PREFACE

Human growth and development is the study of human beings from conception to
death. It seeks integrate the basic concepts and principles of physical, motor,
cognitive, language, social, emotional, moral and personality development; each
major stage of life,-prenatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood and old
age.

This course provides an essential background for students in psychology,

education, social welfare, nursing, and home economics It is hoped that through
taking this course, the students will acquire knowledge and skills that will enable
them to understand their own behavior, and also provides insight into the
behaviors of others which should help one to achieve better relationships with
those around him/her.

The course is meant to help the learner understand the various theories, facts and
concepts related to human growth and development In addition, students will use
the knowledge and - skills gained to understand the clients they counsel in order
to plan and counsel them effectively.

Goals of the course

By the end of the course (BCP 105) the student will be able to:-

 Envisage a human being from the pre-natal stage to late adulthood and the
counseling implications.

 Understand the underlying principles of development.

 Conceptualize pre-natal development and understand the importance of a

healthy pregnancy.

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 Define and explain the different behaviors of a neonate and an infant.

 Understand that a child in early, middle and late childhood undergoes an

expansion and development of infant behaviours.

 Appreciate the importance of studying adulthood development

 Explain the theories of human growth and development.

 Understand how, the unit’s principles apply to faith, character and

community; and applicability thereof.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
PREFACE ii

TABLE OF CONTENT iv

TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 1

TOPIC 2: THE HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 6

TOPIC 3: RESEARCH AND METHODS AND DESIGN IN HUMAN GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT. 10

TOPIC 4: THEORIES AND DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 16

TOPIC 5: PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT 26

TOPIC 6: THE NEONATE 35

SECTION II: AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT (INFANCY TO LATE ADULTHOOD) 47

TOPIC 7: PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT 47

TOPIC 8: PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT 53

TOPIC 9: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 60

TOPIC 10: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 68

TOPIC 11: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT 73

TOPIC 12: SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 84

TOPIC 13: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 92

TOPIC 14: MORAL DEVELOPMENT 101

TOPIC 15: ADOLESCENT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 110

TOPIC 16: ADULT

DEVELOPMENT………………………………………………………..123
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References……………………………………………………………………………………..1
31

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TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

1.0 Introduction
1. In this introductory lesson, we are going to introduce you to the concepts of
human growth and development. In the first part we will look at the topic
objectives; followed by definition of the terms growth, development and
maturation; then we shall examine the relationship between growth and
development; followed by the principles of growth and development. Finally,
the importance of studying human growth and development will be looked into.

Topic objectives
2. By the end of the topic, the learner should clearly be able to:

a) Explain the terms growth, development and maturation.

b) Explain the relationship between growth and development.

c) Discuss the principles of growth and development.

d) Explain the importance of studying human growth and development,

1.2 Definitions
3. The following terns are important in understanding the entire course of study.
This is because every human being begins life as a single-celled organism,
almost invisible to the naked eye:-

a) Growth

Growth refers to the quantitative changes in the size and structure of an

organism. Also means increase in magnitude. They are physical and
physiological changes that occur throughout life (but mostly stop at
adolescence).

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b) Development

Development means the sequential and continuous process of changes both

qualitative and quantitative in any physical function, structure or direction.
Development changes are non- organic

c) Maturation

This is a concept closely related to growth and development; and it refers to

biological unfolding of characteristics, potentially present m the individual It is
the biological readiness to perform certain functions, e g speak.

1.3 Relationship between Growth and Development

a) Development is a achieved through growth. One can grow but not develop.
For example, a child can increase in size but may not be able to speak or walk.

b) Development is a continuous life-long process while growth is limited.

c) Growth refers to organic changes while development refers to non-organic

functional changes.

d) Growth is quantitative while development is qualitative.

1.4 Principles of Growth and Development

4. Principles are rules/ laws/ guidance. Here are they general patterns that hold
in describing the way human beings develop.

5. The main principles of growth and development are:-

a) Development (whether physical, motor, language or cognitive)

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 progresses along a definite orderly, sequential and predictable pattern
rather than random. For example, a child sits, then stands and walks.
The order cannot be reversed.

b) Development follows two – dimensional trends (especially in children)

i) Cephalocaudal trend- development proceeds from the head to the

heel. For example, the child can hold the head upright and use the
hands before walking or using the legs.

ii) Proximodistal trend-development proceeds from the centerline of the

body to the other parts. Organs in the trunkline like the heart develop
first before the arm and lastly the fingers, For example, the child can
waive the hands before using the finger to pick something.

c) Although development is a continuous process, it is not always smooth

and gradual. There are growth spurts (i.e. periods of accelerated growth),
e.g. the first 2 years and
the adolescent period (13-l9 years)

d) There are critical/sensitive period in the development of certain body

organs and physiological functions. These are periods when the potential
for growth as well as harm from the environment is at its maximum. Any
interference during development may result in permanent deficiencies or
malfunction. For example, the 14th to 90th
day after conception; the 1st year after birth is very critical because trust
and confidence develop.

e) All developmental changes are a product of 2 basic processes

—maturation (heredity) and experience (learning).

f) Development is shaped by its historical and cultural context. For example,

children born in the present age of computers are likely to have different

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 experiences from those born earlier times.

g) Different aspects of development are interrelated. For example, physical

development will influence social, cognitive and moral development.\

h) Human development is a holistic process and not piecemeal. The

development of one organism does not ‘stop’ to wait for the other
organ to develop first, and vice-versa.

i) Development is an individua1ized process. That is to say, each child has

a characteristic rate of development regardless of the stage of
development. These differences may be due to genetic factors, nutrition,
illness, lack of exercise e.t.c.

j) Development, proceeds from general to specific ‘and from simple to

complex, For example, babies, move their arms (gross movement)
before grasping with thumb and
index finger (specific).

k) Development is cumulative process, i. e. changes do not emerge all of a

sudden, but accumulate over time from simple to complex Past events
often have implications for the future.

l) There is much plasticity in human development. Plasticity refers to the

capacity for change in response to positive or negative life experiences.
The course of development can change rather abruptly if important
aspects of one’s life change.

6. a) The teacher/ psychologist must know the basic principles of human growth
and development and the characteristics that emerge at different age levels in
order to provide effective guidance for the harmonious development of their
clients.

b) Learners/client shows up with individual differences due to their different

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 hereditary factors and environments. The teacher/counseling psychologist
needs to know the
potentialities and capabilities of each and every client so that he/she may
exploit them to the maximum for the benefit of society.

c) To ensure continuity from the past to the present, the teacher/counseling

psychologist needs to understand past aspects of development. He/she will
understand the present in terms of its past. What clients are is as result of
what they have been through.

d) The teacher/counseling psychologist is an agent of socialization, and there

is need to know those whom he/she will socialize in order to facilitate their
development as good citizens.

e) The teacher/counseling psychologist needs to know and understand the

basis of development and what is abnormal.

f) The teacher/counseling psychologist will improve the quality of teaching

and learning
(or the counseling process) because he/she knows the normal
characteristics of the clients at different ages; as well as know the ways in
which each person deviates from
the general patterns

g) The teacher / counseling psychologist will ultimately be able to understand

himself / herself better.

1.6 Topic Activity

8. Answer the following questions.

a) Compare and contrast growth and development, giving examples.

b) Describe the basic principles of growth and development.

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 c) Explain why it is important for the teacher / counseling psychologists to
study growth and development.

TOPIC 2: THE HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF HUMAN GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT
1.0 Topic: Introduction

1. The reasons that people have for getting children determine the rearing
trends of the same children. People organize the experiences a child is
exposed to depending on what that child is expected to become.

2. The philosophy of a people and their religious beliefs determines how a

child will be raised.

3. The chapter examines 4 eras that shaped the historical perspectives on

human growth and development, namely; the medieval times (Europe); the
Dark Ages (4 AD to 14th Century); the renaissance (1200 to 1600AD); and the
19th century.

1.1 Topic: Objectives

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 4. By the end of this topic the learner should be able to:-

a) Appreciate the place of philosophy and religious beliefs, as determinants

of child rearing among different peoples.

b) Identify and describe the 4 eras that shaped the historical perspectives
on human growth and development.

1.2 The Medieval Times (Europe)

5. During the medieval times in Europe, children were not recognized as

children; so that they were treated like miniature adults. They worked for
many hours, drunk and dressed like adults.

