Helminths PPTZ

HELMINTHS
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
OBJECTIVES
WHAT IS PARASITIC
HELMINTHS?
WHAT IS HELMINTHS?
Helminths are worm-like parasites
that survive by feeding on a living
host to gain nourishment and
protection, sometimes resulting in
illness of the host. There are a
variety of different helminths from
the very large to the microscopic.
• All helminths are invertebrates

with long, flat, or round bodies.
TYPES OF HELMINTHS?
There are two major groups of parasitic helminths:
• the roundworms (Nematoda) and;
• The flatworms (Platyhelminthes).
Out of the many species that exist in these groups, about
half are parasitic and some are important human
pathogens.
Parasitic forms may have complex reproductive cycles
with several different life stages and more than one type
of host. Some are monoecious, having both male and
female reproductive organs in a single individual, while
others are dioecious, each having either male or female
reproductive organs.
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
OF PARASITIC HELMINTHS
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY OF
NEMATODES(ROUNDWORM)
• Phylum Nematoda or the Roundworms
is a diverse group containing more than
15,000 species, of which several are
important human parasites.
• Ascaris lumbricoides is the largest
nematode intestinal parasite found in
humans.
• Nematodes are worm-like, bilaterally
symmetrical microorganisms that are
covered in a cuticle, a tough, flexible
noncellular covering.
• Nematodes are divided into different groups based on
how their sensory organs and esophagus are arranged.
• In contrast to platyhelminths, nematodes are
cylindrical rather than flattened.
• They are slender, elongate, spindle shaped or fusiform,
tapering towards both ends and circular in cross
section.
• The esophagus, a conspicuous feature of nematodes,
is a muscular structure that pumps food into the
intestine; it differs in shape in different species.
• Nemotada is Dioecious
which means having the
male and female
reproductive organs in
separate individuals.
• They have a
pseudocoelom that is
lined on one side with
mesoderm and on the
other side with
endoderm.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Their body is bilaterally symmetrical and
triploblastic.
2. They are cylindrical in shape.
3. They exhibit tissue level organization.
4. Their body has a cavity or pseudocoelom.
5. The alimentary canal is distinct, with the
mouth and the anus.
6. They are sexually dimorphic.
PLATYHELMINTHES ( FLATWORM)
• Platyhelminthes (flatworm) a
group of soft-bodied, usually
much flattened invertebrates. A
number of flatworm species are
free-living, but about 80 percent
of all flatworms are parasitic—
i.e., living on or in another
organism and securing
nourishment from it.
PLATYHELMINTHES ( FLATWORM)
Platyhelminthes are divided into four
classes:
• Turbellaria, free-living marine species;
• Monogenea, ectoparasites of fish;
• Trematoda, internal parasites of humans
and other species; and
• Cestoda (tapeworms), which are internal
parasites of many vertebrates.
CLASSES OF PLATYHELMINTHES
(FLATWORM)
• Turbellaria
• These are free-living
organisms found mostly
in fresh water.
• The body is
dorsoventrally flattened.
• Hooks and suckers are
not present.
• Ex: Planaria, Otoplana
(FLATWORM)
• Monogenea
• • Group of largely
ectoparasitic members of
the flatworm phylum
Platyhelminthes.
• • Monogenea consists of
two groups,
monopisthocotyleans and
polyopisthocotyleans.
(FLATWORM)
• Cestodes
• These are exclusively
parasitic.
• They have hooks and
suckers.
• Ex: Taenia spp.,
Convoluta
CHARACTERISTICS OF
PLATYHELMINTHES (FLATWORM)
• They are triploblastic, acoelomate, and bilaterally
symmetrical.
• They may be free-living or parasites.
• The body has a soft covering with or without cilia.
• Their body is dorsoventrally flattened without any
segments and appears like a leaf.
• They are devoid of the anus and circulatory system
but have a mouth.
• They respire by simple diffusion through the body
surface.
• They have an organ level of organization.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
PLATYHELMINTHES (FLATWORM)
• They do not have a digestive tract.
• The space between the body wall and organs is filled with
connective tissue parenchyma which helps in transporting the
food material.
• They are monoecious, i.e., both male and female organs are
