic and will form and release hydrogen sulfide. reclamation. The product serves as a lime substitute, source
Whether described as “stinking like a skunk” or smelling of organic matter, and a specialty fertilizer. The addition of
like “decayed cabbage,” organic sulfurs are generally pres- alkaline stabilized biosolids results in more favorable condi-
ent in all biosolids-derived composting piles. Of the various tions for vegetative growth by improving soil properties such
organic sulfur compounds found in compost piles probably as pH, texture, and water holding capacity. Appropriate appli-
the best known is the methyl mercaptans (smells like decayed cations depend on the needs of the soil and crops that will be
cabbage). Fatty acids are generally produced under anaerobic grown and the pathogen classification. For example, a Class
conditions and do not add to odor generation problems unless B material would not be suitable for blending in a top soil
the pile is allowed to go anaerobic. mix intended for use in home landscaping but is suitable for
agriculture, mine reclamation, and landfill cover where the
Bottom Line on Composting Odor Control potential for contact with the pulse is lower and access can be
At a biosolids composting facility, any sensible odor control restricted. Class A alkaline stabilized biosolids are useful in
management plan must take into account all the areas and agriculture and as a topsoil blend ingredient. Alkaline stabi-
components of the composting process that might cause odors lized biosolids provide pH adjustment, nutrients, and organic
to be generated. While it is true that most odor problems are matter, reducing reliance on other fertilizers.
generated in the composting and curing process air systems, Alkaline stabilized biosolids are also useful as daily land-
it is also true that at enclosed composting operations, odors fill cover. They satisfy the federal requirement that landfills
generated from ancillary processes within the enclosure must must be covered with soil or soil-like material at the end of
be taken into account. Moreover, enclosed systems must have each day (40 CFR 258). In most cases, lime stabilized biosol-
a way in which to control or scrub air flow within the structure ids are blended with other soil to achieve the proper consis-
prior to its release to the outside environment. Usually, not all tency for daily cover.
As previously mentioned, alkaline stabilized biosolids are disposal. It also produces a very high strength waste, which
excellent for land reclamation in degraded areas, including must be returned to the wastewater treatment system for fur-
acid mine spills or mine tailings. Soil conditions at such sites ther treatment.
are very unfavorable for vegetative growth often due to acid
content, lack of nutrients, elevated levels of heavy metals, and Chlorine Oxidation
poor soil texture. Alkaline stabilized biosolids help to remedy Chlorine oxidation also occurs in a closed vessel. In this
these problems, making conditions more favorable for plant process chlorine (100–1,000 mg/L) is mixed with a recycled
growth and reducing erosion potential. In addition, once a solids flow. The recycled flow and process residual flow are
vegetative cover is established, the quality of mine drainage mixed in the reactor. The solids and water are separated after
improves. leaving the reactor vessel. The water is returned to the waste-
water treatment system and the treated solids are dewatered
Advantages and Disadvantages for disposal. The main advantage of chlorine oxidation is that
Alkaline stabilization offers several advantages, including: it can be operated intermittently. The main disadvantage is
the production of extremely low pH and high chlorine content
• Consistency with the EPA’s national beneficial reuse in the supernatant.
policy. Results in a product suitable for a variety of
uses and is usually able to be sold. Stabilization Operation
• Simple technology requiring few special skills for Depending on the stabilization process employed, the opera-
reliable operation. tional components vary. In general, operations include pump-
• Easy to construct of readily available parts. ing, observations, sampling and testing, process control
• Small land area required. calculations, maintenance, and housekeeping. Performance
• Flexible operation, easily started and stopped. of the stabilization process will also vary with the type of
process used. Generally, stabilization processes can pro-
Several possible disadvantages should be considered in evalu- duce a 40–60% reduction of both VM (organic content) and
ating this technology: moisture.
• The resulting product is not suitable for use on all Sludge Dewatering
soil. For example, alkaline soils common in south- Digested sludge removed from the digester is still mostly
western states will not benefit from the addition of a liquid. The primary objective of dewatering biosolids is to
high pH material. reduce moisture and consequently volume to a degree that
• The volume of material to be managed and moved will allow for economical disposal or reuse. According to
off-site is increased by approximately 15 to 50% in Shimp et al. (1995), dewatering biosolids is important because
comparison with other stabilization techniques, such “it profoundly impacts the economics, functioning, and
as digestion. This increased volume results in higher required capacity of downstream operations” (pp. 44–49). As
transportation costs when material is moved off-site. an example of the economic importance of dewatering biosol-
• There is potential for odor generation both of the ids to achieve a higher solids content, consider the example
processing and end use site. provided by Padmanabha et al. (1994). They report that at one
• There is a potential for dust production. plant where more than 1800 wet ton/day of cake is produced it
• There is a potential for pathogen regrowth if the pH must be hauled approximately 50 miles to the land application
drops below 9.5 while the material is stored prior to site. The point is, if the cake produced and hauled such long
use). distances contained a higher water content, the overall haul-
• The nitrogen content in the final product is lower ing costs involved would be higher than if the cargo was low
than that in several other biosolids products. During in moisture and high in solids content. In another example,
processing, nitrogen is converted to ammonia, which Epstein & Alpert (1984) make the point that if the biosolids
is lost to the atmosphere through volatilization. In cake is higher in solids content, it reduces the need for space,
addition, plant available phosphorus can be reduced fuel, labor, equipment, and size of the receiving facility, e.g.,
through the formation of calcium phosphate. a composting facility.
• There are fees associated with proprietary processes Probably one of the best summarizations of the various
(Class A stabilization). reasons why it is important to dewater biosolids is given
by Metcalf & Eddy (1991) in the following: (1) the costs of
Thermal Treatment transporting biosolids to the ultimate disposal site is greatly
Thermal treatment (or wet air oxidation) subjects sludge to reduced when biosolids volume is reduced; (2) dewatered
high temperature and pressure in a closed reactor vessel. The biosolids allow for easier handling; (3) dewatering biosol-
high temperature and pressure rupture the cell walls of any ids (reduction in moisture content) allows for more efficient
microorganisms present in the solids and cause chemical incineration; (4) if composting is the beneficial reuse choice,
oxidation of the organic matter. This process substantially dewatered biosolids decrease the amount and therefore the
improves dewatering and reduces the volume of material for cost of bulking agents; (5) with the USEPA’s new 503 rule,
dewatering biosolids may be required to render the biosolids Water contained in the biosolids particle exists in four
less offensive; and (6) when landfilling is the ultimate dis- phases: free water, colloidal water, intercellular water, and
posal option, dewatering biosolids is required to reduce leach- capillary water (Outwater, 1994). According to Vesilind
ate production. (1996), free, or bulk, water is not associated with and not
Again, the point being made here is that the importance influenced by suspended solids; it can be easily separated and
of adequately dewatering biosolids for proper disposal/reuse removed from biosolids by gravity. To remove colloidal and
can’t be overstated. capillary water, biosolids must be chemically conditioned first
The unit processes that are most often used for dewatering and then mechanical methods, such as centrifugation or belt
biosolids are: (1) vacuum filtration, (2) pressure filtration, (3) presses, are used to remove the water. Intercellular water is
centrifugation, and (4) drying beds. Solids content achievable much more difficult to remove. For intercellular water to be
by various dewatering techniques is shown in Table 16.20. separated from the biosolids particle, the cell structure must
The biosolids cake produced by common dewatering pro- first be broken. This is usually accomplished by thermal
cesses has a consistency similar to dry, crumbly, bread pud- treatment. Basically, thermal treatment is accomplished with
ding (Spellman, 1996). This non-fluid dewatered dry, crumbly either direct or indirect drying.
cake product is easily handled, non-offensive, and can be land As related earlier, the degree to which biosolids may be
applied manually and by conventional agricultural spreaders dewatered depends on several factors. For example, factors
(Outwater, 1994). such as the source of biosolids and its prior treatment can
Dewatering processes are usually divided into natural air change biosolids characteristics prior to dewatering and thus
drying and mechanical methods. Natural dewatering meth- change its ability to be dewatered. The USEPA in its Process
ods include those methods in which moisture is removed by Design Manual for Dewatering Municipal Wastewater
evaporation and gravity or induced drainage such as sand Sludges, (1982) lists several characteristics that can be used
beds, biosolids lagoons, paved beds, Phragmites reed beds, to define the ability of biosolids to be dewatered. It should be
vacuum-assisted beds, Wedgewater beds, and dewatering via mentioned, however, that due to the sophisticated equipment
freezing. These natural dewatering methods are less control- and specialized training required, some of these character-
lable than mechanical dewatering methods but are typically istics are difficult to measure in most wastewater treatment
less expensive. Moreover, these natural dewatering methods plants, while others are readily measured with standard
require less power because they rely on solar energy, gravity, equipment available at most plants.
and biological processes as the source of energy for dewater-
ing. Mechanical dewatering processes include pressure filters, Characteristics Affecting Dewatering
vacuum filters, belt filters, and centrifuges. The aforemen- It is important to note that the characteristics listed and
tioned air drying and mechanical dewatering processes will described in the following sections relate to the difficulty in
be discussed in greater detail later in this text. forcing biosolids particles (solids) closer together, or to the
difficulty of forcing water through the voids between the bio-
Biosolids Characteristics Affecting Dewatering solids particles. Keep in mind that in order to facilitate the
Vesilind (1996) makes the following point: “Sludge [biosol- dewatering process, biosolids are usually conditioned first, by
ids] is composed of diverse solid particles suspended in an a variety of means. These biosolids conditioning processes
impure water continuum. Attempts to characterize sludge basically involve the treatment of biosolids with various
[biosolids] ‘particles’ have been hampered by the fact that chemicals, thermal treatment processes, or through blending
they are dynamic—dispersing and reforming, depending on processes. The USEPA (1982) lists the biosolids characteris-
biological, chemical, and physical conditions” (p.43). Now tics which most significantly affect dewatering as follows:
that Vesilind’s characterization of biosolids particles has been
given its proper emphasis as one of the main factors affecting • pH
dewatering, it is the water portion of biosolids that is to begin • volatile solids to fixed solids ratio
the following discussion of biosolids characteristics to be fol- • septicity
lowed by the other factors that affect dewatering. • temperature
• compressibility
• particle size
TABLE 16.20
• surface charge and hydration
Solids Content of Dewatered Biosolids
Dewatering Method Approximate Solids Content, % These characteristics and their interrelationships are dis-
Lagoons/Ponds 30 cussed in the following sections.
Drying Beds 40
Filter Press 35–45 pH—pH affects the surface charge on biosolids par-
Vacuum Filtration 25 ticles. This characteristic is important because it
Standard Centrifuge 20–25 determines the type of polymer to be used for condi-
High G/High Solids Centrifuge 25–40 tioning. As a general rule of thumb, if the biosolids
is conditioned with lime and has a high pH, anionic
(having a negative charge) polymers are recom- underdrains and 8–12 in. of filter grade sand), drying beds
mended for use. On the other hand, if the pH level is include an inlet pipe, splash pad containment walls and a sys-
slightly above or below neutral then cationic (having tem to return filtrate (water) for treatment. In some cases the
a positive charge) polymers are recommended. sand beds are covered to provide drying solids protection from
Volatile Solids to Fixed Solids Ratio—As the percent- the elements. In operation, solids are pumped to the sand bed
age of fixed solids increases, assuming other factors and allowed to dry by first draining off excess water through
are equal, biosolids are easier to dewater. the sand and then by evaporation. This is the simplest and
Septicity—When biosolids go septic, dewatering cheapest method for dewatering sludge. Moreover, no special
becomes more difficult and requires the use of more training or expertise is required. However, there is a down-
chemicals. side; namely, drying beds require a great deal of manpower to
Temperature—The temperature of biosolids is indi- clean beds; they can create odor and insect problems; and they
rectly related to the viscosity of the water present in can cause sludge buildup during inclement weather.
the biosolids mass. That is, as biosolids temperature According to Metcalf & Eddy (1991), four types of dry-
increases, the viscosity of the water in the biosolids ing are commonly used in dewatering biosolids: (1) sand,
decreases. In centrifugation, in particular, viscosity (2) paved, (3) artificial media, and (4) vacuum-assisted. In
is very important. This is the case because the ter- addition to these commonly used dewatering methods, a few
minal settling velocity during centrifugal accelera- of the innovative methods of natural dewatering will also
tion varies according to an inverse linear relationship be discussed in this section. The innovative natural dewa-
with the viscosity of the water. More will be said on tering methods to be discussed include experimental work
this subject later. on biosolids dewatering via freezing. Moreover, dewater-
Compressibility—Biosolids particles are compressible. ing biosolids with aquatic plants, which has been tested and
This characteristic tends to deform and reduce the installed in several sites throughout the United States, is also
void space between particles. When this void space discussed.
deformation and reduction occurs, movement of Drying beds are generally used for dewatering well-
water is inhibited which, in turn, reduces the rate of digested biosolids. Attempting to air dry raw biosolids is gen-
dewaterability. erally unsuccessful and may result in odor and vector control
Particle Size—The most important factor influencing problems. Biosolids drying beds consist of a perforated or
the dewaterability of biosolids is particle size. The open joint drainage system in a support media, usually gravel,
surface area for a given biosolids mass increases as covered with a filter media, usually sand but can consist of
the average particle size decreases. The effects of extruded plastic or wire mesh. Drying beds are usually sepa-
increasing the surface area include: rated into workable sections by wood, concrete, or other mate-
• Increased frictional resistance to the movement rials. Drying beds may be enclosed or open to the weather.
of water. They may rely entirely on natural drainage and evaporation
• Increased attraction of water to the particle sur- processes or may use a vacuum to assist the operation (both
face due to more adsorption sites. types are discussed in the following sections).
• Greater electrical repulsion between biosol-
ids particles due to a larger area of negatively Traditional Sand Drying Beds
charged surface. This is the oldest biosolids dewatering technique and consists
Particle size is directly influenced by prior of 6 to 12 in. of coarse sand underlain by layers of graded
treatment and the biosolids source. gravel ranging from 1/8 to 1/4 in. at the top and 3/4 to 1–1/2
Particle Surface Charge and Hydration—Biosolids in. at the bottom. The total gravel thickness is typically about
particles have a negative surface charge and repel 1 ft. Graded natural earth (4–6 in.) usually makes up the bot-
each other as they are forced together (remember tom with a web of drain tile placed on 20- to 30-ft centers.
the rule: like charges repel—unlike charges attract). Sidewalls and partitions between bed sections are usually of
As the biosolids particles are forced more closely wooden planks or concrete and extend about 14 in. above the
together the repulsive force increases dramatically. sand surface (McGhee, 1991).
Water molecules are attracted to the surface of the Large open areas of land are required for sand drying bio-
biosolids particles, making dewatering more diffi- solids. For example, it is not unusual to have drying beds that
cult. Along with the particle surface charge, water are up to 125+ ft long and from 20 to 35 ft in width. Even at
of hydration must be considered. Water of hydration the smallest wastewater treatment plants it is normal practice
is chemically bound to the solids and is difficult to to provide at least two drying beds.
remove; great expenditures of thermal energy are The actual dewatering process occurs as a result of two
required to remove them. different physical processes: evaporation and drainage. The
liquor which drains off the biosolids goes to a central sump
Sand Drying Beds which pumps it back to the treatment process to undergo fur-
Sand beds have been used successfully for years to dewater ther treatment. The operation is very much affected by cli-
sludge. Composed of a sand bed (consisting of a gravel base, mate. In wet climates it may be necessary to cover the beds
with a translucent material that will allow at least 85% of the For the 21-day cycle, calculate pounds dried each
sun’s ultraviolet radiation to pass through. day.
Typical loading rates for primary biosolids in dry climates
ranges up to 200 kg/(square meter × year) and from 60 to 125 3, 992.5 lb
= 190.1 lb/d
kg/(square meter × year) for mixtures of primary and waste 21 d
activated biosolids.
When a drying bed is put into operation, it is generally For an entire year, calculate total pounds generated.
filled with digested biosolids to a depth ranging from 8 to 12
in. The actual drying time is climate-sensitive; that is, dry- 190.1 lb 365 d
- = 69, 386.5 lb/yr
ing can take from a few weeks to a few months, depending 1d 1 yr
on the climate and the season. After dewatering, the biosol-
ids solids content will range from about 20 to 35% and, more Determine what this is for each square foot of bed
importantly the volume will have been reduced up to 85%. space.
Upon completion of the drying process, the dried biosol-
ids is generally removed from the bed with handheld forks 69, 386.5 lb 1
´
or front-end loaders. It is important to note that in the dried 1 yr (40 ft ´ 32 ft )
biosolids removal process a small amount of sand is lost and
the bed must be refilled and graded periodically. Dried solids = 54.2 lb/yr/square ft
removed from a biosolids drying bed can be either incinerated The treatment plant model used in this example is
or land-filled (Haller, 1995). equipped with biosolids drying beds for the drying of
digested biosolids withdrawn from the digesters. When
Drying Bed Operational Capacity
it is necessary to waste some of the digested biosolids
One of the primary considerations that must be taken into to these beds, it is necessary to open the valves from
account when designing a biosolids drying bed is the deter- discharge to the particular bed that is to be used. The
mination of how many pounds of solids can be dried for every digested biosolids will be forced from the digester
square foot of drying bed each year. In order to make this through the 4-in. biosolids draw off line by gravity.
determination for the biosolids drying bed model described Before the digested biosolids is distributed to a bio-
here it is necessary to list certain parameters that will be solids drying bed, it is necessary to have the sand bed
needed to calculate the result. prepared for the best drying results. This preparation of
The following example lists these vital parameters and the bed should include the following:
shows the calculation that is necessary to determine the answer.
1. Remove all old biosolids as soon as convenient
after it has dewatered sufficiently. Well-dewatered
SIDEBAR 16.3 Model Sand Drying Bed biosolids has a cracked, spongy appearance when
squeezed and can be readily forked. Its moisture
In this particular case the biosolids drying bed is 40 ft content should be no more than about 70%.
long and 32 ft wide. The treated biosolids typically has 2. Digested or undigested biosolids should never be
a total solids concentration of 5% and fills the bed to a added to a bed already covered with biosolids.
depth of 1 ft. If it takes an average of 20 days for the 3. Remove off all weeds and other vegetation which
biosolids to dry and 1 day to remove the dried solids, might be present. Herbicides or other types of
the number of pounds of solids that can be dried for weed killers may be used if growths are exten-
every square foot of drying bed area each year can be sive. Hand-weeding is also satisfactory.
determined by performing the following calculation: 4. The sand bed should be leveled and scari-
Calculation: fied by rakes, spikes, or a spring-tooth harrow.
First, calculate the gallons of biosolids added to the Re-leveling after scarification is recommended
drying bed. just prior to adding the digested biosolids. This
will reduce surface compaction of the sand and
7.48 gal thereby improve its filtering ability. If and when
40 ft ´ 32 ft ´ 1 ft ´ = 9574.4 gal
1 cubic ft necessary, clean, coarse sand should be added
to maintain approximately the same depth at all
Next, calculate the pounds of solids added to the dry- times.
ing bed.
After the biosolids drying bed has been properly
5% 8.34 lb prepared, the digested biosolids from the digester can
9, 574.4 gal ´ ´ = 3, 992.5 lb
100% 1 gal be applied. This procedure of withdrawal should be
started by opening the withdrawal valves wide open can either be hauled away to land disposal immediately
to the bed to be used. This valve should be left wide or stockpiled for a year or two prior to land disposal.
open for only a short period to allow the biosolids pipe- The advantage of stockpiling is that the biosolids will
line from the digester to the bed to be cleared of any be more easily pulverized and therefore better for dis-
grit or compacted material. Well-compacted material, posal on agricultural lands.
including grit, at the inlet end of the line may make rod-
ding or back-flushing necessary. As soon as full flow is
established, the valve should be closed just enough to
maintain a constant flow. This valve adjustment should Paved Drying Beds
prevent the lighter, watery biosolids from coming to the The main reason for using paved drying beds is that they alle-
withdrawal pipe inlet. In addition, it will prevent scour- viate the problem of mechanical biosolids removal equipment
ing of the bed surface. damaging the underlain piping networks. The beds are paved
Biosolids should be deposited on the bed to a depth with concrete or asphalt and are generally sloped toward the
not greater than 8–10 in.; however, experience will center where a sump-like area with underlain pipes is arranged.
usually establish the most effective depth of biosolids These dewatering beds, like biosolids lagoons, depend on
application consistent with the biosolids characteristics evaporation for dewatering of the applied solids. Paved drying
and local weather conditions. Normally with good dry- beds are usually rectangular in shape with a center drainage
ing conditions, a well-digested biosolids at this depth strip. They can be heated via buried pipes in the paved section
should dewater sufficiently to be ready for removal in and generally are covered to prevent rain incursion.
from one to two weeks. If the biosolids is very high in In this type of natural dewatering, solids contents of
solids, it may require up to three weeks or longer unless 45–50% can be achieved within 35 days in dry climates under
the biosolids is deposited at a lesser depth. normal conditions (McGhee, 1991). The operation of paved
Another operating feature that is necessary to con- drying beds involves applying the biosolids to a depth of
trol when withdrawing biosolids from the digester is about 12 in. The settled surface area is routinely mixed by
the mixing of the digester contents. It will be neces- a special vehicle mounted machine which is driven through
sary usually to discontinue mixing prior to withdrawal. the bed. Mixing is important because it breaks up the crust
The length of time should not be too long or too short and exposes wet surfaces to the environment. Supernatant is
before withdrawal. The best time will be determined decanted in a manner similar to biosolids lagoons. Biosolids
from experience. loadings in relatively dry climates range from about 120 to
After the biosolids has been applied to the drying 260 kg/(square m/year). High capital cost and larger land
bed surface, the best time for removal depends on: requirements than for sand beds are the two major disadvan-
tages of paved drying beds.
1. Suitability of the subsequent disposal method. In attempting to determine the bottom area dimensions of
2. The need to remove the next batch of biosolids a paved drying bed, Metcalf & Eddy (1991) recommend com-
from the digesters. putation by trial using the following equation:
3. The moisture content of the biosolids on the beds.
1.04 S éë(1 - Sd ) /Sd - (1 - Se ) /Se ùû + (62.4)(P )(A)
Biosolids cake can be removed from the beds A=
(62.4)(Ke)(Ep)
by shovel or fork at a moisture content of 60–70%.
However, if it is allowed to dry until the moisture con- where
tent is reduced to about 40%, it will weigh only about a A = bottom area of paved bed, sq ft
half to two-thirds as much and will handle better. S = annual biosolids production, dry solids, lb
When the decision has been made to remove the Sd = percent dry solids in the biosolids after decanting, as
dried biosolids, the best method should be used to a decimal
reduce manual labor requirements. When it is neces- Se = percent dry solids required from final disposal, as a
sary to employ manual labor for removal, one of the decimal
best tools to use is a shovel-like fork having several tines P = annual precipitation, ft
an inch or so apart, such as an ensilage, coal, or stone Ke = reduction factor for evaporation from biosolids ver-
fork. With a fork, biosolids can be removed with much sus a free water surface. Use 0.6 for a preliminary
less loss of sand than with a shovel. Nevertheless, some estimate; pilot test to determine factor for final
sand will cling to the bottom of the biosolids cake, and design
eventually this sand will have to be replaced as men- Ep = free water pan evaporation rate for the area, ft/yr
tioned previously.
After the operator forks or shovels the dried cake into Although the construction and operation methodologies for
a wheelbarrow and hauls the biosolids from the bed, it biosolids drying beds are well-known and widely accepted, this
is not to say that the wastewater industry has not attempted to polyurethane 12-in. square tiles that are formed for installa-
incorporate further advances into their construction and operation on a prefabricated sloped bed. Each polyurethane panel
tion. For example, in an attempt to reduce the amount of dewa- creates a capillary action that drains the water quickly.
tered biosolids that must be manually removed from drying beds, The Wedgewater system, when compared to conventional
attempts have been made to construct drying beds in a specific drying beds, has several advantages. For example, with a
manner whereby they can be planted with reeds; namely, the loading capacity of about 2 lbs dry solids per square foot, the
Phragmites communis variety (to be covered in greater detail Wedgewater method exceeds the capacity of sand drying beds
later). The intent of augmenting the biosolids drying bed with by a 2 to 1 margin. Moreover, under favorable conditions, the
reeds is to effect further desiccation. Moreover, tests have shown biosolids content reaches approximately 18% in about three
that the plants extend their root systems into the biosolids mass. days, as compared to more than three weeks on a sand dry-
This extended root system has the added benefit of helping to ing bed (Outwater, 1994). In addition, it is interesting to note
establish a rich microflora which eventually feeds upon the that Wedgewater beds require less surface area (about 1/16
organic content of the biosolids. It is interesting to note that nor- as much) than do conventional sand drying beds. Metcalf
mal plant activity works to keep the system aerobic. & Eddy (1991) cite additional advantages for this method of
dewatering. For example, these units can be easily cleaned
Artificial Media Drying Beds and their filtrate normally contains low suspended solids.
The first artificial media drying beds, developed in England in In order to receive optimum operation from Wedgewater
1970, used a stainless steel medium called Wedgewire. Later, beds, it is important to initially flood the bed to a level just
as the technology advanced, the stainless steel fine wire screen above the polyurethane media surface. Then the chemically
mesh (Wedgewire) was replaced with a high-density polyure- conditioned biosolids are applied. In the initial stages of the
thane medium (Wedgewater). The polyurethane is less expensive operation, the operator carefully controls the drainage rate.
than the stainless steel medium but has a shorter life expectancy. The purpose of this initial operating step is to ensure the
Wedgewire beds are similar in concept to vacuum-assisted establishment of a hydraulic continuum from the top of the
drying beds (to be described later). The medium used in biosolids bed to the bottom of the bed. Providing such a satu-
Wedgewire beds consists of a septum with wedge-shaped slots rated profile will quicken water flow through it more so than
about 0.01 in. wide. Initially, the bed is filled with water to a when biosolids is applied to an unsaturated (dry) surface.
level above the wire screen. Chemically conditioned biosolids
is then added and, after a brief holding period, is allowed to Vacuum-Assisted Drying Beds
drain through the screen and since excess water cannot return For small plants which process small quantities of biosolids
to the biosolids through capillary action, the biosolids dewa- and have limited land area, vacuum-assisted drying beds may
ters faster with this process (McGhee, 1991). be the preferred method of dewatering biosolids. Vacuum-
assisted drying beds normally employ the use of a small
Advantages: vacuum to accelerate the dewatering of biosolids applied to
(1) Clogging is reduced. a porous medium plate. This porous medium is set above
(2) Drainage is constant and rapid. an aggregate-filled support underdrain which, as the name
(3) Throughput is greater than sand beds. implies, drains to a sump. The small vacuum is applied to this
(4) This type of drying bed is relatively easy to underdrain, which works to extract free water from the bio-
maintain. solids; with biosolids loadings on the order of less than 10 kg/
Disadvantages: sq m per cycle, the time required to dewater conditioned bio-
(1) The principal disadvantage is in capital costs, solids is about one day (McGhee, 1991). Using this method of
which are higher than sand or paved drying beds. dewatering it is possible to achieve a solids content of >30%,
This difference in cost can be seen in the exam- although 20% solids is a more normal expectation.
ple given by Wilmut et al. (1990); they estimate Removal of dewatered biosolids is usually accomplished
the total cost (includes construction, engineer- with mechanized machinery such as front-end loaders. Once
ing, and O&M costs) of a sand drying system the solids have been removed it is important to wash the sur-
for a 3.8-MGD POTW to be about $850,000 as face of the bed with high-pressure hoses to ensure residuals
compared to a total cost of about $910,000 for a are removed. The main advantage cited for this dewatering
Wedgewater system. method is the reduced amount of time that is needed for dewa-
tering, which reduces the effects of inclement climatic condi-
The Wedgewater method normally can dewater between 0.5 tions on biosolids drying. The main disadvantage of this type
and 1.0 lb/sq ft of dry matter per charge with the loading rate of dewatering may be its dependence on adequate chemical
depending on the initial solids concentration of the waste bio- conditioning for successful operation (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991).
solids applied. Another disadvantage of this method is that
biosolids to be removed is still relatively wet (about 10% dry Natural Methods of Dewatering Biosolids
solids) which may create disposal problems. Two of the innovative methods of natural biosolids dewater-
Wedgewater beds work on the same principle as the sand ing are discussed in this section: (1) dewatering via freezing
drying bed but, instead of sand, uses interlocked high-density and (2) dewatering using aquatic plants.
Note: Dewatering via freezing is primarily in the pilot In the reed bed operation, biosolids is spread on the surface
study stage. Experimental work in this area has led to pilot of the bed via troughs or gravity-fed pipes. When the bed is
plants and has yielded various mathematical models, but no filled to capacity, about 4 in. of standing liquid will remain on
full-scale operations (Outwater, 1994). the surface until it evaporates or drains down through the bed,
where tile drains return it to the treatment process.
Freeze-Assisted Drying Beds—In freeze-assisted drying, In an aquatic reed bed, the reeds perform the important
low winter temperatures accelerate the dewatering process. function of developing (as described earlier), near the root
Freezing biosolids works to separate the water from the sol- zone, a rich microflora which feeds on the organic material
ids. The free water drains quickly when the granular mass in biosolids. Phragmites reeds are particularly suitable for
is thawed (BioCycle, 1986). It is not unusual to attain a sol- this application because they are resistant to biosolids con-
ids concentration greater than 25% when the mass thaws and taminants. Although the roots penetrate into the finer gravel
drains. and sand, they do not penetrate through lower areas where
According to the USEPA (1987), determining the feasibil- the larger stones or fragments are located. This is important
ity of freezing biosolids in a particular area is dependent on because root penetration to the lower bed levels could inter-
the depth of frost penetration. The maximum depth of frost fere with free drainage.
penetration for an area can be found in published sources or Another advantage of using Phragmites reeds in
local records. the aquatic plant drying bed is their growing pattern.
In attempting to calculate the depth of frost penetration it Phragmites roots grow and extend themselves through
may be helpful to use the following equation for 3-in. (75-mm) rhizomes (Rhizomes defined: an underground horizontal
layers (McGhee, 1991): stem, often thickened and tuber-shaped, and possessing
bud, nodes, and scale-like leaves). From each rhizome,
Y = 1.76 Fp - 101 several plants branch off and grow vertically through
the biosolids (Riggle, 1991). This vertical growth aids in
where dewatering by providing channels through which the water
Y = total depth of biosolids, cm drains. The reeds also absorb some of this water which is
Fp = the maximum depth of frost penetration, cm then given off to the atmosphere through evapotranspi-
ration. According to Riggle (1991), the biosolids will be
In this example the biosolids is applied in 75-mm layers. reduced to about 97% solids. Along with desiccating the
As soon as the first layer is frozen, another layer is applied. biosolids deposits, the reeds work to cause extensive min-
The goal is to fill the bed with biosolids by the end of winter. eralization (BioCycle, 1984).
It must be pointed out that in using this layered method of Phragmites reed beds are operated year-round. In the fall
freeze-dewatering biosolids it is important to ensure that each the reeds are harvested, leaving their root systems intact. The
layer is frozen before the next is applied. Moreover, any snow harvested reeds, depending on contaminant concentrations,
or debris which falls should be removed from the surface, can be incinerated, land-filled, or composted.
if not it will serve to insulate the biosolids. Outwater (1994) It takes about eight years to fill an average reed bed to
points out that “to ensure successful performance at all times, capacity. When this occurs, it must be taken out of service and
the design should be based on the warmest winter in the past allowed to stand fallow for six months to a year. This fallow
20 years and on a layer thickness which will freeze in a rea- period allows for the stabilization of the top surface layer. The
sonable amount of time if freeze-thaw cycles occur during the resulting biosolids product is dry and crumbles in the hands
winter” (p. 86). Another rule of thumb to use in making a (it is friable). If contamination levels are within acceptable
determination of whether or not biosolids freezing is a viable limits as per EPA’s 503 Rule, the dewatered biosolids product
dewatering option is that biosolids freezing is unlikely to be can be land-applied.
a practical concept unless more than 100 cm frost penetration Operation of a Phragmites reed bed has limitations. For
is assured. example, in order to ensure a successful dewatering opera-
tion it is prudent to hire the services of an agronomist who
Dewatering Using Aquatic Plants—Using aquatic plants to is familiar with plant growth, care, and control of plant pests
dewater biosolids was developed in Germany in the 1960s. such as aphids. Moreover, this dewatering system is designed
In this first project, reed beds were constructed in submerged for those regions that are subject to four distinct seasons,
wetlands. To date, although considered to be an innovative i.e., northern exposures. This is the case because Phragmites
dewatering technology without specific design criteria, there requires a dormancy, wintering-over, period for proper root
are several hundred systems operating in Europe, the United growth. Additionally, reed beds are not suitable for large scale
States, and Australia (Riggle, 1991). In the reed bed system, operations for operational reasons and also may be cost pro-
a typical sand drying bed for biosolids is modified. Instead hibitive due to the cost of land.
of removing the dewatered biosolids from the beds after each The jury is still out on how effective reed bed dewatering
application, Phragmites communis (reeds) are planted in the systems are. This is the case because the technology is rela-
sand. For the next several years (5–10 years), biosolids are tively new and none of the beds has been emptied yet; thus, it
added and then the beds are emptied. is difficult to predict the quality of the end-product.
Stabilization Performance Factors – Allow bed to dry to minimum acceptable %

In sludge drying beds, various factors affect the length of time solids and remove.
required to achieve the desired solids concentrations. The – Use described procedure below to determine
major factors and their impact on drying bed performance appropriate sludge depth.
include the following: (1) Clean bed and apply smaller depth of sludge (i.e.,
6–8 in.).
• Climate—Drying beds in cold or moist climates will (2) Measure the decrease in depth (draw down) at
require significantly longer drying time to achieve an the end of 3 days of drying.
adequate level of percent solids concentrations in the (3) Use a sludge depth equal to twice the three-day
dewatered sludge. drawdown depth for future applications.
• Depth of applied sludge—The depth of the sludge drawn – After sludge has dried, remove sludge and
onto the bed has a major impact on the required drying 0.5–1.0 in. of sand. Add clean sand.
time. Deeper sludge layers require longer drying times. – Allow sludge to dry to minimum allowable
Under ideal conditions, a well-digested sludge drawn percent solids and remove.
to a depth of approximately 8in. will require approxi- – Use external water source (with backflow
mately three weeks to reach the desired 40–60% solids. prevention) to slowly flush underdrains.
• Type of sludge applied—The quality and solids con- – Repair/replace underdrains as required.
centration of the drying media will affect the time – Prevent damage to underdrains by draining
requirements. during freezing weather.
• Bed cover—Covered-drying beds prevent re-wetting – Use polymer to increase bed performance.
of the sludge during storm events. In most cases, this – Cover or enclose the beds.
reduces the average drying time required to reach
the desired solids levels. 2. Influent Sludge is Very Thin
Causal Factor:
Operational Observations, Problems, – “Coning” is occurring in the digester.
and Troubleshooting Procedures Corrective Action:
– Reduce rate of sludge withdrawal.
Although drying beds involve two natural processes—drain-
age and evaporation—that normally work well enough on
3. Sludge Feed Lines Plug Frequently
their own, a certain amount of preparation and operator
Causal Factor:
attention is still required to maintain optimum drying per-
– Solids and/or grit are accumulating in the
formance. For example, in the preparation stage, all debris is
time.
removed from the raked and leveled media surface. Then, all
Corrective Actions:
openings to the bed are sealed. After the bed is properly, the
– Open lines fully at the start of each with-
sludge lines are opened, and sludge is allowed to flow slowly
drawal cycle.
onto the media. The bed is filled to the desired operating level
– Flush lines at the end of each withdrawal
(8–12 in.). The sludge line is closed and flushed, and the bed
cycle.
drain is opened. Water begins to drain. The sludge remains
on the media until the desired percent of solids (40–60%) is
4. Flies Breeding in the Drying Sludge
achieved. Later, the sludge is removed. In most operations,
Causal Factors:
manual removal is required to prevent damage to the underd-
– Inadequately digested sludge
rain system. The sludge is disposed of in an approved landfill
• Natural insect reproduction
or by land application as a soil conditioner.
Corrective Actions:
– Break sludge crust, and apply a larvicide
Operational Problems (borax).
In the operation of a sludge drying bed, the operator observes – Use insecticide (if approved) to remove adult
the operations and looks for various indicators of operational insects.
problems and makes process adjustments as required. – Remove sludge as soon as possible.
1. Sludge Takes a Long Time to Dewater 5. Objectionable Odors when Sludge is applied
Causal Factors: to Bed
– Applied sludge is too deep. Causal Factor:
– Sludge was applied to a dirty bed. – Raw or partially digested sludge is being
– The drain system is plugged or broken. applied to the bed.
– Insufficient design capacity. Corrective Actions:
• Inclement weather/poor drying conditions. – Add lime to the sludge to control odors and
Corrective Actions (where applicable): potential insect and rodent problems.
– Remove the sludge as quickly as possible. Filter Drum