6. However there were 2 philosophers who had their own philosophical stand
about children, i.e. Plato (300BC) and Aristotle (300BC)

a) Plato (300BC)

Plato advocated that child should be done by the state. Children should be
raised to become constructive members of society. Children should also be
treated fairly and not be spoilt or subjected to tyranny. Plato held that boys
and girls should be prodded with equal opportunities and should learn
autonomy (i.e. self – government).

b) Aristotle (300BC)

Unlike Plato, Aristotle argued that children should be given opportunities for
individual liberty and privacy. He recognized the importance of individual
differences.

Unlike Plato, Aristotle advocated that the family should raise children in
order to provide personal and social stability.

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 th
1.3 The Dark Age (4 AD to 14 Century)

7. This was the period of time called the age of wickedness. The most
prominent civilization during this period was the Athenian, which later
crumbled, shifting the power and culture to Rome.

8. Church leaders were responsible for matters pertaining to behavior and

development. The church advocated that human beings are born sinful and
wicked! Parents were advised to punish children in order to suppress the
inherent wickedness. Discipline was strictly associated with Calvinism as a
doctrine.

1.4 The Renaissance (1200 to 1600 AD)

9. This was the age of innocence. Childhood was a very critical time. Many
children died in infancy. The child was accorded very little value until the
parent was sure that the said child could survive.

10. By the 17th century, childhood was recognized and both the parents and
teachers were advised to devote much care and thought to child-rearing
and education.

11. The philosophers of the time were John Locke (1960) and Jean Jacques
Rousseau 1760s)

a) John Locke (1690)

John Locke said that at birth children are ‘tabula rasa’, meaning
empty slate. Ideas and experiences filled the slate. John Locke
advocated that parents and teachers should encourage the natural
curiosity of children, and that when a child asks questions, those
questions should be answered. He said that children should not be
punished; rather, they should be praised and commended whenever
they did he right thing.
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 b) Jean Jacques Rousseau (1760s)

Rousseau said that every human being is born with inherent goodness
He said that the basic purpose of education should be the development
of the individual Rousseau advocated that children should not be forced
to learn Instead, the desire to learn in the children should be created He
also maintained that children should not be forced to learn what was
beyond tern, instead, the educators should recognize the individual
talents then tailor the learner to comply..

Rousseau-advocated for a back to nature movement: let the child be as

natural as possible.

1.5 The 19th Century

12. Philosophers of the 9th century were; J.B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, and
Abraham Maslow.

a) T.B Watson

Watson said that adults should arrange sequences of conditional

responses in order to control the behavior of the child. The adults should
arrange the experiences in order to produce the desired individual.

b) B.F Skinner

Skinner argued that personality is the product of environmental

experiences and that reinforcement is important because it controls and
shapes behavior. He said that child’s development should be left to
chance.

c) Abraham Maslow

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 Maslow maintained that basic needs for every child must be met. He
believed that person has an. inner nature, which eventually determines
what the person becomes. For the child to develop the inner nature, they
must be trusted Adults are therefore to ensure that there children are
comfortable, safe and that they feel accepted.

1.6 Topic Activity

13. a) Give an account of two (2) philosophers of medieval times

b) What were the historical periods when the following beliefs were
advocated?

c) Human beings were born wicked

d) Human beings were born innocent.

e) Which philosophers advocated the following:-

i) Children are born ‘tabula rasa’

ii) Children are born good and noble

TOPIC 3: RESEARCH AND METHODS AND DESIGN IN HUMAN GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT.

3.1 Topic: Introduction

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 1. In this topic, we are going to look at the research methods used to study
human beings a various stages of development. We will also examine
research designs and ethical standards for developmental psycho1oy.

3.2 Topic: Objectives

2. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

a) Identify and explain the various research methods and designs used to
study human growth and development.

b) Discuss the various considerations applicable to developmental psychology.

3.3 Research Methods and Designs

3.3.1 Observation

1. This is a data collection strategy in which the ongoing behavior of individuals is

recorded with as little interaction between observer and subjects possible. The
goal is to determine exactly what individuals are doing in specific setting.

2. a) Advantages

i. Observes subjects in their natural settings.

ii. Development can be observed in various stages.

iii. The researcher does not impose themselves on the subjects.

b) Disadvantages

i. It does not answer the question of cause and effect (does not tell us how and
why events are happening).
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ii. It does not allow for experimental control (to determine how research
variables are related to one another).

iii. There is the problem of observer bias. One is likely to record the positive
aspects and omit the negative ones and vice versa.

iv. Generalizability of the information finding to other subjects is not guaranteed.

3.3.2 Experimental Techniques

3. In this strategy one set of variables (i.e. the independent variables) are
manipulated and then influence on a second set of variables (i.e. the
dependent variables) noted

4. a) Advantages

i. It is most appropriate when one wants to establish cause-effect

relationships.

ii. Can be used to study behavior that occurs irregularly or infrequently

in everyday life.

iii. The procedure can be replicated or repeated by other investigators.

iv. It also provides a test for the reliability of findings.

b) Disadvantages

i. Some behaviours are not open to experimental manipulation e.g.

emotional

ii. Some of the findings have limited applications. They tell what
subjects can do in restricted laboratory conditions but not in real life.

iii. Experimental research is artificial. Sometimes subjects may try to look

good and report better results than the case may be.
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3.3.3 Clinical Methods

5. Clinical involve a researcher and one individual (subject) at a time. It combines

observation and careful questioning.

6. a) Advantages

i. May produce conclusion that are dependent on the interviewer’s

ability to ask the right questions.

ii. Achieve confidentiality, hence cooperation from the subject.

b) Disadvantages

i. May produce conclusion that are dependent the interviewer’s ability

to ask the right questions.

ii. Results obtained may need to be verified by others.

3.3.4 Cross – sectional research design

7. To accomplish the goals of development research, scientists must discover

how and why people change or remain the same over time. Hence,, the cross
-sectional research design is used (in addition to the longitudinal and
sequential research designs).

8. The cross – sectional research design compares groups of individuals of

different ages on the same measure at the same time. For example, studying
moral reasoning of thirty and sixty year olds over a short period of time.

9. a) Advantages

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 i. It is quick and relatively inexpensive.

ii. It gives a good overview of the phenomena under investigation

iii. Studies a large number of subjects.

iv. Can re-test a later date.

b) Disadvantages

i. It does not tell us the historical antecedents of the behavior.

ii. It does not say anything about behavious stability.

iii. Prone to discrepancies caused by generational effects (i.e. people

from different age groups not only differ in chronological age but also
in the time period in which they were born and raised).

3.3.5 Longitudinal Research

10. Longitudinal research is that in which a group of individuals is repeatedly tested

over a period of time. This is meant to overcome the various limitations of cross
-sectional designs.

11. a) Advantages

i. Provide a good picture of development within individuals.

ii. Can provide answers about developmental stability of behaviours.

iii. Can determine the influences of earlier conditions or experiences.

b) Disadvantages

i. Very expensive – time and money consuming

ii. Subjects may drop out due to death, illness or migration.

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iii. Bias may be introduced by the subjects who complete the study, since they
are likely to be more cooperative, motivated, persistent and competent.

3.3.6 Sequential Research Design (Longitudinal / Cross Sectional)

12. It combines cross-sequentà1 and’ longitudinal approaches. It starts with the

cross- sectional approach then months or years later, stitches to studying
longitudinal aspects of the same individuals..

3.4 Ethical Considerations in Developmental Research

13. Research can expose subjects to possible physical or psychological harm. This
brings us to the issue of research ethics.

14. This section introduces the learner to some of the ethical considerations when
conducting research. These include:-

a. Protection from physical r psychological harm; for example, punishing

children to study the effects of punishment on them.

b. Informed consent from the subjects themselves, or their

parents/guardians. The subject should be permitted the right to refuse
consent if they so feel.

c. Subjects should not be forced to participate in the research.

d. Confidentiality- subject identity, written or verbal reports and other

informal
discussions should be kept in strict confidence.

e. The researcher should report the general findings of the study to the
subjects, parents / guardians, and others.

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 f. Do not take undue advantage of the young and old subjects. They have
every right to be treated well.

g. Deception and debriefing tinder some circumstances you can deceive

the subjects, but you have to debrief them 1ater

3.5 Topic Activity

15. a. Compare and contrast cross-sectional and longitudinal research designs.

b. For each of the research methods discussed, formulated a research
problem that can be investigated with each method for each of the problems,
identify some of the ethical
issues you would consider.

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TOPIC 4: THEORIES AND DETERMINANTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
4.0 Topic Introduction

1. In this topic we shall examine theories and determinants of development. The

major purpose of examining theories of human development is to demonstrate
how such theories are used to formulate answers to the basic questions of
human development.

2. The topic will also look at the main determinants of development. Both heredity
(nature) and environment (nurture) influence human development.

