LEARNING-MATERIAL-IN-HUMAN-BEHAVIOR-AND-VICTIMOLOGY

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Chapter 1 CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN 1
DEVELOPMENT………………………………………………………...
Chapter 2 CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR……….. 9
Chapter 3 ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR AND TYPES OF ABNORMAL 17

BEHAVIOR………………………………………………………………
Chapter 4 VICTIMOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION, VICTIMS AND 30

VICTIMIZATION………………………………………………………...
Chapter 5 THEORIES OF VICTIMOLOGY AND VICTIMIZATION 38

PREVENTION……………………………………………………………
Chapter 6 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM AND THE VICTIMS………… 44
References ……………………………………………………………………………... 48
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research, extension and production grounded
on excellent, accountability and service as we
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Human Behavior and Victimology
CHAPTER 1
CONCEPTS, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:
1. Identify and understand different theories on human development;

2. Understand how stages of personality development, from infancy to
adulthood or old age, affect a person's ability to adapt to changes and
his/her environment; and
3. Explain how these stages can either make or break a person's
motivation and ability to react to certain situations.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human development is a process in which a progressive series of

changes occurs as a result of maturation and experience. According to Newman
and Newman (2015), human development emphasizes the patterns of
"constancy and change across the life span" and identifies the processes that
account for such patterns. They argue that development implies a process that
happens over time and has a specific direction.
DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to the

environment in which they live, through a process called self-realization or self-
actualization (DeRobertis, 2008). Given that self-realization plays an important
role in ensuring one's mental well-being individuals who make good personal and
social adjustments must seek opportunities to express their interests and desires
in ways that yield personal satisfaction while conforming to accepted standards
at the same time. The absence of these opportunities can lead to generally
negative attitudes toward people and even life in general.
SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT (Gines, et al., 1998)
Early foundations are critical Essentially, attitudes, habits, and patterns

of behavior that have been established in the early years of one's life largely
determine the success of individuals in adjusting to life as they grow older.
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Roles of maturation and learning in development. Maturation refers to

the process by which an individual's inherent traits are developed. Learning is the
product of the exercise and effort spent by an individual to achieve development.
In relation to this, maturation provides the raw material for learning and
determines the general patterns and sequences of one's behavior.
The development follows a definite and predictable pattern. According

to previous works, there are patterns of physical, motor, speech, and intellectual
development, and such development follows a pattern similar for everyone,
unless there are extenuating factors that hamper this process.
All individuals are different. No two individuals can be 100% biologically

and genetically similar, even in the case of identical twins. Such difference
increases as children develop from childhood, move on to adolescence, and
eventually to old age.
Each phase of development has a characteristic behavior. This means

that every stage of development includes a set of behaviors that can only be
observed in a particular stage.
Each phase of development has hazards. Each stage in the life span of
an individual can be associated with specific developmental hazards-be they
psychological, physical, or environmental; such hazards may involve adjustment
problems.
Development is aided by stimulation. A large part of human

development occurs as a product of maturation and environmental experiences,
and in relation to this, much can be done to aid development so that it will reach
its full potential. This can be achieved by stimulating development by directly
encouraging an individual to utilize an ability. which is in the process of
development.
Development is affected by cultural changes. An individual's

development often conforms to cultural standards; hence, changes in these
standards can also affect one's developmental pattern.
There are social expectations for every stage of development. All
cultural groups expect their members to familiarize themselves with essential
skills and acquire certain approved behavioral patterns at various ages during
one's lifetime.
There are common traditional beliefs about people of all ages. Beliefs
concerning physical and psychological characteristics do affect the judgment of
others and their subsequent self-evaluations.
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PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Let us examine various psychological theories on human development,

which can provide basic frameworks through which we can better understand
human growth, development, and learning. It is important to study these theories
because, through these, we can identify the main factors or conditions that
motivate human thoughts and behaviors (Theories of Development, 2016).
Psychoanalytic Theories
As one of the most popular theories of development, Psychoanalytic
theory originated with the work of Sigmund Freud, who argued that childhood
experiences and unconscious desires ultimately influence our behaviors as
adults. Since then, neo-Freudians have proposed different theories of their own,
including Erik Erikson, who introduced his eight-stage theory of psychosocial
development.
Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development
The theory of psychosexual development was first proposed by the

famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. This controversial theory describes the
process by which human personality is developed throughout one's childhood.
Based on observations recorded while treating his patients, he was able to
develop a theory that explained human behavioral development in terms of a
series of so-called "psychosexual stages, in which conflicts that arise in each
developmental stage may have a Belong influence on one's personality and
behavior (Cherry, 2015a)
Stages of Psychosexual Development

Stage 1: Oral stage (Birth to 18 months)
During this stage, an infant's main source of interaction occurs through the
mouth, and as such, rooting and sucking are especially important in this stage. It
is said that the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation by performing
gratifying activities, such as sucking. The infant may also develop a sense of trust
and comfort with an adult who is providing this kind of oral stimulation (e.g.,
feeding the child).
Conflict occurs during the weaning process, and at this point, the child
must become less dependent upon his/her caretakers; otherwise, fixation may
occur. If this fixation is not resolved, then the child may grow up with issues
concerning binge eating, drinking, nail-biting, or smoking. The individual may also
have problems related to dependency and aggression (Cherry, 2015a).
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Oral traits may be expressed as opposites. Hence, oral types may be

unhealthily pessimistic or healthily optimistic, gullible or suspicious, manipulative
or passive, and prone to admiration or envy, to name a few (Furnham, 2015).
Stage 2: Anal stage (18 months to 3 years)
During this stage, a child becomes aware of correct bowel control and
experiences pleasure in eliminating or retaining feces. Some parents praise and
reward children who show correct behavior in this sense. These children
eventually grow up to become productive and confident.
When a child becomes fixated in the pleasure obtained through these

stimulants (i.e., controlling and eliminating feces), then he/she becomes
obsessed with perfection, order, cleanliness, and control as an adult. When a
person is prone to this tendency then he/she is called anal retentive, and its
opposite is called anal expulsive. Compared with anal-retentive individuals, anal-
expulsive individuals are extremely disorganized and chaotic (Cherry, 2015a).
The well-known anal traits also include stinginess, stubbornness,

meticulousness, and an unhealthy obsession with punctuality, precision, and
perfection (Furnham, 2015).
Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)
The phallic stage is mainly characterized by a child's focus on sexual

interests, stimulation, and excitement in relation to the genital area. This is an
important part of the development process as it lays the foundation of one's
gender identity. According to Freud, the patterns of identification arising from the
phallic stage primarily determine the development of human character (McLeod,
2008).
Common phallic traits are expressed in opposites, just like in the other
stages. These traits typically include vanity versus self-hatred, brashness versus
bashfulness, pride versus humility, gaiety versus gloom, and gregariousness
versus isolation, to name a few (Furnham, 2015).
Stage 4: Latency stage (5 or 6 years to puberty)

This development stage begins around the same time when children enter
school and become more focused on their peer relationships, personal interests,
and hobbies, along with greater social exposure. Hence, this is a period of
exploration and plays an important role in the development of confidence as well
as social and communication skills (Cherry, 2015a).
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Stage 5: Genital stage (Puberty to adulthood)
During this period, a child undergoes the physiological maturation of

systems of sexual functioning and associated hormonal systems, thus leading to
intensified drives and impulses. The main objective of this phase is the eventual
separation from one's attachment to his/her parents and the achievement of
mature relationships as well as adult roles and duties.
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
One of the best-known theories of personality in the field of psychology, Erikson's

theory of psychosocial development describes the influence of social experience
on our development across the whole human lifespan. A major element of this
theory is the "ego identity, which is the "conscious sense of self that we develop
through social interaction" (Cherry, 2015b). According to Erikson, this ego identity
constantly changes due to new information and experiences we accumulate
through our daily interactions with others. As we face each new stage of
development, we confront a new challenge that can help further develop or hinder
the development of our identity.
Stages in the Human Lifespan
A. Prenatal period— This period begins at conception and ends at birth. It

occurs within about 270 to 280 days or nine calendar months.
B. Infancy - This period occurs from birth to the end of the second week. It
is the shortest of all developmental periods and is considered a time of
extreme adjustments, thus making it a hazardous period.
C. Babyhood - This period occurs from the end of the second week until the
end of a child's second year. It is said to be the period of the true
foundation of age and marks the beginning of socialization and creativity.
This period is also a time of increased individuality, decreasing
dependency, and rapid growth and change, making it a hazardous period
as well.
D. Early Childhood - This period lasts from 2 to 6 years and is considered

by many parents as a problematic or troublesome age. For educators, this
is considered the preschool age.
E. Late Childhood - This period occurs from 6 to 10 or 12 years or the so-

called elementary years. For parents, they consider it also as a
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troublesome age, especially since, according to psychologists, this is the

"gang" age or the time at which children seek conformity and become part
of groups.
F. Puberty or Preadolescence - This period lasts from 12 to 13 or 14 years.