present in the same body.
• They reproduce sexually by fusion of gametes and asexually by
regeneration by fission and regeneration. Fertilization is
internal.
• The life cycle is complicated with one or more larval stages.
• They possess the quality of regeneration.
• The flame cells help in excretion and osmoregulation.
• The nervous system comprises the brain and two longitudinal
nerve cords arranged in a ladder-like fashion.
THE NORMAL PARASITE
FLORA OF THE BODY
THE NORMAL PARASITE
FLORA OF THE BODY
A diverse microbial flora is
associated with the skin and mucous
membranes of every human being
from shortly after birth until death.
The human body, which contains
about 1013 cells, routinely harbors
about 1014 bacteria.
• This bacterial population
constitutes the normal microbial
flora .
THE NORMAL PARASITE
FLORA OF THE BODY
The normal microbial flora is relatively stable, with
specific genera populating various body regions during
particular periods in an individual's life. Microorganisms
of the normal flora may aid the host (by competing for
microenvironments more effectively than such pathogens
as Salmonella spp or by producing nutrients the host can
use), may harm the host (by causing dental caries,
abscesses, or other infectious diseases), or may exist as
commensals (inhabiting the host for long periods without
causing detectable harm or benefit)
THE DIFFERENT NORMAL
PARASITES FLORA OF
THE SKIN
THE NORMAL FLORA
OF THE SKIN
• The mixture of organisms regularly found at any
anatomical site is referred to as the normal flora.
The skin and mucous membranes always harbor a
variety of microorganisms that can be arranged
into two groups:
A. Resident flora - consists of relatively fixed
types of microorganisms regularly found in a given
area at a given age
B. Transient flora - consists of nonpathogenic or
potentially pathogenic
FUNCTIONS THE NORMAL
FLORA OF THE SKIN
1) Prevention of colonization of pathogenic bacteria.
2) Helps in metabolism of food.
3) Produces vitamins that are used by the host body.
• Viruses and parasites are not considered members of
the normal microbial flora by most investigators
because they are not commensals and do not aid the
host.
• Perhaps helminths should thus be considered to be
“pathobionts”, potentially disease causing organisms,
which under normal circumstances live as a symbiont
with their hosts
STAPHYLOCOCCUS
EPIDERMIDIS
STAPHYLOCOCCUS
EPIDERMIDIS
Staphylococcus epidermidis is gram-positive cocci bacteria that
is arranged in a grape-like clusters. It is known as the member of
normal human microbiota which can be found in the skin and
mucus of a human. The epidermidis facultatively anaerobic and
has a temperature range for growth from 15°C, to 45°C,
nevertheless it grows better at 30° to 37°C in aerobic conditions.
The prone for having staphylococcus epidermidis are the people
with chronic conditions, such as diabetes, cancer, vascular
disease, eczema, lung disease, and people who inject drugs.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS
EPIDERMIDIS
Food poisoning staph will usually pass within 24–48 hours, but it
may take 3 days or longer to feel well. A staph infection at the
surface of the skin may heal with just a few days of treatment.
However, if a large sore or wound has developed, it may require
several weeks of treatment or longer. They usually go away but
sometimes there is a need to take antibiotics . Antibiotics that
were commonly prescribed in this cases include cefazolin,
nafcillin, oxallin, vancomycin, daptonycin and linezolid. For
serious staph infections, vancomycin may be required.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS
AUREUS
STAPHYLOCOCCUS
AUREUS
Staphylococcus aureus is
a Gram-positive
spherically shaped
bacterium, a member of
the Bacillota, and is a
usual member of the
microbiota of the body,
frequently found in the
upper respiratory tract
and on the skin.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS
AUREUS
• staphylo “cluster” cocci “round” also known as “cluster of
grapes”.
• gram-positive
• produces biofilm
• facultative anaerobes
• colonized in nostrils, armpits groin but normal in skin flora.
Colonized factors are ph level, sweat level and humidity
• causes atopic dermatitis, cellulitis, impetigo, subcutaneous
abscess that can develop septations, myositis, osteomyelitis
Bacteremia - presence of bacteria in blood. Blood pressure lows