4.1 Topic Objectives

3. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

a. Define a theory, and describe its characteristics and functions.

b. Describe the basic ideas and stages of the following seven (7) theories
Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, Erickson’s psychosocial theory,
behavioral theories, social- learning theories; Piaget’s theory; Geseil’s
theory of maturation; and the information processing theory.

c. Describe the eclectic approach to understanding behavior

d. Compare and contrast the theories of human development and show how
each
accounts for development.

e. . Understand the major determinants of human development.

4.2 Definition, Rules And Functions Of Theories

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4. According to Brodizinsky (1986) a theory is a set of coherent statements, laws
and
principles; that describe, define and predict specific aspects of human
development.

5. Brodizinsky (1986) further identified four (4) roles of theories as being:

a. Describes the conditions under which the phenomena being studied occur.

b. Sets limits or boundaries determining the particular phenomena for which

the theory

c. Suggests possible relationships between theoretical constructs.

d. Brings together existing data into an integrated logically consistent body of.
knowledge.

4.3 Theories Of Human Development

4.3.1 Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

6. According to this theory:-

a. Behavior is motivated by unconscious thoughts memories and feelings.

b. Life is the unfolding of sex instinct.

c. Early childhood experiences affect later personality and mental health.

d. Children develop through a sequence of stages.

e. Human beings protect themselves from anxiety and other negative

emotions through defense mechanisms. .

Personality structure;

7. According to Freud, personality has three(3) constructs; the id, ego, and super
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 ego:

a. The id

 This is the source of all wishes and desires

 It is unconscious

 It is like an infant, seeking immediate gratification.

 It operates on the pleasure principle.

b. The Ego

 Satisfies needs through socially appropriate manner.

 Delays gratification of the id.

 Operates on reality principle.

c. The Super Ego

 The moral arm of personality.

 Inhibits the id’s antisocial desires, causing an individual to experience

guilt.

 It represents our conscience.

 Those people with weak super egos may not act in an ethical manner.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages;

Freud says that the: child comes into this word equipped with libido, or sexual
energy. This sexual energy is satisfied in different (erogenic… from Greek Eros’)

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parts of the body as the child grows as tabulated below:

Age range Stage The description

Oral stage 0 – 1 year  Sexuality in centered around the oral cavity, the
mouth.

 Pleasure is obtained through sucking or biting.

 Frustration or over stimulation leads to fixation,

which is reflected in one’s personality (one
expects to be mothered all the time; is
sarcastic; likes chewing gum or sucking at
candy; or may even fancy smoking.

Anal stage 2 – 3 years  Sexuality is centered around the anal cavity.

 Pleasure is got through the elimination or retention

of waste products.

 The emphasis of parents is on toilet training; if

done correctly, the child develops self-
confidence, becomes creative and productive.

 If on the other hand, parents are too strict and

there is a lot of friction, the child learns to retain
feaces. Later in life he/she may develop a
retentive character, be stingy, aggressive,
excessively stubborn and excessive cleanliness.

Phallic 4 – 5 years  Sexual energy is attached to the genitals.

stage
 Oedipus and electra complexes arise; in
Oedipus complex, the boy starts to have sexual
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 feelings for their mother, but due to the fear of
being of castrated by the father, they identify
with him.

 On the other hand in electra complex, the girl

develops sexual feelings for their father but due
to the fear of the mother, they identity with her.

 The process of identification is important

because it helps the child to adopt the
appropriate sex roles and behavior.

Latency 6 – 11 years  The child’s sexuality is domant.

stage
 Children spend time playing with same sex
peers.

Genital 12 – 19  At this stage adult heterosexual behavior

stage years develops and stays on.

 Sexual objects are people of the opposite sex,

first with adults and later with peers.

 If oral period was not satisfactory, one will not

have the foundations for basic love relations.

4.3.2 The Psychosocial Theory of Erick Erickson

8. Erickson believed that human beings face eight (8) major crises or conflicts in
their life time. These crises / conflicts in their life time arises from the stages
of personality development.

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9. Each stage presents one with a crisis or developmental conflict. If the crisis is
well handled (i.e. resolved) a positive outcome is met; whereas, if the crisis is
not well handled (not resolved) a negative outcome is generated. Resolution of
one developmental stage brings the foundation for negotiating the challenges
that accompany the next developmental stage.

10. The table here below presents Erickson’s psychosocial stages of personality
development;

Age range Stage Description

Birth to 1 Trust vs. mistrust  Infants must learn to trust their

year caregivers to meet their needs.

 Responsive parenting is critical here.

1 to 3 years Autonomy vs.  Children learn to be autonomous (i.e.

shame and doubt assert their wills and do the things for
themselves) or they will doubt their
abilities.

3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt  Preschoolers develop initiative by

devising and carrying out bold plans
but they must learn not to infringe on
the rights of others.

6 to 12 years Industry vs.  Children must master important social

inferiority and academic skills and keep up with
their peers, or they will feel inferior.

12 to 20 Identity vs. role  Adolescents ask who they are and

years confusion must establish social and vocational
identities, or else remain confused

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 about the roles they should play as
adults.

20 to 40 Intimacy vs.  Young adults seek to form a shared

years isolation intimacy with someone but where there
is no intimacy loneliness and isolation.

40 to 65 Generativity vs.  Middle aged adults must feel that they

years stagnation are producing something that will
outline them, either a parents or as
workers, or else they will become
stagnant or self-centred.

65 plus Integrity vs.  Old adults must come to view their

despair lives as meaningful in order to face (the
inevitable) death without worries and
regrets.

4.c.iii Jean Marie Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

11. According to Piaget, children think and deal with problems differently
compared to adults

12. Maturation, experience, social transmission and equilibrium (i.e. a balance

between what is known and what is being experienced), influence
development.

13. The table below summarizes Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

Age range Stage Description

Birth to 2 Sensory motor  Learning is through the sense

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 years  Infants use sensory and motor
activities to understand the world.

2 to 7 years Pre-operational  They can use symbols (worlds) to

understand the world.

 Their thinking is egocentric (i.e. self-

centred)

 Immediate perception.

7 to 11 years Concrete  At this stage they can conserve,

operational mentally classify and act on concrete
objects.

12 plus Formal  They think about abstract ideas,

operational hypothetical situation, and
systematically text hypotheses.

4.3.4 Behavioural Theory (Skinner & Watson)

14. According to this theory, human behavior is the result of environmental

stimulation (i.e. accumulated effects of learning). Much of what an individual
becomes is the result of what he or she has experienced or learned.

15. Learning can be through 2 forms; classical conditioning or operant conditioning.

a. In classical conditioning, learning takes place through association (e.g.

Pavlov’s experiment with dogs).

b. In operant conditioning, learning depends on rewards and punishments.

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4.3.5 Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

16. Much of what learn and how develop occurs through observation and imitation
of those around us. This is very clear in children.

4.3.6 Gessel’s Theory of Maturation

17. According to this theory, development is guided by the unfolding of the

individual’s unique genetic plan.

18. Children undergo growth and development at their own individual rates (i.e.
human beings are programmed to develop according to particular pattern).

19. The environment allows genetically programmed behavior to proceed in an

orderly fashion. Therefore, thee is need for parents and other caregivers to
understand those individual rates of maturation; The concept of readiness
comes into play here (i.e. ‘don’t push too much’). The problem with the
concept of readiness and the theory in general, is that is underestimates the
role of environment and give little room for intervention.

4.3.7 The Information Processing Theory.

20. The main focus of this, theory is on the quantitative changes that occur in
people’s knowledge, skill, and the efficiency with which we attend to, make
sense of and remember information m the course of development

21. This theory is concerned with the changes that occur m the way people
transfer information, from one period of life to another (i.e. people become
increasingly aware that they need to do something special in order to
remember things).

22.The transitions in the information processing theory are not presented in a

stage-like fashion as in the case of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
Instead, it shows flow of information beginning with input (stimulus) leading to

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 some sort of output (response).

23.This theory attempts to specify mechanisms by which people make transitions

in their problem solving capacity.

4.4The Eclectic Approach to Understanding Behavior

24.As can be seen; there is no correct or right, or best theory! Each theory defines
its own area of investigation and its research methods. The theories differ from
each other according to what are the most important aspects of behavior that one
would want to study. Theory, each theory is true to its own area of inquiry.

25. Electric approach refers to the combination of two or more approaches while
studying given phenomenon. We therefore, have to use the eclectic approach to
understand behavior by picking and choosing element from the different theories.

4.5 Determinants of Development

26. The question of what determines development is one of the oldest controversies in
human history. The debate is on the relative impact of heredity (nature) and
environmental influences (nurture) in shaping one’s personality traits and
characteristics.