It is a short, overlapping period that is subdivided into several stages,
namely, prepubescent, pubescent, and post-pubescent stages. This is a
period of rapid growth and change and occurs at a variable age.
G. Adolescence - This period occurs from 13 or 14 to 18 years. It is an

important transitional period that is characterized by significant change.
Others consider it a problem or dreaded age, during which the child
searches for his/her identity and is about to cross over into adulthood.
H. Early Adulthood - This period lasts from 18 to 40 years. This is the

productive age, a period of dependency for most, and a period of
emotional tension or even social isolation. In addition, it is a time of
commitment, a time at which one's values change, which can lead to
changes in lifestyle choices.
I. Middle Age - This period occurs from 40 to 60 years. Many people dread
this stage because it is a time of stress and transition. Others may feel
bored with their lives at around this age and may feel awkward or
inadequate when comparing themselves with others and evaluating their
lives against them.
J. Old Age or Senescence –This period lasts from 60 years to one's death.
This is considered a period of decline, during which people are judged by
different criteria based on prevalent stereotypes of old people. People in
this age group have varying social attitudes towards old age and may feel
that they are part of a minority. As aging requires role changes, some may
not be so successful in making the proper adjustments. Still, the desire for
rejuvenation is widespread in old age.
DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
Purposes of Developmental Tasks
Development tasks serve as guidelines that enable individuals to know what

society expects of them at any given age. Such tasks motivate individuals to do
what their respective social groups expect them to do at certain ages during their
lives. Finally, these tasks show individuals what lie ahead and the corresponding
expectations of what they need to do when they reach their next stage of
development.
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Developmental Tasks During Each Stage of the Lifespan (Gines, et al, 1998)
1. Babyhood and Early Childhood
 Learning to take solid foods

 Learning to walk and talk
 Learning to control the elimination of body waste
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Getting ready to read
 Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and beginning to develop
a conscience
2. Late Childhood Learning physical skills that are necessary for ordinary
games
 Building a wholesome attitude toward one's self as a growing individual

 Learning to get along with peers with the same age
 Beginning to develop appropriate social roles depending on one's gender
 Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating
 Developing concepts and skills that are necessary for everyday living
 Developing a conscience, a sense of morality, and a scale of values
 Developing attitudes toward social groups and
 Achieving personal independence
3. Adolescence
 Achieving new and more mature relations with peers from both sexes
 Achieving masculine or feminine social roles
 Accepting one's physique and using one's body effectively
 Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially responsible behaviors
 Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults
 Preparing for an economic career
 Preparing for marriage and family life
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to one's
behavior
 Acquiring beliefs and a set of ideologies
4. Early Adulthood
 Getting started in an occupation

 Selecting a partner
 Learning to live with a marriage partner
 Starting a family Rearing children
 Managing a home Taking on civic responsibilities
 Finding a social group with whom one shares the same interests
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5. Middle Age
 Achieving adult civic and social responsibilities

 Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
 Developing adult leisure time activities
 Relating one's self to one's spouse as a person
 Accepting and adjusting to physiological changes of middle-age
 Reaching and maintaining a satisfactory performance in one's occupation
and career
 Adjusting to aging parents
6. Old Age
 Adjusting to decreasing physical health

 Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to the death of a spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with members of one's peer group
 Establishing a satisfactory and safe physical living arrangement
 Adopting to changing or reduced social roles in a flexible way
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MASTERY OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Handicaps to Mastery
 A retarded developmental level

 Lack of opportunities to learn the developmental tasks or lack of guidance
in their mastery
 Lack of motivation
 Poor health condition
 Physical defects
 A low intellectual level
Aids to Mastery
 A normal or accelerated developmental level

 Opportunities to learn the developmental tasks receiving guidance in
mastering them
 Strong motivation to learn and improve
 Good health and the absence of sickness
 A high level of intelligence
 A sense of creativity
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CHAPTER 2
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
1. Gain a better understanding of human behavior, the factors that affect

changes in human behavior, and how it is defined through different
perspectives;
2. Gain a better understanding of how a human's personality develops
over time through experience and how these experiences enable a
person to reach self-actualization;
3. Become familiar with the causes, conflicts, and motivations affecting
human behavior;
4. Identify the theories that attempt to explain human behavior.
5. Discuss defense and coping mechanisms and give examples of those
mechanisms.
HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Human behavior refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person

to adapt and fit society's values and ideas of what is right and wrong. It also refers
to a range of actions demonstrated by humans in conjunction with their
environment, and in response to various stimuli, whether conscious or
subconscious, internal or external, voluntary or viot involuntary, and overt or
covert (Human Behavior, n.d.).
Common Perspectives in the Study of Human Behavior
Neurological - This perspective emphasizes human actions in relation to events

that take place inside the body, especially the brain and the nervous system.
Behavioral - This view focuses on the external activities that can be observed
and measured.
Cognitive - This perspective studies how the brain processes and transforms
information in various ways.
Psychoanalytical- This view emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from

repressed sexual and aggressive impulses in childhood.
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Humanistic- This perspective focuses on the subject's experiences, freedom of

choice, and strong motivation to achieve self-actualization.
Factors that Affect Human Behavior
Heredity - This is determined by genes, which are segments of cell structures

called chromosomes, by which parents pass on traits to their offspring.
Environment - These factors consist of the conditions that surround and

influence an individual.
Learning -This refers to the process by which behaviors change as a result of

experience or practice.
Other factors that affect or influence behavior include the following:
 Attitudes, beliefs, emotions

 Reasoning
 Culture, values, ethics, religion
 Authority, motivation, persuasion, and coercion
MOTIVATIONS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

The Needs Theory of Human Motivation
This theory states that throughout one's life, desires, wishes, and drives
that are collectively called "needs," motivate every individual. When not fulfilled,
these needs place an individual under stress. Thus, to relieve the tensions
created, one has to strive for appropriate satisfaction of these needs. According
to Abraham Maslow, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:
"It is quite true that man lives by bread alone when there is no bread. But
what happens to man's desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly
is chronically filled? At once other (and "higher") needs to emerge and these,
rather than physiological hungers, dominate the organism. And when these in
turn are satisfied, again (and still "higher") needs emerge, and so on. This is what
we mean by saying that the basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of
relative prepotency" (Maslow, 1943, p. 375).
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The Five-Stage Pyramid according to Maslow's Theory
1. Biological and physiological needs: food, drink, air, shelter, warmth, sex,
sleep
2. Safety needs; security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear, protection from
the elements
3. Love and belongingness needs: affection and love from work group, family,
friends, peers; romantic relationships; friendship; intimacy
4. Esteem needs: achievement, independence, mastery, status, dominance,

self-respect, prestige, and respect from others
5. Self-actualization needs: realization of one's personal potential and self-
fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences
The Psychodynamics of Human Motivation

Psychodynamics, which literally means "motivation to action, defines
human behavior in terms of the personality of the inner self, It also refers to the
concept of subjective life and inner forces within, which are called "mental
personality".
Sigmund Freud first proposed a psychodynamic theory in the early 20th

century. According to this theory, the mind has three levels by which its psychic
forces operate, namely, the Id, Ego, and Super Ego. In psychology, the
psychodynamic view is used to explain human personality and behavior in terms
of conscious and unconscious forces, such as unconscious desires and beliefs.
Psychodynamic theories generally argue that one's childhood experiences shape
personality (Definition of Psychodynamic Theory, n.d.)
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Two Basic Types of Human Behavior
TYPE CONCEPT EXAMPLES

1. Inherited Behavioral response or reflex that Breathing, ingesting food,
Behavior is exhibited by people based on avoiding waste, mating,
their genetic endowment or the and defending one’s self.
process of natural selection.
2. Learned Involves cognitive adaptation that Verbal communication,
Behavior enhances the human being’s Logical problem-solving
abilities to cope with environmental techniques, job, and skills,
changes and manipulate the etc.
environment to improve one’s
existence
Other Types of Behaviors
Types Behavior
1. Habitual Motor, emotional, language
2. Instinctive Unlearned behavior

3. Symbolic Substitute behavior
4. Complex Two or more habitual behaviors that occur in one

situation
STIMULANTS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Sensations - These are feelings or impressions of stimuli that may be

delivered via the following sources:
 Olfactory smell
 Cutaneous-touch
 Auditory - hearing
 Gustatory taste
 Visual - sight
Perception - This refers to one's knowledge of various stimuli from the

environment or external sources.
Awareness - This is a psychological activity that occurs under the

interpretation and experience of various stimuli.
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Attributes of Human Behavior

Duration- how long it occurs in terms of functions of time
Extensity- spatial characteristics
Intensity- magnitude or level
Quantity- normal or abnormal, un/acceptability
Characteristics of Behavior
1. Human behaviors are primarily native or learned

2. Evoked by external stimuli or internal needs
3. Automatic, voluntary, conscious motor, or intentional
Personality Dimensions that affect Human Behavior
Types Characteristics Effects

1. Extraversion Frequently seeks stimulation, Gets people in trouble,
excitement and thrills has the greatest role in
crime and delinquency
2. Neuroticism Intensely reacts to stress, Enhances habits and
generally moody, touchy, influences the individual
sensitive to slights and anxious to behave in ways that
or nervous are considered anti-
social
3. Psychoticism Cold, cruel, social insensitivity,
disregard for danger,
troublesome behavior, dislike of
others, attraction towards the
unusual
CAUSES OF CONFLICTS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR
Physical Causes - These refer to natural causes, like typhoon, earthquake,

fires, floods, and storms.
Social Conflicts - These are restrictions or rules in the home, school, workplace,
and community.
Economic Conflicts- These result from one's inability to acquire material things
because of poverty or other financial obligations.
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Coping Mechanism vs. Defense Mechanism