– Identify and correct the digester problem. The filter drum is a maze of pipe work running from a metal
screen and wooden skeleton and connecting to a rotating
Rotary Vacuum Filtration valve port at each end of the drum. The drum is equipped
with a variable speed drive to turn the drum from 1/8 to 1
Rotary vacuum filters have also been used for many years to rpm. Normally, solids pickup is indirectly related to the drum
dewater sludge. The vacuum filter includes filter media (belt, speed. The drum is partially submerged in a vat containing
cloth, or metal coils), media support (drum), vacuum system, the conditioned sludge. Normally, submergence is limited to
chemical feed equipment and conveyor belt(s) to transport the 1/5 or less of filter surface at a time.
dewatered solids. In operation, chemically treated solids are
pumped to a vat or tank in which a rotating drum is submerged. Chemical Conditioning
As the drum rotates, a vacuum is applied to the drum. Solids Sludge dewatered using vacuum filtration is normally chemi-
collect on the media and are held there by the vacuum as the cally conditioned just prior to filtration. Sludge condition-
drum rotates out of the tank. The vacuum removes additional ing increases the percentage of solids captured by the filter
water from the captured solids. When solids reach the dis- and improves the dewatering characteristics of the sludge.
charge zone, the vacuum is released and the dewatered solids However, conditional sludge must be filtered as quickly as
are discharged onto a conveyor belt for disposal. The media is possible after chemical addition to obtain these desirable
then washed prior to returning to the start of the cycle. results.
Types of Rotary Vacuum Filters Operational Observation, Problems,
The three principal types of rotary vacuum filters are rotary and Troubleshooting Procedures
drum, coil, and belt. The rotary drum filter consists of a cylin- In operation, the rotating drum picks up chemically treated
drical drum rotating partially submerged in a vat or pan of sludge. A vacuum is applied to the inside of the drum to draw
conditioned sludge. The drum is divided length-wise into a the sludge onto the outside of the drum cover. This porous out-
number of sections that are connected through internal piping side cover or filter medium allows the filtrate or liquid to pass
to ports in the valve body (plant) at the hub. This plate rotates through into the drum and the filter cake (dewatered sludge)
in contact with a fixed valve plate with similar parts, which to stay on the medium. In the cake release/discharge mode,
are connected to a vacuum supply, a compressed air supply, slight air pressure is applied to the drum interior. Dewatered
and an atmospheric vent. As the drum rotates, each section is solids are lifted from medium and scraped off by a scraper
thus connected to the appropriate service. blade. Solids drop onto a conveyor for transport for further
The coil type vacuum filter uses two layers of stainless steel treatment or disposal. The filtrate water is returned to the
coils arranged in corduroy fashion around the drum. After a plant for treatment. While in operation, the operator observes
dewatering cycle, the two layers of springs leave the drum bed drum speed, sludge pickup, filter cake thickness/appearance,
and are separated from each other so that the cake is lifted off chemical feed rates, sludge depth in the vat, and overall equip-
the lower layer and is discharged from the upper layer. The ment operation. Sampling and testing are routinely performed
coils are then washed and reapplied to the drum. The coil on influent sludge solids concentration, filtrate BOD and sol-
filter is used successfully for all types of sludges; however, ids, and sludge cake solids concentration. We cover the indi-
sludges with extremely fine particles or ones that are resistant cators/observations of vacuum filter operational problems and
to flocculation dewater poorly with this system. causal factors, along with recommended corrective actions in
The media on a belt filter leaves the drum surface at the the following sections.
end of the drying zone and passes over a small diameter
discharge roll to aid cake discharge. Washing of the media 1. High Solids in Filtrate
occurs next. Then the media are returned to the drum and to Causal Factors:
the vat for another cycle. This type of filter normally has a – Improper coagulant dosage
small-diameter curved bar between the point where the belt • Filter media binding
leaves the drum and the discharge roll. This bar primarily Corrective Actions (where applicable):
aids in maintaining belt dimensional stability. – Adjust coagulant dosage.
– Recalibrate coagulant feeder.
Filter Media
– Clean synthetic cloth with steam and
Drum and belt vacuum filters use natural or synthetic fiber mate- detergent.
rials. On the drum filter, the cloth is stretched and secured to the – Clean steel coil with acid bath.
surface of the drum. In the belt filter, the cloth is stretched over – Clean cloth with water or replace cloth.
the drum and through the pulley system. The installation of a
blanket requires several days. The cloth will (with proper care) 2. Thin Filter Cake and poor Dewatering
last several hundred to several thousand hours. The life of the Causal Factors:
blanket depends on the cloth selected, the conditioning chemi- – Filter media binding
cal, backwash frequency, and cleaning (i.e., acid bath) frequency. – Improper chemical dosage
– Inadequate vacuum Corrective Actions:

– Drum speed too high – Change coagulant dosage.
• Drum submergence too low – Reduce feed rate.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – Increase drum speed.
– Clean synthetic cloth with steam and – Turn on or clean pump.
detergent. – Clean drain line.
– Clean steel cloth with acid bath. – Replace seal strips.
– Clean cloth with water or replace cloth.
– Adjust coagulant dosage. 7. Low Vat Level
– Recalibrate coagulant feeder. Causal Factors:
– Repair vacuum system. – Feed rate is too low.
– Reduce drum speed. • Vat drain valve is open.
– Increase drum submergence. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Increase feed rate.
3. Vacuum Pump Stops – Close vat drain valve.
Causal Factors:
– Power to drive motor is off. 8. Vacuum Pump Drawing High Amperage
– Lack of seal water. Causal Factors:
• Broken drive belt. – Filtrate pump is clogged.
Corrective Action (where applicable): – Improper chemical conditioning.
– Reset heater, breaker, etc.; restart – High vat level.
– Starts seal water flow • Cooling water flow to vacuum pump is too high.
– Replace drive belt Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Clear pump clog.
4. Drum Stops Rotating – Adjust coagulant dosage.
Causal Factor: – Decrease cooling water flow rate.
– Power to drive motor is off.
Corrective Action: 9. Scale Buildup on Vacuum Pump Seals
– Reset heater, breaker, etc.; restart Causal Factor:
– hard, unstable water
5. Receiver Vibrating Corrective Action:
Causal Factors: – Add sequestering agent.
– Filtrate pump is clogged.
– Loose bolts and gasket around inspection Process Control Calculations
plate. Filter Yield (lb/hr/ft2): Vacuum Filter
– Worn ball check valve in filtrate pump. Probably the most frequent calculation vacuum filter opera-
– Air leaks in suction line. tors have to make is for determining filter yield. Example
– Dirty drum face. 16.84 illustrates how this calculation is made.
• Seal strips are missing.
– Clear pump. Example 16.84
– Tighten bolts and gasket.
Problem: Thickened, thermally condition sludge is pumped
– Replace ball check.
to a vacuum filter at a rate of 50 gpm. The vacuum area of
– Seal leaks. the filter is 12 ft wide with a drum diameter of 9.8 ft. If the
– Clean face with pressure hose. sludge concentration is 12%, what is the filter yield in lb/
– Replace missing seal strips. hr/ft 2? Assume the sludge weighs 8.34 lb/gal.
6. High Vat Level SOLUTION:

Causal Factors:
– Improper chemical conditioning. First calculate the filter surface area.
– Feed Rate is too high.
– Drum speed is too slow. Area of a cylinder side
– Filtrate pump is off or clogged. = 3.14 ´ Diameter ´ Length
– Drain line plugged. = 3.14 ´ 9.8 ft ´ 12 ft = 369.3 ft 2
– Vacuum pump stopped.

• Seal strips are missing. Next calculate the pounds of solids per hour:
50 gpm 60 min 8.34 lb and maintenance. We include common operation problems,

= ´ causal factors, and recommended corrective actions for the
1min 1hr 1 gal
plate press and belt filter press in the following sections.
12%
= = 3, 002.4 lb/hr
100%
1. Plate Press: Plates Fail to Seal
Dividing the two:
Causal Factors:
– Poor alignment
3, 002.4 lb/hr
= 8.13 lb/hr/ft 2 • Inadequate shimming
369.3 ft 2
– Realign parts.
Pressure Filtration – Adjust shimming of stay bosses.
Pressure filtration differs from vacuum filtration in that the
2. Plate Press: Cake Discharge Difficult
liquid is forced through the filter media by a positive pressure
Causal Factors:
instead of a vacuum. Several types of presses are available,
– Inadequate precoat
but the most commonly used types are plate and frame presses
• Improper conditioning
and belt presses. Filter presses include the belt or plate-and-
frame types. The belt filter includes two or more porous belts,
– Increase precoat, feed at 25–40 psig.
rollers, and related handling systems for chemical makeup
– Change conditioner type or dosage (use filter
and feed, and supernatant and solids collection and transport.
leaf test to determine).
The plate-and-frame filter consists of a support frame, filter
plates covered with a porous material, a hydraulic or mechani-
cal mechanism for pressing plates together, and related han- 3. Plate Press: Filter Cycle Times Excessive
dling systems for chemical makeup and feed, and supernatant Causal Factors:
and solids collection and transport. In the plate-and-frame fil- – Improper conditioning
ter, solids are pumped (sandwiched) between plates. Pressure • Feed solids are low
(200–250 psi) is applied to the plates and water is “squeezed” Corrective Actions (where applicable):
from the solids. At the end of the cycle, the pressure is released – Change chemical dosage.
and as the plates separate the solids drop out onto a conveyor – Improve thickening operation.
belt for transport to storage or disposal. Performance factors
for plate and frame presses include feed sludge characteris- 4. Plate Press: Filter Cake Sticks to Conveyors
tics, type and amount of chemical conditioning, operating Causal Factor:
pressures, and the type and amount of precoat. – Improper conditioning chemical/dosage
The belt filter uses a coagulant (polymer) mixed with the Corrective Action:
influent solids. The chemically treated solids are discharged – Increase inorganic conditioner dose.
between two moving belts. First water drains from the solids
by gravity. Then, as the two belts move between a series of Plate Press: Precoat Pressures Gradually
5.
rollers, pressure “squeezes” additional water out of the solids. Increase
The solids are then discharged onto a conveyor belt for trans- Causal Factors:
port to storage/disposal. Performance factors for the belt press – Improper sludge conditioning
include sludge feed rate, belt speed, belt tension, belt perme- – Improper precoat feed
ability, chemical dosage, and chemical selection. – Filter media plugged
Filter presses have lower operation and maintenance costs • Calcium buildup in media
than vacuum filters or centrifuges. They typically produce a Corrective Actions (where applicable):
good quality cake and can be batch operated. However, con- – Change chemical dosage.
struction and installation costs are high. Moreover, chemi- – Decrease feed for a few cycles, then optimize.
cal addition is required and the presses must be operated by – Wash filter media.
skilled personnel. – Wash media with inhibited hydrochloric
acid.
Operational Observations, Problems,
and Troubleshooting 6. Plate Press: Frequent Media Binding
Most plate and filter press operations are partially/fully auto- Causal Factors:
mated. Operation consists of observation, maintenance, and – Inadequate precoat
sampling and testing. Operation of belt filter presses consists • Initial feed rate too high (no precoat)
of the preparation of conditioning chemicals, chemical feed Corrective Actions (where applicable):
rate adjustments, sludge feed rate adjustments, belt alignment, – Increase precoat.
belt speed and belt tension adjustments, sampling and testing, – Reduce feed rate/develop initial cake slowly.
7. Plate Press: Excessive Moisture in Cake 13. Belt Press: Excessive Belt Wear along Edges
Causal Factors: Causal Factors:
– Improper conditioning – Roller misalignment
• Filter cycle too short – Improper belt tension
Corrective Actions (where applicable): • Tension/alignment control system
– Change chemical dosage. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Lengthen filter cycle. – Correct roller alignment.
– Correct tension.
8. Plate Press: Sludge Blowing out of Press – Repair tracking and alignment system
Causal Factor: controls.
– Obstruction between plates
Corrective Action: 14. Belt Press: Belt Shifts or Seizes
– Shut down feed pump, hit press clo- Causal Factors:
sure drive, restarts feed pump, clean after – Uneven sludge distribution
cycle. • Inadequate/uneven belt washing
Corrective Actions:
9. Plate Press: Leaks around Lower Faces of Plates – Adjust feed for uniform sludge distribution.
Causal Factor: – Clean and adjust belt-washing sprays.
– Wet cake soiling media on lower faces
Corrective Action:
– See Item 7 above. Filter Press Process Control Calculations
As part of the operating routine for filter presses, operators are
10. Belt Press: Filter Cake Discharge is Difficult called upon to make certain process control calculations. The
Causal Factors: process control calculation most commonly used in operating
– Wrong conditioning chemical selected the belt filter press determines the hydraulic loading rate on
– Improper chemical dosage the unit. The most commonly used process control calculation
– Changing sludge characteristics used in the operation of plate and filter presses determines the
• Wrong application point pounds of solids pressed per hour. Both of these calculations
Corrective Actions (where applicable): are demonstrated below.
– Change conditioning chemical.
– Adjust chemical dosage. Hydraulic Loading Rate: Belt Filter Press
– Change chemical and/or sludge.
– Adjust application point.
Example 16.85
11. Belt Press: Sludge Leaking from Belt Edges Problem: A belt filter press receives a daily sludge flow of
Causal Factors: 0.30 gal. If the belt is 60 in. wide, what is the hydraulic
– Excessive belt tension loading rate on the unit in gallons per minute for each foot
– Belt speed too low of belt width (gpm/ft)?
• Excessive sludge feed rate
Corrective Actions (where applicable): SOLUTION:
– Reduce belt tension. 0.30 MG 1,000,000 gal 1d 208.3 gal
– Increase belt speed. ´ ´ =
1d 1 MG 1440 min 1min
– Reduce sludge feed rate.
1 ft
60 in. ´ = 5 ft
12. Belt Press: Excessive Moisture in Filter Cake 12 in.
Causal Factors:
– Improper belt speed/drainage time 208.3 gal
= 41.7 gpm/ft
– Wrong conditioning chemical 5 ft
– Improper chemical dosage
• Inadequate belt washing Pounds of Solids Pressed Per Hour
Wrong belt weave/material for Plate and Frame Press
– Adjust belt speed.
– Change conditioning chemical. Example 16.86
– Adjust chemical dosage.
– Clear spray nozzles/adjust sprays. Problem: A plate and frame filter press can process 850 gal
– Replace belt. of sludge during its 120-min operating cycle. If the sludge
concentration is 3.7%, and if the plate surface area is 140

ft 2, how many pounds of solids are pressed per hour for TABLE 16.21
each square foot of plate surface area? Expected Percent Solids for Centrifuge Dewatered
Sludges
SOLUTION: Type of Sludge % Solids
3.7% 8.34 lb Raw Sludge 25–35%
850 gal ´ ´ = 262.3 lb
100% 1 gal Anaerobic Digestion 15–30%
Activated Sludge 8–10%
Heat Treated 30–50%
262.3 lb 60 min
´ = 131.2 lb/hr
120 min 1hr
Centrifuge operation is dependent upon various perfor-

131.2 lb/hr
= 0.94 lb/hr/ft 2 mance factors.
140 ft 2
• Bowl design: length/diameter ratio; flow pattern

Centrifugation • Bowl speed
• Pool volume
Centrifuges of various types have been used in dewatering • Conveyor design
operations for at least 30 years and appear to be gaining in • Relative conveyor speed
popularity. Depending on the type of centrifuge used, in addi- • Type/condition of sludge
tion to centrifuge pumping equipment for solids feed and • Type and amount of chemical conditioning
centrate removal, chemical makeup and feed equipment, and • Operating pool depth
support systems for removal of dewatered solids are required. • Relative conveyor speed (if adjustable)
Operational Observations, Problems, Centrifuge operators often find that the operation of cen-
and Troubleshooting trifuges can be simple, clean, and effluent. In most cases,
Generally, in operation, the centrifuge spins at a very high chemical conditioning is required to achieve optimum con-
speed. The centrifugal force it creates “throws” the solids out centrations. Operators soon discover that centrifuges are
of the water. Chemically conditioned solids are pumped into noisemakers; units run at very high speed and produce high-
the centrifuge. The spinning action “throws” the solids to the level noise, which can cause loss of hearing with prolonged
outer wall of the centrifuge. The centrate (water) flows inside exposure. Therefore, when working in an area where a cen-
the unit to a discharge point. The solids held against the outer trifuge is in operation, special care must be taken to provide
wall are scraped to a discharge point by an internal scroll hearing protection.
moving slightly faster or slower than the centrifuge speed of Actual operation of a centrifugation unit requires the oper-
rotation. In the operation of the continuous feed, solids bowl, ator to control and adjust chemical feed rates; to observe unit
conveyor type centrifuge (this is the most common type cur- operation and performance; to control and monitor centrate
rently used), and other commonly used centrifuges, solid/liq- returned to treatment system; and to perform required main-
uid separation occurs as a result of rotating the liquid at high tenance as outlined in the manufacturer’s technical manual.
speeds to cause separation by gravity. The centrifuge operator must be trained to observe and
In the solid bowl type, the solid bowl has a rotating unit recognize (as with other unit processes) operational problems
with a bowl and a conveyor. The unit has a conical section at that may occur with centrifuge operation. We cover several
one end that acts as a drainage device. The conveyor screw typical indicators and/or observations of centrifuge problems,
pushes the sludge solids to outlet ports and the cake to a dis- along with causal factors and suggested corrective actions
charge hopper. The sludge slurry enters the rotating bowl (troubleshooting procedures) in the following sections.
through a feed pipe leading into the hollow shaft of the rotat-
ing screw conveyor. The sludge is distributed through ports 1. Poor Centrate Clarity
into a pool inside the rotating bowl. As the liquid sludge flows Causal Factors:
through the hollow shaft toward the overflow device, the fine – Feed rate too high
solids settle to the wall of the rotating bowl. The screw con- – Wrong plate dam position
veyor pushes the solids to the conical section, where the sol- – Worn conveyor flights
ids are forced out of the water and the water drains back in – Speed too high
the pool. – High feed sludge solids concentration
Expected percent solids for centrifuge dewatered sludge • Improper chemical conditioning
are in the range of 10–15%. The expected performance is Corrective Actions (where applicable):
depended on the type of sludge being dewatered, as shown in – Adjust sludge feed rate.
Table 16.21. – Increase pool depth.
– Repair/replace conveyor. – Tighten parts.

– Change pulley setting to obtain lower speed. – Resurface and re-balance.
– Dilute sludge feed.
– Adjust chemical dosage. 5. Sudden Increase in Power Consumption
Causal Factors:
2. Solids Cake Not Dry Enough – Contact between bowl exterior and accumu-
Causal Factors: lated solids in case
– Feed rate too high • Effluent pipe plugged
– Wrong plate dam position Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Speed too low – Apply hard surfacing to areas with wear.
– Excessive chemical conditioning – Clear solids discharge.
• Influent too warm
Corrective Actions (if applicable): 6. Gradual Increase in Power Consumption
– Reduce sludge feed rate. Causal Factor:
– Decrease pool depth to increase dryness. – Conveyor blade wear
– Change pulley setting to obtain higher speed. Corrective Action:
– Adjust chemical dosage. – Replace blades.
– Reduce influent temperature
7. Spasmodic Surging of Solids Discharge
3. Torque Control Keeps Tripping Causal Factors:
Causal Factors: – Pool depth too low.
– Feed rate is too high. – Conveyor helix is rough.
– Feed solids concentration too high. – Feed pipe too near drainage deck.
– Foreign material (i.e., tramp iron) in • Excessive vibration.
machine. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Gear unit is misaligned. – Increase pool depth.
• Gear unit has mechanical problem. – Refinish conveyor blade area.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – Move feed pipe to effluent end (if applicable).
– Reduce flows.
– Dilute flows. 8. Centrifuge Shuts down on Will Not Start
– Remove conveyor/clear foreign materials. Causal Factors:
– Correct gear unit alignment. – Blown fuses.
– Repair gear unit. – Overload relay is tripped.
– Motor overheated/thermal protectors tripped.
4. Excess Vibration – Torque control is tripped.
Causal Factors: • Vibration switch is tripped.
– Improper lubrication. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Improper adjustment of vibration isolators. – Replace fuses.
– Discharge funnels are contacting centrifuge. – Flush centrifuge, and reset relay.
– Portion of conveyor flights may be plugged – Flush centrifuge, reset thermal protectors.
(causing an imbalance).
– Gear box improperly aligned.
– Pillow box bearings are damaged.
Sludge Incineration
– Bowl is out of balance.
– Parts not tightly assembled. Not surprisingly, incinerators produce the maximum solids
• Uneven wear on conveyor. and moisture reductions. The equipment required depends on
Corrective Actions (where applicable): whether the unit is a multiple hearth or fluid-bed incinerator.
– Lubricate according to the manufacturer’s Generally, the system will require a source of heat to reach igni-
instructions. tion temperature, solids feed system and ash handling equip-
– Adjust isolators. ment. It is important to note that the system must also include
– Reposition slip joints at funnels. all required equipment (e.g., scrubbers) to achieve compliance
– Flush centrifuge. with air pollution control requirements. Solids are pumped to
– Align gearbox. the incinerator. The solids are dried then ignited (burned). As
– Replace bearings. they burn, the organic matter is converted to carbon dioxide
– Return rotating parts to factory for and water vapor and the inorganic matter is left behind as ash
re-balancing. or “fixed” solids. The ashis then collected for reuse or disposal.
Process Description factors include feed sludge volatile content, feed sludge mois-
The incineration process first dries then burns the sludge. The ture content, operating temperature, sludge feed rate, fuel feed
process involves the following steps: rate, and air feed rate.
Note: To ensure that the volatile material is ignited, the
(1) The temperature of the sludge feed is raised to 212°F. sludge must be heated between 1,400 and 1,700°F.
(2) Water evaporates from the sludge. To be sure that operating parameters are in the correct
(3) The temperature of the water vapor and air mixture range, the operator monitors and adjusts sludge feed rate, air-
increases. flow, and auxiliary fuel feed rate. All maintenance conducted
(4) The temperature of the dried sludge volatile solids on an incinerator should be in accordance with the manufac-
rises to the ignition point. turer’s recommendations.
Note: Incineration will achieve maximum reductions if suffi- Operational Problems

cient fuel, air, time, temperature, and turbulence are provided. The operator of a multiple hearth or fluidized bed incinerator
must be able to recognize operational problems using various
Incineration Processes indicators or through observations. We discuss these indica-
tors/observations, causal factors, and recommended correc-
Multiple Hearth Furnace
tive actions in the following sections.
The multiple hearth furnace consists of a circular steel shell sur-
rounding a number of hearths. Scrappers (rabble arms) are con-
1. Multiple Hearth: Incinerator Temperature Too
nected to a central rotating shaft. Units range from 4.5 to 21.5 ft
High
in diameter and have from four to 11 hearths. In operation, dewa-
Causal Factors:
tered sludge solids are placed on the outer edge of the top hearth.
– Excessive fuel feed rate
The rotating rabble arms move them slowly to the center of the
– Greasy solids
hearth. At the center of the hearth, the solids fall through ports to
• Thermocouple burned out
the second level. The process is repeated in the opposite direc-
tion. Hot gases generated by burning on lower hearths dry solids.
– Decrease fuel feed rate.
The dry solids pass to the lower hearths. The high temperature on
– Reduce sludge feed rate.
the lower hearths ignites the solids. Burning continues to com-
– Increase air feed rate.
pletion. Ash materials discharge to lower cooling hearths where
– Replace thermocouple.
they are discharged for disposal. Air flowing inside the center
column and rabble arms continuously cools internal equipment.
2. Multiple Hearth: Furnace Temperature Too
Fluidized Bed Furnace Low
The fluidized bed incinerator consists of a vertical circular Causal Factors:
steel shell (reactor) with a grid to support a sand bed and an – Moisture content of the sludge has increased.
air system to provide warm air to the bottom of the sand bed. – Fuel system malfunction.
The evaporation and incineration process takes place within – Excessive air feed rate.
the super-heated sand bed layer. In operation, air is pumped to • Flame out.
the bottom of the unit. The airflow expands (fluidize) the sand Corrective Actions (where applicable):
bed inside. The fluidized bed is heated to its operating temper- – Increase fuel feed rate until dewatering oper-
ature (1,200–1,500°F). Auxiliary fuel is added when needed to ation improves.
maintain operating temperature. The sludge solids are injected – Establish proper fuel feed rate.
into the heated sand bed. Moisture immediately evaporates. – Decrease air feed rate.
Organic matter ignites and reduces to ash. Residues are ground – Increase sludge feed rate.
to fine ash by the sand movement. Fine ash particles flow up and – Relight furnace.
out of the unit with exhaust gases. Ash particles are removed
using common air pollution control processes. Oxygen analyz- 3. Multiple Hearths: Oxygen Content of Stack Gas
ers in the exhaust gas stack control the airflow rate. Too High
Note: Because these systems retain a high amount of heat Causal Factors:
in the sand, the system can be operated as little as 4 h per day – Sludge feed rate is too low.
with little or no reheating. – Sludge feed system blockage.
• Air feed rate is too high.
Operational Observations, Problems, Corrective Actions (where applicable):
and Troubleshooting – Increase sludge feed rate.
The operator of an incinerator monitors various performance – Clear any feed system blockages.
factors to ensure optimal operation. These performance – Decrease air feed rate.
4. Multiple Hearths: Oxygen Content of Stack Gas • Excessive fuel feed rate.
Too Low Corrective Actions (where applicable):
Causal Factors: – Increase air feed rate.
– Volatile or grease content of the sludge has – Decrease sludge feed rate.
increased. – Decrease fuel feed rate.
• Air feed rate is too low.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): 12. Multiple Hearth: Furnace Burners Slagging Up
– Increase air feed rate. Causal Factor:
– Decrease sludge feed rate. – Burner design
– Increase air feed rate. Corrective Action:
– Replace burners with newer designs that
Multiple
5. Hearths: Furnace Refractories reduce slagging.
Deteriorated
Causal Factor: 13. Multiple Hearths: Rabble Arms Dropping
– Rapid startup/shutdown of furnace Causal Factors:
Corrective Actions: – Excessive hearth temperatures
– Repair furnace refractories. • Loss of cooling air
– Follow specified startup/shutdown procedures. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Maintain temperatures within proper
6. Multiple Hearths: Unusually High Cooling Effect range.
Causal Factor: – Discontinue injection of scum into the
– Air leak hearth.
Corrective Action: – Repair cooling air system immediately.
– Locate and repair leak.
14. Multiple Hearths: Excessive Air Pollutants in
7. Multiple Hearths: Short Hearth Life Stack Gas
Causal Factor: Causal Factors:
– Uneven firing – Incomplete combustion—insufficient air
Corrective Action: • Air pollution control malfunction
– Fire hearths equally on both sides. Corrective Actions (where applicable):
– Raise air to fuel ration.
8. Multiple Hearths: Center Shaft Shear Pin Failure – Repair/replace broken equipment.
Causal Factors:
– Rabble arm is dragging on hearth. 15. Multiple Hearths: Flashing or Explosions
• Debris is caught under the arm. Causal Factor:
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – Scum or grease additions
– Adjust rabble arm to eliminate rubbing. Corrective Action:
– Remove debris. – Remove scum/grease before incineration.
9. Multiple Hearth: Scrubber Temperature Too High 16. Fluidized Bed: Bed Temperature Falling
Causal Factor: Causal Factors:
– Low water flow to scrubber – Inadequate fuel supply
Corrective Action: – Excessive sludge feed rate
– Adjust water flow to proper level. – Excessive sludge moisture levels
• Excessive air flow
10. Multiple Hearth: Stack Gas Temperatures Too Low Corrective Actions (where applicable):
Causal Factors: – Increase fuel supply.
– Inadequate fuel feed supply – Repair fuel system malfunction.
• Excessive sludge feed rate – Decrease sludge feed rate.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – Correct sludge dewatering process problem.
– Increase fuel feed rate. – Decrease airflow rate.
– Decrease sludge feed rate.
17. Fluidized Bed: Low (<3%) Oxygen in Exhaust
11. Multiple Hearth: Stack Gas Temperatures Too Gas
High Causal Factors:
Causal Factors: – Low air flow rate
– Sludge has higher volatile content (heat value). • Fuel feed rate too high
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – No water flowing in scrubber.

– Increase blower air feed rate. – Spray nozzles are plugged.
– Reduce fuel feed rate. • Ash water not recirculating.
Fluidized Bed Excessive (>6%) Oxygen in
18. – Open valves to provide water.
Exhaust Gas – Correct system malfunction to provide
Causal Factor: required pressure.
– Sludge feed rate is too low. – Clear nozzles and strainers.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – Repair/replace recirculation pump.
– Increase sludge feed rate. – Unclog scrubber discharge line.
– Adjust fuel feed rate to maintain steady bed
temperature. 24. Fluidized Bed: Poor Bed Fluidization
Causal Factor:
19. Fluidized Bed: Erratic Bed Depth on Control Panel – Sand leakage through support plate during
Causal Factor: shut down.
– Bed pressure taps plugged with solids Corrective Actions (where applicable):
Corrective Actions (where applicable): – Clear wind box.
– Tap a metal rod into pressure tap pipe when – Clean wind box at least once per month.
the unit is not in operation.
– Apply compressed air to pressure tap while
Land Application of Biosolids
the unit is in operation (follow the manufac- The purpose of land application of biosolids is to dispose of
turer’s safety guidelines). the treated biosolids in an environmentally sound manner by
recycling nutrients and soil conditioners. In order to be land
20. Fluidized Bed: Preheat Burner Fails and Alarm applied, wastewater biosolids must comply with state and
Sounds federal biosolids management/disposal regulations. Biosolids
Causal Factors: must not contain materials that are dangerous to human health
– Pilot flame is not receiving fuel. (i.e., toxicity, pathogenic organisms, etc.) or dangerous to the
– Pilot flame is not receiving spark. environment (i.e., toxicity, pesticides, heavy metals, etc.).
– Defective pressure regulator(s). Treated biosolids are land applied by either direct injection or
• Pilot flame ignites but flame scanner application and plowing in (incorporation).
malfunctions.
Corrective Actions (where applicable): Process Control: Sampling and Testing
– Correct fuel system problem. Land application of biosolids requires precise control to avoid
– Replace defective part. problems. The quantity and quality of biosolids applied must
– Replace defective regulator(s). be accurately determined. For this reason, the operator’s pro-
– Clear scanner sight glass. cess control activities include biosolids sampling/testing func-
– Replace defective scanner. tions. Biosolids sampling and testing includes determination
of % solids, heavy metals, organic pesticides and herbicide,
21. Fluidized Bed: Bed Temperature Too High alkalinity, total organic carbon (TOC), organic nitrogen, and
Causal Factors: ammonia nitrogen.
– Bed gun fuel feed rate is too high.
• Grease or high organic content in sludge (high Process Control Calculations
heat value). As previously mentioned in, process control calculations
Corrective Actions (where applicable): include determining disposal cost, plant available nitrogen
– Reduce bed gun fuel feed rate. (PAN), application rate (dry tons and wet tons/acre), metals
– Increase airflow rate. loading rates, maximum allowable applications based upon
– Decrease sludge fuel rate. metals loading, and site life based on metals loading.
22. Fluidized Bed: Bed Temperature Reads off Scale Disposal Cost
Causal Factor: The cost of disposal of biosolids can be determined by:
– Thermocouple burned out
Corrective Action: Cost = Wet tons /year ´ % solids ´ cost/dry ton (16.102)
– Replace thermocouple
Example 16.87
23. Fluidized Bed: Scrubber Inlet Shows High
Temperature Problem: The treatment system produces 1,925 wet tons
Causal Factors: of biosolids for disposal each year. The biosolids are 16%
solids. A contractor disposes of the biosolids for US$28.00 Plant Nitrogen Requirement, lb/acre
per dry ton. What is the annual cost for sludge disposal? Dry tons/acre = (16.104)
Plant Available Nitrogen, lb/dry ton
SOLUTION:
Cost = 1, 925 wet tons /year ´ 0.16 Example 16.89
´ $28.00 /dry ton
Problem: The crop to be planted on the land applica-
= $8, 624 tion site requires 150 lb of nitrogen per acre. What is the
required biosolids application rate if the PAN of the bio-
Plant Available Nitrogen (PAN) solids is 25 lb/dry ton?
One factor considered when land applying biosolids is the
amount of nitrogen in the biosolids available to the plants SOLUTION:
grown on the site. This includes ammonia nitrogen and organic 150 lb nitrogen acre
Dry tons/acre =
nitrogen. Organic nitrogen must be mineralized for plant con- 26 lb/dry ton

sumption. Only a portion of the organic nitrogen is mineral-
ized per year. The mineralization factor (f1) is assumed to be = 6 dry tons per acre
0.20. The amount of ammonia nitrogen available is directly
related to the time elapsed between applying the biosolids and Metals Loading
incorporating (plowing) the sludge into the soil. We provide When biosolids are land applied, metals concentrations are
volatilization rates based upon this example below. closely monitored and their loading on land application sites
is calculated.
Pan, lb /dry ton
Loading, lb /acre = Metal Conc., mg /kg
= éë( Org. Nit., mg /kg ´ f1 ) + (Amm. Nit., mg /kg ´ V1 ) ùû (16.103)
´ 0.002 lb /dry ton (16.105)
´ 0.002 lb /dry ton
´ Appl. Rate, dry tons /acre
where
f1 = Mineral rate for organic nitrogen (assume 0.20) Example 16.90
V1 = Volatilization rate ammonia nitrogen
V1 = 1.00 if biosolids are injected Problem: The biosolids contain 14 mg/kg of lead. Biosolids
V1 = 0.85 if biosolids are plowed in within 24 h are currently being applied to the site at a rate of 10 dry
V1 = 0.70 if biosolids are plowed in within 7 days tons per acre. What is the metals loading rate for lead in
pounds per acre?
Problem: The biosolids contain 21,000 mg/kg of organic Loading Rate, lb /acre
nitrogen and 10,000 mg/kg of ammonia nitrogen. The = 14 mg /kg ´ 0.002 lb /dry ton ´ 10 dry tons
biosolids are incorporated into the soil within 24 h after
application. What is the plant available nitrogen (PAN) per = 0.28 lb /acre
dry ton of solids?
Maximum Allowable Applications
SOLUTION: Based upon Metals Loading
PAN, lb /dry ton If metals are present, they may limit the total number of
applications a site can receive. Metals loading is normally
= éë( 21, 000 mg /kg ´ 0.20 ) + (10, 000 ´ 0.85) ùû ´ 0.002
expressed in terms of the maximum total amount of metal
= 25
5.4 lb PAN/dry ton that can be applied to a site during its use.
Application Rate Based on Crop Nitrogen Requirement Applications

In most cases, the application rate of domestic biosolids to Max. Allowable Cumulative Load for the metal, lb/ac (16.106)
=
crop lands will be controlled by the amount of nitrogen the Metal Loading, lb/acre/application
crop requires. The biosolids application rate based upon the
nitrogen requirement is determined by the following:
Example 16.91
(1) Using an agriculture handbook to determine the Problem: The maximum allowable cumulative lead load-
nitrogen requirement of the crop to be grown ing is 48.0 lb/acre. Based upon the current loading of 0.30
(2) Determining the amount of sludge in dry tons lb/acre, how many applications of biosolids can be made
required to provide this much nitrogen to this site?
SOLUTION: Definitions
48.0 lb/acre There are several definitions, which should be discussed,
Applications = = 160 applications
0.30 lb/acre prior to discussing the permit requirements for records and
reporting. These definitions are listed below.
Site Life Based on Metals Loading
The maximum number of applications based upon metals • Average Monthly Limitation—the highest allowable
loading and the number of applications per year can be used average over a calendar month, calculated by adding
to determine the maximum site life. all of the daily values measured during the month
and dividing the sum by number of daily values mea-
Site Life, years sured during the month.
Maximum Allowable Applications (16.107) • Average Weekly Limitation—the highest allowable
= average over a calendar week, calculated by adding
Number of Applications Planned Per Year
all of the daily values measured during the calendar
week and dividing the sum by the number of daily
Example 16.92 values determined during the week.
• Average Daily Limitation—the highest allowable
Problem: Biosolids is currently applied to a site twice
average over a 24-h period, calculated by adding all
annually. Based upon the lead content of the biosolids,
the maximum number of applications is determined to of the values measured during the period and divid-
be 120 applications. Based upon the lead loading and ing the sum by the number of values determined dur-
the application rate, how many years can this site be ing the period.
used? • Average Hourly Limitation—the highest allowable
average for a 60 minute period, calculated by add-
ing all of the values measured during the period
SOLUTION: and dividing the sum by the number of values deter-
120 applications mined during the period.
Site Life = = 60 years
2 applications/year • Daily Discharge—means the discharge of a pol-
lutant measured during a calendar day or any 24-h
Note: When more than one metal is present, the calcula- period that reasonably represents the calendar for the
tions must be performed for each metal. The site life would purpose of sampling. For pollutants with limitations
then be the lowest value generated by these calculations. expressed in units of weight, the daily discharge
Note: The following case study illustrates how Clark is calculated as the total mass of the pollutant dis-
County Water Reclamation Facility, Las Vegas, Nevada, charged over the day. For pollutants with limitations
developed a Process Today’s Sludge Today policy. For expressed in other units, the daily discharge is cal-
those seeking a more in depth treatment of this case study culated as the average measurement of the pollutant
it can be obtained from USEPA (2008)Municipal Nutrient over the day.
removal Technologies Reference Document Volume 2— • Maximum Daily Discharge—the highest allowable
Appendices. Washington, DC: Environmental Protection value for a daily discharge.
Agency. • Effluent Limitation—any restriction by the State
Board on quantities, discharge rates, or concentra-
tions of pollutants which are discharged from point
PERMITS, RECORDS, AND REPORTS sources into State waters.
Permits, records, and reports play a significant role in waste- • Maximum Discharge—the highest allowable value
water treatment operations. In fact, in regard to the “permit,” for any single measurement.
one of the first things any new operator quickly learns is the • Minimum Discharge—the lowest allowable value
importance of “making permit” each month. In this chapter we for any single measurement.
briefly cover NPDES Permits and other pertinent records and • Point Source—any discernible, defined and discrete
reports with which the wastewater operator must be familiar. conveyance, including but not limited to any pipe,
Note: The discussion that follows is general in nature; ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete fissure,
it does not necessarily apply to any state in particular, but container, rolling stock, vessel, or other floating craft,
instead is an overview of permits, records, and reports that are from which pollutants are or may be discharged. This
an important part of wastewater treatment plant operations. definition does not include return flows from irri-
For specific guidance on requirements for your locality refer gated agricultural land.
to your state water control board or other authorized state • Discharge Monitoring Report—forms for use
agency for information. In this handbook, the term “Board” in reporting of self-monitoring results of the
signifies the state-reporting agency. permittee.
• Discharge Permit—State Pollutant Discharge (4) Steps planned/taken to prevent reoccurrence.