27. Nature refer to the genetic influences in development, while nurture refers to the
environmental influences on development, from the prenatal stage to death
information carried by genes in body chromosomes influences the sequence of
growth and maturation, timing of puberty, course of aging, eye colour, skin colour,
susceptibility to certain diseases, intelligence, temperament, personality traits e t c it
also influences the sequence of psychological disorder (e.g. depression and
schizophrenia), alcoholism, body size and shape, height, athletic potential, and so on.

28. Nurture includes II the individual’s experiences in the outside World (i.e. the fan
school, community, and the culture at large). A person without environment is no
person.
26
29. The interaction between nature and nurture is the crucial influence on any particular
aspect of development.

4.6 Topic Activity

30. a. Discuss the main characteristics of each of the theories of human

development, showing how each theory accounts for development.

b. Discuss how genes influence one’s physical characteristic of behavior

c. Discuss the major environmental influences on human development in your
local community.

27
TOPIC 5: PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
5.0 Topic: Introduction

1. In this topic we will examine human development during the pre-natal stage.
This is the development before birth, specifically; we will look at the stages of
prenatal development and the social and environmental factors that affect
development during this period. Lastly, the birth process and how it may affect
the child will be explored.

5.1 Topic: Objectives

2. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:-

a) Describe the stages of prenatal development, and explain the factors

affecting prenatal development.

b) Identity and explain the major environmental influences (teratogens) of the

prenatal
period.

c) Discuss the problems that occur during birth, and their solutions.

d) Identity the implications on that occur during birth, and their solutions.

e) Identity the implications on what can be done to ensure growth and

development of
healthy children.

28
5.2 Stages of Prenatal Development

5.2.1 The Beginning of Human Life

3. Human life begins at conception, which occurs when a sperm cell from a male
unites
with an egg from a female and forms a single-cell called a zygote.

4. After conception the growth and development of the human being proceeds
as a result a
cell division, through 2 processes;

a. Mitosis - is the process of cell division in which a single body (somatic)

cell divides into 2 exactly equal parts. Each of these 2 parts has exactly
the same 23 pairs of chromosomes as in the original cell.

b. Meiosis - is the process of cell division that occurs during the production
of sex or germ cells (ova and sperm). During this process each
chromosome splits and separates so that the resulting ovum or sperm
contains only 23 single chromosomes.

5. The period between conception and birth is that is referred as the prenatal
period. Human growth And Development Occurs Most Rapidly During this
Period.

5.2.2 The Three (3) Stages of Prenatal Development

Stage Duration description

6. a) Germinal / Conception to 14  The period is characterized by

pre-embryonic days rapid cell division.
stage
 Ends when the zygote implants
itself in the walls of the uterus.

29
b) Embryonic stage 3 – 8 weeks  Cell differentiation occurs, in
which the cells of the blastocyst
differentiate themselves into 3
layers.

 Then follows organ genesis, in

which different organs of the
body begin to form.

 The formation of the amniotic

sac-which is filled by amniotic
fluid.

 The placenta is also formed

through which the embryo is
nourished (i.e. gets nutrients
during pregnancy.

th
 By the 8 week, the embryo had
rudimentary eyes, ears, nose,
mouth, liver, heart and webbed
fingers.

c) Fetus stage 9 – 40 weeks  During this stage, the major

systems begin to function.

 There is also refining and

improving of what is already
formed.

 There is a major growth and

development of the brain and
the central nervous system
30
 (CNS) during the last 3 months
of prenatal development.

 The 28th week marks the point of

viability which is the point at
which survival outside the uterus
may be possible.

 The baby is born approximately

266 days after conception or 280
days from the onset of the last
periods.

7. The embryonic stage/period is very critical from development, because;

a) The embryo is most susceptible to influences of teratogens (e.g. viruses,

chemicals, drugs and radiation). If it is exposed to any teratogens it is most
likely that the embryo will have abnormalities of the organs of the body,
which are in the process of being formed.

b) Most miscarriages occur at this period. Here the embryo detaches from the
wall (of the uterus) and is expelled.

5.3 Factors Affecting Prenatal Development

8. Each year some babies are born with defects that range from gross anormalies
(that may lead to sudden death) to minimal physical or mental defects. These
defects may be caused by 3 factors, namely:

a. Abnormal genes and chromosomes.

b. Harmful conditions in the womb.

31
 c. Abnormalities during the birth process.

5.3.1 Abnormal Genes and Chromosomes

9. a) Genetic abnormalities: result from mutations that are a change in the

chemicals structure or arrangement of one or more genes that has the effect
of producing a new phenotype. Some conditions that may result from these
are: ;

Condition Description

Cystic fibrosis  Occurs in about 1 in 1000 births. This child

lacks an enzyme that prevents much’s from
obstructing the lungs and the digestive
system.

 Many who inherit this problem die in

childhood or adolescence.

Muscular dystrophy (MD)  Attacks the muscles.

 As the disease progresses, the individual

starts showing slurred speech, becomes
unable to walk, and may gradually lose most
of the motor capabilities.

Phenylketonuria (PKU)  The child lacks an enzyme to digest foods

that contains the amino acid pheylalanine
(including milk). If undetected, phenylpyuvic
acid will accumulate in the body and attacks
the developing nervous system.

 Long term effects of PKU are hyper-activity

and severe mental retardation.
32
Diabetes  An inherited condition in which the individual
is unable to metabolize sugar properly,
because does not produce insulin.

 Can be controlled by taking insulin in

prescribed amounts and restricting one’s
diet.

Hemophilia bleeder’s  The child lacks the substance that causes

diseases clotting of blood, and could bleed to death in
cut.

Tay – sacks  A degenerative disease of the central

nervous system that kills the victim by the 3rd
birthday.

b) Chromosomal abnormalities; usually occur during the process of cell division

after conception (i.e. meiosis and mitosis). May be caused by non-separation
of chromosomes, deletion of chromosomes which may lead to loss of genes
and translocation of chromosomes (i.e. deleting and attaching themselves to
the wrong ones). Some conditions that may result include:-

Condition Description

i) Turner’s syndrome  XO – the person is female but is

short, mentally retarded and sterile.

ii) Kinflter’s syndrome  XXY – a male with male external

organs, but with female contours.

 Also sterile

iii) Downes syndrome (mongolism)  The 21st chromosome does not

33
 separate, so the zygote ends up
having two no. 21 chromosomes (a
condition known as trisony 21)

 The child is mentally retarded and

may have congenital eyes, ear, and
heart defects; sloping forehead,
protruding tongue, short stubby
limbs, a slightly flattened nose, a
distinctive fold to the eyelids that
give their eyes an oriental
appearance (Chines or Japanese
like).

NB: The probability of having a child with Klinfelte’s and Downes syndromes
increases dramatically if the mother is over 35 years m the first 3 months of
pregnancy through a test
known as amniocentesis.

5.4 The Major Environmental Influences (Teratogens) of the Prenatal Period

10. A teratogen is an external agent that may adversely affect the baby if the
mother is exposed during the prenatal period.

11. Teraogens will be examined under 2 broad categories: maternal

characteristics, and
drugs.

5.5.1 Normal Birth

12. Towards the end of gestation, the head of the baby turns down towards the
birth canal to allow for a head – first delivery.
34
13. The process of birth begins with uterine contractions.

14. During the first stage of labor, the uterine muscles tighten and release, pushing
the foetus towards. The cervix dilates to a width of 4 inches, to allow the head
to squeeze through. The dilation may take 8 – 12 hours for first borns and 4 –
7 hours for subsequent births.

15. When the cervix is fully dilated, the process called transition begins. During this
time the foetus’ head from the uterus to the birth canal. The contractions are
so rapid that sometimes one feels nauseatic.

16. After transition, the second stage of labor begins, and may last 2 hours for first
pregnancies or only few minutes for subsequent pregnancies. The baby’s
head appears at the opening of the birth canal. The baby is said to crown.
Soon it is born.

5.5.2 Problems during Birth

17. Although a baby may be healthy during pregnancy, some things may happen
between the beginning of labour and the birth of the baby, which may affect
the baby. These are:-

a. Anoxia

18. Anoxia is the lack of sufficient oxygen due to -

i. Prolonged

ii. Too much anesthesia

iii. Use of pain-killers

iv. Failure to breathe when separated from mother’s supply of blood.

19. Consequences of anoxia may include brain damage, death and cerebral palsy
(characterized by paralysis of legs or arms, tremor of the face or fingers, and
35
 inability to use vocal muscle.

b) Unhygienic conditions

20. May affect the child e.g. infect it with tetanus.

c) Use of instruments

21. Forceps or vacuum extraction may be used when the baby is too big or the
mother is not well developed to deliver the baby naturally.