Coping mechanisms are the sum total of ways in which people deal with
minor to major stress and trauma. Some of these processes are unconscious
ones, others are learned behavior, and still others are skills that individuals
consciously master in order to reduce stress, or other intense emotions like
depression.
Defense mechanisms refer to an individual’s way of reacting to

frustration. These are unconscious psychological strategies brought into play by
various entities to cope with reality and to maintain self-image.
The following are the sample of coping mechanisms:

1. Acting out – this means acting out the desires that are forbidden by the
Superego and yet desired by the Id. We thus cope with the pressure to do
what we believe is wrong by giving in to the desire.
Example: An addict gives in to his/her desire for alcohol or drugs.
2. Attack – the best form of defense is attack is a common saying and is also
a common action, and when we feel threatened or attacked (even
psychologically), we will attack back.
Example: A person is having problems with his/her computer. He/she
angrily bangs the keyboard.
3. Compensation – Where a person has a weakness in one area, they may
compensate by accentuating or building up strengths in another area.
Example: A person who failed in Math excelled in English.
4. Denial – This is simply refusing to acknowledge that an event has
occurred. The person affected simply acts as if nothing has happened,
behaving in ways that others may see as bizarre.
Example: Alcoholics vigorously deny that they have a problem.
5. Displacement – It refers to the shifting of actions from a desired target to
a substitute target when there are some reasons why the first target is not
permitted or not available.
Example: The boss gets angry and shouts at me. I go home and shout at
my wife. She then shouts at our son.
6. Fantasy or Day Dreaming – When we cannot achieve or do something
that we want, we channel the energy created by the desire into fantastic
imaginings.
Example: A boy who is punished by a teacher creates fantasies of
shooting the teacher.
7. Fight- or- Flight Reaction – When we perceive a significant threat to us,
then our bodies get ready either for a fight to the death or a desperate fight
from certain defeat by a clearly superior adversary.
Example: A lion suddenly appeared in front of a person while walking in
the forest. That person may choose to wrestle the lion or run to save his
life.
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8. Identification – it occurs when a person changes apparent facets of

his/her personality such that he/she appears to be more like other people.
Example: A girl dresses like her friends, as much because she likes the
garb as any conscious desire to be like them.
9. Intellectualization – This refers to a ‘flight into reason’, where the person
avoids uncomfortable emotions by focusing on facts and logic.
Example: A person who is in heavily debt builds a complex spreadsheet
of how long it would take to repay using different payment options and
interest rates.
10. Introjection – Occurs as a coping mechanism when we take on attributes
of other people who seem better able to cope with the situation than we
do.
Example: I have to give a presentation but feel scared.
11. Projection – When a person has uncomfortable thoughts or feelings
he/she may project these onto other people, assigning the thoughts or
feelings that he/she need to repress to a convenient alternative target.
Projection may also happen to obliterate attributes of other people with
which we are uncomfortable.
Example: An unfaithful husband suspects his wife of infidelity.
12. Reaction Formation – Reaction Formation occurs when a person feels
an urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something
that is effectively the opposite of what he/she really wants.
Example: A person who is angry with a colleague actually ends up being
particularly courteous and friendly towards him/her.
13. Regression – Regression involves taking the position of a child in some
problematic situation, rather than acting in a more adult way.
Example: A college student carefully takes his/her teddy bear with
him/her.
14. Self-harming – The person physically deliberately hurts himself/herself in
some way or otherwise puts themselves at high risk of harm.
Examples: a. Slapping oneself, b. Punching a hard wall, c. Cutting oneself
with a knife, d. Reckless driving, e. Taking narcotic drugs.
15. Somatization – Somatization occurs where a psychological problem turns
into physical and subconscious symptoms. This can range from simple
twitching to skin rashes, heart problem and worse.
Example: A policeman, who has to be very restricted in his professional
behavior, develops hypertension.
16. Sublimation – it is the transformation of unwanted impulses into
something less harmful. This can simply be a distracting release or may
be a constructive and valuable piece of work.
Example: I am angry. I go out and chop wood. I end up with a useful pile
of firewood. I am also fitter and nobody is harmed.
17. Suppression – This is where the person consciously and deliberately
pushes down any thought that leads to feelings of anxiety.
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Example: An older man has sexual feelings towards a teenager and

quickly suppresses the thought.
18. Substitution – This takes something that leads to discomfort and replace
it with something that does not lead to discomfort.
Example: Rather than making a difficult phone call, I call my daughter for
a chat.
19. Undoing – It refers to the performance of an act to undo a previous
unacceptable act or thought.
Example: A man who has been unkind to his wife buys her flowers (but
does not apologize).
20. Positive Coping – There are a number of approaches that we can take to
cope in a positive way with problems, including:
a. Immediate problem-solving: Seeking to fix the problem that is the
immediate cause of our difficulty.
b. Root-cause solving: Seeking to fix the underlying cause such that
the problem will never recur.
c. Benefit-finding: Looking for the good things amongst the bad.
d. Spiritual growth: Finding ways of turning the problem into a way
to grow spiritually or emotionally.
Example: A student fails an exam. He/she views it is an opportunity to
deepen his/her learning and study hard (Changing Minds, 2002-2013).
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CHAPTER 3
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR AND
TYPES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
1. Define what is abnormal behavior.

2. Enumerate the different types of abnormal behavior.
3. Explain and provide examples of each of the following types of
behavior.
4. Differentiate different types of behavior based on the symptoms and
effects.
ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
Abnormal Behavior - This is a kind of behavior that fails to meet the

characteristics of a normal person and includes inabilities in the following areas:
1. Free expression of personality

2. Adequate security feeling
3. Efficient contact with reality
4. Adaptability to group norms
5. Emotional maturity
6. Adequate self-knowledge
7. Integrated and consistent personality
Criminal Psychology - This is a branch of knowledge that studies e

various aspects of criminal behavior. Specifically, it refers to "the study in of the
mind and its workings in relation to crime (Criminal Psychology, cyn.d.).
TYPES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

Personality Disorder
This kind of disorder originates during the early development process, and
leads to maladaptive behavior.
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Classifications of Personality Disorder
Classification Characteristics
1. Passive- Passively dependent and aggressive due to
Aggressive overindulgence
2. Hysterical Easily excitable, emotional instability, dramatic need for
Personality attention, immature, tendency to sexualize contacts with
Disorder the opposite sex
3. Compulsive Excessive concern for conformity, perfection, and order
Personality
Disorder
4. Paranoid Hypersensitive, unwarranted suspicion, jealousy, envy,
Personality and feelings of excessive importance
Neuroses
Neuroses or psychoneuroses are behavioral disorders that are emotional
tension resulting from conflicts, repression, frustration, or insecurity. Neurotic
individuals compromise with reality by developing imaginary ailments,
obsessions, phobias, compulsion, depression or anxiety.
Behavioral Characteristics of Individuals Displaying Neurotic Reactions
1. Inability to function at the normal capacity level
2. Presence of anxiety
3. Rigid or repetitive behavior
4. Somatic complaints
5. Immaturity
6. Hypersensitivity
7. Egocentricity
8. Unhappiness
9. A great deal of unconsciously motivated behavior
Understanding the Causes of Neuroses
As we have learned earlier, human behaviors are influenced by different

factors. The following factors may be considered important considerations when
evaluating an individual suffering from neurosis:
1. Predisposing or constitutional factors
2. One's immediate life situation
18
3. Childhood development patterns

4. Important cultural factors
Classification of Neuroses According to the Most Striking Symptoms
1. Anxiety Reactions - These are mainly manifested in consciously experienced

feelings of anxiety and apprehension, for which there are no specific bases in
actual life.
Hysteria
This disorder is a type of anxiety reaction, in which the individual manifests

one or more symptoms that are often associated with organic disease. Disabilities
that may develop from this disorder include paralysis of the limbs, deafness,
blindness, intense aches and pains, continuous vomiting, loss of voice, and head
or hand tremors.
Forms of Hysteria
A. Amnesia - This is a disorder wherein the individual cannot recall his or her
name and remembers little or nothing about the past in varying levels of intensity.
Types of Amnesia
Anterograde -This is the inability to retain information, which has just been seen
or read.
Retrograde - This refers to the inability to recall any event (and details thereof)
that took place during a certain period.
Localized-The inability to recall events and details that are related to a particular
situation.
B. Fugue - This is a type of amnesia wherein one wanders away from his or her
home or usual surroundings; often, the person has no recollection as to how
he/she came to be there when awareness sets in.
Multiple Personality -This is a dramatic form of hysteria, in which the

patient develops two or more separated and very distinct personalities.
C. Somnambulism - This is a dreamlike state in which the person walks about

and carries on certain activities that he eventually fails to remember when he
wakes up.
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Psychastenia
This is a psychoneurotic condition that is accompanied by a vast range of

mental and emotional symptoms that cannot be controlled. The person is fear-
ridden by obsessions, compulsion, or unreasonable dread or phobia. Other
symptoms of Psychastenia are unreasonable elation, over-inhibition, or constant
depression.
Forms of Psychastenia
A. Phobia- This refers to an irrational or exaggerated fear of an object, person,

act, or situation. This is characterized by the following:
 Reasons for the fear do not make sense.