and so blood vessels dilate results in hypotension.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS
AUREUS
Types of infections
• Skin infections, which are
the most common types of
staph. infections.
• Bacteremia, an infection of
the bloodstream.
• Bone infections.
• Endocarditis, an infection of
the inner lining of the heart
chambers and valves.
• Food poisoning.
• Pneumonia.
PREVENTING STAPHYLOCOCCUS
AUREUS INFECTIONS
• Keep your hands clean by washing
them -thoroughly with soap and water.
• Keep cuts and scrapes clean and
covered with bandages until they heal.
• Avoid contact with other people's
wounds or bandages.
• Do not share personal items such as
towels, clothing, or cosmetics
MICROCUCCUS
MICROCUCCUS
• Micrococci also known as Micrococcus lysodeikticus. A
spherical bacterium that is typically found on dead or
decaying organic matter. Nonpathogenic forms are found on
human and animal skin.
• Micrococcus strains commonly are found in a large variety of

terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, including soil, fresh and
marine water, sand, and vegetation. The skin of warm-
blooded animals, including humans, is a main reservoir for
Micrococcus strains, which frequently contaminate foods of
animal origin.
MICROCUCCUS
Cell Structure
• Micrococcus are Gram-
positive cocci that are
0.5 to 3.5 micrometers in
diameter and usually
arranged in tetrads or
irregular clusters. They
are generally strict
aerobes and can
generally reduce nitrate
MICROCUCCUS
Some Micrococcus are pigmented bacteria; for
example, M. luteus produces yellow colonies and
M. roseus produces redish colonies. Micrococcus
species are oxidase-positive, which can be used
to distinguish them from other bacteria like most
Staphylococcus species, which are generally
oxidase-negative.Micrococcus species can also
be differentiated from staphylococcus species
by the Taxo A Bacitracin disk test
MICROCUCCUS
•M. luteus on human skin breaks down compounds in
sweat into compounds with bad odor. M. luteus can
grow well in environments with little water or high salt
concentrations.
• Micrococcus rarely causes infections or problems in
the body, those with compromised immune systems,
such as occurs with HIV+ patients, have been known to
get skin infections caused by Micrococcus luteus. The
skin infections, or chronic cutaneous infections, result
in pruritic eruptions of the skin in some areas as well as
scattered papule lesions with or without central
ulcerations
DIPHTHEROIDS
DIPHTHEROIDS
• denotes a wide range of bacteria belonging to
the genus Corynebacterium.
• aerobic, non-sporulating, pleomorphic Gram-
positive bacilli
• commensals of the skin and mucous
membranes.
• part of the normal human microbiota and play
a role in maintaining the health of the skin and
mucous membranes.
DIPHTHEROIDS
Structure:
• Gram-positive
nonmotile, club-
shaped bacillus.
DIPHTHEROIDS
• commonly found on the skin and mucous
membranes of humans and animals. They
are also found in soil, water, and some
food products.
• often found in the healthy mouth and
pharynx. They also occur frequently on
the skin and can be isolated from the
nose and urogenital tract.
DIPHTHEROIDS
• They are important in preventing
overgrowth of harmful bacteria and in
stimulating the immune system.
• Some diphtheroids have been found to
produce substances with antimicrobial
properties, which may help to protect
against infection.
TYPES OF DIPHTHEROIDS
Cutaneous Diphtheroids
• group of bacteria that are commonly found on the
skin and mucous membranes of healthy individuals.
• found in areas such as the armpits, groin, and nose.
Lipophilic diphtheroids
• are those that have an affinity for lipids or fats.
• found in oily areas of the skin, such as the scalp and
face
Non Lipophilic diphtheroids
• are commonly found in the upper respiratory tract.
• found in areas such as the mouth, throat, and
gastrointestinal tract.
TYPES OF DIPHTHEROIDS
Anaerobic diphtheroids
• can grow in the absence of oxygen, making them
anaerobic.
• found in a variety of locations in the human body,
including the mouth, throat, and gastrointestinal
tract.
Diphtheroids producing porphyrins
• Porphyrins are molecules involved in many biological
processes, including the synthesis of heme
• Found in the human oral cavity and the
gastrointestinal tract.
STREPTOCOCCI
STREPTOCOCCI
• A Gram-positive, nonmotile, non
sporeforming, catalase-negative cocci
that occur in pairs or chains. Older
cultures may lose their Gram-positive
character. Most streptococci are
facultative anaerobes, and some are
obligate (strict) anaerobes. Most require
enriched media (blood agar)
GROUPS OF STREPTOCOCCI
• Group A beta-hemolytic streptococci
(GAS) are known for causing pharyngitis
and its sequelae, including acute
rheumatic fever and post streptococcal
glomerulonephritis. They also cause skin
infections and invasive disease. Of all the
streptococci, GAS are the most
pathogenic for humans. (beta hemolytic
streptococci)
GROUPS OF STREPTOCOCCI
• Group A hemolytic streptococcus is also
known as a causative bacterium of
streptococcal toxic shock syndrome,
which causes tissue necrosis (death of
tissue) and shock. *1Impetigo: a general
term for skin diseases whose predominant
symptoms are pustules (pus-filled blisters
on the skin) and scabs. (alpha hemolytic
streptococci)
INFECTIONS CAUSED BY
STREPTOCOCCI
• Strep throat is caused by infection with a
bacterium known as Streptococcus
pyogenes, also called group A
streptococcus. Streptococcal bacteria are
contagious. They can spread through
droplets when someone with the infection
coughs or sneezes, or through shared food
or drinks.
STREPTOCOCCI
• Can cause STSS when
they spread into deep
tissues and the
bloodstream. The
bacteria can also get
into the body through
mucus membranes,
like the skin inside
the nose and throat.
STREPTOCOCCI
• Rheumatic fever is a
condition that can inflame
or make the heart, joints,
brain, and skin swell.
Rheumatic fever may
develop if strep throat or
scarlet fever infections are
not treated properly or
after strep skin infections
(impetigo).
GRAM-NEGATIVE BACILLI
• Gram-negative bacteria (GNB)
are among the world's most
significant public health
problems due to their high
resistance to antibiotics. These
microorganisms have significant
clinical importance in hospitals
because they often require
patients to be in the intensive
care unit (ICU), and patients are
at high risk of morbidity and
mortality.
Skin flora
• also called skin