22.The instrument could put strong pressure, whose blood vessels may break.
This may lead to hemorrhage in the baby’s brain. This results in brain
damage, Epilepsy, cerebral palsy and death.

5.5Implications on what can be done to ensure growth and development of

healthy children

a. Genetic counseling and screening family history and background

b. Treatment and control of hereditary disorder.

c. Get children between 18 and 35 years

d. Good prenatal care and immunizations.

. Pregnant mothers must avoid exposure to contagious STDs e.g. gonorrhea,

herpes and syphilis.

f. Pregnant mother to avoid taking drugs, unless prescribe by physician.

Drugs include alcohol and tobacco.

g. A nourishing diet, rich in proteins and adequate in calories is essential

during pregnancy.

36
 h. There should be proper medical care during birth to ensure excellent
hygienic conditions.

5.6 Topic Activity

25. a. What can be done to ensure growth and development of healthy

children during pregnancy and birth?

b. Why should a teacher/counseling psychologist acquire knowledge of

prenatal counseling?

. Discuss the concept teratogen, and outline 4 categories of tératogens and

their effects
in the developing child.

d. Briefly outline 2 ways in which the father’s sperm cells could contribute to
teratology.

e. What are the major events associated with;

i. First stage of labor
ii. Second stage of labor

f. Explain why the embryonic stage of pregnancy is considered to be the most

critical period for teratogénic effects

37
TOPIC 6: THE NEONATE

6.1 Topic Introduction

1. In this lesson, we will study the neonate, i.e. a newborn up to about 3

weeks of its postnatal life. We will look at their physical appearance, their
behavioral capacities, and the development needs that would ensuse
healthy development.

6.2 Topic Objectives

2. By the end of this topic, the learner should b able to:

a) Describe the physical appearance of the neonate and tests used to

ascertain normality.

b) State some behavioral capacities of a neonate, including; reflective

behaviors and
sensory capacities.

c) State important needs necessary for the growth and development of a

neonate.

6.3 Physical Appearance and Tests used to Ascertain Normality

6.3.1 The physical appearance of a neonate

3. The neonatal period -first 3 weeks of post-natal life, marks the critical
transition from the parasitic foetal existence to physiological independence.

38
 This transition begins at
birth with the first cry. With this cry, air is sucked to inflate the lungs. During
this time, complex chemical changes are initiated in the cardiorespiratory
system. These changes enable the neonate’s heart and lungs to assume
the function of oxygenating the body. Anybody unable to cry soon after birth
may suffer brain damage or death.

Physical appearance:

4. a. The average weight of a newborn is 3.3kg.

a) The average length is 51cm.

b) The heat is normally ¼ of the total body size.

c) Many newborns may look abnormal and ugly. They are wet, sticky and
brown / black. They have flattened noses, the eye look bruised and
swollen.

d) The skin looks wrinkled. It is normally coated with a cheese-like

protective substance known as vernix caseosa, which leaves the body
with a chalky appearance upon drying.

e) A soft fine hair that covers the foetus body during the 5th and 6th months
of prenatal development called lanugo, may persist on some part of the
newborn’s body for a few weeks after birth.

f) The neonate has 6 soft spots called fontanels on the head. The most
conspicuous is the one on the top of the head, which closes after about 1
½ years.

g) Many neonates have enlarged breasts that secrete a milk – like

substance.

h) The girls may have a brief menstrual flow caused by hormones absorbed
39
 from the mother’s blood.

i) Most have dark and soft hair, while others are bald.

j) The skin is thin and delicate. It may appear jaundiced (yellow) if the baby
has a liver problem or blue if the baby suffers oxygen deprivation.

6.3.2 Tests used to ascertain normality

5. To find out whether the neonate is normal and has problems at birth, the
Apgar score is taken at 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth.

6. The attendant observes the pulse, breathing, muscle tone, general reflex
responses and the color of the skin (for blacks use palms or soles). The
results are tabulated and totals obtained, as shown below.

The Apgar scoring system of infants:

Observation Score

0 1 2

a) Pulse Absent Less than 100 More than 100

b) Breathing Absent Slow/irregular Strong cry

c) Muscle tone Limp Some flexion Active motion

extremities

d) Reflex No response Grimance Vigorous cry

responses

e) Color Blue/pale Pink/blue Completely pink

Total

7. a) A healthy baby should score 7 or more points.

40
 b) A perfect Apgar score is 10 points.

c) A baby that score below 7 has his/her bodily processes not functioning
fully and require watching and special attention.

d) A score of 4 or less requires immediate emergence measures.

6.4 Behavioral Capacities of the Neonate

6.4.1 Reflexive Behaviours

8. A reflex is a response that is automatic and is triggered involuntarily by

some specific stimulus. A baby is equipped with reflexive behaviours at
birth. Some of these reflexes help to ascertain that is indeed normal:-

Reflex Description

a) The rooting reflex  When the baby is stroked on the chick, it

turns its head and root around to put its
mouth on the object that touches it.

 Associated with feeding.

 Disappears at 3 to 4 months.

b) Sucking reflex  This is elicited by touching the neonate’s

lips.

41
  It is the most complex of all reflexes.

 It begins in the uterus and it is essential for

the baby’s survival.

 The baby show rhythmic sucking when

anything (e.g. finger or nipple) is inserted in
the mouth.

 It disappears at 3 to 4 months, and the baby

begins to suck selectively.

c) Startle or Moro reflex  When startled, e.g. by loud sound, the baby
reacts by extending both arms to the side,
with fingers outstretched as if to catch onto
someone or something. The arms are then
brought back to the middle line as if they are
hugging themselves.

 It disappears within 6 months.

d) Grasp reflex (palmer  If the baby is touched across the foot or

grasp) palm the fingers or toes close tightly over the
object in a very firm grip, such that the baby
can hang on it.

 The reflex may be related to the ability of

baby monkeys to cling to their mother.

e) Swallowing reflex  The neonate is born with the swallowing

reflex, but it does not stop breathing and so
it swallows a lot of air.

42
  The swallowed air can be removed by
burping it out.

f) Babinski reflex  This reflex is elicited when the sole of the

neonate’s foot is stroked from the heel
towards the toes. The toes spread out (fan
out), then the child curls the toes in an older
child curls them in immediately.

 The absence of this reflex may indicate

immaturity of the central nervous system
(CNS)

g) Blinking reflex  The eyes close if light is flashed or air is

puffed across the eye.

 This is a permanent reflexive behavior.

h) Knee jerk  If the knee cap is tapped, there is a rapid

extension of the leg and knees.

 This is also permanent reflex.

i) Stepping reflex  When newborns are held vertically, with their

feet against a hard surface, they lift one leg
away from the surface. If tilted slightly from
one side to the other, they appear to be
walking.

j) Driving reflex  The heart rate slows down when cold water
is splashed on the face of the baby.

 Becomes weaker with age.

43
 k) Swimming reflex  A neonate can be able to float on water.

NB:

1) The rooting, sucking and swallowing reflexes are also called feeding
reflexes. They are essential for the child’s survival.

2) The startle/moro, babinski and grasping/palmer reflexes are called primitive

reflexes. The mi-brain, i.e. the part of the brain that develops first, controls
them. They usually drop out as the brain develops. If they persist in life, it is
an indication of mal-development or brain damage.

6.4.2 Sensory Capacities of The Neonate

9. Babies have all sensory abilities at birth.

Sensory ability Description

a. Hearing  Babies hear since they are startled by a loud

sound.

 They generally respond to higher and not lower

sounds.

 They can locate sounds by 6 months.

b. Smell and taste  These are fully operational.

 They react with some distress to unpleasant odors

like ammonia and rotten eggs.

 They can differentiate between sweet, salty, soar

and bitter tastes (they will grimance).

c. Touch  This is highly developed as they respond to

44
 reflexes.

 They are initially not very sensitive to pain.

 If temperatures are too low or too high, they will

respond by showing irritability and even crying.

d. Vision  The neonate’s eyes are very sensitive to

brightness. The pupils contrast in darkness.

 By 2 weeks, the baby cries if it sees a rapidly

approaching object. They have some control over
eye movements.

6.4.3 Other Skills of the Neonate

10. a. Learning: at 4 days, babies are able to learn through classical

conditioning. An experiment by lipsitt and kay involved.

i. Sucking reflex (UCR & CR)

ii. Nipple (UCS); and

iii. Tone (CS)

a) Habitation: reaching a stage of not responding to a stimulus and not

hearing it. Results automatically fro repeated exposure to the same
stimuli.

b) Baby’s cycle: sleep – wake – eat – alert – drowsy – sleep

Failure to establish clear regular cycle of sleeping and waking shows a

sign of trouble.