 One's fear paralyzes instead of enhances one's ability to deal with a
problem.
 The fear seems to be caused by the threat of self-destructive aggressions
that may take place.
Examples of Phobias
Arachnophobia - The fear of spiders
Ophidiophobia - The fear of snakes
Acrophobia - The fear of heights
Agoraphobia- The fear of open or crowded spaces
Cynophobia - The fear of dogs
Astraphobia - The fear of thunder and lightning
Claustrophobia - The fear of small spaces
Mysophobia - The fear of germs
Aerophobia- The fear of flying
Trypophobia - The fear of holes
B. Obsession- This refers to an idea or series of idens that recur very frequently
that they interfere with the ability of an individual to think and/or function normally.
C. Compulsion - This is an irresistible tendency to perform an act or ritual, which

an individual feels compelled to carry out although it is recognized as irrational; a
person must perform an act and give in to the urge in order to reduce the tension.
Examples of Compulsion
 Suicidal mania the impulse to take one's life
20
 Homicidal mania - the impulse to kill

 Dipsomania the impulse to drink liquor
 Megalomania - the impulse to amass great fame or power
 Kleptomania the impulse to steal
 Pyromania the impulse to set things on fire
 Arithmomania - the impulse to count everything

Traumatic Neuroses -These are manifested in situations, in which the individual

fears for his/her safety.
Operational Fatigue - Otherwise known as war neurosis, this is manifested in
response to a battle environment.
Psychoses
Psychoses are serious mental illnesses that are characterized by

unpredictable behavior. Psychotic persons have a largely unrealistic
interpretation of the self and the life around them. In this case, their ego has lost
control over their personality. In addition, people with psychoses have great mood
swings that range from extreme exaltation to extreme depression. They are also
quiet and docile at one moment and hyperactive the next. Owing to such an
imbalance, they are often socially inept and unable to fit in with the normal
society.
Classification of Psychoses
1. Organic/Somatogenic
Organic or somatogenic psychoses are due to a wide variety of causes;

however, damage or injury to the brain or other parts of the central nervous
system is always involved.
Symptoms of Organic Psychoses
 Emotional instability, which is manifested by general irritability or violent

mood swings without a clear cause
 Impairment of normal, intellectual functions
 Inappropriate behavior and changes in general behaviors, including
neglect of responsibilities, lack of interest in personal appearance, and an
anti-social tendency.
Types of Organic Psychoses
 Psychoses associated with toxins
21
 Psychoses associated with infectious diseas

 Psychoses associated with old age
 Psychoses associated with head injuries
2. Functional Psychosis
Functional psychosis refers to a serious mental disorder involving the total
personality with no observable tissue damage. Hence, with no organic basis,
these ailments are believed to result from years of living under emotional stress.
As a severe emotional disorder, functional psychosis is characterized by
personality derangement and complete loss of the ability to function in reality,
"but without evidence that the disorder is related to the physical processes of the
brain" (Functional Psychosis, n.d.). It can also relate to an obsolete term "once
used to denote schizophrenia and other severe mental disorders before modern
science discovered a biological component to some aspects of each of the
disorders" (Functional Psychosis, n.d.)
Forms of Functional Psychosis

A. Schizophrenic Disorder
Schizophrenia is a psychotic condition that is characterized by one's
withdrawal from reality, indifference toward daily problems, and the tendency to
live in a world of fantasy. The word "schizophrenia" comes from the Greek words
"schizo" (split) and "phrene" (mind); hence, the term is used to describe the
fragmented state of mind of people suffering from such a disorder. The disease
was first identified in 1887 by Dr. Emile Kraepelin, who considered this disease
as a discrete mental illness. Dr. Kraeplin was also the first to classify varied
mental disorders into categories (History of Schizophrenia, n.d).
Initially, Dr. Kraepelin used the term "dementia praecox." However, in

1911, the Swiss psychiatrist, Eugen Bleuler coined the term "schizophrenia" to
describe the condition of individuals who showed symptoms of the disease.
Bleuler was also the first to describe the symptoms as either "positive" or
"negative" (History of Schizophrenia, n.d).
Symptoms of Schizophrenia
 Disorganized patterns of feeling and thinking, where there is no logic or

reason in thoughts and expressed feelings
 Apathy or absence of feelings and emotions in situations that call for such
reactions
22
 Bizarre actions, including absurd and eccentric gestures, or such activities

as hoarding, among others
 Shunning others, reclusiveness, or narrowing of interests and social
contacts
 Disorganized speech patterns
 Delusions and hallucinations (usually auditory)
 Deterioration of conduct and personal habits
Types of Schizophrenia
Simple Schizophrenia- This manifests in a gradual decline of interest and

ambition. The person withdraws from almost all social contacts and becomes
increasingly irritable and inattentive.
Hebephrenic Schizophrenia - It usually begins in early adolescence and

develops gradually in time. The person may be prone to fits of laughter or childish
giggling and grimacing for hours without apparent reasons.
Catatonic Schizophrenia- This is marked by cycles of psychomotor reactions in
stupor (partial or complete loss of consciousness) and excitement phases.
Paranoid Schizophrenia - This is marked by hallucinations and delusions that

are illogical and loosely organized, as well as grandiose and/or persecutory in
nature.
B. Affective Disorder
Affective reactions of manic-depressive psychosis are often characterized

by periods of depression or elation or both. Affective disorders refer to a set of
psychiatric diseases, the symptoms for which may vary depending on each
individual. Symptoms typically affect one's mood, hence affective disorders are
also called mood disorders that can be anywhere from mild to severe.
An affective disorder can be diagnosed by a psychiatrist or other trained

mental health professional, usually through a psychiatric evaluation. Although
affective disorders can disrupt daily lives, there are effective medication and
psychotherapy treatments for this (Ellis, 2013).
Types of Affective Disorders
The three main types of affective disorders are as follows depression,

bipolar disorder, and anxiety disorder, and these vary from one another in terms
of severity (Ellis, 2013).
23
Depression - This is often characterized by feelings of extreme

hopelessness and sadness. These episodes may last anywhere from several
days or even weeks. Its symptoms include the following:
 suicidal thoughts
 irritability or anxiety
 prolonged sadness
 lack of interest in normal activities
 lethargy and lack of energy
 major changes in eating and sleeping habits
 feelings of guilt
 difficulty concentrating
 aches and pains that have no physical explanation
Bipolar disorder - This refers to a state wherein the person experiences

alternating periods of depression and periods of mania, which is the feeling of
being extremely positive and active. A person may have bipolar disorder if he/she
has the following symptoms:
 chronic mood swings .

 during depression, symptoms similar to those for major depressive
disorder
 during mania, less sleep and feelings of exaggerated self-confidence
 irritability or aggression
 feeling of self-importance .
 impulsiveness and recklessness
 delusions or hallucinations
Anxiety Disorders - The different types of anxiety disorders are all characterized
by feelings of anxiety, fear, and nervousness. The symptoms of affective
disorders include the following:
 constant worrying
 irritability
 obsessive thoughts
 restlessness and trouble concentrating
 trembling, sweating, shortness of breath and rapid heart rate
 difficulty sleeping
 nausea
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C. Paranoia
This is another type of psychotic reaction, the main symptom of which is

characterized by suspicion.
Types of Paranoia
 Persecutory Paranoia - This refers to having delusions of persecution. The

person believes that some people are plotting to harm him/her in some
way.
 Litigious Paranoia - This refers to having delusions of both persecution
and grandeur, a person may go to great lengths to bring alleged
persecutors to court.
 Erotic Paranoia - Also called amorous paranoia, this refers to having
delusions that a certain person is in love with him/her.
 Exalted Paranoia Having grandiose delusions and believing himself/
herself as someone with great power or importance, usually a social
reformer or religious crusader.
 Jealous Paranoia - The state of having extreme and irrational jealousy
D. Anti-Social Personality
A person with an anti-social personality is a mentally- disturbed person

who is opposed to the Normal principles upon which a society is based.
Characteristics of an Anti-Social Personality
Sociopath- refers to a person who dislikes any sense of social or moral

responsibility due to mental illness.
Psychopath - refers to a person with a personality disorder that is characterized

by anti-social behavior, indifference to immorality, and abnormal changes in
mood or activity. A psychopath is a classic manipulator or con artist.
One of the major significant characteristics of a psychopath is the absence

of conscience or any guilty feeling after committing grievous acts against others.
This means that the person has not incorporated the moral values of society into
his life. In addition, the psychopath is selfish and strives for physical pleasure.
Hence, most of his pursuits revolve around manipulating people to acquire
25
personal gains. A chronic liar, a psychopath is often impulsive and demands

immediate satisfaction, thus unable to learn from past experiences.
Dealing with Different Abnormal and Deviant Behavior
Abnormal Behavior Proper Handling and Hints

1. Anxiety Reassurance
2. Depressed Put yourself in the shoes of the sufferer; be on the
alert for possible suicide
3. Obsessive- Understand that the sufferer is disturbed and not
Compulsive crazy; refer to the appropriate facility
4. Phobia Supportive intervention
5. Psychoses Display of guns, force, and restraints should be
avoided unless there is a manifestation of danger
to one’s life; send the patient to a hospital. If he
she desists, be firm.
6. Psychopathy 1. Review arrest records.
2. Recognize con man/woman’s manipulative
conversation
3. Don’t bluff; he/she is a master of this and
certainly better than anybody.
4. Interview him/her after knowing every detail of
a case.
5. A psychopath can beat lie detectors; he/she is
immune to anxiety unless placed under stress.
6. Be firm and clear.
7. A psychopath may be charming but can also
become very angry and may manipulate
others, thus violating their rights.
8. Drug-Dependent 1. Be patient, but firm – the person is not himself.
Behavior 2. Keep him/her talking to relieve the stress.
3. Refer him/her talking to the appropriate
hospital, medical facility or medical institution.
9. Paranoid Behavior 1. Be understanding; never give the impression
that he/she is crazy.
2. Friendliness and neutrality is usually the best
approach.
3. Do not heighten the patient’s anxieties; do not
provoke him or her, or ignite violent reactions.
4. Assure the paranoid patient that your
presence is to help and protect him/her.
5. Do not frighten a paranoid patient with a
weapon; he/she may panic and react violently.
26
However, do not let your guard down.

