PBW401- Highway Engineering
Cairo University
Faculty of Engineering
Public Works Department
2. SIGHT DISTANCES:
Dr. Dalia Said,
Associate Professor, Highway and Traffic Engineering
Civil Engineering Department,
Cairo University,
dalia_said@yahoo.com
Geometric Design of Highways
1. Introduction
2. Sight Distance
3. Cross Section Elements
4. Horizontal Alignment
5. Vertical Alignment
6. Intersection Design
7. Interchanges
Dalia Said, Ph.D.
Dalia Said, Ph.D.
Highway Engineering
PBW 401
2019 - 2020
Stopping Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance
Decision Sight Distance
Basic Concepts
Factors Influencing Highway Design
Road Classification
Stopping Sight Distance
Passing Sight Distance
Decision Sight Distance
Urban Road Section
Rural Road Section
Hzl Curve Elements
Horizontal Curve Design
Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Attaining Superelevation
Vertical Grades
Climbing Lanes
Vertical Curve Elements
Vertical Curve Design
Types of Intersections
Geometric Design of Intersections
Sight Distance on Intersections
Types of Interchanges
Notes 2: Sight Distances 2
PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

Road Characteristics: SIGHT DISTANCE

– Sight distance is the most important road characteristic affecting highway
geometric design
1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
– The minimum sight distance required for a below-average driver to stop
before hitting an unexpected object on the road ahead

SSD
V
V
SSD

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 3

Stopping Sight Distance

Sight distance: The length of the roadway a driver can

see ahead at any particular time.
The sight distance has to be long enough such that when a driver
is traveling at the highway’s design speed, adequate time is given,
after an object is observed in the vehicle’s path, to make the
necessary evasive maneuvers without colliding with the object.

Sight distance is the most important road characteristic

affecting highway geometric design

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances

Sight Distances
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1. Stopping Sight Distance

https://korkortonline.se/en/theory/reaction-braking-stopping/

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances

PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

Perception-Reaction Process

PRT = Perception-Reaction Time

= (Detection + Identification + Decision making) +
(Time needed to initiate the physical response)

PRT = f (Complexity of the task,

Level of expectancy,
Variability of the drivers)

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 9

Perception-Reaction Process

PRT = Perception-Reaction Time

= (Detection + Identification + Decision making) +
(Time needed to initiate the physical response)

PIEV = Perception + Identification + Emotion + Reaction (or volition)

P I E V
PIEV Time
1. Perception: use of visual perception to see a control device, warning sign, or
object on the road
2. Identification: the driver identifies the object and understands the stimulus
3. Emotion: the driver decides the proper action to take in response to the stimulus
(stop, slow, pass,…)
4. Volition (or Reaction): the driver actually executes the action already decided

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PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

Perception-Reaction Process
–PIEV is important for safety of cars, drivers, and pedestrians
–Examples of uses:
•Minimum sight distance
•Length of the amber phase
•Length of pedestrian phase (or red)

PIEV = f (Complexity of the task, Level of expectancy, Variability of the drivers)

1. Environment: Urban vs. Rural, Night vs. Day, Wet vs. Dry
2. Age
3. Physical Condition: Fatigue, Drugs/Alcohol
4. Ability to see: lighting conditions, presence of fog, snow, etc
5. Complexity of situation: (more complex = more time)
6. Complexity of necessary response
7. Expected versus unexpected situation: (traffic light turning red vs. dog darting into road)

– For design purposes:

• AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) and TAC
(Transportation Association of Canada) recommended 2.5 sec for stopping sight distance
• Accommodates about 90% of drivers

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 11

– PIEV distance = PIEV time  Speed

• Example:
A driver with a PIEV time of 2.5 sec is driving at 100 km/h when
she observes that an accident has blocked the road ahead.
Determine the distance the vehicle would move before the driver
could activate the brakes.
P = PIEV time = 2.5 sec
V = speed = 100 km/h
PIEV distance = P  V = 0.278  2.5  100 = 69.44 m

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PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

Braking Distance
Σ Forces = m a
W V0
W sin   f W cos   m a  a
g
 v 2f  v02  2 a D D
v 2  v02 Vf
a  f
2D W sin 
Combining the two equations: f W cos 
v v
2 2 
tan   f  f 0

2 g D cos  W cos 
W
tan     G (grade) & cos   1.0
v 2f  v02
G  f 
2gD
Or:
v02  v 2f
D [downward slope]
2 g ( f  G)
v02  v 2f
For upward slope: D
2 g ( f  G)
Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 13

• For g = 9.81 m/s2 and converting v (m/s) into V (km/h):

V02  V f2
D
254( f  G )

• For complete stopping: Vf = 0

V2
D
254( f  G )

𝑉
𝐷 =   
254(𝑎/𝑔  ±  𝐺)

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PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

• Example:
A student, trying to test the braking ability of his car, determined that he needed
10 m more to stop his car when driving downhill on a particular road than
when driving uphill at 90 km/h. Determine the braking distance downhill and
the percent grade of the highway at that section of the road (a/g = 0.3)
𝑉
𝐷 =   
254 (a/g  ±  𝐺)
– For uphill:
90 2
D1 
254 (0.3  G )
– For downhill:
90 2
D2 
254 (0.3  G )
90 2 90 2
D2  D1    10
254 (0.3  G ) 254 (0.3  G )
Solving equation  G = 0.014 = 1.4%
90 2
D2   108m
254 (0.3  G )
Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 15