45
6.4.4 Maternal Characteristics

a. Maternal age – young mothers below 18 years of age are more likely to die
while giving birth or have a stillborn baby. This is because most do not
receive pre-natal care. Older mothers over 35 years of age may have small
infants; premature births; stillbirths; or even have children with downers
syndrome.

b. Mother’s diet – poor maternal diet could lead to retarded fetal growth,
malformations, less developed brain, greater vulnerability to disease, low birth
weight, cerebral palsy and epilepsy.

c. Mother’s emotional state – if the mother is depressed and resentful

throughout the pregnancy, it can lead to miscarriage, prolonged or painful
labour. The baby will tend to be hyperactive, irritable, and have irregular
sleeping, feeding and bowel patterns.

d. Maternal Diseases.

Disease Effects of the mother’s disease to child

HIV/AIDs  Child born with AIDs
Genital herpes  Neotatal deaths; blindness, brain damage and
other serious neurological disorders
Gonorrhea  Blindness
Hypertension  Miscarriages and infant death
Influenza  Powerful strains can induce spontaneous
abortion and a number of abnormalities during
the early stages.
Rhesus disease  Incompatibility between RH-negative and RH –
positive factors (Rhesus factor)

46
  Can be controlled by administering Rhogam a
drug that prevents the mother from forming
rhesus antibodies that could harm her next
rhesus positive child.
Rubella / German  Blindness: deafness; heart abnormalities and
measles mental retardation. Small pox-Risk of
miscarriages and stillbirth. Syphilis’s –
Miscarriages, serious eye, ear, bone and brain
damage. Toxoplamosis A mild disease that
produces symptoms similar to cold.
 Caused by a parasite present in raw meat and
cat feaces
 Causes serious eye and brain damage.
 May cause the death of the unborn child.

e. Drugs

Drug Effects during the prenatal period

Alcohol  Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): malformations of
the heart, limbs, joints and face.
Antibiotics  Examples such as streptomycin, terramycin and
tetracycline can lead to hearing loss,
prematuring retarded skeletal growth, staining of
the baby’s teeth, and eye cataracts.
Aspirin  Large quantities my cause remittal bleeding and
gastrointestinal discomfort.
Barbiturates  Large doses lead to anoxia; interfere with the
baby breathing.
Chemicals  Dyes, food addictives, paints and pollutants may

47
 affect the baby if the mother is exposed to them
Narcotics  Growth deficiency; withdrawal syndrome;
respiratory depression; death.
Radiation  Malformation and cancer
Sex hormones  Such as pills
 May lead to heart defects and cervical cancer in
adolescent females.
Thalid odomide  Malformation of limbs, eyes, ears and heart.
Tobacco  Spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, low birth weight
and infant mortality.
Quinine  Large doses cause deafness

6.5 The Birth Process

26. This is called the perinatal process

6.5.1 Limitations of the Neonate

11. a) Lacks vocal sounds save crying.

b) Cannot raise head, roll over, or move thumb and finger separately.

c) Cannot reach out at things at a distance.

d) Cannot control elimination of wastes.

e) Cannot differentiate one face from another.

f) Cannot remember.

6.6 Sex Differences of Birth

48
 12. a. Girls are smaller and lighter than boys but are 1 to 1 ½ months a head in
body development.

a) More boys have physical abnormalities than girls. They score low on
Apgar scores at birth 33% of boys die within the first year.

6.7Individual Differences at Birth

13. Babies differ in the following aspects, due to their genetic make up and
conditions in the womb.

a) Vigor of responding

b) General activity rate

c) Sleeping rhythms

d) Irritability

e) Relate habituation

f) Cuddliness

g) Sensitivity to light and sound

h) In size and shape

i) In hormonal balance

j) In blood chemistry

k) In absolute and relative sizes of body organs.

6.8 Topic Activity

3. a. Identify cultural practices and traditional beliefs in your community during

birth and neonatal period and discuss how they may influence the growth and

49
 development of children. To what extent are the developmental needs met in
your community.

b) Explain what the following features refer to:

i. Lanugo

ii. Vernix caseosa

c) i. Describe the physical characteristics of a neonate.

ii. Explain the following reflexes:

1) Sucking

2) Moro

3) Babinski

4) Rooting

50
SECTION II: AREAS OF DEVELOPMENT (INFANCY TO LATE ADULTHOOD)

TOPIC 7: PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

7.0 Topic: Introduction

1. In this topic, we will discuss physical and motor development from infancy to
adolescent stage. The following aspects will be considered: changes in weight
and height; development of gross and fine motor skills; and factors that
influence and motor development.

7.1 Topic: Objectives

2. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

a. Discuss changes in weight and height as indicators of growth from infancy to

adolescence;

b. Explain the process of brain, skeletal and muscular development.

c. Discuss motor development and its importance.

d. Outline factors affecting physical and motor development and their

implications.

7.2 Changes in weight and height as indicators of growth from infancy to

adolescence (birth to 12 years of age)

3. Physical development implies gain in weight and height. Children grow faster
during the first 3 years of life span. This rapid growth is referred to as the first
growth spurt. A growth spurt is an accelerated increase in weight and height.

7.2.1 Changes in Weight and Height

4. a. At birth, the neonate is approximately 3.5kg in weight and 48cm long.

51
 b. They double the birth weight to 7kg during the first 5 months.

c. They triple the birth Weight to 10 5kgs by the end of the 1 year while their
length is 72cm.

d. They quadriple the birth (l4kgs) by age 2½ years

e. By age 3 years, they weigh 14 5-l6kgs with a length 107-112cm

f. At age 6 years, they reach a growth plateau, i e they gain weight at a shown
rate with girls looking more mature than their male counter parts The kind of
growth that takes place this time is hypertopic, i.e. it involves cell size
enlargement At this age, the signs of adult body proportions are evident. It is
the healthiest period of life because the child fights infections easily.

g. By age 7 years, children appear slim and lean They had their milk teeth The
girls shed their teeth earlier than the boys The height at this age goes to
117cm.

h. At age 9, physical development improves in quality and the skeletal frame

becomes larger The trunk increases in length Ligaments become firer and
stronger Girls show the first signs of maturity with a slight 66%, becoming
76% at 2½ years, and 90% at 5years.

7.2.2 Development of the Brain and the Nervous System

5. Al birth, the brain is 25% of its eventual adult weight At 1 year it is about 66%,
becoming 76% at 2½ years, and 90% at 5 years.

6. The last 3 months of pregnant and the first 2 years after birth a brain spurt.
Proper nutrition (i.e. adequate: and balanced diet) is crucial at this stage.

7. Myehnization (i e. the development of sheaths around individual nerves which

insulate them from one another) follows, a, chronological sequence similar to
the one of the brain. Myelinization enables-messages to plus down the nerves
52
 easily. At birth the spinal cord is not fully myelinized. The sheath first covers the
nerve fibers in the head, shoulder region, arms, hands, upper chest, abdomen
and legs then feet. So the infant will lift its head and neck before, the trunks. By
2 years, myeliniztion is almost complete.

7.2.3 Skeletal Development

8. At birth, most of the bones aremcarti1agefrorp (i.e. they have not calcified.
They are soft and easy to break. They are also not calcified. They are soft and
easy to break. They are also small and flexible With calcification, born harden
gradually following the cephalocandal trend of development For example, the
bones that comprise the skull mature first, followed by those of the hands and
finally those of the legs Foods rich in calcium and other mineral salts are
important for skeletal development.

7.4.4 Muscular Development

9. At birth, the muscle tissue 35% water. Muscle fibers begin to grow as the cell
fluid in the muscle tissue is replaced with protein and salt. Muscular
deve1oment also follows the cephalocandal trend. Maturation occurs gradually
over childhood but accelerates at during adolescence.