microbiota, refers to
microbiota (communities
of microorganisms) that
reside on the skin,
typically human skin.
ENTEROBACTER
• Enterobacter, (genus
Enterobacter), any of a group
of rod-shaped bacteria of the
family Enterobacteriaceae.
Enterobacter are gram-
negative bacteria that are
classified as facultative
anaerobes, which means that
they are able to thrive in both
aerobic and anaerobic
environments.
KLEBSIELLA
• The genus Klebsiella belongs to the tribe Klebsiellae,
a member of the family Enterobacteriaceae.
Klebsiellae are nonmotile, rod-shaped, gram-negative
bacteria with a prominent polysaccharide capsule.
This capsule encases the entire cell surface,
accounts for the large appearance of the organism on
gram stain, and provides resistance against many
host defense mechanisms. It is resistant to the
environment and action of disinfectants as well as
many antibiotics, which makes it lethal
Escherichia coli (E. coli)
• is a bacteria that is
commonly found in the
lower intestine of warm-
blooded organisms. Most
E. coli strains are
harmless, but some can
cause serious food
poisoning. Shiga toxin-
producing E.
PROTEUS SPP.
• Proteus species are most
commonly found in the
human intestinal tract as
part of normal human
intestinal flora but it
becomes pathogenic when
it leaves the intestinal
tract especially when it
become in contact with
urea in the urinary tract.
ACINETOBACTER
• Acinetobacter species are
aerobic, glucose non-
fermenting gram-negative
rods, and ubiquitous in the
environment. Acinetobacter
spp. can survive for months
on dry surfaces.
Acinetobacter spp. have been
grown from skin, pharynx,
sputum, urine and feces.
ORAL AND UPPER
RESPIRATORY TRACT
FLORA
ORAL AND UPPER
RESPIRATORY TRACT FLORA
The oral flora is involved in dental caries and
periodontal disease, which affect about 80
percent of the Western word. Anaerobes in the
oral flora are responsible for many of the brain,
face, and lung infections that are frequently
manifested by abscess formation.
ORAL AND UPPER
The normal flora of the upper respiratory
tract
• Normal respiratory flora includes
Neisseria catarrhalis, Candida albicans,
diphtheroid, alpha-hemolytic streptococci,
and some staphylococci
ORAL AND UPPER
A bacterial respiratory tract infection is an
infection of the sinuses, throat, airway, or lungs.
Bacterial infections may develop after having a
viral illness like a cold or the flu. Symptoms tend
to localize to one particular area.
ORAL AND UPPER
Examples of oral flora
• Common oral bacteria include Streptococcus
mutants, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Staphylococcus,
and Lactobacillus
Upper respiratory infections include:

• Common cold
• Epiglottitis
• Laryngitis
• Pharyngitis (sore throat)
• Sinusitis (sinus infection)
ORAL AND UPPER
Diseases caused by oral flora:
• Dental caries, tartar, and gingivitis are caused by overgrowth
of oral bacteria, usually
• Streptococcus and Actinomyces species, as a result of
insufficient dental hygiene.
Mouth infection symptoms?