Stopping Sight Distance

http://www.passmyexams.co.uk/GCSE/physics/stopping-distance.html

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances

PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

– SSD = Perception and Reaction Distance + Braking Distance

𝑽
𝑺𝑺𝑫 = 0.278 ∗ 𝑽 ∗ 𝒕 + 𝒂
254 )±𝑮
9.81
t = perception and reaction time (s)
V = design speed (km/h)
a/9.81 = representation of coefficient of longitudinal friction
G = longitudinal grade (decimal fraction) (-ve  downhill & +ve  uphill)
• Example:
If the design speed of a highway is 120 km/h, what is the minimum SSD that should be
provided on the road for (a) a flat road and (b) 5% maximum grade?
– Assume P = 2.5 s
– From Table 1.2.5.3, a = 3.4 m/s2
(a) G = 0
120
SSD = 0.278 ×  2.5 × 120 + = ⋯ … . .  m
254 (0.35)
(b) G = -5%
120
SSD = 0.278  × 2.5 × 120 + = ⋯…m
254 (0.35 − 0.05)

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Table 2.1: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Roads

AASHTO(2011)
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Table 2.1: Stopping Sight Distance on Grades Roads

AASHTO(2011)
Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 19

2. Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

– The distance required by an overtaking vehicle on a two-lane,

two-way highway to pullout, pass, and return to the driving lane
– Percentage of length with enough PSD is a measure of quality of
two-lane highways

O
Phase 1
P I

Phase 2

d1 d2 d3 d4

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PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

Two-Lane Two Way

21

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances

Two-Lane Two Way

1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ybSYopzwmw

2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4V9Gikpte48

22

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances

PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

2. Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

– Assumptions for calculating PSD:

• VI (impeder) = V m (m  19 km/h)
• VP (passer) = V m (initially) & accelerates to V
– Time elapsed = t1 (time of initial manoeuvre)
– Distance traveled = d1 (initial manoeuvring distance)
 at 
d1  0.278 t1 (V  m)  1 
 2 
» t1 = 3.5 - 4.5 sec
» a = average acceleration = 2.5 – 2.65 km/h/sec
• Time elapsed while occupying left lane = t2
– Distance traveled = d2
d2 = 0.278 V t2
• Clearance distance between passing and opposing vehicles at the end of the pass =
d3 = 30 – 90 m
• Distance traveled by the opposing vehicle = d4
– Vo = V & t 4 = ⅔ t 2
d4 = ⅔ d2

– PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 23

2. Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

• Example:
A driver traveling on a two-lane highway behind another car travelling at 59 km/h
observes on the opposing direction a vehicle at a distance about 300 m. Can the driver
overtake the car in front of him?
• Speed limit = 80 km/h
• Initial manoeuvring time = 4 sec
• Average acceleration = 2.5 km/h/sec
• Clearance distance = 50 m
• Overtaking time = 10 sec
V = 80 km/h, V m = 61 km/h
 at   2.5  4 
d1  0.278 t1 (V  m)  1   0.278  4  60   72.3 m
 2   2 
d2 = 0.278 V t2 = 0.278  80  10 = 222.4 m
d3 = 50 m
d4 = ⅔ d2 = 148.3 m
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 = 72.3 + 222.4 + 50 + 148.3 = 493.0 m
Since available distance is 300 m, the driver cannot overtake the car in front of him

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PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

Table 2.1: Passing Sight Distance for Two - Lane Roads

AASHTO(2011)
Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 25

Figure 2.1: Stopping Sight Distance and Passing Sight Distance for Level Roads

AASHTO(2011)
Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 26
PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

3. Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

– SSD is enough only in simple situations

– In complex situations (information is difficult to perceive or
decision is complex), a longer sight distance may be required
– DSD is “the distance required for a driver to detect an
information source or hazard which is difficult to perceive in a
roadway environment that might be visually cluttered, recognize
the hazard or threat potential, select appropriate action, and
complete the manoeuvre safely and efficiently” (TAC 1999)
– Should be evaluated on a single-situation-basis

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 27

3. Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

– “Designers should use decision sight distance whenever
information may be perceived incorrectly, decisions are
required or where control actions are required. Some
examples of where it could be desirable to provide decision
sight distance are:
– complex interchanges and intersections
– locations where unusual or unexpected manoeuvres occur
– locations where significant changes to the roadway cross section
are made
– areas where there are multiple demands on the driver's decision
making capabilities from: road elements, traffic control devices,
advertising, traffic, etc.
– construction zones.”

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PBW401- Highway Engineering Dalia Said, Ph.D.

3. Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

The decision sight distances for avoidance maneuvers A and B are determined as:
𝑽𝟐
𝑫𝑺𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∗ 𝑽 ∗ 𝒕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟗 ∗
𝒂
Where:
DSD= Decision Sight Distance (m)
V= Design Speed (km/h)
t= Pre-maneuver time (sec)
a= Driver Deceleration Rate (m/s2)

The decision sight distances for avoidance maneuvers C, D and E are determined as:

𝑫𝑺𝑫 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 ∗ 𝑽 ∗ 𝒕
Where:
DSD= Decision Sight Distance (m)
V= Design Speed (km/h)
t= Total pre-maneuver and maneuver time (sec)

Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances

Table 2.4: Decision Sight Distance

 Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road—t = 3.0 s

 Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road—t = 9.1 s
 Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road—t varies between 10.2 and 11.2 s
 Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road—t varies between 12.1 and 12.9s
 Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road—t varies between 14.0 and 14.5s
Dalia Said, Ph.D. Notes 2: Sight Distances 30