Elimination System permit which specifies the terms • Anticipated Non-Compliance—Must notify the Board
and conditions under which a point source discharge at least ten days in advance of any changes to the facil-
to State waters is permitted. ity or activity which may result in non-compliance.
• Compliance Schedules—Must report compliance or
non-compliance with any requirements contained in
NPDES Permits
compliance schedules no later than 14 days following
In the United States, all treatment facilities which discharge to scheduled date for completion of the requirement.
State waters must have a discharge permit issued by the State • 24-hReporting—Any non-compliance which may
Water Control Board or other appropriate State agency. This adversely affect state waters or may endanger pub-
permit is known on the national level as the NPDES permit and lic health must be reported orally with 24 h of the
on the state level as the (State) Pollutant Discharge Elimination time the permittee becomes aware of the condition.
System (State-PDES) permit. The permit states the specific con- A written report must be submitted within five days.
ditions, which must be met to legally discharge, treated waste- • Discharge Monitoring Reports—Reports self-mon-
water to State waters. The permit contains general requirements itoring data generated during a specified period
(applying to every discharger) and specific requirements (apply- (normally 1 month). When completing the DMR,
ing only to the point source specified in the permit). A general remember:
permit is a discharge permit, which covers a specified class of • More frequent monitoring must be reported
dischargers. It is developed to allow dischargers with the speci- • All results must be used to complete reported
fied category to discharge under specified conditions. All dis- values
charge permits contain general conditions. These conditions are • Pollutants monitored by an approved method but
standard for all dischargers and cover a broad series of require- not required by the permit must be reported
ments. Read the general conditions of the treatment facility’s • No empty blocks on the form should be left blank
permit carefully. Permit tees must retain certain records. • Averages are arithmetic unless noted otherwise
• Appropriate significant figures should be used
Monitoring • All bypasses and overflows must be reported
• Date, time, & exact place of sampling or • The licensed operator must sign Report
measurements • Responsible official must sign Report
• Name(s) of the individual(s) performing sampling or • Department must receive by 10th of next month
measurement
• Date(s) and time(s) analyses were performed
Sampling and Testing
• Name(s) of the individuals who performed the analyses
• Analytical techniques or methods used The general requirements of the permit specify minimum
• Observations, readings, calculations, bench data and sampling and testing which must be performed on the plant
results discharge. Moreover, the permit will specify the frequency
• Instrument calibration and maintenance of sampling, sample type, and length of time for composite
• Original strip chart recordings for continuous samples. Unless a specific method is required by the permit,
monitoring all sample preservation and analysis must be in compliance
• Information used to develop reports required by the with the requirements set forth in the Federal Regulations
permit Guidelines Establishing Test Procedures for the Analysis of
• Data used to complete the permit application Pollutants Under the CWA (40 CFR 136).
Note: All samples and measurements must be representa-
Note: All records must be kept at least three years (longer at tive of the nature and quantity of the discharge.
the request of the State Board).
Effluent Limitations
Reporting The permit sets numerical limitations on specific parameters
Generally, reporting must be made under the following con- contained in the plant discharge. Limits may be expressed as:
ditions/situations (requirements may vary depending on the
state regulatory body with reporting authority): • Average monthly quantity (kg/day)
• Average monthly concentration (mg/L)
• Unusual or Extraordinary Discharge Reports— • Average weekly quantity (kg/day)
must notify the Board by telephone within 24-h of • Average weekly concentration (mg/L)
occurrence and submit written report within five (5) • Daily quantity (kg/day)
days. Report must include: • Daily concentration (mg/L)
(1) Description of the non-compliance and its cause. • Hourly average concentration (mg/L)
(2) Non-compliance date(s), time(s), and duration. • Instantaneous minimum concentration (mg/L)
(3) Steps planned/taken to reduce/eliminate. • Instantaneous maximum concentration (mg/L)
Compliance Schedules Daily Quantity (kilograms/day)

If the facility requires additional construction or other modifi- Daily quantity is the quantity of a pollutant in kilograms per
cations to fully comply with the final effluent limitations, the day discharged during a 24-h period.
permit will contain a schedule of events to be completed to
achieve full compliance.
Kg /Day = Concentration, mg /L ´ Flow, MGD
(16.111)
Special Conditions ´ 3.785 KG /MG /mg /L
Any special requirements or conditions set for approval of the
discharge will be contained in this section. Special conditions
Average Monthly Quantity
may include:
Average monthly quantity is the average of all the individual
• Monitoring required to determine effluent toxicity daily quantities determined during the month.
• Pretreatment program requirements
Licensed Operator Requirements AMQ, KG/day = å DQ1 + DQ2 + DQ3 + ¼ + DQ n (16.112)

N (Tests during month)
The permit will specify, based on the treatment system com-
plexity and the volume of flow treated, the minimum license
classification required to be the designated responsible charge Average Weekly Quantity
operator. The average weekly quantity is the average of all the daily
quantities determined during a calendar week. A calendar
Chlorination/Dechlorination Reporting
week must start on Sunday and end on Saturday and be
Several reporting systems apply to chlorination or chlorina- completely within the reporting month. A weekly aver-
tion followed by dechlorination. It is best to review this sec- age is not computed for any week that does not meet these
tion of the specific permit for guidance. If confused contact criteria.
the appropriate State Regulatory Agency.
Reporting Calculations AWQ, KG/day = å DQ1 + DQ2 + DQ3 + ¼ + DQ n (16.113)

N (tests during calendar week)
Failure to accurately calculate report data will result in vio-
lations of the permit. The basic calculations associated with
completing the DMR are covered below. Minimum Concentration
The minimum concentration is the lowest instantaneous value
Average Monthly Concentration recorded during the reporting period.
The average monthly concentration is the average of the
results of all tests performed during the month. Maximum Concentration
Maximum concentration is the highest instantaneous value
AMC, mg/L = å Test1 + Test 2 + Test 3 +¼+ Test n (16.108) recorded during the reporting period.
N (Tests during month)
Bacteriological Reporting
Bacteriological reporting is used for reporting fecal coliform
Average Weekly Concentration
test results. To make this calculation the geometric mean cal-
The average weekly concentration is the result of all the tests culation is used and all monthly geometric means are com-
performed during a calendar week. A calendar week must puted using all the test values. Note that weekly geometric
start on Sunday and end on Saturday and be completely within means are computed using the same selection criteria dis-
the reporting month. A weekly average is not computed for cussed for average weekly concentration and quantity calcu-
any week that does not meet these criteria. lations. The easiest method used in making this calculation
requires a calculator, which can perform logarithmic (log) or
AWC, mg/L = å Test1 + Test 2 + Test 3 +¼+ Test n (16.109) Nth root functions.
N (tests during calendar week)
Geometric Mean
Average Hourly Concentration é log X1 + log2 + log X 3 +¼ log X n ù (16.114)
The average hourly concentration is the average of all of the = Antilog ê ú
ë N, Number of Tests û
test results collected during a 60-minute period.
or
AHC, mg/L = å Test1 + Test 2 + Test 3 +¼+ Test n (16.110)
N (tests during a 60-minute period) Geometric Mean = n X1 ´ X 2 ´  ´ X n
CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS 16.25 The plant has three channels in service. Each chan-
nel is 2 ft wide and has a water depth of 3 ft. What
1 6.1 Who must sign the DMR? is the velocity in the channel when the flow rate is
16.2 What does the COD test measure? 8.0 MGD?
16.3 Give three reasons for treating wastewater. 16.26 The grit from the aerated grit channel has a strong
16.4
Name two types of solids based on physical hydrogen sulfide odor upon standing in a storage
characteristics. container. What does this indicate and what action
16.5 Define organic and inorganic. should be taken to correct the problem?
16.6 Name four types of microorganisms, which may be 16.27 What is the purpose of primary treatment?
present in wastewater. 16.28 What is the purpose of the settling tank in the sec-
16.7 When organic matter is decomposed aerobically, ondary or biological treatment process?
what materials are produced? 16.29 The circular settling tank is 90 ft in diameter and
16.8 Name three materials or pollutants, which are not has a depth of 12 ft. The effluent weir extends
removed by the natural purification process. around the circumference of the tank. The flow rate
16.9 What are the used water and solids from a commu- is 2.25 MGD. What is the detention time in hours,
nity that flow to a treatment plant called? surface loading rate in gallons/day/sq ft and weir
16.10 Where do disease-causing bacteria in wastewater overflow rate in gallons/day/foot?
come from? 16.30 Give three classifications of ponds based upon their
16.11 What does the term pathogenic mean? location in the treatment system.
16.12 What is wastewater called that comes from the 16.31 Describe the processes occurring in a raw sewage
household? stabilization pond (facultative).
16.13 What is wastewater called that comes from indus- 16.32 How do changes in the season affect the quality of
trial complexes? the discharge from a stabilization pond?
16.14 The lab test indicates that a 500-gram sample of 16.33 What is the advantage of using mechanical or dif-
sludge contains 22 grams of solids. What are the fused aeration equipment to provide oxygen?
percent solids in the sludge sample? 16.34 Name three classifications of trickling filters and
16.15 The depth of water in the grit channel is 28 in. identify the classification, which produces the
What is the depth in feet? highest quality effluent.
16.16 The operator withdraws 5,250 gallons of solids
16.35 Microscopic examination reveals a predominance
from the digester. How many pounds of solids have of rotifers. What process adjustment does this indi-
been removed? cate is required?
16.17 Sludge added to the digester causes a 1,920 cu foot 16.36 Increasing the wasting rate will ______________
change in the volume of sludge in the digester. How the MLSS, ___________ the return con-
many gallons of sludge have been added? centration, ______________ the MCRT,
16.18 The plant effluent contains 30 mg/L solids. The _________________the F/M ratio, and
effluent flow rate is 3.40 MGD. How many pounds ______________ the SVI.
per day of solids are discharged? 16.37 The plant currently uses 45.8 pounds of chlorine
16.19 The plant effluent contains 25 mg/L BOD5. The per day. Assuming the chlorine usage will increase
effluent flow rate is 7.25 MGD. How many kilo- by 10% during the next year, how many 2,000-
grams per day of BOD5 are being discharged? pound cylinders of chlorine will be needed for the
16.20 The operator wishes to remove 3,280 pounds per year (365 days)?
day of solids from the activated sludge process. 16.38 The plant has six 2,000-lb cylinders on hand. The
The waste activated sludge concentration is 3,250 current dose of chlorine being used to disinfect the
mg/L. What is the required flow rate in million gal- effluent is 6.2 mg/L. The average effluent flow rate
lons per day? is 2.25 MGD. Allowing 15 days for ordering and
16.21 The plant influent includes an industrial flow, which shipment, when should the next order for chlorine
contains 240 mg/L BOD. The industrial flow is be made?
0.72 MGD. What is the population equivalent for 16.39 The plant feeds 38 pounds of chlorine per day and
the industrial contribution in people per day? uses 150-pound cylinders. Chlorine use is expected
16.22 The label of hypochlorite solution states that
to increase by 11% next year. The chlorine sup-
the specific gravity of the solution is 1.1288. plier has stated that the current price of chlorine
What is the weight of 1 gallon of the hypochlorite (US$0.170 per pound) will increase by 7.5% next
solution? year. How much money should the Town budget for
16.23 What must be done to the cutters in a comminutor chlorine purchases for the next year (365 days)?
to ensure proper operation? 16.40 The sludge pump operates 30 min every 3 h. The
16.24 What is grit? Give three examples of material,
pump delivers 70 gpm. If the sludge is 5.1% solids
which is considered to be grit. and has a volatile matter content of 66%, how many
pounds of volatile solids are removed from the set- 16.64 Adding chlorine just before the ___________
tling tank each day? ____________ can control alga growth.
16.41 The aerobic digester has a volume of 63,000 gallons. 16.65 The purpose of the secondary clarifier in an acti-
The laboratory test indicates that 41 milligrams of vated biosolids process is:
lime was required to increase the pH of a 1-liter 16.66 The ____________ growth phase should occur in
sample of digesting sludge from 6.0 to the desired a complete mix activated biosolids process.
7.1. How many pounds of lime must be added to the 16.67 The typical DO value for activated biosolids plants
digester to increase the pH of the unit to 7.4? is between ________ and _______ mg/l.
16.42 The digester has a volume of 73,500 gallons. Sludge 16.68 In the activated biosolids process, what change
is added to the digester at the rate of 2,750 gallons would an operator normally expect to make when
per day. What is the sludge retention time in days? the temperature decreases from 25°C to15°C?
16.43 The raw sludge pumped to the digester contains 16.69 In the activated biosolids process, what change
72% volatile matter. The digested sludge removed must be made to increase the MLVSS?
from the digester contains 48% volatile matter. 16.70 In the activated biosolids process, what change
What is the % Volatile Matter Reduction? must be made to increase the F/M?
16.44 What does NPDES stand for? 16.71 What does the “Gould Sludge Age” assume to be
16.45 How can primary sludge be freshened going into a the source of the MLVSS in the aeration tank?
gravity thickener? 16.72 What is one advantage of complete mix over plug
16.46 A neutral solution has what pH value? flow?
16.47 Why is the seeded BOD test required for some 16.73 The grit in the primary sludge is causing excessive
samples? wear on primary treatment sludge pumps. The plant
16.48 What is the foremost advantage of the COD over uses an aerated grit channel. What action should be
the BOD? taken to correct this problem?
16.49 High mixed liquor concentration is indicated by a 16.74 When the Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT)
_________ ___________aeration tank foam. increases, the mixed liquor suspended solids
16.50 What typically happens to the activity level of bac- (MLSS) concentration in the aeration tank:
teria when the temperature is increased? 16.75 Exhaust air from a chlorine room should be taken
16.51 List three factors other than food that affects the from where?
growth characteristics of activated sludge. 16.76 If chlorine costs US$0.21/lb, what is the daily cost
16.52 What are the characteristics of facultative to chlorinate a 5-mgd flow rate at a chlorine feed
organisms? rate of 2.6 mg/l?
16.53 BOD measures the amount of ___________ mate- 16.77 What is the term that describes a normally aero-
rial in wastewater. bic system from which the oxygen has temporarily
16.54 The activated sludge process requires been depleted?
___________ ___________ in the aeration tank 16.78 The ratio that describes the minimum amount of
to be successful. nutrients theoretically required for an activated
16.55 The activated sludge process cannot be success- sludge system is 100:5:1. What are the elements
fully operated with a ________ clarifier. that fit this ratio?
16.56 The activated biosolids process can successfully 16.79 A flotation thickener is best used for what type of
remove ___________ BOD. sludge?
16.57 Successful operation of a complete mix reactor in 16.80 Drying beds are/are not (circle correct choice) an
the endogenous growth phase is ______________. example of a sludge stabilization process?
16.58 The bacteria in the activated biosolids process are 16.81 The minimum flow velocity in collection systems
either ______________ or _____________. should be:
16.59 Step feed activated biosolids processes have 16.82 What effect will the addition of chlorine, acid,
___________ mixed liquor concentrations in dif- alum, carbon dioxide, or sulfuric acid have on the
ferent parts of the tank. pH of wastewater?
16.60 An advantage of contact stabilization compared 16.83 An amperometric titrator is used to measure:
to complete mix is ___________ aeration tank 16.84 The normal design detention time for primary clar-
volume. ifier is:
16.61 Increasing the _____________of wastewa- 16.85 The volatile Acids:Alkalinity ratio in an anaerobic
ter increases the BOD in the activated biosolids digester should be approximately:
process. 16.86 The surface loading rate in a final clarifier should
16.62 Bacteria need phosphorus to successfully remove be approximately:
_________ in the activated biosolids process. 16.87 In a conventional effluent chlorination system, the
16.63 The growth rate of microorganisms is controlled by chlorine residual measured is mostly in the form of:
the _________.
16.88 For a conventional activated biosolids process, the Burnett, G.W. & Schuster, G.S., 1973. Pathogenic Microbiology. St
Food:Microorganism (F/M) ratio should be in the Louis, MO: C.V. Mosby Company.
range of: Cheremisinoff, P.N., 1995. Gravity Separation for Efficient Solids
Removal. The National Environmental Journal, November/
16.89 Denitrification in a final clarifier can cause clumps
December, 5(6), 29–32.
of sludge to rise to the surface. The sludge flocs Cheremisinoff, P.N. & Young, R.A., 1981. Pollution Engineering
attach to small sticky bubbles of _________ gas. Practice Handbook. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science
16.90 An anaerobic digester is covered and kept under Publishers, Inc.
positive pressure to: Clean Watersheds Needs Survey, 2000. Report to Congress.
16.91 During the summer months, the major source of Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
oxygen added to a stabilization pond is: EPA-832-R-10-002.
Corbitt, R.A., 1990. Standard Handbook of Environmental
16.92 Which solids cannot be removed by vacuum filtration?
16.93 The odor recognition threshold for H2S is reported Craggs, R., 2005. Nutrients. In: Hilton, A., Ed. Pond Treatment
to be as low as: Technology. London, UK: IWA Publishing.
16.94 Explain the reasons for using ponds to treat Crawford, G., Daigger, G., Fisher, J., Blair, S., & Lewis, R., 2005.
wastewater. Parallel Operation of Large Membrane Bioreactors at Traverse
16.95 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of pond City. In: Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation
systems as compared to bio-mechanical systems 78th Annual Conference & Exposition, Washington, DC,
for wastewater treatment. CD-ROM, October 29–November 2, 2005.
Crawford, G., Fernandez, A., Shawwa, A., & Daigger, G., 2002.
16.96 Describe the following types of ponds. Competitive Bidding and Evaluation of Membrane Bioreactor
A. Aerobic. Equipment—Three Large Plant Case Studies. In: Proceedings
B. Anaerobic. of the Water Environment Federation 75th Annual Conference
C. Aerated. & Exposition, Chicago, IL, CD-ROM, September 28–October
D. Facultative 2, 2002.
16.97 List ways most ponds gain dissolved oxygen. Crawford, G., Thompson, D., Lozier, J., Daigger, G., & Fleischer, E.,
16.98 Explain why dissolved oxygen concentrations vary 2000. Membrane Bioreactors—A Designer’s Perspective. In:
Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation 73rd Annual
with pond depth.
Conference & Exposition on Water Quality and Wastewater
16.99 List ways to measure the dissolved oxygen level of Treatment, Anaheim, CA, CD-ROM, October 14–18, 2000.
a pond. Crites, R.W., Middlebrooks, E.J., & Reed, S.C., 2006. Natural
16.100 Given data, calculate pond surface area in acres. Wastewater Treatment Systems. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, Taylor
Given: Pond Length = 400 ft and Francis Group.
Pond Width = 300 ft Crites, R. & Tchobanoglous, G., 1998. Small and Decentralized
Formula: (one acre = 43,500 sq ft) Wastewater Management Systems. Boston, MA: WCB
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Area of Pond = Length (Ft) × Width (Ft) = area in sq ft
Epstein, E., 1994. Composting and Bioaerosols. BioCycle, January,
Area of Pond (in acres) = area of pond ÷ area of 1 35(1), 51–58.
acre Epstein, E. & Alpert, J.E., 1984. Sludge Dewatering and Compost
Economics. BioCycle, 25(10), 31–34.
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Alexander, R., 1991. Sludge Compost Use on Athletic Fields. BioCycle, August, 30(8), 50–53.
BioCycle, July, 32(7), 69–71. Emrick, J. & Abraham, K., 2002. Long-Term BNR Operations—
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Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th Federation 75th Annual Technical Exhibition & Conference,
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Anderson, J.B. & Zwieg, H.P., 1962. Biology of Waste Stabilization Finstein, M.S., Miller, F.C., Hogan, J.A., & Strom, P.F., 1987.
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Assenzo, J.R. & Reid, G.W., 1966. Removing Nitrogen and January, 28(1), 20–26.
Phosphorus by Bio-Oxidation Ponds in Central Oklahoma. Finstein, M.S., Miller, F.C., & Strom, P.F., 1986. Monitoring and
Water and Sewage Works, 13(8), 294–299. Valuating Composting Process Performance. Journal of
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Brockett, O.D., 1976. Microbial Reactions in Facultative Ponds-1. Membrane Bioreactor Process Capabilities to Meet
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Research, 10(1), 45–49. Environment Research: A Research Publication of the Water
Burnett, C.H., 1992. Small Cities + Warm Climates = Windrow Environment Federation, 77(2), 162–178.
Composting. Presented at the Water Environment Federation Fleischer, E.J., Broderick, T.A., Daigger, G.T., Lozier, J.C.,
65th Annual Conference & Exposition, New Orleans, LA, Wollmann, A.M., & Fonseca, A.D., 2001. Evaluating the
September, pp. 20–24.
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Haug, R.T. & Davis, B., 1981. Composting Results in Los Angeles. Systems®. Berkeley, CA: University of California.
BioCycle, November/December, 22(6), 19–24. Outwater, A.B., 1994. Reuse of Sludge and Minor Wastewater
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17 Practice Exam
The following 250-question practice exam is designed not 17.7 A single sample of water collected at a particular
only to impart practical knowledge in preparation for vari- time and place is called a:
ous state licensure examinations for water/wastewater opera- A. Composite sample
tors but is also designed to be used as an on-going refresher B. Grab sample
practice exercise that can be utilized anytime by prospective C. Total sample
licensed and certified operators. D. Glass of water
Note: Answers in Appendix A. 17.8 Which of the following will increase the pH of
water?
A. More water
EXAM
B. Sodium hypochlorite
17.1 What is one of the first questions that should be C. Gravel
answered, before planning entry into a permit- D. Food coloring
required confined space? 17.9 The Groundwater Rule is designed to:
A. Who is going to enter? A. Protect the groundwater from microorganisms
B. Can this task be accomplished without enter- B. Set rules on chlorine addition
ing the permit space? C. Decrease organic contamination
C. Why is permit entry required? D. Decrease inorganic contamination
D. Who is the attendant? 17.10 What type of pump has a piston within the casing?
17.2 What are raw water intakes designed to remove? A. Venturi
A. pH B. Centrifugal
B. THCM C. Turbine
C. Debris and fish D. Reciprocating
D. Hardness 17.11 When a new chemical is introduced into the
17.3 Which of the following is more likely to be found workplace what must accompany it?
in groundwater? A. Chemical dipper
A. Fish B. Safety Data Sheet
B. Microorganisms C. Container
C. Branches and other woody debris D. First aid kit
D. Minerals 17.12 OSHA’s definition of confined spaces in general
17.4 To knock down algae growth in reservoirs what is industry includes:
commonly used? A. The space being more than 4 feet deep
A. Soap B. Limited or restricted means for entry and exit
B. Hydrogen peroxide C. The space being designed for short-term
C. Copper sulfate occupancy
D. Ferric oxide D. Having only natural ventilation
17.5 OSHA addresses confined space hazards in two 17.13 The depression of a water table is known as:
specific, comprehensive standards. One of the A. Cone of depression
standards covers General Industry and the other B. Radius of influence
covers: C. Static water level during a drought
A. Agriculture D. Well depression
B. Long shoring 17.14 Which of the following would not constitute a
C. Shipyards hazardous atmosphere, under the permit-required,
D. Space travel confined space standard?
17.6 How are moving parts in a centrifugal pump A. Less than 19.5% oxygen
cooled? B. More than the IDLH of hydrogen sulfide
A. Bearing grease C. Enough combustible dust that obscures vision
B. Air flow at a distance of 5 feet
C. Leakage within the pump D. 5% of LEL
D. Installed cooling package
633
17.15 OSHA’s review of accident data indicates that 17.24 Which of the following actions has had little
most confined space deaths and injuries are effect on the natural water cycle?
caused by the following three hazards: A. Dredging
A. Electrical, Falls, Toxics B. Damming
B. Asphyxiates, Flammables, Toxics C. Damaged ecological niches
C. Drowning, Flammables, Entrapment D. Desertification
D. Asphyxiates, Explosions, Engulfment 17.25 Which water system supplies water to the same
17.16 What parameter is the best way to monitor filter population year-round?
performance? A. Non-community
A. Turbidity B. Transient system
B. Dissolved solids C. Community
C. Contact time D. Non-transient
D. Hardness 17.26 What reading (in %O2) would you expect to see
17.17 What causes water to look dirty or cloudy? on an oxygen meter after an influx of 10% nitro-
A. Suspended material gen into a permit space?
B. Bicarbonates A. 5.0%
C. Hardness B. 11.1%
D. Dissolved solids C. 18.9%
17.18 Ammonia is sprayed near a chlorine gas leak to D. 90.0%
produce what? 17.27 What type of water system is typically used in
A. Neutral gas campgrounds?
B. White smoke A. Transient water system
C. Black smoke B. Community water system
D. Green smoke C. Nontransient water system
17.19 A ball valve or plug valve is a type of: D. County water system
A. Foot valve 17.28 Which of the below is an attendant?
B. Control valve A. A person who makes a food run to the local
C. Corporation stop 7–11 store for refreshments for the crew
D. Needle valve inside the confined space.
17.20 Toxic gases in confined space can result from: B. A person who often enters a confined space,
A. Products stored in the space, and the manu- while other personnel are within the same
facturing processes space.
B. Work being performed inside the space or in C. A person who watches over a confined space,
adjacent areas while other employees are in it, and only
C. Desorption from porous walls and decom- leaves if he or she must use the restroom.
posing organic matter D. A person with no other duties assigned,
D. All the above other than to remain immediately outside the
17.21 Oxygen deficiency in confined spaces does not entrance to the confined space, and who may
occur through: render assistance, as needed to personnel
A. Consumption by chemical reactions and inside the space. The attendant never enters
combustion the confined space, and never leaves the
B. Absorption by porous surfaces, such as acti- space unattended, while personnel are within
vated charcoal the space.
C. Leakage around valves, fittings, couplings, 17.29 Water quality is defined in terms of:
and hoses of oxy-fuel gas welding equipment A. Location
D. Displacement by other gases B. Source
17.22 What is installed in a water pipeline to minimize C. Size of water supply
the number of customers affected by a line break? D. Water characteristics
A. An air gap 17.30 Treatment plant safety depends principally on:
B. Back flow preventers A. Upper management support
C. A sufficient number of valves B. Number of hazards present
D. A control valve C. Attitude of outside contractors
17.23 The best way to measure your plant’s perfor- D. Luck of the draw
mance against the best system in operation is to: 17.31 Potable water must be free of:
A. Work at both plants A. Rocks
B. Read the literature B. Fish
C. Benchmark C. Non-sanitary properties
D. Ask for opinions D. Vegetation
Practice Exam 635
17.32 USEPA classifies water systems; which of 17.41 Reengineering is:

the following systems is not included in their A. Tearing down the old and rebuilding with the
classifications? new
A. Nontransient B. Engineering out a problem
B. Non-community C. Systematic transformation of an existing sys-
C. Private commune supplies tem to a new form
D. Community D. Unengineering the engineering
17.33 Per 1910.146, an atmosphere that contains a sub- 17.42 Entry into a permit-required confined space is
stance at a concentration exceeding a permis- considered to have occurred:
sible exposure limit, intended solely to prevent A. When an entrant reaches into a space too
long-term, (chronic) adverse health effects, is not small to enter
considered to be a hazardous atmosphere, on that B. As soon as any part of the body breaks the
basis alone. plane of an opening into the space
A. True C. Only when there is clear intent to fully enter
B. False the space (therefore, reaching into a permit
17.34 Besides regulations and clean-up efforts, our space would not be considered entry)
main waterways are still polluted. D. When the entrant says, “I’m going in now”
A. True 17.43 Do human activities slow down or speed up water
B. False flow into canals and ditches?
17.35 Which of the following is not a source of drinking A. Increase the rate of water flow
water? B. Have no effect
A. Freshwater lakes C. Slow water flow
B. Rivers D. Stop the flow of water
C. Glaciers 17.44 If the LEL of a flammable vapor is 1% by volume,
D. Moon rocks how many parts per million is 10% of the LEL?
17.36 A drainage basin is naturally shunted toward: A. 10 ppm
A. Streams B. 100 ppm
B. Creeks C. 1,000 ppm
C. Brooks D. 10,000 ppm
D. All of the above 17.45 Groundwater in relationship to surface water has
17.37 With regard to water supply factor, Q & Q refers which of the following advantages?
to: A. Is usually clean
A. Quick and quality B. Easy to get to
B. Quality and quick C. Flow naturally
C. Quantity and quality D. Is available everywhere
D. None of the above 17.46 The principal operation of most combustible gas
17.38 Water that is unaccounted for in a distribution meters, used for permit entry testing, is:
system is attributable to: A. Electric arc
A. Theft B. Double displacement
B. Leaks C. Electrochemical
C. Transpiration D. Catalytic combustion
D. Inaccurate meter readings 17.47 Groundwater sources have some disadvantages
17.39 Of the following chemical substances, which one when compared to surface water sources, which
is a simple asphyxiate and flammable: of the following are disadvantages?
A. Carbon monoxide (CO) A. Contamination is usually hidden from view
B. Methane (CH4) B. Operating costs are usually higher
C. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) C. Groundwater may be subject to salt water
D. Carbon dioxide (CO2) intrusion
17.40 Glaciers and ice caps hold the largest amount of D. All of the above
freshwater. 17.48 Water can’t be destroyed or lost for practical use.
A. True A. True
B. False B. False
17.49 Which of the following is the proper testing 17.57 Sustainable development can be defined as that
sequence for confined spaces? which meets the needs of future generations with-
A. Toxics, Flammables, Oxygen out compromising the ability of present genera-
B. Oxygen, Flammables, Toxics tions to meet their needs.
C. Oxygen, Toxics, Flammables A. True
D. Flammables, Toxics, Oxygen B. False
17.50 The main reason public utility officials take a 17.58 OSHA’s position allows employers the option
hard look at privatizing is: of making a space eligible for the application of
A. To save money alternate procedures for entering permit spaces,
B. To keep OSHA from knocking on the door paragraph (c)(5), by first temporarily “eliminat-
C. To avoid unionization ing” all non-atmospheric hazards, then control-
D. It’s a way of raising rates without ratepayers ling atmospheric hazards by continuous forced
knowing air ventilation.
17.51 Circle the following true statement(s). A. True
A. Employers must document that they have evalu- B. False
ated their workplace, to determine if any 17.59 Water contracts (gets smaller) when it freezes.
spaces are permit-required confined spaces. A. True
B. If employers decide that their employees will B. False
enter permit spaces, they shall develop and 17.60 Respirators allowed for entry into, and escape
implement a written permit space program. from, immediately dangerous to life, or health
C. Employers do not have to comply with any (IDLH) atmospheres are ____________.
of 1910.146, if they have identified the permit A. Airline
spaces, and have told their employees not to B. Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
enter those spaces. C. Gas mask
D. The employer must identify permit-confined D. Air purifying
spaces by posting signage. E. A and B
17.52 ROAD Gangers are those who: 17.61 Which of the following is a measure of water’s
A. Work on road gangs ability to neutralize acids?
B. Lay pipe in roadways A. pH
C. Are retired on active duty B. Hardness
D. Paint stripes on roadways C. Fluoride level
17.53 Benchmarking includes the following steps: D. Alkalinity
A. Start, stop, adapt 17.62 What two minerals are primarily responsible for
B. Research, observe adapt causing “hard water?”
C. Adapt, start, stop A. Salt and borax
D. Observe, stop, start B. Hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide
17.54 Is it true that benchmarking is an objective-set- C. Alum and chlorine
ting process? D. Calcium (Ca) and magnesium
A. True 17.63 Water has a high surface tension.
B. False A. True
17.55 Is it true that the public has no clue as to water’s B. False
true economic value? 17.64 The power of a substance to resist pH changes is
A. True referred to as a (n):
B. False A. Antidote
17.56 Circle the following true statement(s). B. Fix
A. Under paragraph (c)(5), (i.e., alternate proce- C. Buffer
dures), continuous monitoring can be used in D. Neutral substance
lieu of continuous forced air ventilation, if no 17.65 Which of the following complicates the use or
hazardous atmosphere is detected. reuse of water?
B. Continuous forced air ventilation eliminates A. Sunlight
atmospheric hazards. B. Rainfall
C. Continuous atmospheric monitoring is required C. Recreational use
if employees are entering permit spaces using D. Pollution
alternate procedures, under paragraph (c)(5). 17.66 Condensation is water coming out of the air.
D. Periodic atmospheric monitoring is required A. True
when making entries using alternate proce- B. False
dures under paragraph (c)(5).
Practice Exam 637
17.67 Which of the following is a leading cause of 17.75 More things can be dissolved in sulfuric acid than
impairment to freshwater bodies? in water.
A. Rivers A. True
B. Nonpoint pollution B. False
C. Air pollution 17.76 Rainwater is the purest form of water.
D. Snowfall A. True
17.68 Which of the following is not a feature of water? B. False
A. Appearance 17.77 Circle the following false statement(s):
B. Wetness A. Compliance with OSHA’s Lockout/Tagout
C. Smell Standard is considered to eliminate electro-
D. Odor mechanical hazards.
17.69 Circle the following false statement(s): B. Compliance with the requirements of the
A. If all hazards within a permit space are elimi- Lockout/Tagout Standard is not considered to
nated without entry into the space, the per- eliminate hazards created by flowable mate-
mit space may be reclassified as a non-permit rials, such as steam, natural gas, and other
confined space, under paragraph (c)(7). substances that can cause hazardous atmo-
B. Minimizing the amounts of regulation that spheres or engulfment hazards in a confined
apply to spaces whose hazards have been space.
eliminated, encourages employers to remove C. Techniques used in isolation are blanking,
all hazards from permit spaces. blinding, misaligning, or removing sections
C. A certification containing only the date, loca- of line soil pipes, and a double and bleed
tion of the space, and the signature of the per- system.
son making the determination that all hazards D. Water is considered to be an atmospheric
have been eliminated, shall be made available hazard.
to each employee entering a space that has 17.78 It takes more energy to heat water at room tem-
been reclassified under paragraph (c)(7). perature to 212°F than it does to change 212°F
D. An example of eliminating an engulfment water to steam.
hazard is requiring an entrant to wear a full- A. True
body harness, attached directly to a retrieval B. False
system. 17.79 Circle the following false statement(s):
17.70 If water is turbid it is A. Compliance with OSHA’s Lockout/Tagout
A. Smelly Standard is considered to eliminate electro-
B. Wet mechanical hazards.
C. Cloudy B. Compliance with the requirements of the
D. Clear Lockout/Tagout Standard is not considered to
17.71 In order for an employee to be approved for respi- eliminate hazards created by flowable mate-
rator use on-the-job what is required? rials, such as steam, natural gas, and other
A. Training substances that can cause hazardous atmo-
B. Medical approval spheres or engulfment hazards in a confined
C. Fit-testing space.
D. All of the above C. Techniques used in isolation are blanking,
17.72 Solids are classified as: blinding, misaligning, or removing sections
A. Settable of line soil pipes, and a double and bleed
B. Dissolved system.
C. Colloidal 17.80 If you evaporate an 8-in. glass full of water from
D. All of the above the Great Salt Lake (with a salinity of about 20%
17.73 Colloidal material is composed of: by weight), you will end up with about 1 in. of
A. Leaves salt.
B. Branches A. True
C. Silt B. False
D. Decayed fish 17.81 Pretreatment of water is used to oxidize which of
17.74 Taste and odor in drinking water may be: the following:
A. No hazard A. Iron and manganese
B. A tooth destroyer B. Entrapped gases
C. A contributor to kidney stones C. Removal of tastes and odors
D. A laxative D. All of the above
17.82 Sea water is slightly more basic (the pH value is 17.91 Circle the following true statement(s):
higher) than most natural water. A. An off-site rescue service should have a per-
A. True mit space program before performing con-
B. False fined space rescues.
17.83 Circle the following true statement(s): B. The only respirator that a rescuer can wear
A. “Alarm only” devices, which do not provide into an IDLH atmosphere is a self-contained
numerical readings, are considered accept- breathing apparatus.
able direct reading instruments, for initial C. Only members of in-house rescue teams shall
(pre-entry) or periodic (assurance) testing. practice making permit space rescues, at least
B. Continuous atmospheric testing must be con- once every 12 months.
ducted during permit space entry. D. Each member of the rescue team shall be
C. Under alternate procedures, OSHA will accept a trained in basic first aid and CPR.
minimal “safe for entry” level, as 50 percent of E. To facilitate non-entry rescue, with no excep-
the level of flammable or toxic substances that tions, retrieval systems shall be used whenever
would constitute a hazardous atmosphere. an authorized entrant enters a permit space.
D. The results of air sampling required by 17.92 Hydrogen sulfide gives off a characteristic odor of:
1910.146, which show the composition of an A. Rotten egg
atmosphere to which an employee is exposed, B. Sweet odor
are not exposure records under 1910.1020. C. Flowery odor
17.84 Example(s) of simple asphyxiates are: D. None
A. Nitrogen (N2) 17.93 The chemical that gives of a rotten cabbage odor
B. Carbon monoxide (CO) is:
C. Carbon dioxide (CO2) A. Hydrogen sulfide
D. A and C B. Calcium oxide
17.85 Which statement(s) is/are true, about combustible C. Organic sulfides
gas meters (CGMs)? D. Alum
A. CGMs can measure all types of gases. 17.94 The chemical composition of groundwater is
B. The percent of oxygen will affect the opera- changed by:
tion of CGMs. A. Atmospheric pollution
C. Most CGMs can measure only pure gases. B. The rocks that come into contact with
D. CGMs will indicate the lower explosive limit C. Pollution
for explosive dusts. D. None of the above
17.86 Solids in water may be classified by: 17.95 The Permit-Required Confined Space standard
A. Where they come from requires the employer to initially:
B. Size and state A. Train employees to recognize confined spaces
C. Whether they dissolve or not B. Measure the levels of air contaminants in all
D. None of the above confined spaces
17.87 Colloidal material is never beneficial in water. C. Evaluate the workplace to determine if there
A. True are any confined spaces
B. False D. Develop an effective confined space program
17.88 Why are the adsorption sites on suspended mate- 17.96 Which of the following would increase alkalinity
rial present in water objectionable? in the water?
A. They can provide protective barriers against A. Dirt
chemical treatment of microorganisms B. Sulfur dioxide
B. Enhance bad smell problems C. Manganese
C. Make treatment by screening impossible D. CaCO3
D. There is no problem 17.97 What should be done with a water sample that
17.89 What can cause water to turn to the color of tea? can’t be analyzed right away?
A. Iron contamination A. Throw it away
B. Air contamination B. Freeze it
C. Decayed vegetation C. Add chemicals
D. Salt water contamination D. Refrigerate it
17.90 Taste and odor of water are usually not an issue until: 17.98 The water table is:
A. The water boils on its own A. Aquifer water
B. The water is viscous B. Atmospheric pressure
C. The customer complains C. Water under the table
D. None of the above D. None of the above
Practice Exam 639
17.99 In a pump, what is the purpose of the shaft sleeve? 17.108 Which of the following is the definition of a grab
A. Makes for tighter connection of the impeller sample?
B. Acts as a water slinger ring A. Represents flow
C. Protects shaft from wear B. A single sample of water collected at a par-
D. Prevents contamination inside the pump ticular time and place which represents the
17.100
If an employer decides that he/she will con- composition of the water at that time and
tract out all confined space work, then the place
employer: C. Represents dosage
A. Has no further requirement under the D. A composite sample
standard 17.109 Beer’s Law has to do with what?
B. Must label all spaces with a keep out sign A. A sample’s color based on its concentration
C. Must train workers on how to rescue people B. Taste
from confined spaces C. Odor
D. Must effectively prevent all employees from D. pH
entering confined spaces 17.110 What causes water turbidity?
17.101 Which of the following is a primary reason for A. Bicarbonate
ensuring the safety of drinking water? B. Hardness
A. Reducing cost to customers C. Suspended material
B. Ridding an area of excess water D. Dissolved solids
C. Ensuring public health 17.111 Which water sampling parameter must be taken
D. Political considerations in the field?
17.102 99.999 percent of anything is equivalent to: A. Salinity
A. 5-log B. Fecal coliform
B. 6-log C. Color
C. No log D. pH and temperature
D. Excessive water quality 17.112 Circle the following training requirement that

17.103 Which of the following are water quality factors? is identical for the entrant, attendant, and entry
A. Fecal bacteria supervisor.
B. Odor A. Know the hazards that may be faced during
C. Hardness entry
D. All of the above B. The means of summoning rescue personnel
17.104 In chemical addition to water, what is most
C. The schematic of the space, to ensure all can
important? get around in the space
A. Using the correct additives D. The proper procedure for putting on,
B. Using the correct amount of additive and using, a self-contained breathing
C. Metering additives apparatus
D. Using the best brand of chemical 17.113 Which of the following describes the trickle of
17.105 Water pollutants include: water from the land surface toward an aquifer?
A. Snow A. Conveyance
B. Rain B. Suction
C. Oil C. Evapotranspiration
D. Grass seed D. Percolation
17.106 What is not required on a permit for confined 17.114 Which of the following must always be done

space entry? before repairing a machine?
A. Names of all entrants A. Notify people affected
B. Name(s) of entry supervisors(s) B. Lockout/Tagout equipment
C. The date of entry C. Notify supervisor
D. The ventilation requirements of the space D. Wipe down equipment
17.107 Which of the following is more likely to be found 17.115 What reading must be taken in the field when
in groundwater? obtaining a sample?
A. Minerals A. pH
B. Salt B. Color
C. Giardia C. Chlorine residual
D. Organic matter D. Hardness
17.116 Attendants can: 17.123 The difference, or the drop, between static water
A. Perform other activities when the entrant is level and the pumping water head is known as:
on break inside the confined space. A. Drawdown
B. Summon rescue services, as long as he/she B. Draw up
does not exceed a 200-ft. radius around the C. Slope
confined space. D. Potential energy
C. Enter the space to rescue a worker, but only 17.124 What causes water motion?
when wearing an SCBA, and connected to a A. Inertia
lifeline. B. Energy
D. Order evacuation if a prohibited condition C. Force
occurs. D. Momentum
17.117 An oxygen-enriched atmosphere is considered by 17.125 Of the following, which is not a duty of the

1910.146 to be: entrant?
A. Greater than 22% oxygen A. Properly use all assigned equipment
B. Greater than 23.5% oxygen B. Communicate with the attendant
C. Greater than 20.9% oxygen C. Exit when told to
D. Greater than 25% oxygen when the nitrogen D. Continually test the level of toxic chemicals
concentration is greater than 75% in the space
17.118 The following confined space, which would be 17.126 This is present when water is in motion:
permit-required, is: A. Potential energy
A. A grain silo with inward sloping walls B. Force
B. A ten-gallon methylene chlorine reactor C. Kinetic energy
vessel D. Inertia
C. An overhead crane cab which moves over a 17.127 Friction created as water encounters the surface
steel blast furnace of pipe causes:
D. All the above A. Major head loss
17.119 Performing laboratory work safely requires: B. No loss
A. Adding acid to water C. Minor head loss
B. Mix acid with a pH of 3 with a base of pH D. Heat
12.5 17.128 Iron and manganese are most likely to reside in
C. Add water to acid which of the following water sources?
D. Titrate water to acid A. River
17.120 What are colloidal particles? B. Groundwater
A. Sand C. Stream
B. Large particles D. Lake
C. Total solids 17.129 Alkalinity is:
D. Very small particles that do not dissolve A. pH of 7
17.121 A written permit space program requires: B. The capacity of water to neutralize acid
A. That the employer purchases SCBAs C. pH of 5
and lifelines, but the employees purchase D. The property of neutralizing a base
safety shoes and corrective lens safety 17.130 Force per unit area is:
glasses. A. Force
B. That the employer tests all permit- B. Head
required confined spaces at least once per C. Hydrostatic charge
year, or before entry, whichever is most D. Pressure
stringent. 17.131 Of the following, which is not a duty of the entry
C. That the employer provides one attendant supervisor?
for each entrant up to five, and one for two A. Summon rescue services
entrants, when there are more than five. B. Terminate entry
D. That the employer develops a system to pre- C. Remove unauthorized persons
pare, issue, and cancel entry permits. D. Endorse the entry permit
17.122 Bernoulli’s principle states that the total energy of 17.132 What is head loss measured in feet commonly
a hydraulic fluid is: called?
A. Flexible A. Slope
B. Adjustable B. Head gain
C. Flat C. Head
D. Constant D. Static system
Practice Exam 641
17.133 Chlorine is added to the water distribu-

17.142 Circle the following true statement(s):
tion system to ensure residual chlorine pres- A. Carbon monoxide gas should be ventilated
ence within the system to ensure continuous from the bottom
disinfection. B. The mass of air going into a space equals the
A. True amount leaving
B. False C. Methane gas should be ventilated from the
17.134 Why do we have secondary MCLs? bottom
A. For health reasons D. Gases flow by the inverse law of proportion
B. Just for the heck of it 17.143 Turbidity is described as:
C. For aesthetic reasons A. Cloudiness or haziness of water
D. Because of carcinogens B. Dissolved solids
17.135 An aquifer is typically composed of: C. Total solids
A. Rocks D. Mud
B. Melted rocks 17.144 A disease-causing microorganism is called:
C. Sand and gravel A. Algae
D. Silt B. Fungi
17.136 What is the force as it rounds a bend in a pipe C. A pathogen
called? D. PCP
A. Inertia 17.145 Which of the following is used to mix coagulants?
B. Dynamic load A. Diffuser
C. Thrust B. Mechanical mixing
D. Cavitation C. Hydraulic mixing
17.137 When designing ventilation systems for permit D. All of the above
space entry: 17.146 Hot work is going to be performed in a solvent
A. The air should be blowing into the space reactor vessel that is 10 ft. high and 6 ft. in diam-
B. The air should always be exhausting out of eter. Which of the following is the preferred way
the space to do this?
C. The configuration, contents, and tasks, A. Use submerged arc-welding equipment
determine the type of ventilation methods
B. Inert the vessel with nitrogen and provide a
used combination airline, with auxiliary SCBA
D. Larger ducts and bigger blowers are better respirator, for the welder
17.138 What is the action that a sudden change in water C. Fill the tank with water and use underwater
pressure and direction in a pipe is called? welding procedures
A. Pressure loss D. Pump all the solvent out, ventilate for 24 h,
B. Water hammer and use non-sparking welding sticks
C. Pressure increase E. Clean the reactor vessel then weld per
D. Dynamic load 1910.252
17.139 Which one of the following is used to lower the 17.147 Your pump is making a pinging noise, what is the
pH in water? most likely cause?
A. Sand A. Water hammer
B. Carbon dioxide B. Downstream valves closed
C. Ammonia C. Frequent cycling
D. Sulfur D. Cavitation
17.140 How much does a gallon of water weigh in
17.148 The efficiency of removing suspended solids in
pounds? the sedimentation process is controlled by:
A. 50 lb A. Flowrate
B. 62.14 lb B. Amount of sediment
C. 8.34 lb C. Chemicals added
D. It is weightless D. Temperature
17.141 Of the following which is not a duty of the
17.149 Bacteria are colloidal.
attendant: A. True
A. Know accurately how many entrants are in B. False
the space 17.150 Chlorine is not considered free residual chlorine.
B. Communicate with entrants A. True
C. Summon rescue services when necessary B. False
D. Continually test the level of toxic chemicals
in the space
17.151 The certification of training required for atten- 17.160 A thermocline in a reservoir is a thin layer of
dants, entrants, and entry supervisors, must con- water in which temperature changes more rap-
tain (circle all that apply): idly with depth than it does in the layers above or
A. The title of each person trained below.
B. The signature, or initials, of each person A. True
trained B. False
C. The signature or initials of the trainer 17.161 What agency is responsible for protecting worker
D. The topics covered by the training safety and health?
17.152 What is static head? A. EPA
A. Horizontal distance between a reference B. NRA
point to the water surface C. AARP
B. The output of a centrifugal pump D. OSHA
C. Friction loss 17.162 Which of the following is a zone of a clarifier?
D. The vertical distance between a reference A. Top
point to the water surface, when water is not B. Sludge
moving C. Bottom
17.153 What is the purpose of packing and mechanical D. Aerator
seal? 17.163 Which of the following is a positive displacement
A. Increases head pump?
B. Supports the shaft assembly A. Feeder pump
C. Prevents pump water leakage B. Sub pump
D. Prevents bearing grease leakage C. Piston pump
17.154 Coliform is used as an indicator organism
D. Well pump
because: 17.164 What is the main purpose of seal water in pumps?
A. It saves time, money and cost of analysis A. Prevent water hammer
B. Why not? B. Protect bearings
C. It is easily detected C. Cool packing
D. It provides a wealth of information D. Protect the slinger ring
17.155 A rest stop is an example of a community water 17.165 Which of the following impacts the color of

system. water?
A. True A. Salt
B. False B. Sulfur Dioxide
17.156 Hardness is least likely to impact the formation of C. Vegetation
flocs during coagulation and flocculation. D. Carbon dioxide
A. True 17.166 Which of the following would it be likely to find
B. False coliform in?
17.157 If excessive water leaks from the stuffing box it A. Sand
implies: B. Tap water
A. Impeller has crumbled C. Lake
B. Broken check valve D. Deep well
C. Packing gland needs to be tightened 17.167 What is an example of natural organic matter?
D. Bearing failure A. Vegetation
17.158 __________ is installed on the suction pipe of a B. Salt
pump to prevent water from draining out of the C. Dirt
pump. D. Iron
A. Foot valve 17.168 Federal Paragraph 1910.146 (g) requires that

B. Slinger ring training of all employees, whose work is regu-
C. Pressure valve lated by the permit-required confined space stan-
D. Emergency valve dard, shall be provided:
17.159 What is used to restrict leakage from the impeller A. On an annual basis
discharge? B. When the employer believes that there are
A. Slinger ring inadequacies in the employee’s knowledge of
B. Wear rings the company’s confined space procedures
C. Lantern ring C. When the union demands it
D. Shaft sleeve D. All the above
Practice Exam 643
17.169 What is the function of a velocity pump? 17.181 The _____________ is responsible for enforcing
A. Piston the drinking water standards.
B. Propeller meter A. EPA
C. Motor controller B. State
D. Relief valve C. FDA
17.170 Short circuiting in a clarifier is shorter settling D. USDA
time. 17.182 ________ control fluid flow through piping

A. True systems.
B. False A. Robots
17.171 Adsorption is substances sticking to the surface B. Valves
of a media. C. Accumulators
A. True D. Receivers
B. False 17.183 Which is the smallest pathogen?
17.172 What do you think is the most common water A. Cyst
quality complaint from customers? B. Protozoa
A. The well runs dry C. Virus
B. The water tastes nasty D. Bacteria
C. The water is rust-filled 17.184 What does a high C factor for a pipe indicate?
D. Taste and odor issues A. No corrosion protection
17.173 Which of the following causes hardness in water? B. Easy to bend
A. Iron C. Smooth pipe interior
B. Calcium D. Large pipe
C. Dirt 17.185 Decaying vegetation in water is an example of:
D. Leaves A. Suspended solids
17.174 Which of the following range of pH is considered B. Dirt
to be basic? C. Soluble solids
A. 3–5 D. Colloids
B. 7 17.186 When air pockets form at the high points in a
C. 12–14 pipeline, the cause is usually ____________.
D. 0–6 A. Flow rate too high
17.175
Blackish water may be due to precipitated B. Excessive air bubbles
manganese. C. Oil contamination
A. True D. Pump impeller cracked
B. False 17.187 ____________ happens during the course of a
17.176 What is the drawback of using UV for disinfection? filter run time.
A. Not expensive A. Headloss increases
B. Electrocution B. No headless
C. Longer contact time C. Maximum headloss
D. High turbidity water D. Headloss decreases
17.177 The _____________ pump has a piston inside its 17.188 Surge tanks are used to control ____________.
casing. A. Leaks
A. Centrifugal B. Air bubbles
B. Venturi C. Water hammer
C. Reciprocating D. Corrosion
D. Peristaltic 17.189 A coupling (a Dresser) is used to:
17.178 Scaling is the most common problem with hard A. Repair clamps
water: B. Saddle a pipe
A. True C. Install a volute
B. False D. Connect a new water main to an existing
17.179 The problem with soft water is that it causes: water main
A. Scaling 17.190 A metallic flat surface used to minimize leakage
B. Blockage around the pump shaft is known as a:
C. Water hammer A. Mechanical seal
D. Corrosion B. Air gap
17.180 Chlorine gas is brown in color. C. Bearing ring
A. True D. Slinger ring
B. False
17.191 When a new pipe suffers tuberculation, what does 17.201 What is the best procedure for ensuring equip-
this indicate? ment proper operation?
A. Scaling A. All new equipment
B. Low pH B. Preventive maintenance
C. Water is corrosive C. 24-h operator surveillance
D. Neutral pH D. Good luck
17.192 The valve type commonly used to control pres- 17.202 A _______ describes groundwater that flows nat-
sure and flow is: urally from the ground.
A. Emergency relief valve A. Stream
B. Check valve B. Well
C. Foot valve C. Spring
D. Globe valve D. Waterfall
17.193 Deposition of calcium carbonate in a water main 17.203 What is the most critical problem that may be
is known as ______________. encountered when entering a confined space?
A. Overloading A. Black widow spiders
B. Scaling B. Lack of oxygen
C. Pigging C. Trip hazards
D. Corrosion D. Low temperature
17.194 What is a regulator station used for? 17.204 Which of the following are commonly used

A. Feed chlorine coagulants?
B. Prevent corrosion A. Ferric sulfate
C. Maintain an acceptable water pressure within B. Alum
a piping system C. Polymer
D. Release air within the pipe D. All of the above
17.195 A turbine pump is best described as a: 17.205 What causes the water to look cloudy?
A. Piston pump A. High pH
B. Air pump B. Wastewater
C. Centrifugal pump C. Hardness
D. Jet pump D. Suspended solids
17.196 A chain of flight collectors is commonly used: 17.206 If you are exposed to high noise levels for only an
A. To remove soluble materials from water hour a day it will not lessen your hearing acuity.
B. To remove sludge from clarifier bottom A. True
C. Has no function B. False
D. Protects water from contamination 17.207 What is a plant vulnerability study used for?
17.197 When scheduling preventive maintenance, how A. To ensure security
often should it be accomplished? B. To evaluate potential threats
A. Refer to manufacturer’s recommendation C. To find out who is vulnerable
B. Never D. To prepare for OSHA inspection
C. Annually 17.208 Why is a chlorine residual important?
D. Every day A. Oxidizes iron and manganese
17.198 The purpose of a check valve is to: B. Provides chlorine residual to save on costs
A. Throttle flow C. Oxidizes nitrate
B. Stop flow D. Continues treatment after treatment
C. Speed up flow 17.209 One of the most prominent industrial wastes

D. Allow water to flow in one direction only found in surface water is:
17.199 If you add lime to water what happens to pH? A. Milk
A. Goes acidic B. Caustic
B. pH increases C. Organic solvents
C. Decreases turbidity D. None of the above
D. Increases turbidity 17.210 Who is responsible for proper operation and

17.200 What type of valve is a corporation stop? maintenance and plant equipment?
A. Relief valve A. Top manager
B. Check valve B. CEO
C. Foot valve C. Custodian
D. Ball valve or plug valve D. All plant employees
Practice Exam 645
17.211 When the flow rate in the sedimentation process 17.222 ______________ has a rotten egg odor.
is increased, efficiency is lowered. A. Dirt
A. True B. Sulfur dioxide
B. False C. Hydrogen sulfide
17.212 Which of the following mechanisms occur in fil- D. Alum
ter media? 17.223 Which of the following is a recommended way to
A. Sedimentation protect and conserve plant infrastructure?
B. Adsorption A. Purchase good insurance policy
C. Straining B. Proper operating procedures
D. All of the above C. If it runs, leave it alone mantra
17.213 What is the main disadvantage of performing pre- D. Increase funding
ventive maintenance on plant equipment? 17.224
Why are public water utilities “invisible” for
A. Okay equipment could be damaged many people?
B. Too expensive A. Piping is buried underground and treatment
C. Someone might be injured plants are located in remote locations
D. Might shutdown plant operations B. Many people have no idea where their drink-
17.214 Why does the water industry have a high inci- ing water comes from
dence of injury? C. Many people do not care where their water
A. Almost all types of hazards are present comes from
B. Workplace violence D. Water is not often thought about until the tap
C. Too many off hours is dry or they are dying of thirst
D. Very liberal on-the-job-injury reporting system 17.225 When are Safety Data Sheets required to be avail-
17.215 Turbidity measurement is used to evaluate filtra- able to workers?
tion efficiency. A. Once per year
A. True B. Whenever a supervisor provides them
B. False C. 24/7
17.216 Absence of plant safety rules can lead to: D. When asked for
A. Increased injury rate 17.226 Confined spaces can be killers due to:
B. Lawsuits A. Wild animals within
C. Abuse of workers’ compensation B. Lack of oxygen
D. All of the above C. Piping galleries
17.217 The ____________ process does not remove D. One way in and out
pathogens. 17.227 What does a pH of 3 indicate?
A. Filtration A. Strong acid
B. Disinfection B. Weak Acid
C. Screening C. Neutral
D. Sedimentation D. Very strong base
17.218 Rupture in pipe(s) is the most common source of 17.228 Total dissolved solids in water give the water a
waterborne disease. bad taste.
A. True A. True
B. False B. False
17.219 Humans can’t detect chlorine gas contamination 17.229 Who is authorized to provide first aid used in the
at 3 ppm. workplace?
A. True A. Anyone
B. False B. Outside responders only
17.220 Safety starts at the top. What is the main factor C. Trained & certified first aid personnel
that brings this statement to reality? D. Human resources specialists
A. Unlimited funds in safety budget 17.230 A pH of 7.5 is ideal for disinfecting bacteria.
B. Great insurance coverage A. True
C. Top management supports safety B. False
D. Employees buy into safety programs 17.231 Who is authorized to remove a lockout/tagout
17.221 Energy is expensive. What is the best way to save device?
on energy costs? A. Supervisor
A. Turn out the lights when not in use B. Anyone
B. Turn off equipment not needed C. General manager
C. Purchase only energy-efficient equipment D. None of the above
D. All of the above
17.232 The centrifugal pump is not a positive displace- 17.242 During hot work operations, why is a fire watch
ment pump. required?
A. True A. To prevent fire
B. False B. To comply with OSHA
17.233 Which of the following imparts velocity to water? C. To create extra jobs
A. Pump housing D. To satisfy insurance requirements
B. Slinger ring 17.243 After a filter is backwashed, turbidity momen-
C. Impeller tarily ____________ in the filter effluent.
D. Bearings A. Remains the same
17.234 Algal blooms increase the pH of water in a
B. Causes headloss to decrease
reservoir. C. Increases
A. True D. Decreases
B. False 17.244 What is 5-log removal?
17.235 Coagulants have a positive charge. A. 1015
A. True B. 10%
B. False C. 99.999%
17.236 The Hazard Communication Standard requires D. 5%
employers to: 17.245 Torch cutting is dangerous because:
A. Label chemical hazards A. It can cause a fire
B. Train employees B. It can burn operators
C. Provide safety data sheets C. It can seep into cracks, out of sight of the
D. All of the above operator
17.237 High velocity backwashing of filter systems can D. All of the above
result in _____________. 17.246 Heterotrophic uses sunlight for energy.
A. Breakdown of filter A. True
B. Excessive spent media B. False
C. No problem 17.247 Taste and odor problems in raw surface water are
D. Failure to remove contaminants usually caused by _________________.
17.238 ____________ neutralizes the negative charges A. High pH
on colloids during water treatment. B. Algae
A. pH C. Dirt
B. Coagulation and Flocculation D. Sand
C. Ferric Chloride 17.248 __________ is used to remove turbidity.
D. Alum A. Alum
17.239 __________________ inactivates many of the B. Carbon
pathogens in water. C. Sand filter
A. Alum D. Hypochlorite
B. Sodium hydroxide 17.249 Those who are required to wear full-face respi-
C. Disinfection rators in the performance of their daily duties
D. Filtering should be clean-shaven.
17.240 What is a dial indicator used for? A. True
A. Feeding chemicals B. False
B. Changing bearings 17.250 The typical source of lead in drinking water is
C. Checking pump vibration ____________.
D. Used to measure alignment A. Water supply
17.241 ____________ is formed when chlorine is added B. Groundwater supply
to water. C. Artesian water
A. Hypochlorous acid D. Corrosion of pipe
B. Sludge
C. Alum
D. Hypochlorite
Appendix A: Chapter review quiz answers
CHAPTER 1 4.3 T
4.4 J
1.1 A pattern or point of view that determines what is 4.5 S
seen as reality. 4.6 P
1.2 A change in the way things are understood and 4.7 D
done. 4.8 I
1.3 (1) assessing and protecting drinking water 4.9 E
sources 4.10 Q
(2) optimizing treatment processes 4.11 U
(3) ensuring the integrity of distribution systems 4.12 K
(4) effecting correct cross-connection control 4.13 A
procedures 4.14 V
(5) continuous monitoring and testing of the 4.15 R
water before it reaches the tap 4.16 W
1.4 Water/wastewater operations are usually low- 4.17 L
profile activities and much of water/wastewater 4.18 X
infrastructure is buried underground. 4.19 M
1.5 Secondary 4.20 Y
1.6 Privatization means allowing private enterprises 4.21 F
to compete with the government in providing 4.22 B
public services, such as water and wastewater 4.23 Z
operations. Re-engineering is the systematic 4.24 H
transformation of an existing system into a new 4.25 N
form to realize quality improvements in opera- 4.26 G
tion, systems capability, functionality, and per-
formance at lower cost, schedule, or risk to the
customer. CHAPTER 5
1.7 A process for rigorously measuring your perfor-
5.1 (0.785) (70 ft) (70 ft) (25 ft) 7.48 gal/ft3) =
mance vs “best-in-class” operations, and using
719,295.5 gal
the analysis to meet and exceed the best in class.
5.2 (60 ft) (20 ft) 10 ft) = 12,000 ft3
1.8 Planning, research, observation, analysis,
5.3 (20 ft) (60 ft) (12 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 107,712 gal
adaptation
5.4 (20 ft) (40 ft) 12 ft) (7.48 ft3) = 71,808 gal
5.5 (0.785) (60 ft) (60 ft) (12 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) =
CHAPTER 2 ANSWERS 253,662 gal
5.6 (20 ft) (50 ft) (16 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 119,680 gal
3.2 Operators are exposed to the full range of hazards
5.7 (4 ft) (6 ft) (340 ft) = 8,160 ft3
and work under all weather conditions.
5.8 (0.785) (0.83 ft) (0.83 ft) (1600 ft) (7.48 gal/
3.3 Plants are upgrading to computerized operations.
ft3) = 6472 gal
3.4 Computerized maintenance management system
5.9 5 ft + 10 ft/2 (4 ft) (800 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3)
3.5 HAZMAT emergency response technician 24-h
= (7.5 ft) (4 ft) (800 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3)
certification
= 179,520 gal
3.6 Safe Drinking Water Act
5.10 (0.785) (.66) (.66) (2250 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) =
5,755 gal
CHAPTER 3 ANSWERS 5.11 (5 ft) (4 ft) (1200 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 179,520 gal
(4 ft )(4 ft )(1200 ft )
3.1 Answers will vary 5.12 = 711 yd 3
3.2 Answers will vary 27 ft 3 /yd 3
5.13 (500 yds) (1 yd) (1.33 yd) = 665 yd3
5.14 (900 ft) (3 ft) (3 ft) = 8,100 ft3
CHAPTER 4 MATCHING ANSWERS
5.15 (700 ft) (6.5 ft) (3.5 ft) = 15,925 ft3
4.1 O 5.16 (0.785) (90 ft) (90 ft) (25 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) =
4.2 C 1,189,040 gal
647
648 Appendix A
5.17 (80 ft) (16 ft) (20 ft) = 25,600 ft3 5.49 373.6/92 days = 4.1 MGD
5.18 (0.785) (0.67 ft) (0.67 ft) (4000 ft) (7.48 gal/ 5.50 (12 ft) (12 ft) (0.67 fpm) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 722 gpm
ft3) = 10,543 gal 5.51 (0.785) (0.67 ft) (0.67 ft) (x fps) (7.48 gal/ft3) (60
5.19 (1200 ft) (3 ft) (3 ft) = 10,800 ft3 sec/min) = 510 gpm
x = 3.2 fps
(3 ft )(4 ft )(1200 ft )
5.20 = 533 yd 3 5.52 (10 cfs) (7.48 gal/ft3) (60 sec/min) = 4488 gpm
27 ft 3 /yd 3 5.53 134.6/31 days = 4.3 MGD
5.21 (30 ft) (80 ft) (12 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 215,424 gal 5.54 (5.2 MGD) (1.55 cfs/MGD) = 8.1 cfs
5.22 (8 ft) (3.5 ft) (3000 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 628,320 gal 5.55 (0.785) (2 ft) (2 ft) (3.3 fpm) (7.48 gal/
5.23 (0.785) (70 ft) (70 ft) (19 ft) (7.48 gal/ ft3) = 77.5 gpm
ft3) = 546,665 gal (1,825,000 gpd)
5.56 = 169 cfm
5.24 (0.785) (25 ft) (25 ft) (30 ft) (7.48 gal/
ft3) = 110,096 gal
(
(1440 min/day ) 7.48 gal/ft 3 )
5.25 (2.4 ft) (3.7 ft) (2.5 fps) (60 sec/min) = 1332 cfm 5.57 (0.785) (0.5 ft) (0.5 ft) (2.9 fps) (7.48 gal/ft3) (60
5.26 (20 ft) (12 ft) (0.8 fpm) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 1436 gpm sec/min) = 255 gpm
(4 ft + 6 ft ) 5.58 (0.785) (0.83 ft) (0.83 ft) (2.6 fps) = (0.785) (0.67 ft)
5.27 (3.3 ft )(130 fpm )
2 (0.67 ft) (x fps) =
x = 4.0 fps
= 5(3.3 ft) (130 fpm)
5.59 (2225 gpm) (1440 min/day) = 3,204,000 gpd
= 2145 cfm
5.60 5,350,000 gal/1440 min/day = 3715 gpm
5.28 (0.785) (0.66) (0.66) (2.4 fps) (7.48 gal/ft3) (60
5.61 (2.5 mg/L) (5.5 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 115 lbs/day
sec/min) = 368 gpm
5.29 (0.785) (3 ft) (3 ft) (4.7 fpm) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 248 gpm
5.30 (0.785) (0.83 ft) (0.83 ft) (3.1 fps) (7.48 gal/ft3)
(10 mg/L)(1.8 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
(60 sec/min) (0.5) = 376 gpm 5.64 = 231 lbs/day
5.31 (6 ft) (2.6 ft) (x fps) (60 sec/min) (7.48 gal/ 0.65
ft3) = 14,200 gpm 5.65 (60 mg/L) (0.086 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 43 lbs
x = 2.03 ft 5.66 (2220 mg/L) (0.225) (8.34 lb/gal) = 4166 lbs
5.32 (0.785) (0.67) (0.67) (x fps) (7.48 gal/ft3) (60 sec/ (8 mg/L)(0.83 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.67 = 85 lb/day
min) = 584 gpm 0.65
x = 3.7 fps 5.68 (450 mg/L) (1.84 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 6906
5.33 550 ft/208 sec = 2.6 fps lb/day
5.34 (0.785) (0.83 ft) (0.83 ft) (2.4 fps) = (0.785) (0.67 ft) 5.69 (25 mg/L) (2.90 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 605 lb/day
(0.67 ft) (x fps) 5.70 (260 mg/L) (5.45 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 11,818
x = 3.7 fps lb/day
5.35 500 ft/92 sec = 5.4 fps 5.71 (144 mg/L) (3.66 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 4396 lb/day
5.36 (0.785) (0.67) (0.67) (3.2 fps) = (0.785) (0.83 ft) 5.72 (290 mg/L) (3.31 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 8006
(0.83 ft) (x fps) lb/day
x = 2.1 fps 5.73 (152 mg/L) (5.7 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 7226 lb/day
5.37 35.3 MGD/7 = 5 MGD 5.74 (188 mg/L) (1.92 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 3010 lb/day SS
5.38 121.4 MG/30 days = 4.0 MGD 5.75 (184 mg/L) (1.88 MGD) (8.34 lb/day) = 2885 lb/
5.39 1,000,000 × 0.165 = 165,000 gpd day SS
5.40 3,335,000 gal/1440 min = 2316 gpm 5.76 (150 mg/L) (4.88 MGD) (8.34 lbs/gal) = 6105 lbs/
5.41 (8 cfs) (7.48 gal/ft3) (60 sec/min) = 3590 gpm day BOD
5.42 (35 gps) (60 sec/min) (1440 min/day) = 3,024,000 gpd 5.77 (205 mg/L) (2.13) (8.34 lb/gal) = 3642 solids
4, 570, 000 gpd 5.78 (115 mg/L) (4.20 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 4028 lb/day
5.43 = 424 cfm
(
(1440 min/day) 7.48 gal/ft 3 ) 5.79 (2230 mg/L) (0.40 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 7439 lb SS
5.80 (1890 mg/L) (0.41 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 6463 lb
5.44 (6.6 MGD) (1.55 cfs/MGD) = 10.2 cfs MLVSS
( 445,875 cfs ) ( 7.48 gal/ft 3 ) 5.81 (3125 mg/L) (0.18 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 4691 lb
5.45 = 2316 gpm MLVSS
1440 min/day 5.82 (2250 mg/L) (0.53 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 9945 lbs
5.46 (2450 gpm) (1440 min/day) = 3,528,000 gpd MLSS
5.47 (6 ft) (2.5 ft) (x fps) (7.48 gal/ft3) (60 sec/ 5.83 (2910 mg/L) (0.63 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 15,290 lbs
min) = 14,800 gpm MLSS
x = 2.2 fps 5.84 (6150 mg/L) (x MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 5200 lbs/day
5.48 (4.6 ft) (3.4 ft) (3.6 fps) (60 sec/min) = 3378 cfm x = 0.10 MGD
Appendix A 649
5.85 (6200 mg/L) (x MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 4500 lb/day 4.4 ac-ft/day