• Sores in the mouth, lips, or gums.
• Recurring bad breath.
• Pain in your teeth, gum, or jaw.
• Tooth sensitivity to hot or cold foods.
• Sore or bleeding gums.
• Swelling of the gums, jaw, or lymph bodies.
ORAL AND UPPER
Oral Infection Can Be Transmitted
• The most common infectious oral
bacteria that can be spread from
person to person via saliva.
GASTROINTESTINAL
TRACT FLORA
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
FLORA
The gastrointestinal tract flora, also known as
gut microbiota or gut flora, refers to the diverse
community of microorganisms that live in the
human gastrointestinal tract. These
microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, viruses,
and other microbes, and they play a vital role in
digestion, nutrient absorption, immune system
regulation, and many other physiological
processes.
FLORA
The gut microbiota is a complex and dynamic
ecosystem that can vary widely between
individuals, and it can be influenced by factors
such as diet, age, genetics, and environmental
exposures. Imbalances or disruptions in the gut
microbiota, such as those caused by antibiotics,
can lead to dysbiosis and a range of health
problems, including gastrointestinal disorders,
metabolic disorders, and immune dysfunction.
FLORA
The intestinal microflora may
prevent infection by interfering
with pathogens. The flora
includes low populations of
potentially pathogenic
organisms such as Clostridium
difficile. Antibiotics that upset
the balance of the normal flora
can favor both infection by
exogenous pathogens and
overgrowth by endogenous
pathogens
FLORA
The character of the
bacterial flora changes
not only along the length
of the gastrointestinal
tract but also cross-
sectionally with regard to
the mucosal surface.
Bacteria occupy the
lumen, overlie the
epithelial cells, and
adhere to the mucosa.
FLORA
Penetration of bacteria through
the mucosal surface is an
abnormal event; pathogens
such as Shigella, Salmonella,
and Campylobacter invade in
this way.
Small population of organisms

that cause disease if they
overgrow. For example,
pseudomembranous colitis.
UROGENITAL FLORA
NORMAL FLORA OF THE
UROGENITAL TRACT
URINARY TRACT:
· Kidneys,Ureters and Urinary Bladder: are sterile
· Lower Urethra and External opening: yeast, and
viruses
GENITAL ORGANS:
· Male & Female Genitals: are sterile except Vagina.
VAGINA - microflora varies with the stage of sexual

development,influenced by the action of estrogen
hormones.
FLORA
LACTOBACILLUS SPP: Predominate in female infants
during the first month of life.
• keeps the pH acidic to protect the vagina from
opportunistic infections such as: CANDIDA
ALBICANS (yeast vaginitis) BACTEROIDES, OR
GARDNERELLA VAGINALIS (bacterial vaginosis).
A vaginal yeast infection is a fungal infection that