Remember, a paranoid patient may be suicidal
and/or homicidal.
SEXUAL DEVIANCY
Sexuality - The behavior associated with the relation between sexes and their
respective reproductive organs.
Normal Sexuality - Sexual completion that leads to a mature and well-adjusted

individual, capable of entering relationships with a member of the opposite sex,
and who is physically and mentally stable and satisfying heterosexual needs.
Abnormal Sexuality/Sexual Deviancy- A kind of sexual behavior that seeks

stimulation and gratification by means other than normal, heterosexual norms.
Classifications of Sexual Abnormalities
1. As to Choice of Sexual Partner

Types Of Abnormality Characteristics
1. Infantisexual Sexual desire towards an immature person

2. Bestosexual Sexual desire towards animals
3. Autosexual A form of self-abuse or solitary vice carried out
without the cooperation of another person
4. Gerontophilia Sexual desire toward an elder person
5. Necrophilia Sexual perversion that is characterized by erotic
desire or actual sexual intercourse with a corpse
6. Incest Sexual relations between persons who, by reason of
blood relationship, cannot legally marry
2. As to Instinctual Sexual Urge

Types Characteristics
1. Satyriasis Excessive sexual desire of men to perform

intercourse
2. Nymphomania Strong sexual feelings of a woman
3. Sexual Anesthesia Absence of sexual desire or arousal during sexual
act in women
4. Dyspareunia Painful sexual act in women
5. Vaginisimus Painful spasm of the vagina during sexual act
27
3. As to the Mode of Sexual Expression or Way of Sexual Satisfaction
1. Oralism The use of the mouth as a way of sexual

(Irrumation) gratification, such as fellatio, cunnilingus, and
anilingus
2. Sado-Masochism Pain or cruel acts as a factor for gratification, such
as sadism and masochism
3. Fetishism A form of sexual perversion, in which the real or
fantasized presence of an object or bodily part is
necessary for sexual stimulation or gratification
Examples: anatomic, clothing, necrophilia, and odor,

etc.
4. As to the Parts of the Body

1. Sodomy Sexual act through the anus of another human being

2. Uranism An act in which sexual gratification is attained by
fingering, fondling the breast, licking parts of the body,
etc.
3. Frottage A form of sexual gratification that is characterized by
the compulsive desire of a person to rub his sexual
organ against the body parts of another person
4. Pantialism A form of sexual deviation, in which a person has a
special affinity to certain parts of the female body
5. As to Visual Stimulus
1. Voyeurism A form of sexual perversion that is characterized by

a compulsion to covertly look at a person undress or
perform other activities
2. Mixoscopia Sexual perversion wherein sexual pleasure is
(Scoptophilia) attained by watching a couple undress or during
their acts of sexual intimacy
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6. As to Number
1. Froilism A form of sexual perversion, in which three persons
participate in the sexual orgy (Suixante-neve)
2. Pluralism A form sexual deviation, in which a group of persons
participate in the sexual orgy (sexual festival)
7. Other Sexual Deviations

1. Corpolalia A form of sexual deviation that is characterized by

the need to use obscene language to obtain orgasm
2. Don Juanism A form of sexual deviation that is characterized by
promiscuity and seduction of many women as part
of a male’s sexual career
3. Indecent Exposure Willful exposure of one’s genital organs in public
(Exhibitionism) places and in the presence of other persons, usually
those of the opposite sex
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CHAPTER 4
VICTIMOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION, VICTIMS AND
VICTIMIZATION
1. Discuss victimology as a specialized study of criminology;

2. Present the concept of victims and victimization; and
3. Discuss the various typologies of victims.
4. Explain the deference of Criminologist and Victimologist.
5. Justify how a person can be victimized.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Victim - somebody hurt or killed by somebody or something especially in a

crime, accident, or disaster.
Victimize - (transitive verb) treat unfairly; to make into a victim or cause

somebody to become a victim; to cause to suffer.
Victimization - (noun) an undesirable consequence caused by some external

forces (as in victims of war, victims of terrorism, victims of natural calamities) or
by some individual, group or organization (victims of rape, robbery, murder or
swindling).
Victimology - is a discipline/study which deals of the nature, and causes of

victimization, as well as the programs for aiding and preventing victimization.
Victimologist - is a social scientist who deals with the study of the causes of
victimization and the programs of preventing victimization.
CRIMINOLOGISTS COMPARED WITH VICTIMOLOGISTS
As Social Scientists, both criminologists and victimologists place great

emphasis on following proper methods of gathering and interpreting data. Table
8 presents the basic functions of a criminologist and a victimologist. Both are
compared in their nature of work and areas of specialization.
Criminologist Victimologist
Collects and analyzes information Looks over statistics about the ages
about individuals engaging in illegal and social backgrounds of the
30
behaviors, such as their ages and individuals who are harmed by

social backgrounds; unlawful activities.
Apply their findings to devise crime- Use the patterns and trends they
prevention strategies detect to develop and test our risk-
reduction tactics
Study how the criminal justice system Study how the criminal justice system
works and how they are supposed to works, and how they are supposed to
work according to agency regulations, work according to agency
official roles, and court regulations, official roles, and court
decisions. decisions.
Scrutinize how suspects, defendants, Examine the way victims are really
and convicts are actually handled by treated by police officers,
agents of the criminal justice system prosecutors, defense attorneys,
judges, and parole boards
Assess the needs of offenders for Diagnose the emotional problems
counseling, psychotherapy, additional that beset people after they have
education, job training, and drug been harmed by offenders, and test
treatment. Evaluates effectiveness of out the usefulness of programs
various rehabilitation programs designed to facilitate their recovery
intended to reduce recidivism.
Calculate the social and economic Estimate the personal losses and
costs of criminal activity to a expenses that individuals incur due to
community or society as a whole acts of violence, theft, or fraud.
Not well-paying field for employment Not well-paying field for employment
and advancement; can be guilty of and advancement; can be guilty of
impersonal detachment. impersonal detachment.
Subsequently, some general facts have been gathered about

victimization.
 Victimization is more likely at night (6:00 p.m. to 6:00 a.m.). Personal

larceny is more common during the day, with more serious crime
occurring at night.
 Crime occurs more in open public areas, although rapes and simple
assaults tend to occur in homes.
 Crime is most frequent in central city areas.
 Western urban areas have highest crime rates, while the Northeast rural
areas have the lowest.
 Personal theft is very common.
 Men are twice as likely as women to be victims of robbery and assault.
31
 Victim risk diminishes rapidly after age 25. Contrary to popular belief,
grandparents are safer than their grandchildren.
 Unmarried /never married people are more likely to be victims than the
married or widowed.
 The poor are more likely to be victims of crime. They are far more likely
to be victims of violent crime, while the middle class are more likely to be
victims of property crime.
 In some studies, over half of offenders report being under the influence
of alcohol and/or other drugs when they committed the offense resulting
in incarceration.
VICTIMS AND VICTIMIZATION

Victimization
The word "victimization" describes the outcome of crime based lo on the

interaction between the offender & victim. It is almost similar to a grammatical
relationship between the subject as well as object. In the victimological
terminology, the phrase "victimizer to be conceptualized to describe this particular
part of the crime effect Consequently, it could be stated that "victimizer" is a
complex term in victimology. It is referred to as "offender" or "criminal" in some
other branches of criminal sciences like in criminal law and criminology (Doerner
and Lab, 2015).
People may suffer victimization individually or collectively; that is, harm

befall on a single person or a group of persons. Individual victimization results
when a single private person becomes the object of an act proscribed by a
criminal statute. Individual victimization can be viewed in many such crimes
including offenses against the person such as murder, rape, and physical assault,
crimes against property like theft, fraud, and robbery, along with other offenses
typically criminalized in national laws. The offender does not victimize the
individual victim because of his group affiliation or the crime is not directed at him
because of a group affiliation (Daigle and Muftic, 2019).
CONCEPT OF VICTIMIZATION
One of the most neglected subjects in the study of crime is its victims:
the persons, households, and businesses that bear the brunt of crime.
The word victim was connected to the notion of sacrifice, especially in

ancient cultures. Originally, the term is referred to as a person or an animal put
to death during a ceremony in order to appease some supernatural power or
32
deity. Today, the term commonly refers to individuals who experience injury,
loss, or hardship for any reason. People can be victims of accidents, diseases,
natural disasters, or social problems like warfare, discrimination, or other
injuries. Crime victims are harmed because of illegal acts.
Victimization can happen either with or without the knowledge or consent
of those who are victimized. Victimization is an asymmetrical relationship that is
abusive, destructive, unfair, and in many cases, in violation of a law.
The term "victimization" is defined as a verb rather than a noun; such as:
a. to make a victim of,

b. to cause to suffer discomfort, inconvenience, and so forth
c. to cheat, swindle or defraud,
d. to put to death as, or in the manner of a sacrificial victim e) to slaughter
e. to spoil or destroy completely
THE SOURCES OF VICTIMIZATION
A. By Nature or Natural Victimization