(a) x = 0.09 = 0.22 ft/day
5.109 20 ac
(b) 90,000 gpd/1440 min/day = 62.5 gpm
= 3 in./day
5.86 (6600 lb/day) (x MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 6070 lb/day
x = 0.11 MGD 2, 050, 000 gpd
5.110 = 1171 gpd/ft 2
= 110,000 gpd ÷ 1440 min/day = 76 gpm (70 ft )(25 ft )
5.87 (6350 mg/L) (x MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 7350 lb/day 2, 440, 000 gpd
x = 0.14 MGD 5.111 = 863 gpd/ft 2
(0.785)(60 ft )(60 ft )
= 140,000 gpd ÷ 1440 min/day
= 97 gpm 3,450,000 gpd
5.112 = 627 gpd/ft 2
5.88 (7240 mg/L) (x MGD) (8.34 lbs/gal) = 5750 lbs/day (110 ft )(50 ft )
x = 0.10 MGD 1, 660, 000 gpd
= 100,000 gpd ÷ 1440 min/day = 69 gpm 5.113 = 949 gpd/ft 2
(25 ft )(70 ft )
5.89 (2.5 mg) (3.65 MGD) (8.34 lbs/gal) = 76.1 lb/day
5.90 (17 mg/L) (2.10 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 298 lb/day 2,660,000 gpd
5.114 = 691 gpd/ft 2
BOD (0.785)(70 ft )(70 ft )
5.91 (190 mg/L) (4.8 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 7606 lb/day 2230 gpm
SS Rem. 5.115 = 2.8 gpm/ft 2
(40 ft )(20 ft )
5.92 (9.7 mg/L) (5.5 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 445 lb/day
5.93 (305 mg/L) (3.5 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 8903 lb/day 3100 gpm
5.116 = 3.1 gpm/ft 2
(10 mg/L)(3.1 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) (40 ft )(25 ft )
5.94 0.65 2500 gpm
5.117 = 1.6 gpm/ft 2
= 398 lb/day Hypochlorite (26 ft )(60 ft )
5.95 (210 mg/L) (3.44 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 6025 lb/ 1528 gpm
5.118 = 1.9 gpm/ft 2
day Solids (40 ft )(20 ft )
5.96 (60 mg/L) (0.09 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 45 lb Chlorine 2850 gpm
5.97 (2720 mg/L) (0.52 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 11,796 lb 5.119 = 3.2 gpm/ft 2
880 ft 2
MLSS
5.98 (5870 mg/L) (x MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 5480 lb/day 4750 gpm
5.120 = 24 gpm/ft 2
x = 0.11 MGD (14 ft )(14 ft )
5.99 (120 mg/L) (3.312 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 3315 lb/ 4900 gpm
day BOD 5.121 = 12 gpm/ft 2
(20 ft )(20 ft )
5.100 (240 mg/L) (3.18 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 6365 lb
BOD 3400 gpm
5.122 = 9 gpm/ft 2
5.101 (196 mg/L) (1.7 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 2779 lb/day (25 ft )(15 ft )
BOD Removed 3300 gpm
5.102 (x mg/L) (5.3 MGD) (8.34 lb/day) = 330 lb/day 5.123 = 4.4 gpm/ft 2
(75 ft )(30 ft )
x = 7.5 mg/L
5.103 (5810 mg/L) (x MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) = 5810 mg/L 3800 gpm
5.124 = 12.7 gpm/ft 2
x = 0.12 MGD (15 ft )(20 ft )
= 120,000 gpd ÷ 1440 min/day 3, 770, 000 gal
= 83 gpm 5.125 = 8378 gal/ft 2
(15 ft )(30 ft )
3, 400, 000 gpd
5.104 = 433 gpd/ft 2 1, 860, 000 gal
(0.785)(100 ft )(100 ft ) 5.126 = 6200 gal/ft 2
(20 ft )(15 ft )
4, 525, 000 gpd
5.105 = 712 gpd/ft 2 3, 880, 000 gal
(0.785)(90 ft )(90 ft ) 5.127 = 7760 gal/ft 2
(25 ft )(20 ft )
3, 800, 000 gpd
5.106 = 4.4 gpd/ft 2 1,410,200 gal
870, 000 ft 5.128 = 5036 gal/ft 2
(20 ft )(14 ft )
280,749 ft 3day
5.107 0.4 ft/day 5,425,000 gal
696,960 ft 2 5.129 = 9042 gal/ft 2
(30 ft )(20 ft )
(0.4 ft/day) (12 in./ft) = 4.8 in./day
5,280,000 gpd 1,410,000 gpd
5.108 = 830 gpd/ft 2 5.130 = 8650 gpd/ft
(0.785)(90 ft )(90 ft ) 163 ft
650 Appendix A
2,120,000 gpd (x mg/L)(3.61 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)

5.131 = 11, 253 gpd/ft
(3.14)(60 ft ) 5.147 (0.785)(60 ft )(60 ft )
2, 700, 00 gpd = 26 lbs /day /ft 2
5.132 = 11, 250 gpd/ft

240 ft x = 2441 mg/L MLSS
(1400 gpm )(1440 min/day) (2210 mg/L)(3.3 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.133 = 8025 gpd/ft
(3.14)(80 ft ) 5.148 (0.785)(60 ft )(60 ft )
2785 gpm = 21.5 lb MLSS/day/ft 2
5.134 = 14.7 gpm/ft
189 ft (x mg/L)(3.11 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
(210 mg/L)(2.45 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) 5.149 (0.785)(60 ft )(60 ft )
5.135 25.1 1000 ft 3 = 20 lbs MLSS/day/ft 2
= 171 lbs BOD/day/1000 ft 3
x = 2174 mg/L MLSS
(170 mg/L)(0.120 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) 12,110 lb VS/day
5.150 = 0.37 lbs VS/day/ft 3
5.136 3.5 ac 33,100 ft 3
= 49 lbs BOD/day/ac
(124, 000 1b /day)(0.065)(0.70)
(120 mg/L)(2.85 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) 5.151 (0.785)(60 ft )(60 ft )(25 ft )
5.137 34 1000 ft 3 = 0.08 lbs VS/day/ft 3
= 84 lb BOD/day/1000 ft 3
(141, 000 lb /day)(0.06)(0.71)
(140 mg/L)(2.20 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) 5.152 (0.785)(50 ft )(50 ft )(20 ft )
5.138 900 1000 ft 3 = 0.15 lbs VS/day/ft 3
= 2.9 lb BOD/day/1000 ft 3
(21, 200 gpd)(8.34 lb /gal) (0.055)(0.69)

5.139 =(0.785) (90 ft) (90 ft) (4 ft) = 25,434 5.153 (0.785)(40 ft )(40 ft )(16 ft )
(150 mg/L)(3.5 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 0.33 VS/day/ft 3
25.4 1000 ft 3
(22, 000 gpd)(8.6 lb/gal) (0.052)(0.70)
= 172 lb BOD/day/1000 ft 3
5.154 (0.785)(50 ft )(50 ft )(20 ft )
(200 mg/L)(3.42 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 0.18 lbs VS/day/ft 3
5.140 = 0.9
(1875 mg/L)(0.42 MG)(8.34 lb/gall)
2050 lb VS Added/day
5.155 = 0.06
(190 mg/L)(3.24 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) 32, 400 lb VS
5.141 = 1.3
(1710 mg/L)(0.28 MG)(8.34 lb/gall)
620 lb VS Added/day
5.156 = 0.09
(151 mg/L)(2.25 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) (174, 600 lb) (0.061)(0.65)
5.142 = 0.9
x lb MLVSS (63, 200 lb/day)(0.055)(0.73)
5.157 = 0.07
x = 3148 lb MLVSS (115, 000 gal)(8.34 lb/gal)(0.066) (0.59)
(160 mg/L)(2.10 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) X lb VS Added/day

5.143 = 0.7 5.158 = 0.08
(1900 mg/L)(0.255 MG)(8.34 lb/gaal) (110, 000 gal) (8.34 lb/gal) (0.059)(0.58)
x = 2511 lb/day VS
(180 mg/L)(3.11 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) (7, 900 gpd)(8.34 lb /gal) (0.048)(0.73)
5.144 = 0.5 5.159 = 0.06
(x mg/L)(0.88 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) x lb VS
x = 1262 mg/L MLVSS x = 38,477 lb VS
(2650 mg/L)(3.60 MGD) (8.34 lb/gal) 5.160 1733 people/5.3 ac = 327 people/ac
5.145 (0.785)(70 ft )(70 ft ) 5.161 4112 people/10 ac = 411 people/ac
= 20.7 lbs MLSS/day/ft 2 (1765 mg/L)(0.381 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.162 0.2 lb/day
(2825 mg/L)(4.25 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 28, 040 people
5.146 (0.785)(80 ft )(80 ft ) 6000 people
= 19.9 lbs MLSS/day/ft 2 5.163 = 420 people/ac
x ac
Appendix A 651
x = 14.3 ac 5.182 1900 people/5.5 ac = 345 people/ac

(2210 mg/L)(0.100 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) (140 mg/L)(2.44 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.164 0.2 lb/day 5.183 750 1000 ft 2
= 9216 people = 3.8 lb BOD/day/1000 ft 2
2, 250, 000 gpd 2882 gpm

5.165 = 448 gpd/ft 2 5.184 = 2.4 gpm/ft 2
(0.785)(80 ft )(80 ft ) (40 ft )(30 ft )
2960 gpm (30 ft )(16 ft )(8 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 2 )
5.166 = 15.6 gpm/ft 2 5.185 = 29 min
190 ft 2 1007 gpm
2,100, 000 gpd
5.167 = 8360 gpd/ft (80 ft )(20 ft )(12 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 )
(3.14)(80 ft ) 5.186 = 1.9 hrs
75, 000 gph
3, 300, 000 gpd
5.168 = 519 gpd/ft 2 (3 ft )(4 ft )(3 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 )
(0.785)(90 ft )(90 ft ) 5.187 = 0.75 hrs
(6 gpm )(60 min/hr )
(161 mg/L)(2.1 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.169 = 0.7
x lb MLVSS (0.785)(80 ft )(80 ft )(10 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 )
5.188 = 1.7 hrs
x = 4028 lb MLVSS 216,667 gpd
500 lb/day VS Added/day
5.170 = 0.06 (500 ft )(600 ft )(6 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 )
(182, 000 lb) (0.064)(0.67) 5.189 = 60.5 days
222,500 gpd
(2760 mg/L)(3.58 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) 12, 300 lb MLSS
5.171 (0.785)(80 ft )(80 ft ) 5.190 = 4.5 days
2750 lb/day
= 16 lbs/day/ft 2
(2820 mg/LMLSS)(0.49 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
(115, 000 lb/day)(0.071)(0.70) 5.191 (132 mg/L)(0.988 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.172 = 0.09
(0.785)(70 ft )(70 ft )(21 ft ) = 10.6 days
4.15 ac-ft/day (2850 mg/L MLSS)(0.20 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)

5.173 = 0.17 ft/day
25 ac 5.192 (84 mg/L)(1.52 MGD)(8.34 lb//gal)
= (0.17 ft/day) (12 in./ft) = 2.0 in./day = 4.5 days
(174 mg/L)(3.335 MGD)(8.3 lb/gal)
5.174 = 0.5 (x mg/L ML SS)(0.205 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
(x mg/L)(0.287 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.193 (80 mg/L)(2.10 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
x = 4033 mg/L MLVSS = 6 days
2,000,000 gpd
5.175 = 1000 gpd/ft 2 x = 4917 mg /L MLSS
(80 ft )(25 ft )
1,785,000 gal x lb MLSS
5.176 = 3570 gal/ft 2 5.194 = 5.5 days
(25 ft )(20 ft ) 1610 lb/day SS
x = 8855 lb MLSS
(150 mg/L)(2.69 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.177 = 0.68 (3300 mg/L)(0.50 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
(1920 mg/L)(0.31 MG)(8.34 lb/gall) 5.195 = 7.1 days
1610 lb/day Wasted + 340 lb/day in SE
x lb VS added/day
5.178 = 0.09 (2750 mg/L MLSS)(0.360 MG)(8.35 lb/gal)
(24,500 gal) (8.34 lb/gal) (0.055)(0.56) 5.196
ëé(5410 mg/L)(0.0192 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
x = 566 lb/day +(16 mg/L SS)(2.35 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) ùû
3083 gpm
5.179 = 2.6 gpm/ft 2 8257 lb
(40 ft )(30 ft ) = = 7.0 days
866 lb/day + 314 lb/day
(115 mg/L)(3.3 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) (2550 mg/L MLSS)(1.8 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.180 20.1 1000 ft 3 5.197
éë(6240 mg/L SS)(0.085 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
= 157 lb BOD/day/1000 ft 3
+(20 mg/L)(2.8 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) ùû
2, 560, 000 gpd 38, 281 lb MLSS
5.181 = 10,191 gpd/ft = = 8 days
(3.14)(80 ft ) 4424 lb/day + 467 lbs/day
652 Appendix A
(x mg /L)(0.970 MG)(8.34 lb /gal) (x mg/L)(0.64 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)

5.198 = 8 days
éë(6340 mg/L)(0.032 MGD)(8.34 lb/al) 1789 lb/day + 292 lb/day
+(20 mg/L)(2.6 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) ùû
(x mg/L)(0.64 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
(x mg/L)(0.970 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) = 8 days
= 8 days 2081 lb/day
1692 lb/day + 434 lb/day
x = 3141 mg/L MLSS
(x mg /L)(0.970 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 89 mg/L Rem.
= 8 days 5.211 ´ 100 = 81%
2126 110 mg/L
x = 2100 mg/L MLSS 216 mg/L Rem
5.212 ´ 100 = 94%
(75 ft )(30 ft )(14 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 ) 230 mg/L
5.199 = 3.5 hrs
68, 333 gph
200 mg/L Rem.
5.213 ´ 100 = 77%
12,600 lb MLSS 260 mg/L
5.200 = 4.5 days
2820 lb/day
175 mg/L Rem.
5.214 ´ 100 = 56%
(3120 mg/L MLSS)(0.48 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 310 mg/L
5.201 1640 lb/day wasted + 320 lb/day
= 6.4 days x lb/day Solids
5.215 4.9 = ´ 100
(3700 gal)(8.34 lb/gal)
(40 ft )(20 ft )(10 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 ) x = 1512 lb/day Solids
5.202 = 47 min
1264 gpm 0.87 g Sludge
5.216 ´ 100 = 6.8%
(2810 mg/L MLSS)(0.325 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 12.87 g Sludge
5.203
ëé(6100 mg/L)(0.0189 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) 1450 lb/day Solids
+ (18 mg/L)(2.4 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) ûù 5.217 ´ 100 = 3.3%
x lb/day Sludge
7617 lb MLSS x = 43,939 lb/day
= = 5.8 days
962 lb/day + 360 lb/day 258 lb/day
5.218 4.4 = ´ 100
(3250 mg/L)(0.33 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) (x gpd)(8.34 lb/gal)
5.204 = 4.6 days
(100 mg/L)(2.35 MGD)(8.34 lb/gall) x = 703 gpd
x lb/day Solids
(2408 mg/L)(1.9 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 5.219 3.6 = ´ 100
5.205 291, 000 lb/day Sludge
éë(6320 mg/L)(0.0712 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal)
+ (25 mg/L)(2.85 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) ùû x = 10,476 lb/day Solids
é (3100 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal) (4.4)
38,157 lb ê 100
= = 9.8 days ë
3753 lb/day + 594 lb/day (4100 gpd) (8.34 lb/gal) (3.6) ù
+ ú
100 û ´ 100
(2610 mg/L)(0.15 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 5.220
5.206 = 3 days éë(3100 gpd )(8.34 lb/gal)
(140 mg/L)(0.92 MGD)(8.34 lb/gall)
+ (4100 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal) ùû
(0.785)(6 ft )(6 ft )(4 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 )
5.207 1138 lb/day Solids + 1231 lb/day Solids
12 gpm = ´ 100
25, 854 lb/day Sludge + 34,194 lb/day Sludge
2369 lb/day Solids
x lbs MLSS = ´ 100
5.208 = 6 days 60, 048 lb/day Sludge
(140 mg/L)(2.14 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) = 3.9%
x = 14,992 lb MLSS é (8100 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal)(5.1)
(400 ft )(440 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 ) ê 100
5.209 = 39.5 ë
200, 000 gpd (7000 gpd) (8.34 lb/gal) (4.1) ù
+ ú
(x mg/L MLSS) (0.64 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 100 û ´ 100
5.210 = 8 days 5.221
ëé(6310 mg/L)(0.034 MGD)(8.34 lb/gal) ëé(8100 gpd )(8.34 lb gal)
+ (12 mg/L)(2.92 MGD)(8.344 lb/gal) ùû + (7000 gpd )(8.34 lb/gal) ùû
Appendix A 653
3445 lb/day Solids + 2394 lb/day Solids 5.232 420 gal/5 min = 84 gpm
= ´ 100 5.233 810 gal/5 min = 162 gpm
67, 554 lb/day Sludge + 58,380 lb/day Sludge
5.234 856 gal/5 min = 171 gpm
5839 lb/day Solids (171 gpm) (60 min/h) = 10,260 gph
= ´ 100
125, 934 lb/day Sludge
(0.785)(1 ft )(1 ft )(12 ft )(7.48 gal/ft 3 )(12 round trips)
= 4.6% 5.235 5 min
é (4750 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal)(4.7) = 169 gpm

ê 100
ë 5.236 750 gal/5 min = 150 gpm
5.222 (5250 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal)(3.5) ù (150 gpm) (60 min/h) = 9,000 gph
+ ú
100 û (9,000 gph) (10 h/day) = 90,000 gal/day
(470 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal) + (5250 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal) • 200 gpm/28 ft = 7.1 gpm/ft
• 620 gpm/21 ft = 29.5 gpm/ft
1862 lb/day + 1532 lb/day • 1100 gpm/41.3 ft = 26.6 gpm/ft
= ´ 100 x gpm
39,615 + 43,785 5.240 = 33.4 fpm/ft
42.8 ft
3394 lb/day Solids x = (33.4) (42.8)
= ´ 100
83, 400 lb/day Sludge x = 1430 gpm
= 4.1% 5.241 (0.785) (0.5 ft) (0.5 ft) (140 ft) (7.48 gal/
ft3) = 206 gal
é (8925 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal) (4.0) (40 mg/L) (0.000206 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 0.07 lb
ê Chlorine
ë 100
5.242 (0.785) (1 ft) (1 ft) (109 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 640 gal
(11, 340 gpd) (8.34 lb/gal) (6.6) ù (40 mg/L) (0.000640 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 0.21 lb
+ ú
100 û Chlorine
5.223
ëé(8925 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal) 5.243 (0.785) (1 ft) (1 ft) (109 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 633 gal
(0.785) (0.67 ft) (0.67 ft) (40 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 105 gal
+ (11,340 gpd)(8.34 lb/gal) ùû
633 + 105 gal = 738 gal
(110 mg/L) (0.000738 gal) (8.34 lb/gal) = 0.68 lb
2977 1b/day + 6242 lb/day Chlorine
= ´ 100
74, 435 lb/day + 94, 576 lb/day 5.244 (x mg/L) (0.000540 gal) (8.34 lb/gal) = 0.48 lb
9219 lb/day 0.48
= x=
169, 011 lb/day (0.000540)(8.34)
x = 107 mg/L
= 5.5%
0.09 lb chlorine
5.245 = 1.5 lb
5.224 (3250 lb/day Solids) (0.65) = 2113 lb/day VS 5.25/100
5.225 (4120 gpd) (8.34 lb/gal) (0.07) (0.70) = 1684 lb/day 1.5 lb
= 0.18 gal
VS 8.34 lb/gal
5.226 98 ft − 91 ft = 7 ft drawdown
(0.18 gal) (128 fluid oz./gal) = 23 fl oz
5.227 125 ft − 110 ft = 15 ft drawdown
5.246 (0.785) (0.5 ft) (0.5 ft) (120 ft) (7.48 gal/
5.228 161 ft − 144 ft = 17 ft drawdown
ft3) = 176 gal
5.229 (3.7 psi) (2.31 ft/psi) = 8.5 ft water depth in sound-
ing line
(50 mg/L chlorine )(0.000176 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
= 112 ft − 8.5 ft
= 103.5 ft 65/100
= 103.5 ft − 86 ft = 0.1 calcium hypochlorite
= 17.5 ft
(0.1 lb) (16 oz/lb) = 1.6 ounces calcium hypochlorite
5.230 (4.6 psi) (2.31 ft/psi) = 10.6 water depth in sound-
5.247 (0.785) (1.5 ft) (1.5 ft) (105 ft) (748 gal/
ing line
ft3) = 1387 gal
= 150 ft − 10.6 ft
= 139.4 ft
= 171 ft − 139.4 ft (100 mg/L)(0.001387 MG)(8.34 lb/gal)
= 31.4 ft drawdown 25/100
5.231 300/20 = 15 gpm per ft of drawdown = 4.6 lb chloride of lime
654 Appendix A
(60 mg/L)(0.000240 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) 5.264 (0.785) (1 ft) (1 ft) (89) (7.48 gal/ft3)= 523 gal
5.248 = 2.3 lb (0.785) (0.67) (0.67) (45 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 119 gal
5.25/100
523 gal + 119 gal = 642 gal
2.3 lb (100 mg/L) (0.000642 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 0.54 lb
= 0.3 gal
8.34 lb/gal chlorine
(0.3 gal) (128 fl oz/gal) = 38.4 fl oz sodium 0.3 lb chlorine
5.265 = 5.7 lbs
hypochlorite 5.25/100
5.249 (4.0 psi) (2.31 ft/psi) = 9.2 ft 5.7 lb
5.250 (94 ft + 24 ft) + (3.6 psi) (2.31 ft/psi) = 0.68 gal
8.34 lb/gal
= 118 ft + 8.3 ft
= 126.3 ft (0.68 gal) (128 fl oz/gal) = 87 fl oz
5.251 (400 ft) (110 ft) (14 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 4,607,680 gal 5.266 Volume, gal = (4 ft) (5 ft) (3 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 449 gal
5.252 (400 ft) (110 ft) (30 ft × 0.4 average depth) (7.48 5.267 Volume, gal = (50 ft) (20 ft) (8 ft) (7.48 gal/
gal/ft3) = 3,949,440 gal ft3) = 59,840 gal
(200 ft )(80 ft )(12 ft ) 5.268 Volume, gal = (40 ft) (16 ft) (8 ft) (7.48 gal/
5.253 = 4.4 ac-ft ft3) = 38,298 gal
43, 560 ft 3 /ac-ft
5.269 42 inches/12 in/ft = 3.5 ft
(320 ft )(170 ft )(16 ft )(0.4) Volume, gal = (5 ft) (5 ft) 3.5 ft) (7.48 gal/ft3) = 655 gal
5.254 = 8.0 ac-ft 5.270 2 in/12 in/ft = 0.17 ft
43, 560 ft 3 /ac-ft
Volume, gal = (40 ft) (25 ft) (9.17 ft) (7.48 gal/
(0.5 mg/L chlorine )(20 MG)(8.34 lb/gal) ft3) = 68,592 gal
5.255
25/100
= 334 lb copper sulfate CHAPTER 6
5.256 131.9 ft − 93.5 ft = 38.4 ft 6.1 26 ft
707 gal 6.2 77 ft
5.257 = 141 gpm 6.3 eccentric, segmental
5 minutes
6.4 flow nozzle
(141 gpm) (60 min/h) = 8460 gph 6.5 ultrasonic flowmeter
6.6 4,937 gals
(0.785)(1 ft )(1 ft )(12 ft )(7.48gal/ft 3 )(8 round trips) 6.7 4.57
5.258 5 gpm 6.8 213,904 cu ft
6.9 103 ft
= 113 gppm
6.10 8,064 lb
5.259 (3.5 psi) (2.31 ft/psi) = 8.1 water depth in sounding 6.11 always constant
line 6.12 pressure due to the depth of water
= 167 ft – 8.1 ft 6.13 the line that connects the piezometric surface
= 158.9 ft pumping water level, ft along a pipeline
6.14 0.28 ft
Drawdown, ft = 158.9 ft - 141 ft
6.15 254.1 ft
= 17.9 ft drawdown 6.16 6.2 × 10 −8
6.17 0.86 ft
610 gpm 6.18 pressure energy due to the velocity of the water
5.260 = 21.8 gpm/ft
28 ft drawdown 6.19 a pumping condition where the size of the impel-
5.261 (0.785) (0.5 ft) (0.5 ft) (150 ft) (7.48 gal/ ler of the pump and above the surface of the water
ft3) = 220 gal from which the pump is running
lb chlorine required: (55 mg/L) (0.000220 MG) 6.20 The slope of the specific energy line
(8.34 lb/gal) = 0.10 lb chlorine
5.262 780 gal/5 min = 156 gpm CHAPTER 7
(156 gal/min) (60 min/h) (8 h/day) = 74,880 gal/day
5.263 (x mg/L) (0.000610 MG) (8.34 lb/gal) = 0.47 lb 7.1 positive-displacement
7.2 high-viscosity
0.47 7.3 positive-displacement
x= 7.4 high
(0.000610)(8.34)
7.5 high
= 92.3 mg /L 7.6 eye
7.7 static, dynamic
Appendix A 655
7.8 shut off 8.41 E.E.

7.9 V2/2g 8.42 reinforced, pressure
7.10 total head 8.43 flexible
7.11 head capacity, efficiency, horsepower demand 8.44 expansion joint
7.12 water 8.45 vibration dampener
7.13 suction lift 8.46 plain
7.14 elevation head 8.47 bends
7.15 water hp and pump efficiency 8.48 pressure
7.16 centrifugal force 8.49 plug
7.17 stuffing box 8.50 a long-radius elbow
7.18 impeller
7.19 rings, impeller
CHAPTER 9
7.20 casing
9.1 Na
9.2 H2SO4
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
9.3 7
8.1 a flexible piping component that absorbs thermal 9.4 base
and/or terminal movement 9.5 changes
8.2 fluid 9.6 solid, liquid, gas
8.3 fluid 9.7 element
8.4 connected 9.8 compound
8.5 flow 9.9 periodic
8.6 pressure loss 9.10 solvent, solute
8.7 increases 9.11 an atom, or group of atoms, that carries a positive
8.8 automatically or negative electrical charge as a result of having
8.9 insulation lost or gained one or more electrons
8.10 leakage 9.12 colloid
8.11 four times 9.13 turbidity
8.12 routine preventive maintenance 9.14 result of dissolved chemicals
8.13 12 9.15 toxicity
8.14 schedule, thickness 9.16 organic
8.15 increases 9.17 0; 14
8.16 ferrous 9.18 ability of water’s ability to neutralize an acid
8.17 increases 9.19 calcium and magnesium
8.18 iron oxide 9.20 base
8.19 cast-iron
8.20 iron
CHAPTER 10
8.21 corrosion
8.22 decreases 10.1 bacteria, viruses, protozoa
8.23 clay, concrete, plastic, glass, or wood 10.2 during rain storms
8.24 corrosion-proof 10.3 no
8.25 cement 10.4 binary fission
8.26 pressed 10.5 spheres, rods, spirals
8.27 turbulent, lower 10.6 typhoid, cholera, gastroenteritis
8.28 steel 10.7 amoebic dysentery, Giardiasis
8.29 fusion 10.8 cyst
8.30 flexible 10.9 host
8.31 aluminum 10.10 plug screens, machinery; cause taste and odor
8.32 annealed problems
8.33 fusion
8.34 metals, plastics
CHAPTER 11
8.35 laminar flow
8.36 reinforced nonmetallic 11.1 ecosystem
8.37 wire-reinforced 11.2 benthos
8.38 dacron® 11.3 periphyton
8.39 diameter 11.4 plankton
8.40 flexibility 11.5 pelagic
656 Appendix A
11.6 neuston CHAPTER 15

11.7 immigration
11.8 autotrophs 15.1 calcium (Ca) and magnesium
11.9 lentic 15.2 buffer
11.10 dissolved oxygen solubility 15.3 sodium hydroxide
15.4 Chlorine Feed Rate (lbs/day)
= Dose (mg/l) × Flow (MGD) × 8.34
CHAPTER 12 = (1.2 mg/l) (1.6 MGD) (8.34)
12.1 secondary maximum contaminant levels = (1.2) (1.6) (8.34)
12.2 transpiration = 16.0 lbs/day
12.3 surface water 15.5 2.4 (60 ÷ 25 = 2.4)
12.4 agriculture, municipal wastewater plants, habitat 15.6 Chlorine Dose (mg/l) − Chlorine Residual (mg/l)
and hydrologic modifications, resource extrac- = 1.0 mg/l − 0.5 mg/l
tion, and urban runoff and storm sewers = 0.5 mg/l
12.5 solids content Residual = Dose - Demand
12.6 turbidity 15.7
= 6.0 mg /l - 3.3 mg /l
12.7 universal solvent
12.8 alkalinity Chlorine Residual = 2.7 mg/l
12.9 neutral state
12.10 lead 220 lbs/day Cl 2
Dose (mg/1) =
15.8 3.1 ´ 8.34
= 8.5 mg /l = 6.9 mg /l
CHAPTER 13
Chlorine Residual = 1.6 mg/l
13.1 muffle furnace, ceramic dishes, furnace tongs, 15.9 A description of the soil encountered during well
and insulated gloves construction, water quantity, well casing informa-
13.2 15 min tion, and well development and testing.
13.3 A sample collected all at one time. Representative 15.10 dug well
of the conditions only at the time taken. 15.11 disinfection residual, turbidity, coliform analysis
13.4 For pH, dissolved oxygen, total residual chlorine, 15.12 National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)
fecal coliform, and any test by NPDES permit for 15.13 fit for human consumption
grab sample. 15.14 First, determine the required chlorine feed rate.
13.5 A series of samples collected over a specified
period of time in proportion to flow. Feed Rate (lb/day)
13.6 Collect from well mixed location; clearly mark
sampling points; easy location to read; no large = Dose (mg/l) ´ Flow (MGD) ´ 8.34

or unusual particles; no deposits, growths, or = (0.6 mg/l)(1 MGD) (8.34)
floating materials; corrosion-resistant containers;
follow safety procedures; test samples as soon as = 5.0 lbs/day
possible.
13.7 Refrigerate at 4°C If we require 5 lbs/day of chlorine, we will require
13.8 Absorption of water during cooling, contami- more pounds of hypochlorite because it is not 100%
nants, fingerprints, etc. chlorine.
68% of the hypochlorite is available chlorine
68% = 68/100 = 0.68
CHAPTER 14 Next, (Cl2 Fraction) (Hypochlorite) = Available
14.1 cone of depression Chlorine
14.2 12 in. (0.68) (x lbs/day hypochlorite) = 5.00 lbs/day Cl2
14.3 concrete x lbs/day hypochlorite = 5.00/0.68
14.4 surface water, groundwater, GUDISW x = 7.36 lbs/day hypochlorite
14.5 groundwater under the direct influence of surface 15.15 public
water 15.16 the transport of the earth’s water from one loca-
14.6 easily located; softer than groundwater tion to another
14.7 the study of the properties of water and its distri- 15.17 acute
bution and behavior 15.18 reduction of pathogens to safe levels
14.8 zone of influence 15.19 hypochlorites
14.9 GUDISW 15.20 reduce the number of pathogens to safe levels in
14.10 prevent large material from entering the intake water before the contact time is completed
Appendix A 657
15.21 Feed Rate (lbs/day)

=
dose × flow
(mg/l) 15.35 Given: Filter Area = 300 ft2
(MGD) × 8.34 Backwash rate = 15 gal/ft2/min.
= 0.4 (mg/l) × 5/3 (MGD) × 8.34 Backwash time = 8 min.
= 17.68 lbs/day Cl2 Find: Amount of water for backwash
15.22 Residual = Dose − Demand Given information on per foot of filter but want to
= 10 (mg/l) − 2.6 (mg/l) find total water needed to backwash the entire filter.
= 7.5 mg/l a) Find total filtration rate.
15.23 Turbidity can entrap or shield microorganisms 15 gal
from the chlorine. 300 ft 2 ´ = 4500 gal/min
ft 2 /min
15.24 Feed Rate (lbs/day)
=
dose × flow
(mg/l)
(MGD) × 8.34 b) Gallons per 8-min.backwash time
= 0.8 × 2.6 × 8.34 4500 gal
= 17.35 lbs/day Soda Ash ´ 8 min = 36, 000 gal used
min
15.25 Given: Flow = 0.75 MGD
Shape = Circular 15.36 Velocity = Distance Traveled ÷ Time
Size = radius = 20 ft = 600 ft ÷ 5 min
depth = 10 ft = 120 ft/min
Find: Detention Time 15.37 Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
a) Find Tank Volume 15.38 chlorination and filtration
Vol = π r2h 15.39 pump more than rated capacity
Vol = π (20 ft)2 (10 ft) 15.40 hypochlorous acid
Vol = 12,560 ft3 15.41 protozoa
b) Flow = 0.75 MGD × 1,000,000 = 750,000 gal/day 15.42 the removal/inactivation of the most resistant
pathogens
12,560 ft 3 ´ 7.48 ´ 24 hrs
Detention Time (hours) = 15.43 corrosivity
750, 000 gal/day 15.44 turbidity, paddles speed, pH
Deteention Time = 3.0 hours 15.45 In this problem, we want to find the velocity.
Therefore, we must rearrange the general formula
15.26 Chemical Feed Rate = Dose (mg/l) × Flow
to solve for velocity.
(MGD) × (8.34)
V = Q/A
= (35 mg/l) × (2 MGD) × (8.34)
Given: Q = Rate of flow = 11.2 cfs
= (70) (8.34)
A = Area in square feet
= 584 lbs/day of Alum
2.5 ft wide
15.27 yes
1.4 ft deep
15.28 chlorine residual
Find: Average Velocity
15.29 a link that connects two systems and a force that
Step 1: Area = (Width) × (Depth)
causes liquids in a system to move
= 2.5 ft × 1.4 ft
15.30 moderate
A = 3.5 ft2
15.31 negative; low
Step 2: Velocity (ft/sec) = Flow Rate (ft3/sec.)/Area (ft2)
15.32 peristaltic metering pump
15.33 purchase of buffer zone around a reservoir; 11.2 ft 3 /sec
inspection of construction sites; public education Vel =
3.5 sq. ft.
15.34 Given: # of Filters = 3
Size (Each) = 10 ft × 7 ft Vel = 3.2 ft/sec
Operating: 1 out of service
Filtration Rate = 280 gal/min (this is the total 15.46 Given: Height = 100 ft
capacity for both filters) Diameter = 20 ft
Find: Filtration rate sq. ft of filter Cylindrical shape
Find: Total gallons of water contained in the tank
Total Area of Filters Step 1: We must find the volume in cu ft
= 10¢ ´ 7¢ = 70 ft 2 each
Volume = 0.785 ´ (Diameter)2 ´ (Height)
= 70¢ ´ 2 = 140 ft TOTAL
2
= 0.785 ´ (20 ft )2 (100 ft )