causes irritation, discharge and intense itchiness of the
vagina and the vulva — the tissues at the vaginal
opening.
NORMAL FLORA OF THE
UROGENITAL TRACT
CANDIDA
ALBICANS
INFECTIONS
IN FEMALE
VAGINA YEAST INFECTION
SYMPTOMS
1. Vaginal itch
2. Vaginal soreness
3. Thick vaginal discharge, similar in consistency to
cottage cheese
4. Burning sensation around the vaginal opening,
irritated by urine
5. Redness in or around the vagina
6. Pain or discomfort during sexual contact
7. Symptoms that tend to worsen the longer you have a
yeast infection
PREVENT VAGINAL YEAST
INFECTIONS
1. Keep skin clean and dry
2. Wear loose-fitting clothing that breathes and wicks
away moisture
3. Manage blood sugar levels,avoiding spikes in glucose
levels
4. Change sanitary pads and tampons frequently during
menses
5. Don't douche!
6. Wipe rom front to back after a bowel movement
NORMAL FLORA OF THE
VAGINA
• The vagina is located close to the anus and can be
colonized by members of the fecal flora.
• Women who are prone to recurrent urinary tract
infections harbor organisms such as E coli and
Enterobacter.
• About 15-20% of women of childbearing age carry
group B streptococci in the vagina.
• B streptococci is an important causes of sepsis and
meningitis in the newborn and is acquired during
passage through the birth canal
CONJUNCTIVAL FLORA
CONJUNCTIVAL FLORA
The conjunctiva is a transparent mucous membrane
lining the internal surfaces of the eyelids and the
orbital globe. The surface is covered with stratified,
non-keratinized epithelial cells and functions as a
barrier against infection. The conjunctival flora is found
on the ocular surface of healthy individuals and under
normal conditions comprises noninfectious
microorganisms. These microorganisms have an
important role in the maintenance of normal
conjunctival functions and the prevention of ocular
infections
CONJUNCTIVAL FLORA
Staphylococcus Aureus Corynebacterium
CONJUNCTIVAL FLORA
Neisseria Gonorrhea Moraexelle keratitis
CONJUNCTIVAL FLORA
Streptococci mitis
CONJUNCTIVAL FLORA
Symptoms
• Red eye: Either unilateral, bilateral, or sequentially
bilateral.
• Discharge: Classically purulent, but may be thin or
thick muco-purulent or watery.
• Irritation, burning, stinging, discomfort.
• Tearing.
• Light sensitivity.
• Intolerance to contact lens.
• Fluctuating or decreased vision.
CONJUNCTIVAL FLORA
Prevention of Positive Conjunctival Flora
• Wash your hands often with soap and water, and help young
children do the same. Wash hands especially well after touching
someone with positive conjunctival flora or their personal items.
• Avoid touching or rubbing your eyes. This can worsen the
condition or spread it to your other eye.
• Avoid sharing personal items, such as makeup, eye drops, towels,
bedding, contact lenses and containers, and eyeglasses.
• Do not use the same eye products for your infected and non-
infected eyes.
• Stop wearing contact lenses until your eye doctor says it’s okay.
• Clean, store, and replace your contact lenses as instructed by
your eye doctor.
HOST INFECTION BY
ELEMENTS OF THE
NORMAL FLORA
HOST INFECTION BY ELEMENTS
OF THE NORMAL FLORA
• Caries, periodontal disease, abscesses,
foul-smelling discharges, and
endocarditis are hallmarks of infections
with members of the normal human flora
• Infections arising from a person's own

flora are considered endogenous.
CLINICAL CONDITIONS THAT MAY BE CAUSED BY
MEMBERS OF THE NORMAL FLORA
ABSCESSES
• a painful collection of pus,

usually caused by a bacterial
infection.
• S. aureus has long been
recognized as one of the most
important bacteria that cause
disease in humans.
• leading cause of skin and soft
tissue infections such as
abscesses (boils), furuncles,
and cellulitis
Caries
• the most common

noncommunicable
disease worldwide
Periodontal Disease
• mainly the result of

infections and
inflammation of the gums
and bone that surround
and support the teeth.
Foul smelling discharges
(Bacterial vaginosis)
• causes increased vaginal
discharge
Endocarditis
• inflammation of the inside
lining of the heart
chambers and heart valves
(endocardium).
COMMON HELMINTHS
PARASITES
COMMON HELMINTHS
PARASITES
Helminth is a general term meaning worm. The
helminths are invertebrates characterized by
elongated, flat or round bodies. In medically
oriented schemes the flatworms or
platyhelminths (platy from the Greek root
meaning “flat”) include flukes and tapeworms.
Roundworms are nematodes (nemato from the
Greek root meaning “thread”). These groups are
subdivided for convenience according to the host
organ in which they reside, e.g., lung flukes,
extraintestinal tapeworms, and intestinal
roundworms. This chapter deals with the
structure and development of the three major
groups of helminths.
TREMATODES (FLUKES)
TREMATODES (FLUKES)
Flukes are from the class
Platyhelminthes which are flatworms,
they are parasitic worms that can infect
humans when ingested. They are flat,
oval or elongated worms with a leaf like
body, 7-8cm in size. Adult trematode has
an oral sucker on its anterior and a
ventral sucker on its posterior which
are used for attachment. The muscular
pharynx is the mouth of the flukes
which are used for sucking food from
the host. The outer layer of the fluke is
called the tegument which protects
worm and contains microvilli for
nutrient absorption
TREMATODES (FLUKES)
Flukes have both male and
females reproductive organs in
one body, the male organs
contains two (2) testes with
accessory glands and ducts
leading to a cirrus,
or penis equivalent, that extends
into the common genital atrium.
The female gonad consists of a
single(1) ovary with a seminal
receptacle and vitellaria, or yolk
glands, that connect with the
oviduct as it expands into an
ootype.
TYPES TREMATODES
(FLUKES)
Blood flukes (Schistosoma)
• can be transmitted through penetration of the skin
free swimming cercariae of schistosoma eggs,
normally found in freshwater sources with feces or
urine containing parasite eggs.
Lung flukes (Clonorchis)

