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HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

Chapter 1

CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

 What is Human Development?

-A process in which a progressive series of changes occurs as a result of

maturation and experience.
-Emphasizes the patterns of “constancy and change across the life span”
and identifies the processes that account for such patterns. (Newman and
Newman, 2015)
-Process of enlarging people’s freedom and opportunities and improving
their well-being.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to the

environment in which they live, through a process called self-realization or self-
actualization. (DeRobertis, 2008).

Given that self-realization plays an important role in ensuring one’s mental

well-being, individuals who make good personal and social adjustments must seek
opportunities to express their interests and desires in ways that yield.

SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

( GINES, et al., 1998)

1. Early foundations are critical

Essentially, attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior that have been
established in the early years of one’s life largely determine the success of
individuals in adjusting to life as they grow older.

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2. Roles of maturation and learning in development.

Maturation refers to the process by which individual’s inherent traits
are developed.

-Learning is the product of the exercise and effort spent by an individual to

achieve development.

-It provides the raw material for learning and determines the general
patterns and sequences of one’s behavior.

3. Development follows a definite and predictable pattern

-According to previous works, there are patterns of physical, motor, speech
and intellectual development, and such development follows a pattern
similar to everyone, unless there are extenuating factors that hamper this
process.

4. All individuals are different

-No two individuals can be 100% biologically and genetically similar, even in
the case of identical twins. Such difference increases as children develop from
childhood, move on to adolescence, and eventually to old age.

5. Each phase of development has a characteristics behavior.

-This means that every stage of development includes a set of behaviors
that can only be observed in a particular stage.

6. Each phase of development has hazards

-Each stage in the life span of an individual can be associated with specific
development hazards- be they psychological, physical, or environmental; such
hazards may involve adjustment problems.

7. Development is aided by stimulation

-A large part of human development occurs as a product of maturation and
environmental experiences, and in relation to this, much can be done to aid
development so that it will reach its full potential. This can be achieved by

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stimulating development by directly encouraging an individual to utilize an

ability, which is in the process of development.

8. Development is affected by cultural changes

-An individual’s development often conforms to cultural standards; hence,
changes in these standards can also affect one’s developmental pattern.

PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES

 One of the most popular theories of development.

 Childhood experiences and unconscious desires ultimately influence our

SIGMUND FREUD

• Austrian neurologist
• Created psychoanalysis to treat psychopathology
(symptoms that are psychological in nature)
• Father of Psychoanalysis

FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

1. ORAL STAGE (birth to 18 months)

 During this stage, an infant’s main source of interaction occurs through
the mouth, and as such, rooting and sucking are especially important in
this stage.
 It is said that the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation by
performing gratifying activities, such as sucking.

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2. ANAL STAGE (18 months to 3 years)

-During this stage, a child becomes aware of correct bowel control and
experiences pleasure in eliminating or retaining feces.
 Some parents praise and reward children who show correct behavior in
this sense. These children eventually grow up to become productive
and confident.

3. PHALLIC STAGE (3 to 6 years)

 Mainly characterized by a child’s focus on sexual interests, stimulation,
and excitement in relation to the genital area. This is an important part
of the development process as it lays the foundation of one’s gender
identity.
 According to Freud, the patterns of identification arising from the
phallic stage primarily determine the development of human character
(McLeod, 2008).

4. LATENCY STAGE (5 or 6 years to puberty)

 This development stage begins around the same time when children
enter school and become more focused on their peer relationships,
personal interests, and hobbies, along with greater social exposure.
 This is a period of exploration and plays an important role in the
development of confidence as well as social and communications skills
(Cherry, 2015).

5. GENITAL STAGE (puberty to adulthood)

 During this period, a child undergoes the physiological maturation of
systems of sexual functioning and associated hormonal systems, thus
leading to intensified drives and impulses.
 The main objective of this phase is eventual separation from one’s
attachment to his/her parents and the achievement of mature
relationships as well as adult role and duties.

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THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

ERIK ERIKSON
 He never knew his biological father

 Speaks mostly German despite speaking English (as he

immigrated in America during the rise of fascism in
Germany) being his main language for 60 years and at his
house, he has a flag of Denmark

 He has no formal training in Psychoanalysis

 Undergone Psychoanalysis with Ana Freud

 Had a child with Down Syndrome, told his other children

that he died. Only the eldest knew about it. When the
child died at the age of 20, the other 2 children Erikson
were the one who arranged the burial of the sibling they
never knew existed

Overview of Psychosocial Development

 Erikson was famous for coining the term Identity crisis

 Post-Freudian theory extended Freud’s Psychosexual development
 He suggested that at each stage, a specific psychosocial struggle
contributes to the formation of personality
 Erikson place more importance in social and historical influences

Basic Assumptions

EGO
• In contrast with Freud’s concept of Ego (being a diplomat with no
power of its own). Erikson’s conception of Ego is more powerful. It is a
positive force that creates a self-identity or a sense of “I”

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• Ego helps us adapt to the various conflicts and crises of life and keeps us
from losing our individuality to the leveling forces of society.
• During childhood, the ego is weak, pliable, and fragile; but by adolescence
it should begin to take form and gain strength
• Throughout our life, it unifies personality and guards against indivisibility.
• He defined the ego as a person’s ability to unify experiences and actions in
an adaptive manner.