1. Victimization by natural disasters and acts of God
2. Victimization by natural health hazards
3. Victimization by natural predatory agents
B. By Human Action
1. Auto-victimization
2. Industrial-Technological victimization 3) Structural victimization
3. Criminal victimization
4. Non-criminal victimization
Natural victimization is victimization by natural forces, elements, agents,
substances, organisms, etc, and they are classified as follows:
a. Victimization by natural disasters and acts of God. calamities and

"acts of God" claim hundreds of thousands of victims every year. As a
result, properties, plantations and vegetation are wiped out and
thousands of lives are claimed, including their homes, and their
belongings. The large number of victims, the physical destruction, the
human displacement, the economic losses, and the ensuing human
suffering place natural disasters and catastrophes among the worst kinds
of victimization.
Examples:
 Earthquakes
 volcanic eruptions
 hurricanes, typhoons, tidal waves, floods, drought, famines
33
b. Victimization by natural health hazards: The biophysical environment

in which we live contains several natural hazards that cause death,
endanger life, or affect health. People die, suffer ill health, and contract
diseases caused by natural microorganisms, such as:
 bacteria, germs, viruses
 radiation from the sun
c. Victimization by natural predatory agents: Our natural environment
also contains predatory agents that can victimize people, such as:
 wild animals
 sharks
 snakes
 insects
 poisonous plants that claim human victims
By Human Action. A type of victimization brought about by acts or omissions

of human negligence, corporate wrongdoings, structural, industrial, technology
victimization and non-criminal acts. The following are the classification of
victimization by human action:
a. Auto-victimization - Auto-victimization is victimization by one's own

hand or as a result of one's own actions.
Despite the strong instinct of self-preservation, many individuals seek not
only their own victimization but also their own self-destruction. Through their
own action they bring about – their own injury, ill health, or total demise. Auto-
victimization results directly from the acts or the omissions of the person who
suffers.
It is the "doer-sufferer" phenomenon, such as:
 suicide
 attempted suicide
 self-mutilation
 self-inflected injury
 self-caused accidents
 self-destroying behavior
The abuse of legal and illegal drugs, alcohol, tobacco, and steroids, used
with a full knowledge of the harmful effects of these substances to one's health
and well-being, are typical forms of auto-victimization.
People can be responsible for their own victimization in many other ways.
They can get killed or injured as a result of accidents caused by their own
negligence, alcohol consumption, or some other behavior, such as refusing to
wear a helmet while driving a motorcycle or not fastening seat belts while in a
34
car. A person may decide to play the daredevil or become a stuntman only to be
involved in a deadly or serious accident.
b. Industrial-Technological victimization - victimization by synthetic

substances and products and by conditions and changes created in the
biophysical environment due to people's actions.
The hazards to life and health posed by modern technology, which cause
actual and potential victimization are becoming more and more evident every
day. One technology, nuclear technology, has the potential to wipe out life from
the face of the earth.
Industrial pollution is one of the foremost health hazards in modern life and
every year causes countless victimization in many different forms. Our
environment has become unsafe as a result of dangerous substances, such as:
 Dioxin,
 Pesticides,
 insufficiently tested drugs,
 adulterated foods,
 chemical additions to food and beverages, and
 defective and/or unsafe industrial products.
c. Structural victimization - victimization by one's society, culture,

government, criminal justice system, etc. Structural victimization is
victimization related to the social and power structures in a given society.
It is victimization rooted in society's stratification, values, and institutions.
A large part of structural victimization is an outcome of the inequalities of
wealth and power.
Among the most frequent victims are females in a patriarchal society;
members of racial, ethnic, or religious minorities; the have-nots; the under-
privileged; and those who suffer from a physical, mental, or social handicap,
such as the orphaned, the illiterate, the mentally handicapped, the deformed,
the unattractive, the extremely overweight.
Most common forms of structural victimization:
 abuse of power, (in particular, the violations of human rights)

 racism, sexism, or ageism,
 Aging in American society is itself a process of victimization (because of
the negative attitudes society holds toward those who are old)
 customs, traditions, religion, ideology, patriarchy, etc.,
Examples: (customs, traditions, religion, etc.)
35
 extermination or persecution and oppression of ethnic and religious

minorities
 racism, sexism, ageism
 victimization of blacks because they belong to the minority
 victimization of women because of lack of economic independence
d. Criminal victimization - is victimization by crime and by acts made

punishable by law. Criminal victimization is "victimization caused by, or
resulting from a criminal offense.
Criminal victimization may result from violent, personal, property, organized,
professional, white-collar, corporate, juvenile, sexual, and family crime, from
political crime, such as terrorism and rebellion, or from state crime, such as
corruption, structural violence, and repression. This category of victimization
creates the strongest public reaction and the most considerable human
damage.
e. Non-criminal victimization is victimization by torts and other non-

criminal acts or omissions. Many harmful and injurious acts which we call
torts constitute a large subcategory of non-criminal victimization.
However, people may suffer serious victimization as a result of acts that
are not sufficient to claim civil damages or to win a civil suit.
Examples:
 suffering ill health as a result of the smoking of others

 gossip, which may ruin lives, reputations, marriages, and careers, and
may
 even lead to suicide
 humiliation, agitation, provocation
 victims of hate, hostility, anger, envy, and jealousy
 emotional victimization of women
 mental cruelty
 children victims due to deprivation of love and affection
TYPOLOGIES OF VICTIMS
The following are types of victims of crimes.
a. Child victims refer to those who are subjected to an act proscribed to those
who are subjected to an act by domestic and international laws and who are
below the age of eighteen (18) years. These children are victimized primarily due
to their childhood or the offender is attracted to them due to their youth. Examples
are child abuse and rape, child trafficking, and the recruitment of child combatants
in internal conflicts. In the Philippines, victimizing children is penalized by laws
36
such as Republic Act 9208 or the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act and

Republic Act 9262 or the Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children
Act.
b. Female victims are those who are victimized by male offenders owing to their
gender. These crimes are collectively described as 'violence against women' and
best characterized in situations of 'domestic violence'. Domestic abuse or
violence is perpetrated by male offenders against female victims of their
household such as women battery committed by a husband or male partners.
c. Minority victims refer to those victims who are targeted by criminals because
they are victims of a minority group. Thus, minority victims may be said to be
victims of discrimination. Examples of these are victims of hate crimes such as
homosexuals, Muslims who are attacked by Islamophobes, and American Blacks
targeted by White Supremacists.
d. Environmental Victims and Non-human victims. Only since the 1990s

when Green Criminology was developed did we see the environment and non-
human animals as victims too. Green criminology (Lynch et al., 2017) refers to
the study of environmental crimes and harms affecting human and non-human
life, ecosystems and the biosphere. More specifically, green criminology explores
and analyzes: the causes, consequences and prevalence of environmental crime
and harm, the responses to and prevention of environmental crime and harm by
the legal system (civil, criminal, regulatory) and by nongovernmental entities and
social movements, as well as the meaning and mediated representations of
environmental crime and harm. In the Philippines, a number of statues seek to
protect the environment. To name a few, Presidential Decree 705 or the Forestry
Code, The Philippine Mining Act of 1995, The Clean Air Act, and The Clean water
Act, just to name a few. Non-human animals are protected too such as Republic
Act 9147 or The Wildlife Conservation Act and The Animal Welfare Act of 1995,
as amended.
37
CHAPTER 5
THEORIES OF VICTIMOLOGY AND VICTIMIZATION
PREVENTION
1. Define Victim Blaming and Victim Defending.

2. Enumerate the theories in victimology.
3. Discuss the basic tenets of major victimology theories; and
4. Present the concept of victim shaming and how to address its ill effects.
5. Create tactics in a situation that could minimized the risk of being a
victim.
Nowadays, victimization theories have become typical elements of

criminological work, though it was very controversial at the outset. Despite
its apparent appeal today, perspectives on victim behavior have just lately
received enough scholarly respectability to join forces with the mainstay
of the criminological theories of offender behavior. Seminal works that
have integrated victim perspectives, like Wolfgang's (1958) research on
homicide and particularly Amir's (1971) work on rape, encountered
political issues since it came out that the victim bore some responsibility
for their victimization. This was a concept that smacked of "blaming the
victim,".
In his 2005 book, Criminology: Theories, Patterns and Typologies,