• can be transmitted by eating undercooked seafoods
that contains a sporocysts and travels to a specific
organ like the lungs and it stays there and eats the
organ, lays eggs and causing you to cough
microscopic blood.
TYPES TREMATODES
(FLUKES)
Liver flukes (Paragonimus)
• can be transmitted when ingested, the ingestion of
the sporocyst in undercooked or raw seafoods. The
stomach acids helps the parasite to be a full grown
fluke.
Fluke infections are most common in Asia, having lots
of freshwaters and a tropical weather that are ideal for
intermediate hosts habitat.
Prazinquantel - is a anti-helmintic medicine and it kills

the worms.
TAPEWORMS (CESTODES)
• A member of
Platyhelminths also
known as flatworms
• It is flat, bilaterally
symmetrical bodies,
and segmented.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
Hermaphrodite
• Both male and female
reproductive organs in the
same organism.
Nervous System
• Pair of lateral longitudinal
nerves
• No digestive tract
• No circulatory system
CHARACTERISTICS OF
Habitat of Adult Worm
• Intestine of the definitive host
Intermediate host
• Larval stage encysted in the
tissue
ANATOMY OF TAPEWORMS
(CESTODES)
1. Head or Scolex
• Anterior Structure
• Main organ of attachment of the
worm
Rostellum
• Retractable, muscular, protruding
part used for attachment
• Armed with hook
• No rostellum, no hooks > Unarmed
• Suckers
• Used for attachment
(CESTODES)
2. Neck
• Region of growth and actively
dividing
• Segmentation or strobilization
originates from the neck
3. Strobila
• Long, segmented body composed of
proglottids
(CESTODES)
3 types of Proglottids
Immature Proglottid
• Male and female reproductive organs are not yet
differentiated
Mature Proglottid
• Testes and ovaries are differentiated and prominent
Gravid Proglottid
• Uterus with lateral branches is filled with eggs
(CESTODES)
3 types of Proglottids
SPECIES OF TAPEWORMS
(CESTODES)
Taenia
solium
(CESTODES)
Taenia
saginata
(CESTODES)
Diphyllobothrium
latum
(CESTODES)
Hymenolepis
nana
(CESTODES)
Dipylidium
caninum
NEMATODES
(ROUNDWORMS)
NEMATODES (ROUNDWORMS)
Nematodes are cylindrical rather than flattened;
hence the common name roundworm. The body
wall is composed of an outer cuticle that has a
noncellular, chemically complex structure, a thin
hypodermis, and musculature. The cuticle in
some species has longitudinal ridges called alae.
The bursa, a flaplike extension of the cuticle on
the posterior end of some species of male
nematodes, is used to grasp the female during
copulation.
Nematodes are usually bisexual. Males are
usually smaller than females, have a curved
posterior end, and possess (in some species)
copulatory structures, such as spicules (usually
two), a bursa, or both. The males have one or (in
a few cases) two testes, which lie at the free
end of a convoluted or recurved tube leading into
a seminal vesicle and eventually into the cloaca.
The developmental process in nematodes
involves egg, larval, and adult stages. Each of
four larval stages is followed by a molt in which
the cuticle is shed. The larvae are called second-
stage larvae after the first molt, and so on. The
nematode formed at the fifth stage is the adult.
QUIZinification

Helminths PPTZ

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Helminths PPTZ

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HELMINTHS

• All helminths are invertebrates

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• Micrococcus strains commonly are found in a large variety of

• also called skin

Upper respiratory infections include:

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Small population of organisms

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• Infections arising from a person's own

• a painful collection of pus,

• the most common

• mainly the result of

Lung flukes (Clonorchis)

Prazinquantel - is a anti-helmintic medicine and it kills

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