NB:

10. A child’s ability to perform a physical task depends not only on the
maturation of the neurons in the brain, but also in the maturation of the muscle
and skeletal systems. Such
a state of maturation is known as readiness. Until children reach a state of
maturation is known as readiness. Until children reach a state of readiness they
will be unable to perform a task, even with practice or training

7.3 Motor Development

11. The word ‘motor’ refers to ‘muscular movement’, motor development

53
 leads to the ability to acquire locomotion, prehension, and posture

7.3.1 Locomotion

12. Locomotion involves body control and movement. The developmental

milestones involved are:

Milestone (90% have mastered Description

skill)
a. 1st month of life  Lift the chin
b. 2nd month  Lift shoulder and chest while lying on the
stomach
c. 3rd month  The baby’s head will balance slightly
forward
th
d. 4 month  The baby should be able to maintain the
head erect when put in a sitting position.
 Have total control of head
 Should be able to roll to the side, from
the stomach.
th
e. 5 month  Should be able to roll to the back, if lying
on the stomach
f. At 6th months  The baby can sit for a short period
without support.
 Can move the hand up and down.
g. At 7-8 months  Sits without support
h. At 10th months  Stands holding on
i. At 13th months  Stands alone
j. At 14 months  Walks well
k. At 22 months  Walks up steps
l. At 24 months  Kicks ball

54
7.3.2 Prehension

13. Prehension involves reaching out activities, holding, seizing and grasping.
These activities involve eye – hand coordination. They begin with the grasping
reflex and uncoordinated arm movements.

Age Description

a. 1 month  The infant will not grab an object, will just stare
at it.

b. 2 months  Will grab an object placed on the hand

c. 3 months  They begin to reach out for objects

d. 4-6 months  They will grasp objects but sometimes cannot

let go.

e. 7 months  They can pick objects with their fingers

 They begin by using their palms and fingers

then use the index finger with the side of the
palm.

f. 9 months  They can pick with their thumb and forefinger.

7.4 Importance of Motor Development

14. a. Stimulates intellectual growth and creativity.

b. Encourages socialization, independence, and self confidence

55
 c. Promotes good mental health.

d. Strengths Self – Concept

7.5 Factors Affecting Physical and Motor Development

15. The following 5 factors affect physical and motor development:

Factor Description

a. Heredity  Determines the rate of growth and maturation.

b. Nutrition  Should be balanced and sufficient: otherwise

will lead to stunted growth, and other cases of
malnutrition.

c. Diseases  Prolonged illness interferes with steady growth.

d. Child – rearing  Stimulate growth and development

practices

e. Stress  Affects hormonal secretions, causing physical

dwarfism.

7.6Implications

16. The following implications for optimal physical and motor development; with
their applicability to counseling, need to be borne in mind:-

a. Importance of maturation

b. Importance of individual differences

56
 c. Importance of adequate and ba1arced diet

d. Medical attention and Immunization

e. Importance of proper hygienic conditions

f. Provision of a rich environment.

g. Encouragement of play and manipulation of objects

7.7 Topic: Activity

17. a. Identify children at different age groups in your community and describe
their physical and motor changes and characteristics.

c. Explain any factors that may have contributed to their growth and
development.

TOPIC 8: PERCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT

8 Topic: Introduction.

1. Do newborns have certain perceptual capacities, are these acquired

‘through learning experience? What can new born perceive? This topic
discusses perception in children. First we will look at the definitions then
theoretical explanations next he examine development of different types of
perception and finally we will enumerate the factors that influence the
perceptual development

8.1 Topic: Objectives

8.2.2 By the end of the topic the learners should be able to

a. Differentiate between sensation and perception

57
 b. Differentiate between the four theories of perceptual development,
traditional, gestalt empiricist and nativists,

c. Discuss changes in perceptual development.

d. Discuss the development of different types of perception object

permanence, depth perception, picture perception and perception
constancies.

e. Explain the factors that affect perceptual development.

8.3 Definitions and Theories of Perceptual Development

8.2.1 Definitions

3. a. Sensation-refers to the process through which information about the

environment is picked by sensory receptors and transmitted through the brain.
Infants have a sensory ability that is they respond to light, sound, smell touch and
taste.

b. Perception-refers to the interpretation of the nerve impulses we receive

through the sensory organs into recognizable patterns such as objects, words,
smells etc

8.3.2 Theories of perceptual development

4 There are four main theories of perceptual development:-

a. Traditional Theorist: They believe that our perceptions of the objects is

developed through learning by associating the multiple sensations that an
object evokes.

b. Gestalt Psychologists:
They claim that we perceive objects by organizing principles that results
from the brains natural organizational processes influenced by innate

58
 principles That is, they believe that the brain has an innate ability to
organize objects as wholes and not parts through principles of proximity,
similarity, continuity and closure.

c. Empiricists

This ones argue that infants are born “tabula rasa,” meaning “blank
slates, “then experiences are imprinted on them. Later, they learn to
discriminate between sensory inputs. Thus, perception develops as a
result of a long learning process.

d. Nativists

Argue that many perceptual abilities are present at birth due to structural
characteristics of the nervous system. Infants try to create order and
organization
in their perceptual world. . According to Eleanor Gibson (1969), perceptual
development is a process by which one learns to make increasingly fine
and complex discriminations.

8.4 Changes in Perceptual Development

5. Like adults, children are exposed to a continuous flow of perceptual

stimulus, but they do not receive every stimulus. Their perception of the
same stimulus changes with maturation/age.

6. According to Gibson and Spelke (1983), although perceptual development

appears continuous, five (5) changes can be seen.

a. As children grow, their perception becomes more selective and more

purposeful They focus on stimuli that have more functional value

b. Children become increasingly aware of the meaning of their perception,

for example, whether pleasurable of painful.

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 c. Perception becomes more sensitive as children develop they begin to
detect increasingly subtle- aspects of stimuli, for example, the banging
of doors meaning
annoyance.

d. Children become more efficient in picking up critical information from

stimuli; for example, an ambulance siren or gunshot.

e. Children become more proficient at generalizing perceived meaning

from one situation to another.

7. Perceptual development therefore is the process through which the child

acquires the ability to take in information, process the information, interpret
that information, and make a decision. It is the acquisition of the ability to
create meaning. The child should be able to know what objects are and
what they do. With this the child is prepared. They are born active, vibrant
persons who vigorously search for stimuli.

8. a. Visual Development:

At birth the neonate has great potential for perceptual development.

They are born with eyes equipped for visual development. The retina is
not fully developed; therefore babies are born color blind, since the
vision is rod dominated. The baby focuses with difficulty because they
see with each eye individually. Therefore, visual coordination come with
age/maturation. For perceptual development to occur, the child should
interact with the environment that is rich and stimulated. It should have
adequate color(s), light and object for the eyes to see.

d. Smell and taste:

These are Z chemical senses that are well developed. From birth, the
baby distinguishes pleasant and unpleasant taste as well as smell, and
reacts accordingly.
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 e. Skin Sensibility

This is the sensitivity to touch, pressure, temperature and pain. They all
exist at birth, but pain is at the lowest sensitivity

f. Body Position

Babies show that innate fear of falling early in life. This is developed by 6
months.

8.5 Development of Different Types of Perception

8.4.1 Object Permanence

9. This is the realization that objects continue to exist even when out process is
as tabulated here below:

Age Description
a. 0 – 4 months  A child acts as though an object does not
exist, of the latter is covered up or disappears
from view.
b. 4 – 8 months  The child begins to search for an object he/
she saw disappears. If one drops a piece of
cloth on an object, the child withdraws the
hand without the object.
c. 8 – 12 months  He/she will search for the object that has
disappeared. But if the object is again hidden
in a new place, the child will look in the original
place.
d. 12 – 18 months  Will search for the object that has
disappeared. But if it is hidden when not
looking, will not look further.
e. By 24 months  Child has object performance. Will search for
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 the object everywhere.

8.4.2 Depth Perception

10. Depth perception is the ability to judge relative distances. Every young child
(up 5months) may show interest in depth cases, but do not fear until
6months old. Gibson and Walk (1960) carried out an experiment on depth
perception. They used the visual cliff, which creates an illusion of depth. It
consists of a raised platform, half of which is patterned (checkerboard
surface) and half in glass. Under the glass part, a sharp drop in the
patterned surface produces an illusion of a cliff. Infants are placed on the
patterned side and called to deep side.

(a) Very young children up to 5 months look intently at the illusion cliff, puzzled,
but do not cry.

(b) Older children, 6-8 months will not cross even after feeling the solid glass
below and seeing their mother on the other side.

(c) 9 months olds show increased heart rate- afraid!

11. Depth perception is important because it warns babies of imminent danger,

for example falling off tables and chairs. Babies who have depth perception
will sit on the edge and cry for help.

8.4.3 .Picture perception:

12. According to Piaget, children’s recognition of pictures as real is not

predetermined through it is innate. Dominant features first capture attention.
According to Spelke, babies learn how to differentiate pictured objects at
the same time they learn the distinctive features of real objects. At 6 to 7
years, children can act mentally upon the picture and not just the dominant

62
 features. They can analyze it, integrate its features and reverse figure and
ground at will. Judging depth pictures depends on learning because the
child has to disregard information that betrays the flat nature of the picture.
Older children are aware of movement in drawings such as leg not on
ground but do not perceive it when indicated by clouds of dust or lines. By
12 years they are able to detect motion in both.