Larry J. Siegel discusses four major theories of victimology; namely, a.
Victim Precipitation Theory, b. Lifestyle Theory, c. Deviant Place
Theory, and d. Routine Activities Theory.
Victim Precipitation Theory
Victim precipitation theory, the first theory of victimization, contends that

victims give rise to the criminal events that harm them, either through victim
facilitation or even through victim provocation. Victimology, the study of victims,
originated with victim precipitation theory as well as the typologies put together
by pioneering victimologists, like as Von Hentig, Mendelsohn Shafer, Wolfgang,
and Amir. Amir's typology of forcible rape and its corresponding criticisms from
nay quarters resulted in a broader series of victimological theories.
38
Victim precipitation was a term first used by Wolfgang to describe

situations in which the victim was the original aggressor in the action which led to
their harm or perhaps loss. Victim precipitation existed not only in the research of
Wolfgang but also in spirit in the early typologies of Mendelsohn (1956) like the
completely innocent victim (no precipitation) and the victim who was a little guilty
compared to the offender where one provokes another to commit a crime.
Precipitation also can be seen in the typology of von Hentig in the tormentor, who
precipitates his victimization by torturing his family, and in Schafer's typology with
provocative victims and explicitly with precipitative victims. The latter style is
actually an immediate acknowledgment that some victims have characteristics or
perhaps do something that entices an offender to commit crimes against them
and is a lot more akin to what Siegel calls passive precipitation (Petherick, 2017).
Examples:
"In 1971, Menachem Amir suggested female rape victims often contribute to their
attacks by... pursuing a relationship with the rapist."
"A woman may become the target of domestic violence when she increases her
job status and her success results in a backlash from a jealous spouse or
partner."
Source: Accessed from, https://www.thelawproject. com.au/victimology-four-

major-theories. Date accessed, January 6, 2020.
Lifestyle Theory
Lifestyle exposure theory posits that persons with certain demographic

profiles are more prone to experience criminal victimization since their lifestyles
expose risky situations. The probability of victimization increases as a function of
engaging in lifestyles that increase the amount of time spent in public spaces,
particularly at night, and time spent among strangers. Lifestyles are important
since they improve the exposure to would-be offenders with no effective restraints
that can stop a crime. Consequently, it's the exposure to risk and not the lifestyles
per se that create opportunities for victimization. This logic suggests that the well-
established relationship between demographic characteristics, like gender, and
victimization, is fully mediated by exposure and lifestyles to risk. To date,
empirical scientific studies have found consistent support for the theory,
particularly concerning property victimization.
Examples:
"Single women who drink frequently and have a prior history of being sexually
assaulted are most likely to be assaulted on [college] campus."
39
"People who belong to groups that have an extremely risky life-homeless,

runaways, drug users at high risk for victimization; the more time they are
exposed to street life, the greater their risk of becoming crime victims."
Source: Accessed from, https://www.thelawproject. com.au/victimology-four-

major-theories. Date accessed, January 6, 2020.
Deviant Place Theory
The more often victims visit dangerous places, the more likely they'll be
exposed to violence and crime. Victims don't encourage crime but are victim-
prone since they reside in socially disorganized high-crime areas just where
they've probably the greatest risk of coming into contact with criminal offenders,
regardless of their behavior or perhaps their lifestyle.
The deviant place theory notes that greater exposure to dangerous

locations helps make a person much more susceptible to being the target of any
crime (Seigel, 2005). In contrast to the victim precipitation theory the victims don't
affect the crime by passively or actively encouraging it, but only are victimized as
an outcome of being in dangerous sections of the city. To negate the possibility
that an individual is going to become the target of any crime, the person must
stay away from the "bad" areas of town where crime rates are high. For instance,
if a place is known for its gangs, and high crime rate. The greater number of a
private undertakings one has in that place, the greater likelihood that they will
become the target of a criminal offense there. Sociologist William Julius Wilson
states that the economic and social inequality causes more minorities to become
victims of crimes since they are unable to move out from their 'dangerous'
neighborhoods. This is in comparison to their white peers who are more
economically empowered to get out of areas where crime become rampant
(1990). Furthermore, the deviant place theory implies that taking security
precautions in these places might be of very little use since it's the community,
rather than the lifestyle choices, affecting victimization (Seigel, 2006). In a
nutshell, if a community is "deviant," the sole method to reduce the risk of yours
of victimization is leaving the community for a much less deviant, very low crime
rate region (Madero-Hernadez, 2019). Lifestyle Exposure Theory of Victimization
Routine Activities Theory
Finally, the regular activity theory explains the speed of victimization by

way of a set of situations that reflect the routines of regular individuals. These are
the following: First, the accessibility of suitable targets; Second, the lack of
capable guardians; and three, the presence of inspired offenders. Based on this
particular concept, the presence of one or even more of these elements creates
a greater risk of victimization. For instance, leaving one's home unattended as
40
they head off on a vacation makes their home a suitable target for burglars.
Leaving a house for holiday in a metropolitan area generates an even higher
threat; and also doing so in an urban area where there's a greater number of
teenage boys, acknowledged felons, and any other "motivated offenders"
generates an even greater risk for victimization. Towns and or suburban areas
with high police visibility, other protection systems and sensors, and
neighborhood watch teams, reduce the possibility of victimization.
REDUCING RISKS
It is hard to identify particular instances when using avoidance strategies,

practicing risk management tactics, and redesigning the environment that have
clearly prevented a crime by dissuading a potential offender from attacking his
or her intended target.
Many had observed the General Rule of "More protection can be

secured by greater expenditures," in the hope of reducing risks. Dangers can be
reduced if individuals and groups are willing to pay the price for more police
patrols, improved lighting conditions, and other security measures. Any demand
for absolute safety (Zero risk) is irrational and statistically improbable.
To enhance safety, the following are suggested:
 Trade off certain freedom or sacrifice some pleasures

Example: An elderly staying late at night at some bars should rather stay
home for safety although, a low robbery rate of elderly is observed as
compared to young boys. But, both are apparently vulnerable to
victimization
 Self-imposed restrictions
 Stay at home (specially late at night)
 Use taxis
 Avoid public spaces
 Avoid unfamiliar places
 Avoid complete strangers
 Stay away from known "hot spots" and dangerous characters
 Avoid being intoxicated
FROM CRIME PREVENTION TO VICTIMIZATION PREVENTION
Since victimization has gained popularity as much as criminology, the

focus of crime. prevention strategies are now centered on victimization
prevention. But, before delving into victimization prevention, the following terms
are defined for a better understanding of the topic:
41
Crime prevention - refers to strategies that are pursued to prevent the

development of illegal activities; the anticipation, recognition, and appraisal of a
crime risk, and the initiation of some action to remove or reduce it. A better term
than crime prevention is victimization prevention.
Example: - establishing recreational centers
- community beautification
Victimization prevention - this refers to activities that would discourage

criminals from attacking particular targets such as homes, warehouses, stores,
cars, or persons. Victimization prevention demands that potential victims
become crime-conscious.
Crime control - measures that are taken in response to acts that have already
been committed.
Example: adequate patrolling
Crime resistance - means making the offender's task more difficult through
advanced
planning.
Victimization prevention are activities that are done before any crime
incident happens and include risk reduction activities, like:
1. Avoidance Strategies. These are actions taken by people to limit their
personal exposure to dangerous persons and frightening situations. This is
done to achieve victimization prevention.
Example:
 not allowing strangers into their homes,
 ignoring passers by who attempt for a conversation on a deserted street
2. Risk Management Tactics. Tactics that are to be employed that manage
reduction of victimization risks and minimize the chance of being harmed
when exposure is unavoidable.
Example:
 walking home with other people
 carrying of weapon instead of going around unarmed
3. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED). CPTED
stresses the importance of creating well-protected defensible space by
42
target hardening. Target hardening means adding lights, erecting fences and
maintaining effective surveillance, limiting number of entrances, improving
visibility by trimming down bushes and adding bright lights.
According to the National Commission who stressed on the causes and
prevention of violence, "when crime is displaced (due to target hardening) and
criminals are deflected, the risk of victimization goes down for some, and are
flexible in terms of time, place, targets and tactics". In other words the adoption
of victimization prevention strategies by some very crime-conscious persons
might endanger other people who may be less conscious. Fattah (19) had
stated that "victimization may be distributed spatially, geographically and
socially.”
Victim Blaming Versus Victim Defending
Arguments that the victims of crime might share responsibility with the
offenders for what happened due to facilitation, precipitation, and provocation
have been characterized as victim blaming.
Victim blaming follows a three-stage thought process:
1. the assumption is made that there is something "wrong" with victims.

They are singled out because of their attitudes, their behaviors, or both
that distinguish them from the majority.
2. these presumed differences are said to be the source of the victims'
plight.
3. Victims must change how they think and act if they want to avoid trouble
in the future. They must abandon the careless, rash, or insightful
behaviors that brought about their downfall.
Victim defending is vague about what it supports in terms of who or what is to

be faulted.
Two tendencies can be distinguished:
1. Offender blaming resists any attempt to shift the burden of full

responsibility off from lawbreakers' backs and onto the victims'
shoulders.
2. tendency to link victim defending with system blaming.
43
CHAPTER 6
THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM AND THE VICTIMS
1. Define what is Criminal Justice System.