ASPECTS OF EGO
1. BODY EGO- refers to the experiences with our body, a way of seeing our
physical self as different for other people
2. EGO IDEAL- represents the image we have of ourselves in comparison with
an established ideal; it is responsible for our being satisfied or dissatisfied not
only with our physical self but with our entire personal identity
3. EGO IDENTITY- is the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social
roles we play.
• Rapid changes in these aspects happen during adolescence

STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

1. PRENATAL PERIOD
This period begins at conception and ends at birth. It occurs within
about 270 to 280 days or calendar months

2. INFANCY
This occurs from birth to the end of the second week. It is the
shortest of all developmental period and is considered a time of extreme
adjustments, thus making it a hazardous period.

3. BABYHOOD
This period occurs from the end of the second week until the end of a
child’s second year. It is said to be the period of the true foundation of age
and marks the beginning of socialization and creativity.

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This period is also a time of increased individuality, decreasing

dependency, and rapid growth and change, making it hazardous period as
well.

4. Early Childhood
This period lasts from 2 to 6 years, and is considered by many
parents as a problematic or troublesome age.
For educators, this is considered the preschool age

• Autonomy (syntonic) vs. Shame and Doubt (dystonic)

• Autonomy- Self-expression
• Shame- is a feeling of self-consciousness, of being looked at and
exposed
• Doubt- on the other hand, is the feeling of not being certain,
the feeling that something remains hidden and cannot be seen.
As a child stubbornly expresses their anal-urethral-muscular ode, they are
likely to find culture that attempts to inhibit some of their self-expression.

5. LATE CHILDHOOD
This period occurs from 6 to 10 or 12 years old or the so-called
elementary years. For parents, they consider it also as a troublesome age,
especially since, according to psychologists, this is the “gang” age or the
time at which children seek conformity and become part of the groups

6. PUBERTY OR PREADOLESCENCE
This period lasts from 12 to 13 or 14 years. It is a short, overlapping
period that is subdivided into several stages, namely, prepubescent,
pubescent and post-pubescent stages. This is a period of rapid growth and
change and occurs at a variable age.

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• Industry (syntonic) vs. Inferiority (dystonic)- Although late childhood is a

period of little sexual development, it is a time of tremendous social
growth.
• Industry- A syntonic quality, means industriousness, a
willingness to remain busy with something and to finish a job
• Inferiority- feelings of inadequacy if their work is insufficient to
accomplish their goals.

7. ADOLESCENCE
This period occurs from 13 or 14 to 18 years. It is an important
transitional period that is characterized by significant change. Others
consider it a problem or dreaded age, during which child searches for
his/her identity and is about to cross over into adulthood.

8. EARLY ADULTHOOD
This period lasts from 18 to 40 years. This is the productive age, a
period of dependency for most, and a period of emotional tension or even
social isolation.
In addition, it is a time of commitment, a time at which one’s values
change, which can lead to changes in lifestyle choices.

9. MIDDLE AGE
This period occurs from 40 to 60 years. Many people dread this stage
because it is a time of stress and transition. Others may feel bored with
their lives at around this age and may feel awkward or inadequate when
comparing themselves with others and evaluating their lives against them.

10. OLD AGE OR SENESCENCE

This period lasts from 60 years to one’s death. This is considered a
period of decline, during which people are judged by different criteria
based on prevalent stereotypes of old people.

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People in this age group have varying social attitudes towards old age
and may feel that they are part of a minority.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASK

Purposes of Developmental Tasks

• Development tasks serve as guidelines that enable individuals to know
what society expects of them at any given age. Such tasks motivate
individuals to do what their respective social groups expect them to do at a
certain ages during their lives. Finally, these tasks show individuals what lie
ahead and the corresponding expectations of what they need to do when
they reach their next stage of development.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING EACH STAGE OF THE LIFESPAN

(Gines, et al, 1998)
1. BABYHOOD AND EARLY CHILDHOOD
 Learning to take solid foods
 Learning to walk
 Learning to control the elimination of body waste
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Getting ready to read
 Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and beginning to
develop a conscience.

2. LATE CHILDHOOD
 Learning physical skills that are necessary for ordinary games
 Building wholesome attitude toward one’s self as a growing individual
 Beginning to develop appropriate social roles depending on one’s
gender
 Developing fundamental skills that are necessary for everyday living
 Developing a conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale values

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 Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions

 Achieving personal independence

3. ADOLESCENCE
 Achieving new and more mature relations with peers from both sexes
• Achieving masculine or feminine social roles
• Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
• Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behaviors
• Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
• Preparing for an economic career
• Preparing for marriage and family life
• Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to one’s
behavior
• Acquiring beliefs and a set of ideologies

4. EARLY ADULTHOOD
 Getting started in an occupation in an occupation
 Selecting a partner
 Learning to live with a marriage partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing a children
 Managing a home
 Taking on civic responsibilities
 Finding a social group with whom one shares the same interests

5. MIDDLE AGE
 Achieving adult civic and social responsibilities
 Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
 Developing adult leisure-time activities
 Relating one’s self to one’s spouse as a person
 Accepting and adjusting to physiological changes of middle age

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 Reaching and maintaining a satisfactory performance in one’s

occupation and career
 Adjusting to aging parents

6. OLD AGE
 Adjusting to decreasing physical health
 Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to the death of a spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one’s peer group
 Establishing a satisfactory and safe physical living arrangement
 Adopting to changing or reduced social roles in flexible way

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