Filtration Rate
= 0.785 (400 ft 2 )(100 ft )
280 gal/min
= 2 gal/min/ft 2 of filter = 31, 400 ft 3
140 ft 2
658 Appendix A
Step 2: Our problem asks: How many gallons of 15.63 pH, alkalinity, hardness
water will it contain? 15.64 adsorption
15.65 prior to the rapid mix basin
31, 400 ft 3 ´ 7.48 gal/ft 3 15.66 before the backwash, water reaches the lip of the
wash water trough
= 234, 872 gallons
15.67 chlorine
15.47 rapid mix, flocculation, sedimentation 15.68 true
15.48 removal of color, suspended matter, and organics 15.69 true
15.49 transform soluble ions to insoluble compounds 15.70 79,269 gals
15.50 3 to 4 times the theoretical amount 15.71 powdered activated carbon
15.51 5% 15.72 iron and manganese
15.52 Given: Distance = 1500 ft 15.73 copper
Time = 4 min. 15.74 soluble polyvalent cations
Find: Velocity in ft/min 15.75 gains an electron in goring from the +2 oxidation
Step 1: Velocity = 1500 ft/4 = 375 ft/min state to the +3 form
Step 2: Convert minutes to seconds 15.76 bicarbonate
375 ft/min × 1 min/60 sec = 6.25 ft/sec 15.77 negative head
15.53 ate 15.78 gravity
15.54 achieve optimum corrosion control 15.79 influent
15.55 50% 15.80 uniform
15.56 sodium fluoride (NaF) 15.81 maximize the conversion of organic carbon from
15.57 mottled teeth enamel the dissolved phase to the particulate phase; the
15.58 0.75 mg/L removal of natural organic material; optimize the
15.59 amount of chlorine to add for breakpoint chlo- removal of DHP precursor material
rination; correct amount of coagulant to use for 15.82 30 h
proper coagulation; length of flash mix; proper 15.83 phenyl arsine oxide
amount of mixing and settling time 15.84 Given: Surface area of pond = 20 acres
15.60 corrosion control technology Height of water collected = 2 in.
15.61 Given: Flow = 350 GPM Find: The number of gallons collected in the res-
Pipe Size = 6 inches ervoir after the storm.
Find: Velocity (ft/sec) = Distance/Time a) Convert acres to ft2
Step 1: Convert gallons to ft3 20 acres × 43,560 ft2/acre = 871,200 ft2
b) Convert inches to feet
350 gals min
= 46.8 ft 3 /min 2 in. × ft/12 in. = 0.167 ft
7.48 gal/ft 3 c) Volume of water collected = (area) (height)
Step 2: Find cross-sectional area of pipe = (871,200 ft2) (0.167 ft)
= 145,490 ft3
Area of circle = p r 2 d) Convert ft3 to gallons
145,590 ft3 × 7.48 gal/ft3 = 1,089,013 gal
= 3.14 (3 in)(3 in) 15.85 20.0 lbs/day Cl2
15.86 (70 ft) (0.4) = 28 ft
= 28.26 in 2 (28 ft) (0.433) = 12.1 psi
15.87 groundwater
Step 3: Convert square inches to square feet
15.88 aeration, boiling, adsorption
28.26 in 2 15.89 addition of powdered activated carbon
= 0.20 ft 2 15.90 permeability
144 sq.in./ft 2
15.91 water table
Step 4: Find ft/min 15.92 waterborne
15.93 coagulant
46.8 ft 3 /min 15.94 greater
= = 234 ft/min
0.20 ft 2 15.95 copper sulfate
15.96 lime
Step 5: Convert minutes to seconds 15.97 disinfected
234 ft/min × 1 min/60 sec. = 3.9 ft/sec 15.98 oxygen
15.62 air, chlorine, or potassium permanganate 15.99 binary fission
Appendix A 659
CHAPTER 16 16.33 eliminates wide diurnal & seasonal variation in

pond dissolved oxygen
16.1 the licensed operator and the responsible official 16.34 standard, high rate, roughing
16.2 the amount of organic material in a sample that 16.35 increase waste rate
can be oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent 16.36 decrease, decrease, decrease, increase, increase
16.3 prevent disease, protect aquatic organisms, pro- 16.37 10 containers
tect water quality 16.38 88 days
16.4 dissolved and suspended 16.39 103 cylinders; US$2,823.49
16.5 organic indicates matter that is made up mainly 16.40 4,716 lb/day
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and will decom- 16.41 21.5 lb
pose into mainly carbon dioxide and water at 16.42 27 days
550°C; inorganic materials, such as salt, ferric 16.43 64.1%
chloride, iron, sand, gravel, etc. 16.44 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
16.6 algae, bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, virus 16.45 by increasing the primary sludge pumping rate or
16.7 carbon dioxide, water, more organics, stable by adding dilution water
solids 16.46 7.0 pH
16.8 toxic matter, inorganic dissolved solids, patho- 16.47 either because the microorganisms have been
genic organisms killed or are absent
16.9 raw effluent 16.48 the time to do the test, 3 h versus 5 days
16.10 from body wastes of humans who have diseases 16.49 dark greasy
16.11 disease-causing 16.50 increases
16.12 domestic waste 16.51 temperature, pH, toxicity, waste rate, aeration
16.13 industrial waste tank configuration
16.14 4.4% 16.52 It can function with or without dissolved oxygen.
16.15 2.3 ft Prefer dissolved oxygen but can use chemically
16.16 5,250 gal × 8.34 lb/gal = 43,785 lb combined oxygen such as sulfate or nitrate.
16.17 14,362 gal 16.53 organic
16.18 850.7 lb/day 16.54 living organisms
16.19 686 kg/day 16.55 final
16.20 0.121 MGD 16.56 colloidal
16.21 8,477 people 16.57 not possible
16.22 9.41 lb/gal 16.58 aerobic, facultative
16.23 Cutter may be sharpened and/or replaced when 16.59 different
needed. Cutter alignment must be adjusted as 16.60 reduced
needed. 16.61 temperature
16.24 Grit is heavy inorganic matter. Sand, gravel, 16.62 BOD
metal filings, eggshells, coffee grounds, etc. 16.63 F/M
16.25 0.7 fps 16.64 secondary clarifier weirs
16.26 There is a large amount of organic matter in the 16.65 to separate and return biosolids to the aeration
gut. The aeration rate must be increased to pre- tank
vent settling of the organic solids 16.66 declining
16.27 to remove settleable and floatable solids 16.67 1.5 and 2.5 mg/l
16.28 to remove the settleable solids formed by the bio- 16.68 increased MLVSS concentration
logical activity 16.69 decreased waste rate
16.29 7,962 gpd/ft 16.70 decreased MCRT
16.30 stabilization pond, oxidation pond, polishing 16.71 concentration of aeration influent solids
pond 16.72 compete mix is more resistant to shock loads
16.31 settling, anaerobic digestion of settled sol- 16.73 decrease the grit channel aeration rate
ids, aerobic/anaerobic decomposition of dis- 16.74 increase
solved and colloidal organic solids by bacteria 16.75 floor level
producing stable solids and carbon dioxide, 16.76 US$22.77
photosynthesis 16.77 anoxic
16.32 products of oxygen by algae; summer effluent is 16.78 C:N:P
high in solids (algae) and low in BOD; winter 16.79 secondary
effluent is low in solids and high in BOD 16.80 are not
660 Appendix A
16.81 2 ft/sec This is usually accomplished with surface mechani-

16.82 lower cal aerators and mixers, or by various forms of dif-
16.83 chlorine residual fusers supplied with compressed air from mechanical
16.84 2h blowers or compressors. For equal-sized ponds, the
16.85 0.1 aerated pond would provide the best treatment due to
16.86 800 gal/ft2/d the mechanical addition of oxygen, and for a given
16.87 mono-chloramine organic loading, it would require the least amount of
16.88 0.2 to 0.5 land area.
16.89 nitrogen Facultative: Most stabilization pond facilities are
16.90 decrease explosive hazard, decrease odor release, of this type. The pond contains an aerobic surface
maintain temperature, collect gas zone, an anaerobic bottom zone, and a transitional
16.91 algae (facultative) zone in between. This allows aerobic
16.92 dissolved solids organisms to function in the upper area, anaerobic
16.93 0.0005 ppm organisms in the lower and sludge area, and facul-
16.94 Ponds have historically been used to provide tative organism in the middle area. A facultative
detention time for wastewater to allow it to be sta- organism can use dissolved oxygen or combined
bilized through natural processes. Wastewater is oxygen because it can adapt to changing conditions.
treated by the action of bacteria (both aerobic and They can continue decomposition when the system
anaerobic), other micro and macro organisms, changes from aerobic to anaerobic, or from anaero-
algae, and by the physical process or gravity set- bic to aerobic.
tling. When properly designed, ponds are capable 16.96 A. Photosynthesis by algae within the pond
of providing the equivalent of secondary treat- (main source of oxygen in most pond type
ment for both BOD and suspended solids. systems, especially shallow ponds in the 3–5
for depth range).
B. Diffusion of atmospheric oxygen at the pond
Advantages Disadvantages surface with the action of the wind providing
mixing of the oxygen-rich surface layer with
Low construction cost Large land requirements
the water below.
Low operational cost Possible groundwater contamination from
C. The use of compressed air systems or sur-
leakage
Low energy usage Climatic conditions affect treatment
face mechanical aerators.
Can accept surge Possible suspended solids problems (Algae) 16.97 Oxygen levels vary with depth for a number of
loadings reasons. The main reason is the relationship of the
Low chemical usage Possible spring odor problems (after ice-out) organisms with the pond. Other reasons are the
Easy operation Animal problems (muskrats, turtles, etc.) physical actions within the pond and the loading
No continuous sludge Vegetation problems (rooted weeds, duckweed, to the pond.
handling algae) The relationship of organisms involves the gen-
Localized sludge problems (deposition near eral interaction between algae and bacteria. The
inlet) algae are the main source of oxygen in a pond sys-
tem. Algae growth is greatest near the surface where
light penetration, and therefore photosynthesis, is the
16.95 Aerobic: An aerobic pond system would have oxy- greatest. Oxygen levels decrease with depth, due to
gen distributed throughout the entire area. This less light penetration needed for photosynthesis.
would be similar to a clean lake with anaerobic The algae use carbon dioxide in the process of
conditions occurring only in bottom sediments. photosynthesis and produce oxygen. The bacteria
This condition would probably only occur in a stabilize organic matter using the oxygen and pro-
treatment system upon initial start-up with the duce carbon dioxide. The physical diffusion of atmo-
pond. It could be filled with a clear water source, spheric oxygen occurs at the surface of ponds and
or when completely mixed with supplement air. is mixed in the upper layers by wind action. The
Anaerobic: An anaerobic pond would be devoid amount of mixing is limited, so the oxygen levels
of all oxygen throughout the entire area. This type of decrease with depth.
pond system would only be used in special applica- The final factor affecting oxygen levels is the
tions, usually for treating certain industrial wastes. organic loading of the system. If organic loadings
If a normal pond system is totally anaerobic, it is are small, the oxygen levels will be maintained at
organically overloaded. The only exception would greater depths. If organic overloading occurs, the
be under ice cover for a fill-and-draw type facility. whole pond could go anaerobic.
Aerated: An aerated pond system would have sup- 16.98 Dissolved oxygen meter; Winkler dissolved oxy-
plemental air sources to provide dissolved oxygen. gen determination.
Appendix A 661
16.99 Area of pond (in sq. ft) = length (ft) × width (ft) 17.36 D

17.37 C
Area of pond (in acres) 17.38 D
17.39 B
= surface area (sq. ft.) 17.40 A
= 1 acre (sq. ft.) 17.41 C
17.42 B
Area of pond = length (ft ) ´ width (ft ) 17.43 A
17.44 C
= 400 ´ 300 17.45 A
= 120, 000 square feet 17.46 D
17.47 D
Area of pond = surface area (sq. ft.) 17.48 B
17.49 B
(in acres) = 1 acre (sq. ft ) 17.50 A
17.51 B
= 120, 000 17.52 C
= 43, 560 17.53 B
17.54 A
= 2.75 acres 17.55 A
17.56 D
CHAPTER 17
17.57 B
17.1 B 17.58 B
17.2 C 17.59 B
17.3 D 17.60 E
17.4 C 17.61 D
17.5 C 17.62 D
17.6 C 17.63 A
17.7 B 17.64 C
17.8 B 17.65 D
17.9 A 17.66 A
17.10 D 17.67 C
17.11 B 17.68 B
17.12 B 17.69 D
17.13 A 17.70 B
17.14 D 17.71 D
17.15 B 17.72 D
17.16 A 17.73 C
17.17 A 17.74 A
17.18 B 17.75 B
17.19 C 17.76 B
17.20 D 17.77 D
17.21 C 17.78 B
17.22 C 17.79 A
17.23 C 17.80 A
17.24 D 17.81 D
17.25 C 17.82 A
17.26 C 17.83 C
17.27 A 17.84 D
17.28 D 17.85 B
17.29 D 17.86 B
17.30 A 17.87 B
17.31 C 17.88 A
17.32 C 17.89 C
17.33 A 17.90 C
17.34 A 17.91 D
17.35 D 17.92 A
662 Appendix A
17.93 C 17.150 B
17.94 B 17.151 C
17.95 C 17.152 D
17.96 D 17.153 C
17.97 D 17.154 A
17.98 D 17.155 B
17.99 C 17.156 A
17.100 D 17.157 C
17.101 C 17.158 B
17.102 D 17.159 B
17.103 D 17.160 A
17.104 A 17.161 D
17.105 C 17.162 B
17.106 D 17.163 C
17.107 A 17.164 C
17.108 B 17.165 C
17.109 A 17.166 C
17.110 C 17.167 A
17.111 D 17.168 B
17.112 A 17.169 B
17.113 D 17.170 A
17.114 B 17.171 A
17.115 C 17.172 D
17.116 D 17.173 B
17.117 B 17.174 C
17.118 A 17.175 A
17.119 A 17.176 D
17.120 D 17.177 C
17.121 D 17.178 A
17.122 D 17.179 D
17.123 A 17.180 B
17.124 C 17.181 B
17.125 D 17.182 B
17.126 C 17.183 C
17.127 A 17.184 C
17.128 B 17.185 B
17.129 B 17.186 B
17.130 D 17.187 A
17.131 A 17.188 C
17.132 A 17.189 D
17.133 A 17.190 A
17.134 C 17.191 C
17.135 C 17.192 D
17.136 C 17.193 B
17.137 C 17.194 C
17.138 B 17.195 C
17.139 B 17.196 B
17.140 C 17.197 A
17.141 D 17.198 D
17.142 B 17.199 B
17.143 A 17.200 D
17.144 C 17.201 B
17.145 D 17.202 C
17.146 E 17.203 B
17.147 D 17.204 D
17.148 A 17.205 D
17.149 A 17.206 B
Appendix A 663
17.207 B 17.229 C
17.208 D 17.230 A
17.209 C 17.231 D
17.210 D 17.232 A
17.211 A 17.233 C
17.212 D 17.234 A
17.213 A 17.235 A
17.214 A 17.236 D
17.215 A 17.237 B
17.216 D 17.238 B
17.217 C 17.239 C
17.218 B 17.240 D
17.219 B 17.241 A
17.220 C 17.242 A
17.221 D 17.243 C
17.222 C 17.244 C
17.223 B 17.245 D
17.224 A 17.246 B
17.225 C 17.247 B
17.226 B 17.248 A
17.227 C 17.249 A
17.228 A 17.250 D
Appendix B: Formulae
1. Area Efficiency (% removal)

a. Rectangular Tank
(Influent - effluent) ´100
A = L × W 5. =
b. Circular Tank Influent
A = π r2 or A = 0.785 d2 Weir loading (overflow rate)
2. Volume
a. Rectangular Tank total gallons/day
6. =
V = L × W × H length of weir
b. Circular Tank
V = π r2 × H or 0.785 d2 × H total gallons/day
3. Flow: Gal/day (gpd) = gal/min (gpm) × 1440 min/day Surface settling rate =
7.
surface area of tank
Gal/day (gpd) = gal/h (gph) × 24 h/day
Million gallons/day (MGD) = (gal/day)/1,000,000 Detention time (hours)
4. Dose: lbs = ppm × MG × 8.34 lb/gal
ppm = lbs/(MG × 8.34 lb/gal) capacity of tank (gal) ´ 24 h/day
8. =
flow rate (gal/day)
gpm ´ head (ft )

Horsepower (Hp) =
9.
3960 ´ total efficiency
665
Index
0.5 MGD capacity plant, 585 process control calculations, 595–596 removal technologies
1-log virus, 449 time, 596 adsorptive processes, 488–489
1.5-MGD capacity plant, 585–586 volatile solids loading, 596 alternative technologies, 489
1.55-MGD capacity plant, 586 ponds, 521 granular ferric hydroxide, 489–491
2-log giardia, 449 respiration, 524 membrane processes, 489
2-MGD capacity plant, 586 Affinity laws, centrifugal pumps, 224 prescriptive processes, 486–488
2.6-MGD capacity plant, 586 Aggressive index (AI), 448 rule, 42
3-MGD capacity plant, 586 Air standard, 485, 486
5-MGD capacity plant, 586 binding, 454, 455 Artesian aquifers, 430
24-MGD capacity plant, 586–587 sparging, 490 Artificial media drying beds, 612
39-MGD capacity plant, 587 to-solids ratio, 163, 595 Asbestos-cement (A-C) pipe
54-MGD capacity plant, 587 Alarm system, 28–29 application, 253
67-MGD capacity plant, 587 Alderflies (Order: Megaloptera), 354–355 composed mixture, 253
Algae, 522–523, 525 materials, 253
Abnormal filter operations, 458 Algal control, 102 operations, 253
Aboveground equipment enclosure, 27–28 Alkaline stabilization, 606–607 safe work practice, 253–254
Activated biosolids, 146 Alkalinity, 505, 524, 544, 548, 551 Ashing, 550
BOD/COD loading, 147 determination, 133 Asiatic clam (Corbicula fluminea), 467–468
moving averages, 146 Alternative filters, 455 ASP, see Aerated static pile
process control calculations, 146 Alternative filtration, 456 Aspergillus fumigatus, 603, 604
Activated sludge process, 499 Aluminum sulfate, 450 ASTM, see American Society for Testing
aeration tank, 550 Amenable cyanide, 44 Materials
control parameters, 548 American Society for Testing Materials Atmospheric tank, 225–226
equipment, 543 (ASTM), 246, 247 Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
factors affecting operation of, 544 American Water Works Associations (AWWA), Organization (ANSTO), 490, 491
final settling tank (clarifier) 125, 209 Average daily limitation, 625
observations, 550 Ammonia (NH3), 476 Average flow rate calculation, 86
formation of, 544 Ammonia nitrogen, 551 Average hourly limitation, 625
growth curve, 544 Ammonium, 524 Average monthly limitation, 625
MCRT impact on parameters, 560–563 Amoebas, 552 Average use calculation, 159
modification, 545–548 Anaerobic Average weekly limitation, 625
overview of, 543 bacteria, 306, 522 AWWA, see American Water Works
performance-controlling factors, 544–545 conditions, 499 Associations
process control testing and sampling, digestion, 597
550–560 normal operating ranges, 598 Bacilli, 464
terminology, 541–543 process control, 164 Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti), 523
Activated Sludge Process Control, Part II, 549 process control calculations, 598–599 Backflow prevention devices, 29–30
Active security barriers, 30, 32 fermentation processes, 522 Backpressure, 29
Adapted BOD analyzer, 42 ponds, 521 Backsiphonage, 29–30
Adsorption, 453, 541 Annealing, 259 Backwash
Adsorptive processes, 488–489 Annunciator, 28 pumping rate, 118
Advanced wastewater treatment, 499, 574–575 Anoxic conditions, 500 rate, 116
biological denitrification, 578 Anoxygenic photosynthesis, 523 rise rate, 116–117
biological nutrient removal (BNR), 581–585 ANSTO, see Australian Nuclear Science and water tank depth, 117
carbon adsorption, 578–581 Technology Organization water volume, 117
chemical treatment, 575 Anti-intrusion detection system evasion Backwashing, 454, 455
enhanced biological nutrient removal techniques, 49 Bacteria, 464–465, 522
(EBNR), 585–587 Anti-virus programs, 47–48 vs. algae, 523
filtration, 576–577 Apparent color testing/analysis inactivation, 483
microscreening, 575–576 Borger Color System, 418 Bagged biosolids, 600
Aerated pond, 522 indicators, 418 Barminution, 510
Aerated static pile (ASP), 600–602 measurement, 417 Barriers
Aerated systems, 513 odor, 418 active security barriers, 30
Aeration, 441, 446, 449, 511, 541, 543 organic sources, 417 bollards, 31
for composting, 600 standard methods, 418 crash beam barriers, 30–31
influent sampling, 551 Aquatic ecosystem, biotic and abiotic factors, 339 passive security barriers, 32
pipe loop, 601 Archimedes’ screw pump, 220 portable/removable barriers, 31–32
tank, 543, 550–554 Area, 81, 665 wedge barriers, 30
Aerobic Arithmetic average, 77 Bar screen, 508
bacteria, 306, 522 Arithmetic mean, 77 Baseline audit, 14–15
conditions, 499, 541 Arming station, 28 BAT, see Best available technology
digestion Arsenic (As) BDI, see Biosolids density index
pH adjustment, 596 exposure, 486 Bed volumes (BVs), 489
process control, 165 measurement system, 42 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera), 352–354
667
668 Index
Behavioral ecology, 328 Biometric security systems, 32 Broad Street Well, 464
Below-surface wedge barriers, 30 Biomonitoring Bromamine, 574
Belt filter, 615, 617 advantage Bromate monitoring, 484
press, 167 fish, 375–376 Bromide ions, 472
Benchmarking macroinvertebrates, 376 Bromine chloride, 574
baseline audit, 14–15 periphyton, 375 Brown algae, 523
baseline data and tracking energy use, 13–14 definition, 375 Bti, see Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis
create equipment inventory and demand and protocols Bubbler tube control system, see Pneumatic
energy distribution, 15–16 fish, 377 control systems
field investigation, 15 macroinvertebrates, 377–378 Bulking, 542
potential results of, 12 periphyton, 376–377 agents, 600
process, 11–13 sampling (see Sampling) Buried exterior intrusion sensors, 36
stage approach to, 12 Biosolids, 500, 587, 611 BVI, see Biosolids volume index
steps, 13 composting, 600 BVs, see Bed volumes
targets, 12 digestion, 164
Benthic habitat feed rate, 168 CAA, see Clean Air Act
erosion and deposition, 346 land application of Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera), 351–352
filamentous algae, 346 process control calculations, 623–625 Cadmium, 447
macroinvertebrates sampling and testing, 623 Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), 446, 448, 449
advantages, 347 production, 159–161 Calcium hardness, 131
aquatic organisms, 347 pumped/day in pounds, 162 Calcium hypochlorites, 478, 481, 484–485
characteristics, 347 pumping, 161 Calibration procedures, 444–445
and food web, 348–349 pumping time, 161 dry feeder, 444
identification, 348 quality parameters, 600 positive displacement pump, 444
organization units, 349 retention time, 165 Candida parapsilosis, 482
running waters, 349 thickening, 162 Cantilever crash beams, 31
water quality, 347 Biosolids density index (BDI), 180 Cantilever gates, 31
plants and animals, 347 Biosolids dewatering, 166 Capillary water, 589
silt and organic materials, 346 belt filter press, 167 Carbon, 526–527
Bernoulli filter loading, 169 Carbonaceous BOD, 500
equation, 200 filter yield, 170 Carbon adsorption, 578–579
principle, 199 percent solids recovery, 170 land application, 579–581
theorem, 199 vacuum filter operating time, 170 operational, observations, and
Best available technology (BAT), 9 flocculant dosage, 168 troubleshooting, 579
BHP, see Brake horsepower hydraulic loading rate, 167 Carbonate hardness, 132
Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant, 63–64 biosolids feed rate, 168 Carbon dioxide, 521
Binary fission, 306–307 flocculant feed rate, 168–169 Carbon to nitrogen ratio (C:N Ratio), 600
Bioactive substances, 2 solids loading rate, 168 Card identification/access/tracking systems,
Biochemical operations, 499 plate and frame press, 166–167 33–34
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 15, 159, net filter yield, 167 Card reader system, 33
160, 502, 519, 522, 561 solids loading rate, 167 Carrying capacity, 337
analysis, 400–401 pressure filtration, 166 Cartridge filter system, 455
BOD5, 176 rotary vacuum filter dewatering, 169 Cathodic protection, 449
calculation, 401 sand drying beds, 170 Cation exchange process, 447
seeded, 176 biosolids withdrawal to drying beds, 171 Cavitation, 225
test procedure, 401 solids loading rate, 171 CCTV, see Closed circuit television system
unseeded, 176 total biosolids applied, 171 CDO, see Chemical oxygen demand test
BOD 7-day moving average, 176 total suspended solids (TSS), 169 Centrate clarity, poor, 619–620
description, 400 Biosolids disposal, 171 Centrifugal force, 511–512
measurement, 400 composting biosolids, 173 Centrifugal pumps, 226
organic loading, 153, 545 composting calculations, 173 advantages, 230
removal efficiency, 153 disposal cost, 171–172 application, 231
sampling considerations, 400 crop nitrogen requirement, 172 description, 227, 228
and SS removal, 518 maximum allowable applications, metals disadvantages, 230–231
and suspended solids, 141 loading, 172–173 electronic control systems, 234–235
symptom, 534 metals loading, 172–173 flow equalization system, 234
testing, 400–401 plant available nitrogen (PAN), 172 motor controllers, 234
Biological aerosols, 600 site life based on metals loading, 173 protective instrumentation, 234
Biological contamination, monitoring sensors, land application, 171 sonar system, 234
41–42 Biosolids/sludge, 283 supervisory instrumentation, 235
Biological denitrification, 578 Biosolids volume index (BVI), 180 temperature detectors, 234
Biological nutrient removal (BNR), 581–582 BNR, see Biological nutrient removal vibration monitors, 234
description, 582–583 BOD, see Biochemical oxygen demand modifications
operation and maintenance, 584–585 Body feed, 454 recessed impeller/vortex pumps, 236
performance, 584 Bollards, 31 submersible pumps, 235–236
process, 583–584 Bored wells, 434 turbine pumps, 236–237
Biological stability, 468 Bottom line on security, 57 pump characteristics, 229
Biological towers, 528–529 Brake horsepower (BHP), 223–224 brake horsepower requirements, 230
Biomass, 529 Breakpoint chlorination, 564 efficiency, 230
Biometric finger geometry recognition, 32–33 curve, 477 head, 229–230
Biometric hand geometry recognition, 32–33 Brine for regeneration, 136–137 pump control systems, 232
Index 669
electrode control systems, 232–233 chemical feed calibration, 157–158 chemistry, 476–477
float control, 232 chemical feed pump, 157 contact time, 476
pneumatic controls, 232, 233 chemical feed rate, 154 demand, 121, 155, 475–476, 564, 569
pump theory, 229 chemical solution feeder setting, mL/min, 157 disinfection, 119–120, 486
terminology chemical solutions, 156 chemical handling, 568
base plate, 227 chlorine demand, 154 chlorination equipment, 565
bearings, 227 chlorine dose, 15 chlorination operation, 565
casing, 227–229 chlorine residual, 154 chlorination process description, 565
Centrifugation, 619–620 concentration factor (CF), 163 chlorination terminology, 564
Centrifuge daily biosolids production estimation, 161 environmental hazards and safety, 568
testing, 551 digestion time, days, 164 facts and process description, 564
thickening, 163–164 estimated gas production in cubic troubleshooting operation problems,
C/F, see Coagulation/flocculation feet/day, 165 565–567
CF, see Concentration factor gravity/dissolved air flotation thickener dosage, 88–89, 122, 478
C factor, 204, 205 calculations, 162 dose, 120, 154, 475, 569
CFR, see Code of Federal Regulations daily biosolids production, 162 facts, 564
Chamber and basin volume, 103 surface loading rate, 163 feed rate, 569
Chemical hypochlorite dosage, 155 gas, 477, 480, 485, 563
coagulation, 91 percent moisture reduction in digested generation, 480–481
conditioning, 615 biosolids, 166 measurement system, 43
contamination, monitoring sensors, 41–42 percent solids, 160 oxidation, 607
dosage calculations, 88 percent volatile matter reduction, 166 reaction, 475
chlorine dosage, 89 pH adjustment, 164 residual, 121, 154, 476
dosage formula pie chart, 88, 89 primary clarifier solids production residual test, 482
hypochlorite dosage, 89–90 calculations, 160 systems, 565
feed calibration, 157 primary solids production calculation, 160 terminology, 475–476
feeders, 443–444 pumping calculations, 159 uses, application and doses, 481, 482
feed pump, 157 required seed volume in gallons, 165 Chlorine dioxide (CIO2), 468, 469
feed rate, 91, 154 secondary clarifier solids production Chlorine pressure reducing valve (CPRV), 567
limits and testing, 484 calculation, 160 Chlorine residual testing/analysis
sensors secondary solids production calculation, 160 diethyl-p-phenylenediamine-ferrous
adapted BOD analyzer, 42 solids loading rate, 163 ammonium sulfate (DPD-FAS)
arsenic measurement system, 42 solids pumped per day in pounds, 162 titration
chlorine measurement system, 43 solution chemical feeder setting, GPD, 156 calculation, 420
portable cyanide analyzer, 43–44 stabilization, 164 equipment, 420
total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer, volatile acids to alkalinity ratio, 165 procedure, 419
42–43 volatile matter pumped per day in diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD)
sludges, 588 pounds, 162 spectrophotometry
solution feeder setting, mL/min, 157 volatile solids loading, 164 chemicals requirement, 419
solutions, 442–443 Chemical oxygen demand (COD), 143, 147, 500, equipment requirement, 419
usage determination/calculation, 108, 124 505, 551 measurement, 419
Chemical addition, 441–442, 588 Chironomidae, 523 procedure, 419
calibration procedures, 444–445 Chloral hydrate, 474 fluorides, 420
chemical feeders, 443–444 Chloramines, 476, 564 free chlorine residual, 418
chemical solutions, 442–443 Chlorination, 119, 563 plant’s NPDES discharge permit, 419
corrosion control, 447–449 application methods, 484–485 total residual chlorine (TRC), 418–419
hardness treatment, 446–447 breakpoint chlorination, 477 Chlorite monitoring, 484
iron and manganese removal, 445 breakpoint chlorination curve, 477 Chloropicrin, 471
aeration, 446 chlorine chemistry, 476–477 Cholera, 462, 464
ion exchange, 446 chlorine dosage determination, 478 City of Bartlett Wastewater Treatment Plant,
manganese greensand, 446 chlorine generation, 480–481 64–65
oxidation, 445–446 chlorine terminology, 475–476 Cladocerans, 523
potassium permanganate oxidation, 446 DBPs, 483–484 Clarifier, 500
precipitation, 445 disinfection efficacy, 482–483 Clean Air Act (CAA), 485
sequestering, 446 environmental hazards and safety, 568 Clean Water Act (CWA), 24, 519
Chemical dosing, 153–154 equipment, 565 Clean Water Act Amendments, 9
aerobic digestion process control factors affecting, 481–482 Closed circuit television (CCTV) system, 41
calculations, 165 gas chlorination, 477–478 Clumping, 550
air-to-solids ratio, 163 hypochlorination, 478 CMMS, see Computer maintenance management
anaerobic digestion process control measuring chlorine residual, 482 system
calculations, 165 operation, 565 C:N ratio, see Carbon to nitrogen ratio
average use calculations, 159 pathogen inactivation, 482–483 Coagulation, 103, 449–451
biosolids process calculations, 569 Coagulation-assisted microfiltration, 487–488
digestion, 164 process description, 565 Coagulation/flocculation (C/F), 486–487
production, 160–161 safety and handling considerations, 485 Cocci, 464
pumped/day in pounds, 162 terminology, 564 COD, see Chemical oxygen demand
pumping, 161 uses, application and doses of chlorine, Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 499
pumping time, 161 481, 482 Coil type vacuum filter, 615
retention time, 165 Chlorinator, 566 Coliform, 500
thickening, 162 Chlorine, 445, 480, 483, 484, 586 bacteria, 461
centrifuge thickening calculations, 163–164 advantages and disadvantages of, 485 Colloidal suspended solids, 588
670 Index
Colorimetric methods, 396 Crash beam barriers, 30–31 common filter problems, 455
Combined filter effluent monitoring, 456 Critical flow, 207 filtration and compliance with turbidity
Combined filter effluent reporting, 457 Cross-connection control procedures, 8 requirements, 455
Combined residual, 121, 476 Cryptosporidium, 453, 455, 456, 465–466, 481, additional compliance issues, 458
Combined wastewater, 504–505 483 IESWTR regulatory requirements,
Comminutor, 510 basics of, 317 455–458
Communication and integration, 46 cryptosporidiosis, 318 individual filter follow-up action, 458
electronic controllers, 46–47 life cycle, 316 individual filter self-assessment, 458–460
two-way radios, 47 named species, 317 reporting and recordkeeping, 457–458
wireless data communications, 47 Surface Water Treatment Rule, 318 variances and exemptions, 460
Community ecology, 328 CT factor, 473–474 Direct radiation measurement, 37–38
Community water systems (CWSs), 27 CT values, 473, 474, 476 Discharge, 196
Complete mix, 546 Curing air, 600 monitoring report, 625
Complex conversions, 96 Current issues permit, 625
concentration to quantity, 96 cash cows/cash dogs, 6 Disinfectant/disinfection by-product (D/DBP)
quantity to concentration, 96–97 multiple-barrier concept, 7–8 rule, 488
quantity to volume/flow rate, 97 wastewater operations, 8–9 Disinfectant residual regulatory
Composite sample, 175 paradigm shift, 6–7 requirements, 474
Compost, 600 sick water, 1–6 Disinfection, 460–462
Compost-enriched soil, 603 Cut-off head, 229 efficacy, 482–483
Composting biosolids, 173 CWA, see Clean Water Act methods of, 474–475
Composting pile CWSs, see Community water systems pathogen inactivation mechanisms, 482
advantages and disadvantages, 602–604 Cyanobacteria, 522 algal growth prevention, sedimentation
biosolids-derived compost, malodorous Cyber protection devices, 47 basins and filters, 469
compounds in, 606 anti-virus programs, 47–48 coagulation and filtration efficiency
bottom line on composting odor control, 606 firewalls, 48 improvement, 469
composting odor problems, 604–605 network intrusion hardware and software, color removal, 469
construction of, 602 48–49 DBP formation, minimization of, 467
lime stabilization, 606–607 pest eradication software, 47–48 disinfectants uses, 466–467
measuring odors, 605–606 Cyber threats, control systems, 53 environmental effects, 482–483
Comprehensive performance evaluation Cyclone degritter, 511, 513 iron and manganese, oxidation of, 468
(CPE), 458 nuisance Asiatic clams and zebra
Computer-literate operator’s work, 22 Daily biosolids production estimation, 161 mussels, control of, 467–468
Computer maintenance management system Daily discharge, 625 re-growth prevention, distribution system
(CMMS), 22, 23 Damselflies (Order: Odonata), 355–356 and maintenance, 468–469
Concentration, 442 Darcy-Weisbach equation, 204 taste and odors removal, 469
Concentration factor (CF), 163, 595 Dark repair, 572 primary concern, pathogens of, 464–465
Conductivity testing D/DBP, see Disinfectant/disinfection pump handle removal, water treatment,
description, 410 by-product rule 463–464
discharges, 410 Dechlorination, 567 recent waterborne disease outbreaks,
equipment considerations, 410 Declining growth phase, 544 465–466
measurement, 410 Deep-well turbine pump calculation, 101 residuals types, 469–470
sampling, 410 Deferrization, 445 Sherlock Holmes-type at the pump, 462–463
testing, 410 Demanganization, 445 cholera, 462
Cone of depression, 201 Density, 443 1854 London, flashback to, 462–463
Coning, 542 and specific gravity, 192–193 status of health information, 470
Contact Dental caries, 125 strategy selection, 473
stabilization, 546 Dental fluorosis, 125 Disinfection by-products (DBP), 467, 483–484
tanks, 565 Department of Energy (DOE), 54 control strategies
Continuous monitoring, 8 Detection devices, 28 precursor removal, 472–473
Control panel, 28, 32 Detention time, 86–87, 104, 109, 517, 665 source water quality control, 472
Conventional activated sludge, 545 Dewatering formation, 467, 468, 470–471
Conventional treatment, 456 biosolids, natural methods of, 612–613 DBP precursors, 471
Conventional water treatment model, 441 using aquatic plants, 613 inorganic by-products and
Conversions, 80 Diaphragm pump, 237–238 disinfectants, 472
temperature conversions, 80–81 Diatomaceous earth filters, 454 organic oxidation by-products, 471–472
Copper sulfate dosing, 102 Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine (DPD), 43, 419, 420 pH impacts on, 471
chamber and basin volume calculations, 103 color comparator method, 482 precursors, 471
coagulation, 103 Differential pressure flowmeters, 210–211 rule, 484
detention time, 104 operating principle, 211 status of health information, 470
flocculation, 103 types types, 469–470
Corrosion nozzle, 212 Disposal cost, 171, 623
control, 448–449 orifice, 211 Dissolved gases, 505
definition, 447 Pitot-static tube, 212 Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), 471
factors affecting, 448 Venturi, 212 Dissolved oxygen (DO), 289, 500, 524, 548,
types, 448 Diffused aeration systems, 543 551, 595
Corrosive resistant pipe materials, 449 Diffused air aeration, 542 testing
CPE, see Comprehensive performance Diffuser, 542 biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), 396
evaluation Digital world, 22–23 concentrations vs. temperature, 397
CPRV, see Chlorine pressure reducing valve Direct filtration, 454–455 meter and probe, 398–399
Crash barriers, see Active security barriers alternative filters, 455 oxygen, 396
Index 671
sampling and equipment considerations, description, 327–328 colony counting