2. Demonstrate how the government helps the victim in acquiring justice.
3. Analyzed the System in processing cases and helping victims.
VICTIMS AND THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM
The criminal justice system is one branch of government getting attacks

from all political quarters because of the consensus that it does not measure up
to the expectations of many. It is believed that it fails to deliver what it promises.
It does not meet the needs and wants of victims as its "clients" or "consumers"
of its services.
Victims can pursue one, or even a combination of three distinct goals:
1. to see to it that a predator is punished

2. to use the justice process as leverage to compel the lawbreaker to
undergo rehabilitative treatment
3. to get the court to order the convict to repay those he hurt for the
costs arising from their injuries and losses
Law enforcement agencies are the criminal justice professionals that

victims first encounter. They are the first to rush to help the victim and provide
whatever physical and psychological first aid that might be needed. They could
apprehend the culprit and speedily return stolen goods to the rightful owner.
The prosecutor could indict the defendant and press for a swift trial. The judge
could hand down a sentence that would balance the victim's wishes with the
community's desires and the offender's needs. Correctional authorities could
make sure that the probationer, prisoner, or parolee doesn't harass or harm the
person whose complaint set the machinery of criminal justice into motion.
But this "best-case scenario" frequently does not materialize. Instead, the
victims might find themselves locked into conflicts with the police, prosecutors,
judges, and parole boards instead of getting cooperation as the system handles
"their" cases.
44
In their pursuit of justice- whether that means punishment, treatment, or

restitution -victims might find themselves in conflict rather than in cooperative
relationships with the police, prosecutors, judges, and correction officials.
Victims and the Police. When victims report crimes, they want the police to
come quickly and with dispatch. Psychological and physical first aid is expected
to be performed on them, believe their story or account of the incident,
immediate apprehension of the perpetrators, gather evidence that is admissible
in court, and recover any property taken from them. However, the police might
take a while to arrive, handle them insensitively, consider their versions of
events unbelievable or exaggerated, fail to solve their cases, and be unable to
recover their stolen goods.
Victims and the Prosecutor. Victims, especially indigent ones, want

prosecutors' offices to provide them with lawyers who will faithfully represent
their interests, but more often they may be disappointed because the lawyer
assigned to them can't even take steps to protect them from reprisals and don't
consult with them during plea negotiations.
Victims and Defense Attorneys. Victims oftentimes are at the mercy of the
defense attorneys. During cross-examination at trials defense attorneys try to
wear down the victims by stalling tactics and asking hostile questions intended
to undermine their credibility.
Victims and the Judges. Victims hope that judges shall be fair and impartial in
handling down sentences. Victims feel that the law is always in favor of the
accused that threatens their security and safety especially if the judge sets a
bail low enough or the defendants are released, or if the judge imposes
sentences that do not reflect the gravity of the offenses that harmed them.
Victims and Corrections Officials. Victims want corrections officials to keep
them posted concerning the whereabouts of convicts, protect them from
reprisals after release, and effectively supervise any restitution arrangements
that were imposed as conditions of probation or parole.
The UN Declaration on Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse
of Power underscored some basic principles that can be summarized into the
following: a. access to justice and fair treatment; b. restitution; c. compensation;
and d. assistance.
A. Access to justice and fair treatment

It states that victims should be addressed with respect and
compassion to provide them the dignity that should be aff 9orded to them.
They should be allowed access to judicial mechanisms as well as prompt
redress. These mechanisms should be written through a national
legislation, for the harm that they've suffered. Additionally, administrative
45
and judicial mechanisms should be established and strengthened where

needed to enable victims to get redress through informal or formal
procedures that are actually accessible, inexpensive, fair, and expeditious.
Victims must be informed of their rights in seeking redress through such
mechanisms. The responsiveness of administrative and judicial processes
to the needs of victims should be facilitated by: (one) Informing victims of
the their role and the scope, progress and timing of the proceedings and
of the disposition of their cases, especially where serious crimes are
actually involved and where they've requested such info; (two) allowing
the views and concerns of victims to be presented and considered at
appropriate stages of the proceedings where the personal interests of
theirs are actually affected, with no prejudice to the accused and
consistent with the relevant national criminal justice system; (three)
providing proper assistance to victims throughout the legal process; (four)
taking measures to minimize inconvenience to victims, protect the privacy
of theirs, when necessary, and ensure their safety, as well as that of their
witnesses and families on the behalf of theirs, from retaliation and
intimidation; (five) staying away from unnecessary delay in the disposition
of cases as well as the execution of orders or perhaps decrees granting
awards to victims. Informal mechanisms for the resolution of disputes,
including mediation, arbitration, and indigenous practices or customary
justice, should be utilized where appropriate to facilitate redress and
conciliation for victims.
B. Restitution
Offenders and criminals should be held accountable for their
behavior, and where appropriate, should provide reasonable restitution to
their victims, their dependents or families. Such restitution could include
the return of property or compensation for the loss that the victims have
suffered. This must also include reimbursement of expenses incurred as
an outcome of the victimization, the provision of services, and also the
restoration of rights. Governments must examine their practices, laws, and
regulations to consider restitution as an accessible sentencing alternative
in criminal cases, additionally to many other criminal sanctions. In cases
of substantial injury to the ecosystem, restitution, if purchased, should
include, as much as you possibly can, restoration of the environment,
reconstruction of the infrastructure, replacement of community services,
and also reimbursement of the expenses of relocation, each time some
damage leads to the dislocation of a neighborhood. Anywhere other
agents or public officials acting in a quasi-official or official capacity have
violated national criminal laws, the victims must get restitution from the
State whose officials or maybe agents are to blame for the damage
inflicted. In instances where the Government under whose authority the
46
victimizing act or maybe omission occurred is not in existence, the

Government or State successor in title must offer restitution to the victims.
C. Compensation
When compensation is not completely offered from other options or
the offender, States ought to endeavor to offer monetary compensation to:
(i) Victims who've suffered considerable physical injury or for the serious
harm to their mental or physical health as an outcome of severe crimes;
(ii) The family members of victims, particularly dependents of those that
have died or may have become mentally or physically incapacitated as a
consequence of such victimization. The establishment, building up and
expansion of a national fund for compensation to victims must be
encouraged. Wherever appropriate, some other funds might additionally
be created, which includes in all those instances in which the State of the
victim where he is a national is unable to provide the right compensation
due to financial inability.
D. Assistance Victims must get the required information, and medical,

social, and psychological assistance through governmental, voluntary,
indigenous, and community-based means. Victims must be informed of
the accessibility of community services and health along with other related
assistance and be conveniently afforded a chance to access them. Police,
justice, health, other personnel, and social service concerned must
certainly get training to sensitize them to the requirements of victims,
moreover pointers to make sure of prompt and proper aid. In providing
assistance and services to victims, attention must be provided to all those
with specific needs due to the dynamics of the damage inflicted.
47
REFERENCES:
Books
Castillo, R. & Gabao, R. (2023). Human Behavior and Victimology (4th
Edition). Chapter House Publishing Incorporated.
Tangcanco, D. (2018). Victimology. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Eduardo, J. & Panganoron, C. (2015). Human Behavior and Crisis
Management. Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Kalalang, S. (2011). Introduction to Criminology and Phycology of Crime.
Wiseman’s Books Trading, Inc.
Other Sources
Cueno, B. (2023). BeCueno Criminology Reviewer. Collegio de Santa
Catalina de Alejandria
Petrossian, G. (2022). Victims in the Criminal Justice System: Victim Wishes
– Justice Needs. European Criminal Law Review.
https://doi.org/10.5771/2193-5505-2022-1-111.
Daigle, L. & Muftic L. (2019). Victimology: A Comprehensive Approach.
London: Sage Publications Inc.
Petherick, W. (2017). Victim precipitation: Why we need to expand upon the
theory. Forensic Research and Criminology International Journal, 5(2),
263-264.
48

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PRELIMINARY

Chapter 2 CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR……….. 9

Chapter 3 ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR AND TYPES OF ABNORMAL 17

Chapter 4 VICTIMOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION, VICTIMS AND 30

Chapter 5 THEORIES OF VICTIMOLOGY AND VICTIMIZATION 38

Chapter 6 THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM AND THE VICTIMS………… 44

“De kalidad nga edukasyon kinabuhi naga

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Identify and understand different theories on human development;

Human development is a process in which a progressive series of

The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to the

SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT (Gines, et al., 1998)

Early foundations are critical Essentially, attitudes, habits, and patterns

Roles of maturation and learning in development. Maturation refers to

The development follows a definite and predictable pattern. According

All individuals are different. No two individuals can be 100% biologically

Each phase of development has a characteristic behavior. This means

Development is aided by stimulation. A large part of human

Development is affected by cultural changes. An individual's

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Let us examine various psychological theories on human development,

Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development

The theory of psychosexual development was first proposed by the

Stages of Psychosexual Development

Oral traits may be expressed as opposites. Hence, oral types may be

Stage 2: Anal stage (18 months to 3 years)

When a child becomes fixated in the pleasure obtained through these

The well-known anal traits also include stinginess, stubbornness,

Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is mainly characterized by a child's focus on sexual

Stage 4: Latency stage (5 or 6 years to puberty)

Stage 5: Genital stage (Puberty to adulthood)

During this period, a child undergoes the physiological maturation of

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

One of the best-known theories of personality in the field of psychology, Erikson's

Stages in the Human Lifespan

A. Prenatal period— This period begins at conception and ends at birth. It

D. Early Childhood - This period lasts from 2 to 6 years and is considered

E. Late Childhood - This period occurs from 6 to 10 or 12 years or the so-

troublesome age, especially since, according to psychologists, this is the

F. Puberty or Preadolescence - This period lasts from 12 to 13 or 14 years.

G. Adolescence - This period occurs from 13 or 14 to 18 years. It is an

H. Early Adulthood - This period lasts from 18 to 40 years. This is the

Development tasks serve as guidelines that enable individuals to know what

 Learning to take solid foods

 Building a wholesome attitude toward one's self as a growing individual

 Getting started in an occupation

 Achieving adult civic and social responsibilities

 Adjusting to decreasing physical health

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MASTERY OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

 A retarded developmental level

 A normal or accelerated developmental level

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Gain a better understanding of human behavior, the factors that affect

Human behavior refers to a voluntary or involuntary attitude of a person

Common Perspectives in the Study of Human Behavior

Neurological - This perspective emphasizes human actions in relation to events

Psychoanalytical- This view emphasizes unconscious motives stemming from

Humanistic- This perspective focuses on the subject's experiences, freedom of

Factors that Affect Human Behavior

Heredity - This is determined by genes, which are segments of cell structures

Environment - These factors consist of the conditions that surround and

Learning -This refers to the process by which behaviors change as a result of

 Attitudes, beliefs, emotions