396–397 ecosystem (see Ecosystem ecology) calculations, 417
standard methods, 396 freshwater (see Freshwater, ecosystem) description, 416
Winkler method, 397–398 history, 331–332 interferences, 417
Dissolved solids, 506 importance, 328–329 description, 411
Distribution arm, 529 insect intruders, picnic, 330–331 EPA’s 2001 Total Coliform Rule 816-
Distribution system levels of organization, 333 F-01–035, 411
disinfection calculation, 95 macroinvertebrate glossary (see equipment and techniques, 413–414
integrity, 8 Macroinvertebrate glossary) indicators, 411
Diurnal flow variation, 505 organism’s environment division, 328 membrane filter procedure, 416
DO, see Dissolved oxygen population (see Population ecology) MPN calculation, 415
Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera), 354–355 stream ecosystem, 338–339 MPN presumptive test, 415
DOC, see Dissolved organic carbon stream genesis and structure (see Stream multiple-tube fermentation technique,
DOE, see Department of Energy genesis and structure) 414–415
Domestic (sewage) wastewater, 504 streams, leaf processing in, 329–330 sampling and equipment considerations, 413
Door frames, 39 study, 329 serial dilution procedure, 414
Door impact test, 39 Ecosystem ecology, 328 sterile dilution water preparation, 414
Doppler type ultrasonic flowmeters, 213–214 agroecosystem model, 332–333 sterilization, 414
DO profile, 552 autotrophic and heterotrophic total coliform group, 411
Dosage formula pie chart, 88, 89 components, 333 USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule
Dose, 665 biotic and abiotic materials, 333 compliance, 413
Double-cylinder locks, 37 description, 333 requirements, 412–413
DPD, see Diethyl-p-phenylenediamine energy flow, 334–335 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 49
Dragonflies (Order: Odonata), 355–356 food chain efficiency, 335 Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, 10
Drainage basin, 427–428 pattern and process, 333 Feed rates, 134
Drawdown, 201 productivity, 336–337 Feedstock, 600
Drilled wells, 434 pyramids, 335–336 Fences, 34–35
Drinking water quality monitoring ED-50, see Effective dilutions-50 Filamentous bacteria, 542
adequate control, 391 EDR, see Electrodialysis reversal Filamentous organisms, 553
cleaning procedures Effective dilutions-50 (ED-50), 605, 606 Filter
acid wash procedures, 394 Efficiency, 665 backwash, 92–93
general preparation of sampling Effluent limitations, 625, 626 bed expansion, 119
containers, 394 1854 London, flashback to, 462–463 breakthrough, 454
criteria, 391 Electric Power Research Institutes (EPRI), 15 drum, 615
good/bad Electrode control systems, 232–233 effluent turbidity, 577
chemical pollutants, 392 Electrodialysis reversal (EDR), 489 flies, 534
factors, 392 Electronic controllers, 46–47 loading, 169
pollutants source, 392 Electronic methods, 396 media, 615
pollution problems, 392 Elements and symbols, 287 presses, 617
screen, 393 Empty bed contact time (EBCT), 490 process control calculations, 618
trends determination, 392 Endogenous respiration, 544 surface clogging, 577
preparation and sampling considerations, 393 Endotoxins, 600 underdrain, 529
preservation and storage, 395 Energy Conservation in Wastewater Treatment Filtration, 92, 576–577
sample collecting, stream Facilities: Manual of Practice No. calculations, 113
screw-cap bottles, 394–395 MFD-2, 15 backwash pumping rate, 118
sample types, 394 Energy grade line, 203 backwash rate, 116
state water quality standards programs, 393 Energy head, 198 backwash rise rate, 116–117
water quality monitoring program, 393 Enhanced biological nutrient removal (EBNR), backwash water tank depth, 117
Drinking water reservoirs, 38 585–587 backwash water volume, 117
Drinking water sources, assessing and Enhanced coagulation, 488 filter bed expansion, 119
protecting, 7 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 447, filtration rate, 114
Driven wells, 434 460, 484, 600, 613 flow rate through a filter, 113
Drop-arm crash beams, 31 EPRI, see Electric Power Research Institutes percent mud ball volume, 118–119
Dr. Snow’s theory, 462 Erratic drum rotation, 576 percent product water used for
Dry feeders, 443, 444 Escherichia coli, 465–466, 482 backwatering, 118
Dry hypochlorite rate, 122 Estimated return rate, 557 unit filter run volume (UFRV), 115
Drying bed Estimating daily sludge production, 590 distribution system disinfection
operational capacity, 610 Exceptional Quality (EQ) sludge, 600 calculations, 95
operational observations, problems, and Excessive sloughing, 539 filter backwash, 93
troubleshooting procedures, 614–615 Extended aeration, 546 rate, 114
Dug wells, 434 Exterior doorways, 39 rate of filtration calculation, 92
DynaSand filters, 586 storage tank calculations, 94
Facultative bacteria, 306 types of, 452–453
EBCT, see Empty bed contact time Facultative organisms, 501 diatomaceous earth filters, 454
EBNR, see Enhanced biological nutrient Facultative pond, 522–523 pressure filter systems, 454
removal Family picnic, 330–331 rapid sand filters, 453–454
Ecology Faucet flow estimation, 174 slow sand filters, 453
behavioral, 328 FBI, see Federal Bureau of Investigation water distribution system calculations, 93
benthic habitat (see Benthic habitat) Fecal coliform, 501 Final settling tank (clarifier) observations, 550
categorized, 328 Fecal coliform bacteria testing Fire
community, 328 bacteriological sampling, 414 alarm systems, 29
672 Index
hydrant locks, 35 calculated dosage problems, 129–130 temperature gauges

proof doors, 39 fluoride compounds, 125 bimetallic, 277
walls, 48 fluorosilicic acid, 125 description, 276
Fittings sodium fluoride, 125 industrial-type thermometer, 276–277
connections type sodium fluorosilicate, 125 measurement scales, 276
flanged fitting, 266 optimal fluoride levels, 126 vacuum breaker, 277
screwed fittings, 265–266 process calculations GBMSD, see Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage
welded fitting, 266 calculated dosages, 129 District
function fluoride feed rate, 126–129 Getting well water, 6
branch connections, 265 percent fluoride ion in a compound, 126 GFH, see Granular ferric hydroxide
connecting lines, 265 water fluoridation, 125 Giardia, 476
direction of flow, 264, 265 Fluoride, 124 chemical disinfection, 315–316
materials, 264 compounds, 125 cysts, 483
sealing lines, 265 fluorosilicic acid, 125 G. lamblia, 453, 456, 465–466
sizes of lines, 265 sodium fluoride, 125 giardiasis, 312–313
pipes and tubes, 264 sodium fluorosilicate, 125 infection categories, 313
Fixed bollards, 31 feed rate, 126 life cycle, 314
Fixed film systems, 519 for saturator, 128 water supply, 312
Fixed-location sensors, 41, 45 Fluorosilicic acid, 125 Giardiasis, 466
Fixed wedge barriers, 30 Food-to-microorganism ratio (F/M ratio), 147, Glass shatter protection films, 35
Flagellated protozoa, 553 501, 542, 558 Global paradigm, 7
Float control, 558 Gould Biosolids Age, 148
cake, 593 waste rate calculation, 148 Gould sludge age, 542
control systems, 232 Force, 81–82 Grab sample, 175
Floatable solids, 543 main collection system, 506 Granular ferric hydroxide, 489–491
Flocculant and pressure, 193–194 Gravity
dosage, 168 effects of water under pressure, 194–195 collection system, 506
feed rate, 168 hydrostatic pressure, 194 thickening, 592–593
Flocculation, 104, 451, 544 Frame grabber, 33 velocity-controlled grit removal, 510–511
Floc formation, 575 Free available chlorine, 476, 477 Green algae, 523
Floc solids, 501 Free residual, 476 Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District
Floc water, 589 Free-swimming ciliated protozoa, 553 (GBMSD), 59–62
Flotation thickening, 593 Free water, 588 Grit channel velocity calculation, 139–140
Flow, 83–84, 665 surface, 198 Grit removal, 138, 510
amount, 210 Freeze-assisted drying beds, 613 aeration, 511
average flow rate calculations, 86 Freezing, 535 calculations, 512
conversion calculations, 86 Freshwater centrifugal force, 511–512
diagram, WWT process ecosystem gravity/velocity-controlled grit removal,
Big Gulch, 64 process, 339 510–511
City of Bartlett, 64 species diversity, 339 Groundwater, 429
De Pere, 62 source, 427 aquifer, 430, 431
Sheboygan, 63 Friction head, 195, 222 infiltration, 504
distribution, 516, 565 loss, 202 quality, 430
equalization, 513 C factor, 204, 205 surface water, direct influence of, 430–431
equalization system, 234 flow in pipelines, 202–204 treatment requirements, 431–432
instantaneous flow into and out of a major head loss, 203–204 D/DBP rule, 432
rectangular tank, 85 minor head loss, 205 IESWT rule, 432
instantaneous flow rates, 84 slope, 204–205 regulatory deadlines, 432
rate, 210 Full-scale chlorination treatment, 468 Groundwater under the direct influence of
in acre-inches day, 152 surface water (GUDISW), 7, 430, 455
into a cylindrical tank, 85 GAC adsorption, 472
through filter, 113 Galileo’s theory, 7 HAA concentration, 474
through pipeline, 85 Galvanic corrosion, 448 Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment
velocity calculations, 86 Gambusia, 523 Plant Operations, 8
Flow measurement, 209–210 Gas chlorination, 477–478 Hardness
devices, 210 Gastropoda (lung-breathing snails), 356 calculation, 446
differential pressure flowmeters, 210–212 Gates, 31, 34 measurement, 402
magnetic flowmeters, 212–213 Gauges treatment, 446–447
positive-displacement flowmeters, accumulator, 277 Hardwired systems, 29
214–215 air receiver, 277–278 Hatch security, 36
ultrasonic flowmeters, 213–214 double check system, 274 Hazards, 24
velocity flowmeters, 214 heat exchangers, 278 Hazen-Williams equation, 204, 206, 208
old-fashioned way, 210 operating parameters, 274 HCl, see Hydrochloric acid
open-channel, 215–217 parameter indications, 274 HCN, see Hydrogen cyanide
flumes, 217 pressure, 195 HDT, see Hydraulic detention time
weirs, 216 pressure gauges, 274 Head, 195
traditional flow measurement, 210 bellows gauge, 275–276 defined, 82
Fluidized bed furnace, 621 bourdon tube, 275 friction head, 195
Fluid velocity through pipeline, 219–220 plunger gauge, 275–276 loss, 199
Flumes, 217 spring-operated, 274–275 and pressure, 196
Fluoridation, 124–125 pre-start check, 274 static head, 195
Index 673
total dynamic head, 196 dosage, 89–90, 155 oxidation, 445–446

velocity head, 196 facts, 564 potassium permanganate oxidation, 446
Hepatitis B virus, 465 operation, 565 precipitation, 445
Hero Hercules, 4 solution feed rate, 123 sequestering, 446
Heterotrophic plate count (HPC), 468 systems, 565 Iron bacteria, 449
HGL, see Hydraulic grade line Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), 476, 481, 482 Iron filings, 490
Hidden function, 8 Iron/Manganese (Fe/Mn) oxidation, 487
High clarifier effluent suspended solids, 534 IDSs, see Intrusion detection systems Iron oxide coated sand, 489
High rate filter, 531 IESWT, see Interim enhanced surface water Irrigation, 579
High-rate trickling filters, 529 treatment ISO, see International Organization for
Hirudinea (leeches), 356 IESWTR, see Interim Enhanced Surface Water Standards
HMI, see Human Machine Interface Treatment Rule Isolated bacteria, 522
HOCl, see Hypochlorous acid Individual filter
Horsepower (Hp), 223, 665 follow-up action, 458 Jar tests, 450, 451, 554
brake horsepower (BHP), 223–224 monitoring, 456 Jetted wells, 434
hydraulic horsepower (WHP), 223 requirements, 457 Joining metallic pipe
HPC, see Heterotrophic plate count self-assessment bell-and-spigot joint, 249–250
Human Machine Interface (HMI), 50 comprehensive performance description, 249
Human parasitic protozoans, 465 evaluation, 458 flanged joints, 250
Hydrant lock, 35 notification, 459 screwed or threaded joints, 250
Hydraulic depth, 207 tier 1 violations, 459–460 soldered and brazed joints, 251
Hydraulic detention time (HDT), 88, 152, 503 tier 2 violations, 460 welded joints, 250
in days, 88 Industrial contributors, 549 butt-welded, 250–251
in hours, 88 Industrial hoses socket-welded, 251
in minutes, 88 coupling
Hydraulic grade line (HGL), 199, 203, 209 all-metal hoses, 263, 264 Ladder access control, 36
Hydraulic (water) horsepower (WHP), 223 low-pressure applications, 263 Laminar flow, 202, 207
Hydraulic loading, 142, 529, 535, 545 maintenance, 264 LAN, see Local area network
Hydraulic loading rate, 109, 144, 167, 532, 541 quick-connect, 263 Land application
biosolids feed rate, 168 quick-disconnect, 263 of biosolids, 171
flocculant feed rate, 168 description, 259–260 operational observations, problems, and
solids loading rate, 168 nomenclature troubleshooting, 580–581
Hydraulic machine pumps, 219–220 bend radius, 260–261 type and modes of, 579–580
basic pumping calculations, 219 maintenance operations, 260 Langelier saturation index (LI), 448
affinity laws, centrifugal pumps, 224 reinforcing materials, 260 Law of conservation of energy, 198
brake horsepower (BHP), 223–224 standards, codes and sizes, 261 Law of continuity, 197
fluid velocity through pipeline, 219–220 metallic hose, 263 LCRMR, see Lead and Copper Rule Minor
friction head, 222 nonmetallic hose (see Nonmetallic hose) Revisions
horsepower, 223 Industrial wastewater, 504 Lead, 247
net positive suction head (NPSH), Inorganic by-products and disinfectants, 472 intoxication, 447
225–226 Inorganic phosphates, 449 Lead and Copper Rule, 447
pressure to head conversion, 223 Inorganic solids, 506, 589 Lead and Copper Rule Minor Revisions
pressure-velocity relationship, 220 Instantaneous flow into and out of rectangular (LCRMR), 447
series and parallel pumps, 226 tank, 85 Legionella pneumophila, 465–466
specific speed, 224 Instantaneous flow rates, 84 LI, see Langelier saturation index
static head, 221 Intercellular water, 608 Licensure, 24–25
total head, 223 Interim enhanced surface water treatment Light intensity, 525
velocity head, 222–223 (IESWT), 427, 432, 452, 481 Lime
centrifugal pumps, 226 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule dosage calculation
advantages, 230–231 (IESWTR), 455–459 g/min, 113
application, 231 regulatory requirements lbs/day, 112
description, 227, 228 applicability, 456 mg/L, 111
disadvantages, 230–231 combined filter effluent monitoring, 456 softening, 456, 488
electronic control systems, 234–235 individual filter monitoring, 456 stabilization, 606–607
modifications, 235–237 Interior doorways, 39 Limit of technology (LOT), 584
pump characteristics, 229–230 Interior intrusion sensors, 29, 36 Linear gate, 31
pump control systems, 232–233 International Organization for Standards Liquid
pump theory, 229 (ISO), 11 alum, 450
terminology, 227–229 International Ozone Association (IOA), 474 bleach, 480
positive displacement pumps, 237 Intrusion detection systems (IDSs), 54 Local alarm, 28
diaphragm pump, 237–238 Intrusion sensors, 29, 36 Local area network (LAN), 47
peristaltic pumps, 238 Invertebrates, 523 Local paradigm, 7
piston/reciprocating pump, 237 IOA, see International Ozone Association Locks, 37
Hydraulic radius, 207 Ion exchange, 446, 488–489 Log growth phase, 544
Hydrochloric acid (HCl), 476 capacity, 135 LOT, see Limit of technology
Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), 44 process, 446–447
Hydrogen sulfide, 606 Iris recognition systems, 33 Macroinvertebrate glossary, 349–350
Hydrologic cycle, 426 Iron and manganese removal techniques insect macroinvertebrates
Hydrostatic pressure, 194 aeration, 446 alderflies and dobsonflies, 354–355
Hypochlorination, 478 ion exchange, 446 beetles, 352–354
Hypochlorite manganese greensand, 446 caddisflies, 351–352
674 Index
dragonflies and damselflies, 355–356 rate of filtration calculation, 92 Maximum discharge, 625
mayflies, 350 storage tank calculations, 94 Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera), 350
stoneflies, 350–351 water distribution system calculations, 93 MCC, see Motor control center
true flies, 352 water flow velocity, 93 MCLG, see Maximum contaminant level goal
water strider, 354 flow, 84 MCLs, see Maximum contaminant level
non-insect macroinvertebrates calculations, 85–87 Mean cell residence time (MCRT), 149, 501,
gastropoda, 356 force, 82 542, 559–560
hirudinea, 356 formulae, 77, 78 control, 560
oligochaeta, 356 head, 82 impact on parameters
Macroinvertebrates protocol, biomonitoring hydraulic detention time (HDT), 88 control values for, 560
the biotic index in days, 88 mass balance, 561–562
BMWP, 378 in hours, 88 recordkeeping requirements, 560
identification keys, 378 in minutes, 88 secondary clarifier, 563
pollution measurement, 378 median, 77 waste quantities/requirements, 560
principles, 377 percent removal, 90–91 waste rate in million gallons/day,
types, 377 percent volatile matter reduction in 560–561
metrics, 378 sludge, 91 Mean flow velocity, 110
Magnesium hardness, 131 population equivalent (PE), 91 Median, 79
Magnetic flowmeters, 212–213 pressure, 82 Membrane
Major head loss, 203–204 specific gravity, 91 filtration, 472
calculation, 204 symbols, 77, 78 filtration systems, 455
Malware, 47 units, 80 processes, 489
Manganese greensand, 446 milligrams per liter, 81 Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth
Manhole intrusion sensors, 37 volume, 81 Edition, 500
Manhole locks, 37 wastewater math concepts Metallic piping
Manning equation, 204 activated biosolids, 145–146 classification
Manual of Water Utility Operations, 440 biosolids dewatering, 166–170 American Society for Testing and
Mass balance, 561 biosolids disposal, 171–173 Materials (ASTM) ratings, 246
biological process, 562–563 chemical dosing, 154–165 American Water Works Association
and measuring plant performance, 97 preliminary treatment calculations, (AWWA) ratings, 246
for settling tanks, 97 137–140 ASME B16.5 ratings, 246
settling tank suspended solids, 561–562 primary treatment calculations, 140–141 manufacturers ratings, 246
using BOD removal, 98 rotating biological contactors (RBCs), National Fire Protection Association
measuring plant performance, 98–99 144–145 (NFPA) ratings, 246
percent volatile matter reduction in solids inventory, 147–152 pressure-temperature rating system, 245
sludge, 99 treatment ponds, 152–154 description, 244
plant performance/efficiency, 99 trickling filter calculations, 142–143 maintenance characteristics
unit process performance/efficiency, 99 water math concepts air binding, 249
Master Terminal Unit (MTU), 50 chemical usage determination, 108 backflow, 248, 249
Math operations, 77 chemical use calculations, 124 corrosion effects, 249
applied math operations copper sulfate dosing, 102–104 expansion and flexibility, 248
mass balance and measuring plant dry chemical feeder calibration, 106 isolation, 248
performance, 97 dry chemical feeder setting, lbs/day, 104 pipe supports, 248
mass balance for settling tanks, 97 filtration calculations, 113–119 valve selection, 248
mass balance using BOD removal, 98 fluoridation, 124–130 water hammer, 248–249
area, 81 percent of solutions, 105 materials characteristics
arithmetic average, 77 sedimentation calculations, 108–109 cast-iron pipe, 247
calculation steps, 77 surface overflow rate, 109–113 Ductile-iron pipe, 248
chemical coagulation and sedimentation, 91 water chlorination calculations, 119–124 metallurgy (see Metallurgy)
calculating feed rate, 91 water softening, 130–136 steel pipe, 248
calculating solution strength, 92 water sources, 99–101 materials selection
chemical dosage calculations, 88 water storage calculations, 99, 101–102 capability, 244
chlorine dosage, 89 water/wastewater laboratory characteristics, 245
dosage formula pie chart, 88, 89 calculations, 174 components, 245
hypochlorite dosage, 89–90 biosolids density index (BDI), 180 environmental factors, 245
chemical solution feeder calibration, 107 biosolids volume index (BVI), 180 sizes, 245
chemical solution feeder setting BOD5, 176 types
gpd, 104 faucet flow estimation, 174 code identification, 246
mL/min, 105 fixed solids, 179 process lines, 246
complex conversions, 96 moles and molarity, 177 service lines, 246
concentration to quantity, 96 service line flushing time, 174–176 wall thickness designations, 245
quantity to concentration, 96 settleability, 178 Metallurgy
quantity to volume or flow rate, 97 settleable solids, 178 cast iron, 247
conversions, 80 total solids, 179 definition, 247
temperature conversions, 80 volatile solids, 179 ferrous metal, 247
detention time, 86–87 volatile suspended solids (VSS), 179 lead, 247
equivalents, 77, 78 wastewater suspended solids, 179 nonferrous metal, 247
filtration, 92 Maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG), 455 pig iron, 247
distribution system disinfection Maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), 42, 44, piping standards, 247
calculations, 95 440, 447, 484, 491 steel, 247
filter backwash, 92–93 Maximum daily discharge, 625 Metals loading, 624
Index 675
Metric ton, 600 Mud ball formation, 577 silicone rubber, 263
MF, see Microfiltration Muddy-bottom streams Teflon, 262–263
MGD, see Million gallons per day definition, 385 vertical-braided hose, 262
Microbial repair, 571 habitat assessment, 387–388 wire-reinforced hose, 262
Microbiology steps, 385–387 wire-woven hose, 262
bacteria, 305–306 Multiple-barrier concept, 7–8 wrapped hose, 262
bacilli, 306 wastewater operations, 8–9 Nonmetallic piping
capsules, 304 Multiple hearth furnace, 621 clay pipes
cell structure, 304 MWCO, see Molecular weight cutoff bell-and-spigot joint, 252
cell wall, 305 Mycobacterium fortuitum, 482 description, 252
cocci, 306 unglazed (not glassy), 252
cytoplasm, 305 Nanofiltration (NF), 489 vitrified (glass-like), 252
destruction, 307 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 9 concrete pipe
flagella, 304–305 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) advantages, 252
forms, 306 NFPA 72, 29 asbestos-cement (A-C), 253–254
growth factors, 306–307 ratings, 246 description, 252
inclusions, 305 National Infrastructure Protection Center disadvantages, 252–253
mesosome, 305 (NIPC), 53 nonreinforced, 253
nucleoid, 305 National Pollution Discharge Elimination reinforced, 253
plasma/cytoplasmic membrane, 305 System (NPDES), 9, 41, 46 reinforced and prestressed, 253
ribosomes, 305 National Primary Drinking Water Regulation description, 251
shapes/arrangements, 306 (NPDWR), 459 materials, 251–252
waterborne, 307 National Science Foundation (NSF), 456 plastic pipe
classification, 302–303 Natural organic matter (NOM), 470–472 advantages, 254
crustaceans, 308–309 NCWSs, see Non-community water systems description, 254
definition, 301 Nematodes, 542 polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 254
differentiation, 304 NEPA, see National Environmental Policy Act Non-uniform flow, 203
fungi, 310 Net filter yield, 167 Normality, 177
nematodes/flatworms, 310 Net positive suction head (NPSH), 225–226 Not-In-My-Backyard (NIMBY), 605
principles, 301–302 Network honeypot, 49 Nozzle, 212
protozoa, 307–308 Network intrusion hardware and software, 48–49 NPDES, see National Pollution Discharge
viruses, 309–310 NF, see Nanofiltration Elimination System
water treatment, 310–311 NFPA, see National Fire Protection Association NPDES permits, 625
Cryptosporidium (see Cryptosporidium) NIMBY, see Not-In-My-Backyard monitoring, 626
Cyclospora, 319 1977 Clean Water Act Amendment, 10 reporting, 626
Giardia (see Giardia) 1987 Clean Water Act, 10 NPDWR, see National Primary Drinking Water
helminths, 319 1989 Surface Water Treatment Rule Regulation
pathogenic protozoa, 311–312 (SWTR), 455 NPS, see Nominal pipe size
water/wastewater microorganisms, 302 1995 Community Water Systems Survey reports, NPSH, see Net positive suction head
Microfiltration (MF), 489 461, 474 NPSH available (NPSHA) calculation, 225–226
Microscopic examination, 552 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) NSF, see National Science Foundation
Microscreening, 575–576 Amendments, 455 Nutrients, 545
Milligrams per liter, 81 NIPC, see National Infrastructure Protection
Million gallons per day (MGD), 88 Center Occupational Safety and Health Act (OHSA), 24
Minimum discharge, 625 Nitrates measurement Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Minor head loss, 205 cadmium reduction method, 406–407 (OSHA), 10, 485, 507
Mixed liquor, 501, 542, 543 description, 406 Odors, 534
color, 550 electrode method, 407 OHSA, see Occupational Safety and Health
total suspended solids (TSS), 548 sampling and equipment considerations, 406 Act; Occupational Safety and Health
Mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS), 147, Nitrification, 582 Administration
501, 542, 548, 551, 552, 555 Nitrogen, 526 OJT, see On-the-job training
Mixed liquor volatile suspended solids compounds, 505 Oligochaeta (Family Tuificidae,
(MLVSS), 147 cycle, 524 Genus:Tubifex), 356
Mixing and flocculation, 451–452 removal, 524, 582 On-the-job training (OJT), 24
Mixis, 525 Nitrogenous oxygen demand (NOD), 502 Open atmospheric tank, 225
MLE, see Modified Ludzack-Ettinger process Nitrosomonas, 582 Open-channel flow, 206
MLSS, see Mixed liquor suspended solids NOD, see Nitrogenous oxygen demand calculations, 208–209
MLVSS, see Mixed liquor volatile suspended NOM, see Natural organic matter characteristics, 206–207
solids Nominal pipe size (NPS), 245 critical flow, 207
Modified Ludzack-Ettinger (MLE) process, Noncarbonate hardness, 132 laminar and turbulent flow, 207
547, 583 removal of, 134 uniform and varied flow, 207
Modified university of cape town (UCT) Non-community water systems (NCWSs), 27 measurement, 215
process, 583 Nonmetallic hose flumes, 217
Moisture removal, 600–601 description, 261 weirs, 216
Molarity, 177 horizontal-braided hose, 262 parameters used, 207
Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO), 472 reinforced horizontal-braided-wire hose, 262 hydraulic depth, 207
Moles, 177 types hydraulic radius, 207
Monochloramine, 467 Dacron, 262 slope, 208
Motor control center (MCC), 15 natural latex, 263 Operator
Motor controllers, 234 nylon, 263 certification, 24–25
MTU, see Master Terminal Unit pure gum, 263 duties, 23–24
676 Index
Optimal fluoride levels, 126 of mixed solutions, 107 hangers and supports, 244
Optimizing treatment processes, 7–8 of solutions, 123–124 performance, 243
Ordering chlorine, 570 using dry hypochlorite, 124 protective features, 243
Organic loading, 529, 545 Percent total solids, 518 scaling, 242–243
rate, 143, 145, 153, 532, 536, 540 Percent volatile matter reduction, 166, 599 temperature effects and insulation, 244
Organic nitrogen, 483 sludge, 91, 503 metallic (see Metallic piping)
Organic oxidation by-products, 471–472 Perimeter intrusion sensors, 29 nonmetallic (see Nonmetallic piping)
Organic solids, 506, 589 Peristaltic pumps, 238 operators responsibilities, 240
Organization, levels of ecology, 333 Permits, records, and reports protective devices
Orifice, 211 NPDES permits, 626 applications, 272
Orthophosphate measurement reporting calculations, 627 filter, 272
ascorbic acid method, orthophosphate, sampling and testing, 626–627 strainers, 272
405–406 Pest eradication software, 47–48 traps (see Traps)
phosphorus cycles, 404–405 pH, 482–483, 485, 524, 545, 548 single-line piping, 240
phosphorus formation, 404 adjustment, 164–165 Piston/reciprocating pump, 237
phosphorus testing, 405 measurement Pitot-static tube, 212
sampling and equipment considerations, 405 analytical and equipment Pitting, 447, 448
OSHA, see Occupational Safety and Health considerations, 402 Plain settling tanks (clarifiers), 515–516
Administration color comparators, 403 Plant available nitrogen (PAN), 172
OTE, see Oxygen-transfer efficiency meter, 402–403 Plant performance/efficiency, 502
Outdoor equipment enclosure, 27–28 “pocket pals,” 403 Plant security
Over-oxidized activated sludge, 554 Pharmaceuticals and personal care products bottom line on security, 57
Oxidation, 469 (PPCPs), 2 SCADA, 49–50
air, 601 origins and fate of, 5 adoption of technologies with known
ditch detention time, 151 PHAs, see Polyhydroxyalkanoates vulnerabilities, 52–53
ditches, 546–548 Phosphate-accumulating organisms (PAOs), 582 applications in water/wastewater, 50
pond, 521 Phosphorus, 505, 526 cyber threats to control systems, 53
Oxygen-transfer efficiency (OTE), 15 removal, 582 increasing risk, 52
Ozonation Photooxidation, 490–491 securing control systems, 53–54
advantages and disadvantages, 573 Photorepair, 572 security improvement steps, 54–57
applicability, 573 Photosynthesis, 523 vulnerabilities, 50–52
bromine chloride, 574 Phragmites communis, 613 security hardware/devices, 27
Ozone, 574 Physical asset monitoring and control devices communication and integration, 46–47
disinfection, 573 aboveground equipment enclosures, 27–28 cyber protection devices, 47–49
alarms, 28–29 physical asset monitoring and control
Package plants, 546–547 backflow prevention devices, 29–30 devices, 27–41
PAN, see Plant available nitrogen barriers, 30–33 water monitoring devices, 41–46
PAOs, see Phosphate-accumulating organisms card identification/access/tracking systems, Plate and frame press, 166
Paradigm shift, 6–7 33–34 PLCs, see Programmable logic controllers
Parshall flume, 217 fences, 34–35 PMCL, see Proposed maximum contaminant
Particle water, 589 films for glass shatter protection, 35 level
Passive security barriers, 32 fire hydrant locks, 35 Pneumatic control systems, 232
Pathogenic organisms, 601 hatch security, 36 for pump motor control, 233
Pathogens, 589 intrusion sensors, 36 Pneumatic pumping stations, 507
inactivation, environmental effects, 482–483 ladder access control, 36 Point source, 625
inactivation mechanisms, 482 locks, 37 Poliovirus, 465
algal growth prevention, sedimentation manhole intrusion sensors, 37 Polishing pond, 521
basins and filters, 469 manhole locks, 37 Pollutant, 601
coagulation and filtration efficiency outdoor equipment enclosures, 27–28 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), 582
improvement, 469 radiation detection equipment, monitoring Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 247, 254, 435,
color removal, 469 personnel and packages, 37–38 449, 601
DBP formation, minimization of, 467 reservoir covers, 38 Ponding, 533–534
disinfectants uses, 466–467 side-hinged door security, 39 Ponds, 519
iron and manganese, oxidation of, 468 valve lockout devices, 39–40 based on location, 521
nuisance Asiatic clams and zebra vent security, 40 based on type, processes occurring with,
mussels, control of, 467–468 visual surveillance monitoring, 40–41 521–522
re-growth prevention, distribution system Piezometer, 198 biochemistry in, 523–524
and maintenance, 468–469 Piezometric surface, 198–199 elements of, 522–523
taste and odors removal, 469 Pin floc, 550 nutritional requirements, 526–527
Paved drying beds, 611–612 Pipeline flow, 202–204 physical factors, 525–526
PE, see Population equivalent Piping, 245 process control calculations for, 527
Peaking air, 601 hydraulics, 205 types of, 520
Percent moisture reduction, digested networks, 205–206 Population ecology, 328
biosolids, 166 standards, 247 animal populations, 337
Percent mud ball volume, 118–119 Piping systems carrying capacity, 337
Percent product water, backwatering, 118 ancillaries (see Gauges) definition, 337
Percent removal, 90–91 definitions, 240–242 density, 337
Percent settled biosolids test, 110 fluids vs. liquids, 242 distribution patterns, 337
Percent solids, 160 maintenance organisms study, 337
Percent strength accessories, 243–244 species diversity, 338
of liquid solutions, 106 fluid flow, 242 succession
Index 677
description, 338 screening, 441 fluid velocity through pipeline, 219–220

old-field succession, 338 Primacy Agency, 460 friction head, 222
primary succession or bare-rock Primary clarifier solids production, 160 horsepower, 223
succession, 338 Primary culprit, 449 brake horsepower (BHP), 223–224
secondary succession, 338 Primary effluent, 519 hydraulic horsepower (WHP), 223
Population equivalent (PE), 91 Primary sludge, 588 net positive suction head (NPSH), 225–226
Population loading, 153 Primary solids production, 160 pressure to head conversion, 223
Porosity, 429 Primary treatment, sedimentation pressure-velocity relationship, 220
Portable cyanide analyzer, 43–44 effluent from settling tanks, 519 series and parallel pumps, 226
Portable field monitors, VOCs, 44 operator observations, process problems, and specific speed, 224
Portable/removable barriers, 31–32 troubleshooting, 516 suction specific speed, 224
Portable sensors, 41 overview of, 515 static head, 221
Positive-displacement flowmeters, 214–215 problem analysis, 518–519 static discharge head, 221
six common principles, 215 process control calculations static suction head, 221
Positive displacement pumps, 237, 444 BOD and SS removal, 518 static suction lift, 221
diaphragm pump, 237–238 detention time, 517 total head, 223
peristaltic pumps, 238 percent removal, 517 velocity head, 222–223
piston/reciprocating pump, 237 percent total solids, 518 Pure oxygen, 546
Potable water, definitions, 425–426 process control calculations, 516–517 Purple sulfur bacteria, 522
Potassium permanganate, 445, 467, 469, 474 sludge pumping, 517 PVC, see Polyvinyl chloride
oxidation, 446 surface loading rate, 517 PWSs, see Public water systems
POTWs, see Publicly owned treatment works weir overflow rate, 517
Pounds formula, 478 process description, 515 Quagga mussel (Dreissena bugensis), 468
PPCPs, see Pharmaceuticals and personal care sedimentation tanks types, 515–516 Quicklime, 606
products Primary treatment calculations
Prechlorination, 442, 469 BOD and suspended solids removed, 141 Racetrack type, 547
Precursor removal, 472–473 process control calculations, 140 Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District, 16
Preliminary treatment, 137 surface loading rate, 140–141 Rack Load Test, 39
aerated systems, 513 weir overflow rate, 141–142 Radial bearing, 227
chemical addition, 513 Privatization, 10–11 Radiation detection equipment, 37, 45
equalization, 513 Process for monitoring personnel and packages,
grit removal, 138, 510–512 calculations, 594 37–38
aeration, 511 condition vs. organisms present/ for monitoring water assets, 45–46
calculations, 512 population, 552 Radiological contamination, monitoring sensors,
centrifugal force, 511–512 control testing and sampling, 566 41–42
gravity/velocity-controlled grit removal, aeration influent sampling, 551 Rapid sand filters, 453–454
510–511 aeration tank, 551–554 RAS, see Return activated sludge
grit channel velocity calculation, 139–140 F/M ratio control, 558–560 RASS, see Return activated sludge solids
preaeration, 512 food to microorganism ratio (F/M ratio), Rate of filtration calculation, 92
preliminary treatment sampling and 558–560 Raw sewage stabilization pond, 520–521
testing, 513 process control adjustments, 555 RBCs, see Rotating biological contactors
process control calculations, 513 process control calculations, 556–558 Recarbonation calculation, 134–135
screening, 137, 508–509 return-activated sludge and waste- Recessed impeller/vortex pumps, 236
manually cleaned screens, 508–509 activated sludge, 555 Recirculation, 529, 531–533
mechanically cleaned screens, 509 settling tank, 554 flow, 143
pit capacity calculations, 138 settling tank effluent, 554 Rectangular weir, 216, 217
removal calculations, 138–139 settling tank influent, 554 Recycle flow, 595
removal computations, 509 troubleshooting operational problems, Red algae, 523
safety screening, 509 555–556 Re-engineering, 10–11
shredding, 510 residuals, 159, 587 Remote telemetry units (RTUs), 47, 50
Prescriptive processes, 486–488 sidestreams, 549 Removable bollards, 31
Pressure, 82–83 Process Safety Management (PSM), 485 Reporting calculations, 627
filter systems, 454 Programmable logic controllers (PLCs), 46, 50 Required MLVSS quantity, 559
filtration, 166 Propeller meter, 214 Reservoir covers, 38
operational observations, problems, and Proposed maximum contaminant level Residual solids, 283
troubleshooting procedures, 617–618 (PMCL), 447 Resin, 135–136
and head, 196 Protective instrumentation, centrifugal Resistance temperature devices (RTDs), 23, 234
to head conversion, 223 pumps, 234 Respiration, 523–524
velocity relationship, 220 Protocol analysis, 48 Retention time, 515
Pretreatment Protozoa, 465, 542, 552 Retractable bollards, 31
aeration, 441 inactivation, 483 Return activated sludge (RAS), 62, 63, 542,
chemical addition, 441–449 PSM, see Process Safety Management 547, 555
calibration procedures, 444–445 Publicly owned treatment works (POTWs), 6, 27, Return activated sludge solids (RASS), 502, 551
chemical feeder calibration, 443–444 464, 499 Return sludge, 543
chemical feeders, 443 Public water systems (PWSs), 27, 427, 431–433 Reverse osmosis (RO), 489
chemical solutions, 442–443 Pumping Reynold’s Number, 204
corrosion control, 447–449 stations, 507 Rising sludge, 542
hardness treatment, 446–447 station wet well calculations, 507 Risk Management Program (RMP) Rule, 485
iron and manganese removal, 445 water level, 201 RO, see Reverse osmosis
iron and manganese removal techniques, Pumping calculations, 219 Rocky-bottom streams
445–446 affinity laws, centrifugal pumps, 224 definition, 381
678 Index
habitat assessment Saprobity system, 553 Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), 478
definition, 383 SBR process, see Sequencing batch reactor Septic tanks, 515
steps, 383–385 process Septum, 454
steps, 381–383 SBV, see Settled biosolids volume Sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process, 583
Roofed water storage tank, 226 SCADA, see Supervisory Control and Data Sequestering, 446
Rotary drum filter, 615 Acquisition System Series and parallel pumps, 226
Rotary vacuum filters SCBA, see Self-contained breathing apparatus Service line flushing time, 174–175
dewatering, 169 Schedule (SCH), 245 composite sampling calculation, 175
operational observations, problems, and Screening, 137 Settleability, 502
troubleshooting procedures, 615–616 pit capacity calculations, 138 test, 178
process control calculations, 616–617 removal calculations, 137 Settleable solids, 178
types of, 615 Scum, 588 Settled biosolids volume (SBV), 178
Rotating biological contactors (RBCs), 144, removal, 516 Settled sludge volume (SSV), 502, 542, 551,
519, 541 SDWA, see Safe Drinking Water Act 554, 556
cross-section and treatment system, 538 Secondary Settling tank, 54, 536, 537, 554
equipment, 537–538 clarifier solids production, 160 effluent, 554
expected performance, 538 sludge, 588 influent, 554
hydraulic loading rate, 144 solids production, 160 sludge, 575
operation, 538 Secondary maximum contaminant levels Shallow wells, 433–434
operator observations, 538–539 (SMCLs), 445 Sheboygan Regional Wastewater Treatment
organic loading rate, 145 Secondary treatment Plant, 62–63
process, 583 rotating biological contactors Sherlock Holmes-type at the pump, 462–463
process control calculations, 144, 540–541 cross-section and treatment system, 538 Shock load, 543
process control sampling and testing, 539 equipment, 537–538 Shredding, 510
soluble BOD, 144–145 expected performance, 538 Sick water, 1–6
total media area, 145 operation, 538 Side-hinged door security, 39
troubleshooting operational problems, operator observations, 538–539 Silicates (SiO2), 449
539–540 process control calculations, 540–541 Single-cylinder locks, 37
Rotifers, 542, 553 process control sampling and testing, 539 Slope, 203–205, 208
Roughing filters, 529–531 troubleshooting operational problems, Sloughing, 530
Roughness factor, 222 539–540 Slow sand and diatomaceous earth filtration, 456
RTDs, see Resistance temperature devices treatment ponds, 519 Slow sand filters, 453
RTUs, see Remote telemetry units based on location, 521 Sludge, 587
based on type, processes occurring with, additions, 597
Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 7, 9, 453, 458, 521–522 blanket depth, 549, 554
459, 491 biochemistry in, 523–524 bulking, 550
1974 Act, 24 elements of, 522–523 characteristics, 588–589
1996 Act, 24, 25 nutritional requirements, 526–527 color and odor, 550
Safe Drinking Water Act Reauthorization, 7 physical factors, 525–526 dewatering, 607–608
Salt for regeneration, 136–137 process control calculations for, 527 biosolids characteristics affecting, 608
Sampling, 38 types of, 520 characteristics affecting, 608–609
and testing, 626–627 trickling filters direct contact, 589–590
Sampling, streams activated sludge modifications, 530 handling, 587–588
bottom line, 391 classification, 530, 531 incineration, 620
devices cross-section of, 529 incineration processes, 621
dissolved oxygen (DO), 388–389 definitions, 528–529 operational observations, problems, and
miscellaneous equipment, 391 equipment, 530–531 troubleshooting procedures, 621–623
nets, 389 general process description, 531–532 process description, 621
plankton sampling, 390 operator observations, 532–533 indirect contact, 589–590
Secchi disk, 390–391 overview of, 532 pathogens and vector attraction, 589
sediment samplers (dredges), 389–390 process calculations, 535 production
temperature monitor, 388–389 process control sampling and testing, 533 in pounds/million gallons, 591–592
frequency and notes, 380–381 standard operating procedures, 531 in wet tons/year, 592
macroinvertebrate troubleshooting operational problems, pumped per day, 591
equipment, 381 533–535 pumping, 517
muddy-bottom streams (see Muddy- Secure control systems, 53–54 pumping calculations, 590–592
bottom streams) Securing doorways, 39 pumping time, 591
rocky-bottom streams (see Rocky-bottom Security removal, 516
streams) barriers, 32 retention time, 599
multi-habitat approach hardware/devices, 27 solids washout, 550
cobble, 380 communication and integration, 46–47 sources of, 588
grid, 380, 382 cyber protection devices, 47–49 stabilization
sand, 380 physical asset monitoring and control aerobic digestion, 595–597
snags, 380 devices, 27–41 anaerobic digestion, 597–599
submerged macrophytes, 380 water monitoring devices, 41–46 composting, 599
transect, 380 improvement steps, SCADA, 54–57 thickening, 592–595
vegetated banks, 380 Sediment, 283 withdrawal, 597–598
planning, 379 Sedimentation, 452, 453 Sludge volume index (SVI), 150, 502, 543
post-sampling routine, 388 calculations, 108 SMCLs, see Secondary maximum contaminant
stations, 379–380 detention time, 109 levels
Sand drying beds, 170 tank volume calculation, 108 SMI, see Sulfur-modified iron
Sanitary wastewater, 504 Seed volume, 598 Smoke detector alarm, 28
Index 679
SOCs, see Synthetic organic chemicals Standard rate filter, 531 weir loading rate, 110
Soda ash (Na2CO3), 133, 448, 449 Standard temperature and pressure (STP), 191 Surface waters
Sodium fluoride, 125 State recordkeeping requirements, 458 advantages/disadvantages, 427
Sodium fluorosilicate, 125 State reporting requirements, 457–458 hydrology, 427–428
Sodium hydroxide, 489 Static discharge head, 221 intake, 428–429
Sodium hypochlorite, 468, 478, 480–481, Static head, 195 quality, 429
484, 485 Static suction head, 221 raw water storage, 428
Sodium polyphosphates, 449 Static suction lift, 221 screening devices, 429
Sodium silicate, 449 from open reservoir, 227 Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR), 7, 113,
Sodium sulfate, 586 Static water level, 201 318, 427, 452, 473, 474
Soil resistivity, 449 Steady flow, 203 1996 Amendments, 481
Solids, 506 Steel, 247 Suspended growth systems, 519
concentrators, 593 Step aeration, 545–546 Suspended solids, 506
loading rate, 163, 168, 594 Sterilization, 461 SUVA, see Specific ultraviolet absorption
sludge/biosolids handling, 587–588 Stevin’s Law, 192 SVI, see Sludge volume index
background information, 588 Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera), 350–351 Swarming attacks, 53
Solids inventory, 147 Storage tank calculation, 94 SWDA, see Safe Drinking Water Act
estimating return rates from SSV60, 150 Storm water, 505 Swing beam design, 31
food-to-microorganism ratio (F/M ratio), 147 runoff, 504 Swing gates, 31
waste rate calculation, 148 STP, see Standard temperature and pressure SWTR, see Surface Water Treatment Rule
Gould Biosolids Age, 148 Straggler floc, 550 Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs), 296
mass balance Straining, 453 System recordkeeping requirements, 458
biosolids waste, 151 Stream ecosystem, biotic and abiotic factors,
settling tank suspended solids, 150–151 338–339 Tank volume calculation, 108
mean cell residence time (MCRT), 149 Stream genesis and structure, 339–340 TCLP, see Toxicity characteristic leaching
oxidation ditch detention time, 151–152 adaptive changes, 346 procedure
sludge volume index (SVI), 150 bars, riffles and pools, 342 TCR, see Total coliform rule
Solids measurement channels characteristics, 342 TDS, see Total dissolved solids
higher solids, 407 flood plain Temperature
sampling and equipment considerations balanced aquarium, 343 conversions, 80–81
precautions, 407–408 characteristics, 342–343 detectors, 234
total solids, 407–408 drift, 345 Tertiary treatment, 574
variations, 407 limiting factor, 343 Test methods, 395–396
total solids, 407 organisms classification, 344 biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
total suspended solids (TSS) pool zone, 344 analysis, 400–401
calculations, 408–409 riffle zone, 344 calculation, 401
test procedure, 408 rock measurement, 344–345 description, 400
volatile suspended solids testing run zone, 344 sampling considerations, 400
description, 409 substrate particles, 344 testing, 400–401
procedure, 409 material transport, 341–342 colorimetric, 396
total volatile suspended solids (TVSS) sinuosity, 342 dissolved oxygen (DO), 396
calculation, 409 stream current adaptations, 345–346 meter and probe, 398–399
Solids retention times (SRTs), 547 stream profiles, 342 sampling and equipment considerations,
Solubility, 442 water discharge, 341 396–397
Soluble BOD, 540 water-flow, 340–341 Winkler method, 397–398
concentration, RBC, 144–145 Submersible pumps, 235–236 electronic, 396
Soluble cyanide, 44 Sulfur, 526 titrimetric, 396
Solution Sulfur-modified iron (SMI), 489 visual, 396
chemical feeder setting, GPD, 156 Supernatant withdrawal, 597 Thermal treatment, 607
feeders, 443 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition THM formation potential (THMFP), 471
feed system, 565 System (SCADA), 49–50 Threshold odor number (TON), 418
strength calculation, 92 applications in water/wastewater, 50 Thrust, 194
Sonar system, 234 cyber threats to control systems, 53 anchor, 195
Source water quality control, 472 increasing risk, 52 bearing, 227
Specific capacity, 202 securing control systems, 53–54 block, 195
Specific energy, 203 security improvement steps, 54–57 Time-of-flight ultrasonic flowmeters, 213
Specific gravity, 91, 443 technologies adoption with known Titrimetric methods, 396
Specific speed, 224 vulnerabilities, 52–53 TKN, see Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
suction specific speed, 224 vulnerabilities, 50–52 TOC analyzer, see Total organic carbon analyzer
Specific ultraviolet absorption (SUVA), 484 Supervisory instrumentation, 235 TON, see Threshold odor number
Specific yield, 100 Surface Total alkalinity
Spirilla, 465 foam and scum, 550 analytical and equipment considerations
Spot map, 463 loading rate, 140–141, 594 burettes, 411
SRTs, see Solids retention times mounted wedge barricades, 30 digital titrators, 411
SSV, see Settled sludge volume settling rate, 517, 665 titrators, 411
Stabilization, 164 Surface overflow rate, 109, 517 definition, 410
operation, sludge dewatering, 607–608 determining lime dosage measurement, 410
performance factors, 614 g/min, 113 testing, 410
pond processes, 520 lbs/day, 112 Total chlorine residual test, 121, 476, 566
Staging, 530 mg/L, 111 Total coliform rule (TCR), 468
Stalked ciliated protozoa, 553 mean flow velocity, 110 Total cyanide, 44
Standardization methods, 395 percent settled biosolids, 110 Total dissolved solids (TDS), 506
680 Index
Total dynamic head, 196 Tubificid worms, 311 United States, 461, 462, 464, 465, 475, 480, 486,
Total flow, 535 Tubing 519, 520, 604, 626
Total hardness, 131 applications, 259 United States Environmental Protection Agency
Total head, 223 bending (USEPA), 4, 7–11, 455, 456–461,
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), 505, 551 correct and incorrect bends, 259 470–473, 476, 491, 607, 613
Total media area, 145, 540 spring-type benders, 258 Unit filter run volume (UFRV), 115
Total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer, 42–43, chemical advantage, 257 Unit process performance and efficiency, 502
471, 473, 484 connecting tubing Units, 80
Total quality management (TQM), 11 cutting tubing, 257 milligrams per liter, 81
Total residual chlorine (TRC), 418–419, 566 description, 257 University of cape town (UCT), 585
Total residual limitations, 565 flared joints, 258 U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 462
Total suspended solids (TSS), 169, 179, 506, 523, flareless joints, 258 U.S. Department of Transportation, 485
551, 554, 574 soldered or compression connection, 257 USEPA, see United States Environmental
Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs), 442, 445, 472, soldering tubing, 257–258 Protection Agency
473, 483, 484 description, 254–255
Total volatile suspended solids (TVSS), 409 fittings, 254 Vacuum-assisted drying beds, 612
Toxicity, 545 fittings and connections, 266 Vacuum collection system, 507
Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure governing factors, 261 Valves
(TCLP), 491 mechanical advantage construction, 266, 268
Toxicity monitoring/toxicity meters, 46 diameter and flexibility, 256 definition, 266
TQM, see Total quality management inner-wall surfaces, 257 design, 266
Traditional flow measurement, 210 laminar flow, 257 end connections, 267
Traffic anomaly detection, 48 threaded joints, 256–257 features, 267
Traps turbulent flow, 257 lockout devices, 39–40
description, 272 water hammer, 256 maintenance, 271
maintenance, 273 vs. piping operations
testing, 273–274 advantages, 255 magnetic valve, 271
thermostatic traps, 272–273 applications, 255 pneumatic and hydraulic valve, 271
types, 272 cost, 255 trim, 267
TRC, see Total residual chlorine physical characteristics and types, 266
Treatment ponds, 152 installation, 255 ball valves, 268
BOD loading, 153 thickness, 255 butterfly valves, 269
BOD removal efficiency, 153 types, 258–259 check valves, 269–270
flow rate in acre-inches day, 152 Turbidity, 481 diaphragm valves, 270
hydraulic detention time, 152 description, 403 gate valves, 268–269
organic loading rate, 153 operations, 403 needle valves, 269
parameters, 152 particles, 403 plug valves, 269
population loading, 153 sampling and equipment considerations, 403 pressure-reducing valves, 271
process control calculations, 152 Secchi disk, 404 quick-opening valves, 270
Treatment process models, 59, 61 sources, 403 regulating valves, 270
Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant, 63–64 Turbine meter, 214 relief valves, 270–271
City of Bartlett Wastewater Treatment Plant, Turbine pumps, 236–237 Variances and exemptions, 460
64–65 Turbulence, 550 Varied flow, 203, 207
Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage District Turbulent flow, 202–203, 207 Velocity, 449
(GBMSD), 59–62 TVSS, see Total volatile suspended solids calculations, 86
Sheboygan Regional Wastewater Treatment Two story (Imhoff) tank, 515 flowmeters, 214–215
Plant, 62–63 2002 EPA report, 18 head, 196, 222–223
Triangular V-notch weir, 217 2009 Report Card for American Infrastructure, 18 Vent security, 40
Trickling filters, 142 Two-way radios, 47 Venturi, 212
activated sludge modifications, 530 Vertical turbine pump calculation, 101
calculations, 142 UCT, see University of cape town Vibration monitors, 234
classification, 530, 531 UF, see Ultrafiltration Vibrios, 464
cross-section of, 529 UFRV, see Unit filter run volume Viruses, 465
definitions, 528–529 UL, see Underwriters Laboratory inactivation, 483
equipment, 530–531 Ultrafiltration (UF), 472, 489 Visual methods, 396
general process description, 531–532 Ultrasonic flowmeters, 213 Visual surveillance monitoring, 40–41
hydraulic loading, 142 Doppler type, 213–214 VOCs, see Volatile organic chemicals; Volatile
operator observations, 532–533 time-of-flight, 213 organic compounds
organic loading rate, 143 Ultraviolet (UV), 475 Volatile acids, 597
overview of, 532 absorbance, 471 to alkalinity ratio, 165, 598
process calculations, 535 irradiation Volatile matter (VM), 591
process control sampling and testing, 533 advantages and disadvantages, 571–572 Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs), 297
recirculation flow, 143 applicability, 572 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 44
standard operating procedures, 531 operation and maintenance, 572–573 Volatile solids loading, 164
troubleshooting operational problems, 533–535 lamps, 571 Volatile suspended solids (VSS), 179
Troubleshooting, 566–567 light tubes, 571 Volume, 81, 665
True flies (Order: Diptera), 352 Under-oxidized activated sludge, 554 Volute-casing centrifugal pump, 229
TSS, see Total suspended solids Underwriters Laboratory (UL), 29 VSS, see Volatile suspended solids
TTHMs, see Total trihalomethanes UL 752, 39
TTHM Stimulated Distribution System, 471 Uniform flow, 203, 207 WAD, see Weak acid dissociable cyanide
Tuberculation, 448, 449 United Nations, 3, 6 WAP, see Wireless Access Point
Index 681
WAS, see Waste activated sludge biosolids, land application of, 623–625 create equipment inventory and demand
WASS, see Waste activated sludge solids centrifugation, 619–620 and energy distribution, 15–16
Waste-activated sludge (WAS), 551, 555, 558 hydraulic detention time (HDT), 503 field investigation, 15
flow rate, 548–549 percent volatile matter reduction, sludge, 503 potential results of, 12
Waste activated sludge solids (WASS), 502 permits, records, and reports process, 11–13
Waste sludge, 543 NPDES permits, 626 steps, 13
Wastewater Biosolids to Compost, 601 reporting calculations, 627 targets, 12
Wastewater characteristics sampling and testing, 626–627 12 stage approach, 12
biological characteristics and processes, 506 plant performance/efficiency, 502 compliance with new, changing, and existing
chemical characteristics, 505–506 preliminary treatment regulations, 9
physical characteristics, 505 aerated systems, 513 energy efficiency, 19
Wastewater collection systems chemical addition, 513 maintaining infrastructure, 9–10
force main collection system, 506 equalization, 513 maintaining sustainable infrastructure, 18
gravity collection system, 506 grit removal, 510–512 privatization and/or re-engineering, 10–11
pumping stations, 507 preaeration, 512 Rachel’s Creek Sanitation District, 16
pumping station wet well calculations, 507 preliminary treatment sampling and sustainable water/wastewater
vacuum collection system, 507 testing, 513 infrastructure, 18
Wastewater disinfection process control calculations, 513 technical vs. professional management, 17–18
chlorine disinfection, 564–570 screening, 508–510 water/wastewater infrastructure gap, 18–19
chemical handling, 568 shredding, 510 Waterborne diseases, 302, 464
chlorination equipment, 565 primary treatment, sedimentation Waterborne pathogens, 302
chlorination operation, 565 effluent from settling tanks, 519 attributes of, 465
chlorination process description, 565 operator observations, process problems, Water chemistry, 283
chlorination terminology, 564 and troubleshooting, 516 chemical parameters
environmental hazards and safety, 568 overview of, 515 fluorides, 297
facts and process description, 564 problem analysis, 518–519 heavy metals, 297
troubleshooting operation problems, process control calculations, 516–518 nutrients, 297–298
565–567 process description, 515 organics, 296
no disinfection, 574 sedimentation tanks types, 515–516 SOC, 296
ozonation, 573–574 rotary vacuum filtration, 615–618 total dissolved solids, 297
advantages and disadvantages, 573 secondary treatment VOC, 297
applicability, 573 rotating biological contactors, 537–541 concepts
bromine chloride, 574 treatment ponds, 519–528 emulsions, 283
UV irradiation, 571–573 trickling filters, 528–537 ion, 284
advantages and disadvantages, 571–572 sludge, 587 mass concentration, 284
applicability, 572 characteristics, 588–589 miscibility/solubility, 283
operation and maintenance, 572–573 direct contact, 589–590 suspension/sediments/particles/solids,
Wastewater operations, 8–9 incineration, 620–623 283
Wastewater operators, treatment process, indirect contact, 589–590 constituents
499, 500 pathogens and vector attraction, 589 acids, 290
Wastewater sources stabilization, 595–599 bases, 290
classification, 504–505 thickening, 592–595 color, 289
wastewater generation, 504 unit process performance and efficiency, 502 DO, 289
Wastewater suspended solids, 179 wastewater characteristics inorganic matter, 290
Wastewater Treatment Facility (WWTP), 59, 585 biological characteristics and metals, 289–290
influent data profile processes, 506 organic matter, 290
Big Gulch, 63 chemical characteristics, 505–506 pH, 292
City of Bartlett, 64 physical characteristics, 505 salts, 290
De Pere, 61 wastewater collection systems solids, 288–289
Sheboygan, 62 force main collection system, 506 sulfate concentrations, 290–292
Wastewater treatment operations gravity collection system, 506 turbidity, 289
activated sludge process pumping stations, 507 definitions, 284–285
aeration tank, 550 pumping station wet well fundamentals
control parameters, 548 calculations, 507 compound substances, 287–288
factors affecting operation of, 544 vacuum collection system, 507 elements, 286–287
formation of, 544 wastewater disinfection matter, 285
growth curve, 544 chlorine disinfection, 564–570 measurements
MCRT impact on parameters, 560–563 no disinfection, 574 alkalinity, 292–293
modification, 545–548 ozonation, 573–574 chemicals, 293–294
performance-controlling factors, UV irradiation, 571–573 disinfection, 294
544–545 wastewater operators, 499, 500 hardness, 293
advanced wastewater treatment, 574–575 wastewater sources odor control/waste water treatment, 293
biological denitrification, 578 classification, 504–505 specific conductance, 293
biological nutrient removal (BNR), wastewater generation, 504 taste/odor removal, 294
581–585 wastewater terminology and definitions, temperature, 293
carbon adsorption, 578–581 499–502 softening
chemical treatment, 575 Water and wastewater operations challenges chemical precipitation, 294–295
enhanced biological nutrient removal benchmarking ion exchange, 295
(EBNR), 585–587 baseline audit, 14–15 recarbonation/stabilization, 295
filtration, 576–577 baseline data and tracking energy use, solutions, 288
microscreening, 575–576 13–14 Water chlorination calculations, 119
682 Index
calculating dry hypochlorite rate, 122 radiation detection equipment, 45 chlorination

calculating hypochlorite solution feed for monitoring water assets, 45–46 application methods, 484–485
rate, 123 sensors for monitoring chemical, biological, breakpoint chlorination, 477
calculating percent strength of solutions, and radiological contamination, breakpoint chlorination curve, 477
123–124 41–42 chlorine chemistry, 476–477
calculating percent strength using dry toxicity monitoring/meters, 46 chlorine dosage determination, 478
hypochlorite, 124 Water Pollution Control Act Amendments, 9 chlorine generation, 480–481
chlorine demand, 121 Water quality, 359 chlorine terminology, 475–476
chlorine disinfection, 119–120 biological characteristics, water and DBPs, 483–484
chlorine dose, 120 wastewater disinfection efficacy, 482–483
chlorine residual, 121 bacteria, 372 factors affecting, 481–482
determining chlorine dosage, 120 protozoa, 372 gas chlorination, 477–478
Water cycle, 359–361; see also Hydrologic cycle viruses, 372 hypochlorination, 478
Water distribution system calculation, 93 worms (helminths), 372–373 measuring chlorine residual, 482
Water Environment Federation (WEF), 15 characteristics, 364 pathogen inactivation, 482–483
Water fluoridation, 125 chemical characteristics, wastewater safety and handling considerations, 485
Water hammer, 194 inorganic substances, 371–372 uses, application and doses, chlorine,
Water hydraulics, 191 organic substances, 370 481, 482
basic concepts, 191–192 chemical characteristics, water coagulation, 449–451
Bernoulli’s equation, 200 alkalinity, 367 CT factor, 473
Bernoulli’s theorem, 199 fluoride, 368 current national disinfection practices, 474
conservation of energy, 198 hardness, 368 DBP control strategies
density and specific gravity, 192–193 metals, 368–369 precursor removal, 472–473
energy head, 198 nutrients, 369–370 source water quality control, 472
flow measurement, 209–210 organic, 369 DBP formation, 467, 468, 470–471
devices, 210–215 total dissolved solids, 367 DBP precursors, 471
old-fashioned way, 210 Clean Water Act (CWA), 361 inorganic by-products and disinfectants, 472
open-channel, 215–217 monitoring sensor, 41 organic oxidation by-products, 471–472
traditional flow measurement, 210 physical characteristics, water and pH impacts on, 471
force and pressure, 193–194 wastewater DBPs and disinfection residuals types,
effects of water under pressure, 194–195 color, 365 469–470
hydrostatic pressure, 194 solids, 364–365 direct filtration, 454–455
friction head loss, 202 taste and odor, 365–366 alternative filters, 455
C factor, 204, 205 temperature, 366–367 common filter problems, 455
flow in pipelines, 202–204 turbidity, 365 and compliance with turbidity
major head loss, 203–204 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), 361 requirements, 455–460
minor head loss, 205 consumer confidence report rule, 363 disinfectant residual regulatory
slope, 204–205 implementation, 362–363 requirements, 474
head, 195 maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), disinfection, 460–462
friction head, 195 361–362 methods of, 474–475
loss, 199 Watershed, 428 pathogen inactivation, mechanisms of,
and pressure, 196 Water softening, 130 466–469
static head, 195 alkalinity determination, 133 primary concern, pathogens of, 464–465
total dynamic head, 196 calcium hardness, 132 pump handle removal, water treatment,
velocity head, 196 carbonate hardness, 132 463–464
hydraulic grade line (HGL), 199 feed rates, 134 recent waterborne disease outbreaks,
open-channel flow, 206 ion exchange capacity, 135 465–466
calculations, 208–209 magnesium hardness, 131 Sherlock Holmes-type at the pump,
characteristics, 206–207 noncarbonate hardness, 132 462–463
parameters used, 207–208 removal, 133 strategy selection, 473
piezometric surface, 198–199 recarbonation calculation, 134 filtration
piping hydraulics, 205–206 salt and brine required for regeneration, diatomaceous earth filters, 454
Stevin’s Law, 192 136–137 pressure filter systems, 454
water in motion, flow and discharge total hardness, 131 rapid sand filters, 453–454
rates, 196 treatment time calculation, 136 slow sand filters, 453
area and velocity, 197 water treatment capacity, 135 mixing and flocculation, 451–452
pressure and velocity, 197 Water solution, 442 overview of, 439
well hydraulics, 201–202 Water sources, 99 pretreatment, 440–441
wet well hydraulics, 202 deep-well turbine pump calculations, 101 aeration, 441
Water in motion, flow and discharge rates, 196 specific yield, 100 chemical addition, 441–449
area and velocity, 197 vertical turbine pump calculations, 101 screening, 441
pressure and velocity, 197 well casing disinfection, 101 purpose of, 440
Water monitoring devices, 41 well drawdown, 99–100 sedimentation, 452
chemical sensors well yield, 100 stages of, 440
adapted BOD analyzer, 42 Water storage calculations, 99, 101–102 Water treatment plants (WTPs), 6
arsenic measurement system, 42 Water strider (Order: Hemiptera), 354 Water treatment process, 440
chlorine measurement system, 43 Water treatment capacity, 135 biochemical cycles, 320–321
portable cyanide analyzer, 43–44 Water treatment operations carbon, 321
total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer, arsenic removal from drinking water nitrogen, 321–322
42–43 arsenic exposure, 486 phosphorus, 323–324
portable field monitors to measure VOCs, 44 technologies, 486–491 sulfur, 322–323
Index 683
biological process setting the stage, 59, 60 pumps, 436

aerobic, 319–320 treatment process models, 59 routine operation/recordkeeping
anaerobic, 320 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant, requirements, 436–437
anoxic, 320 63–64 sanitary seal, 434
growth cycles, 320 City of Bartlett Wastewater Treatment screens, 434
photosynthesis, 320 Plant, 64–65 seven-step process, 433
microbiology process, 310–311 Green Bay Metropolitan Sewerage shallow wells, 433–434
Cryptosporidium (see Cryptosporidium) District (GBMSD), 59–62 types, 433
Cyclospora, 319 Sheboygan Regional Wastewater well casing, 434
Giardia (see Giardia) Treatment Plant, 62–63 well pad, 434
helminths, 319 Waterworks operator, 439–440 well site requirements, 433
pathogenic protozoa, 311–312 Weak acid dissociable (WAD) cyanide, 44 Well yield, 100, 202
Water under pressure, 194–195 Wedge barriers, 30 WET, see Whole effluent toxicity tests
Water/wastewater Wedgewater system, 612 Wetwell/drywell pumping stations, 507
conveyance Wedgewire beds, 612 Wet well hydraulics, 202
early conveyance systems, 239 WEF, see Water Environment Federation Wet well pumping stations, 507
fittings (see Fittings) Weir, 216 White slime, 539
goal today, 239 condition, 516 Whole effluent toxicity (WET) tests, 46
industrial hoses (see Industrial hoses) loading (overflow rate), 665 WHP, see Hydraulic (water) horsepower
Kawamura (1999), 239 loading rate, 110 Wireless Access Point (WAP), 47
Nayyar (2000), 239 overflow rate, 141–142, 517 Wireless data communication system, 47
operators, 240 Well casing disinfection, 101 Wireless Network Interface Card, 47
piping (see Piping systems) Well drawdown, 99–100 Wireless systems, 29
single-line piping, 240 Well hydraulics, 201–202 Working conditions, operators, 23–24
tubing (see Tubing) Well systems WTPs, see Water treatment plants
United States Environmental Protection abandonment, 437 WWTF, see Wastewater Treatment Facility
Agency (USEPA), 239 casing vent, 434
valves (see Valves) components of, 434, 435 Y2K fiasco, 9
operators, 21 deep wells, 434
emergency responders, plant operators, 23 drop pipe, 435 Zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), 467–468
licensure, 24–25 evaluation, 435–436 Zeolite clays, 447
operator certification, 24–25 grout, 434 Zinc phosphates, 449
operator duties, 23–24 maintenance, 437 Zone of influence, 202
record setting, 21–22 miscellaneous components, 435 Zone of saturation, 430
working conditions, 23–24 problems, 437 Zoogleal slime, 502

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Handbook of Water and Wastewater

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-367-48168-1 (Hardback)

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Spellman, Frank R., author.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Website at

PART I Water and Wastewater Operations: An Overview

Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations.............................................................................. 3

Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators.................................................................................................................................. 21

Chapter 3 Plant Security......................................................................................................................................................... 27

Chapter 4 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology.................................................................................... 59

PART II Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects

Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater Math Operations...................................................................................................................... 77

Calculating Feed Rate.................................................................................................................................. 91

Percent Product Water Used for Backwatering...........................................................................................118

Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio).................................................................................................147

Percent Volatile Matter Reduction.............................................................................................................. 166

Chapter 6 Water Hydraulics...................................................................................................................................................191

Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem.................................................................................................... 197

Chapter 7 Hydraulic Machines Pumps..................................................................................................................................219

Velocity Head.................................................................................................................................................. 222

Chapter 8 Water/Wastewater Conveyance............................................................................................................................ 239

Metallic Piping..................................................................................................................................................... 244

Functions of Fittings........................................................................................................................................ 264

PART III Characteristics of Water

Chapter 9 Basic Water Chemistry......................................................................................................................................... 283

Chapter 10 Water Microbiology.............................................................................................................................................. 301

Chapter 11 Water Ecology...................................................................................................................................................... 327

Agroecosystem Characteristics ................................................................................................................. 332

Chapter 12 Water Quality ...................................................................................................................................................... 359

Chapter 13 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing ........................................................................................... 375

General Preparation and Sampling Considerations............................................................................................. 393

Apparent Color Testing/Analysis......................................................................................................................417

PART IV Water and Water Treatment

Chapter 14 Potable Water Source........................................................................................................................................... 425

Chapter 15 Water Treatment Operations................................................................................................................................ 439

Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters............................................................. 469

PART V Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment

Chapter 16 Wastewater Treatment Operations....................................................................................................................... 499

Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge....................................................................................................... 503

Activated Sludge Formation............................................................................................................................ 544

Solids Concentration: Secondary Clarifier...................................................................................................... 563

54-MGD Capacity Plant............................................................................................................................. 587

Effluent Limitations.................................................................................................................................... 626

Chapter 17 Practice Exam...................................................................................................................................................... 633

Photo of author in Upper Amazon Jungle in Ecuador (2013).

Water is crucial for all aspects of life, the defining fea-

Source Protection acceptable to return it to the environment or for immediate

Delivering services is the primary function of municipal

Continuous Monitoring & Testing DID YOU KNOW?

during the afternoon, has a second, less intensive peak in the

d. Finance and administration

unfortunately, exposed me to more dysfunctional than func-

Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability

Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater REFERENCE AND RECOMMENDED READING

The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of

REFERENCES AND RECOMMENDED READING

DID YOU KNOW?

Hatch Security outdoor, or “exterior” space (i.e., a fence line or perimeter).

Locks security device designed to detect unauthorized access to the

(replacing dissolved air flotation) and the addition of two filter