8.4.4 Perceptual Constancy:

13. Perceptual Constancy means, “Treating things as unchanging”. It takes 3

forms, which all improve with learning and maturation.

Form of Perceptual Constancy Description

a. Shape constancy
b. Position Constancy
c. Size Constancy
 Begins at 3 months and develops
slowly.
 Improves with learning and maturation.
 From 6 months.
 Improves with learning, experience and
maturation.
 Occurs when someone walking away
seems smaller, but sees him as being
the same size, through the retinal
image becomes smaller.
 Begins at 5 months and is full
developed by 6 months.

8.6 Factors Influencing Perceptual Development

14. a. Motivation/ need

b. Expectation

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 c. Genetics

d. Context

e. Environment

8.7 Topic Activity

15. a. Explain the 4 theories of perceptual development.

b. Discuss the factors that influence perceptual development.

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TOPIC 9: COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
9.0 Topic Introduction

1. Cognition is a mental activity through which human beings acquire and

process information and knowledge, so as to understand the world.

2. In this topic, we will examine Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive

development and its implications to teaching and learning, and counseling.
Finally we will look at the factors that influence cognitive development.

9.1 Topic: Objectives

3. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to: -

a. Define the terms/ concepts cognition, cognitive development and a

number of other key terms.

b. List and explain the major characteristics of and achievements in each

of the paget’s
stages of cognitive development.

c. Discuss various factors that influence cognitive development.

d. Explain how Piaget’s theory can be applied in educational settings

and/or in counseling.

9.2 Definition of Key Terms

4. a. Intelligence: consists one’s capacity for learning. It is also the ability to

modify one’s behavior as a consequence of experience.
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 b. Cognition: refers to the higher mental processes involved in
understanding and dealing with one’s world. It includes how we
perceive the world, how we think, and how we solve problems.

c. Operations mental skills or actions (compare with physical actions)

d. Cognitive development refers to the changes that occur in children’s

mental skills and abilities over time, such as attending, perceiving,
learning, thinking and remembering.

e. Cognitive equilibrium the state of affairs in which there is a balanced

or harmonious relationship between one’s thought processes and
environment.

f. Cognitive structure/schema/schemata: a basic unit of knowledge,

action, belief image. Piaget’s term for the patterns of actions or
mental structures those are involved in the acquisition of knowledge.

g. Adaptation: one’s inborn tendency to adjust to the demands of the

environment.

h. Assimilation: the process of interpreting new experiences by

incorporating them into existing schemata.

i. Accommodation: the process of modifying existing schemata in

order to incorporate or adapt to new experiences.

9.3 Piget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

5. Piaget identified four (4) major periods (stages) of cognitive development,

namely:

a. The sensory — motor stage (birth to 2 years)

b. The pre-operational stage (2 to 7 years)

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 c. The concrete operational stage (7 to 11 years)

d. The formal operational stage (12 years and beyond)

6. According to Piaget these stages form invariant developmental sequences

that all children progress through the stages in precisely the same order.
These can be skipping of stages because each successive- stage builds
on the accomplishments of previous ones. There are also individual
differences, in that environmental influences may accelerate or retard a
child’s rate of development. So the age norms are only rough
approximations. Besides, the differences in stages are both qualitative
and quantitative.

9.3.1 The Sensory Motor Stage (birth to 2 years)

7. At this stage, babies think with their senses and their motor skills.They
stare at objects, suck or even bang them. Through these reflexes, they
gain information about the world. Their perception of the world is practical.

8. The following are some important attainments at this period:

a. Growth of problem solving skills:

Months Skills
1 month  Children’s activities confined to exercising their
innate reflexes, such as sucking on objects.
2 – 4 months  The first non-reflexive schemata emerge as
infants discover by chance that they can emit
and control various responses. They realize
these behaviours are satisfying and worth of
repetition.
 These simple repetitive acts are called primary
circular reactions and are always centered on

67
 the infant’s body. They are called primary
because they are the first motor habits that
appear and circular because the pleasure they
bring stimulates their repetition.
4 – 8 months  At this stage, infants also by chance discover
that they can make interesting things happen to
external objects, e.g. making a rubber duck
quack by squeezing it.
 These responses are called secondary circular
reaction and are also repeated for the pleasure
they bring.
8 – 12 months  Truly planful responding first appears as infants
begin to coordinate two or more actions to
achieve simple objectives, e.g. if you place a toy
under a cushion the child may try to lift the
cushion with one hand while using the other to
grab the toy.
12 – 18 months  Infants begin to experiment with objects (trial
and error experimentation). They will try to invent
new methods of solving problems or
reproducing interesting results, e.g. instead of
just squeezing a rubber duck to make it quack,
my decide to step on it, to crash it to see
whether these actions will have the same
effects.
 These trial and error exploratory schemata are
called tertiary circular reactions. They signal the
emergence of true curiosity.
18 – 24 months  Children begin to internalize their behavioral
schemata, to construct mental symbols and
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 images that is, inner experimentation.
 They become able to solve problems without
resorting to trial and error activities, e.g. stick
and bread, bread out of reach decides to use the
stick to being the bread near. The other example
is when he / she decides to pull the table cloth to
bring a toy near.
 The problem solving occurs at an internal
symbolic level.
b. Development of imitation:

i) Voluntary imitation: becomes more precise between 12 – 18 months.

ii) Deferred imitation: first appears at 18 – 24 months. It is the ability to

produce he behaviour of an absent model.

c. Object permanence: one of the more notable achievement of the sensory-

motor stage (birth to 2 years) is the development of the object permanence-
the ideal that people, place and things continue to exist when they are no
longer visible or detectable through other senses, by 18 – 24 months,
objects permanence is complete.

9.3.2 The Pre-Operational Stage (2 to 7)

9. During this stage children become more proficient at constructing and

using mental symbols to think about the objects, situations and events
they encounter.

10. Piaget divides this stage into 2 sub stages: the pre-conceptual period (2 –
4 years) and the intuitive period (4 – 7 years)

a. The pre-conceptual period (2 – 4 years)

69
 This period is marked by the appearance of the symbolic language function.
This is the ability to make one thing (e.g. word or object) to represent
something else (object, person, event e.t.c)

The child can now reconstruct and talk about items that are not present.
Present also play blossoms at this stage (e g they pretend to be mum, dad,
doctor, e.t.c) their thinking
is egocentric not ab1e to see the situation in another person’s perspective.

The cognitive achievements of this period are they start drawing, they carry
out pretend play/games, they are capable of symbolic play, and they are
capable of deferred imitation.

b. The intuitive period (4-7 years)

The child’s thinking is called intuitive because his understanding of

objects and events is centred’ or their single most salient perceptual
feature color. They focus on the way things appear to be rather than on
logical or rational thought processes The limitations of perceptually based,
intuitive logic is apparent when 4-7 year olds work on class inclusion
problems that require them to think about whole/ part relations they do not
understand difference between a class and representation of that class,
their thinking is centred on salient feature and fails to consider other
features, and, they cannot conserve, that is, they cannot realize that the
liquid is the short, broad container would attain its former height when
poured back into a tall thin container. They are also unable to attend
simultaneously to both height and width.

9.3.3. The Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

11. This stage is called concrete operations because Piaget believed that
children at this stage could apply their operations only to objects, situation
and events that are real or imaginable.
70
12. Some achievements of this stage are: -

a. Class inclusion they understand part or whole relationships and the

difference between a class and representative of the class.

b. Conservation: they are able to conserve liquids, mass, number,

volume and area.

c. Mental representation of actions: the concrete operational child can

construct accurate mental representation of a complex series of
actions, e.g. can stretch a map of the route to school.

d. Relationship logic: capable of serration, an operation that enables

them to average a set of stimuli along a quantifiable dimension such
as length. A related ability is the concept of transitivity, which
describes the- relationships in serial order, e.g. if John is taller than
Sam who is taller than mark, then John must be taller than Mark. This
transitive inference (thinking/logic) of concrete- operators is
generally limited to real objects that are physically present.

9.3.3 The formal operational stage (12 years and beyond)

13. This is the 4th and highest of Piaget’s intellectual stage. It is the highest
level of thinking characterized by the development of full abstract
reasoning.

14. This stage corresponds with the adolescence stage. The adolescent has
the cognitive
structure to think as well as the adult. The only limitation is that the quality
of thinking is not as good.

15. During this time, scientific thinking develops. The adolescent can develop
a hypothesis and perform an experiment to test it. (Hypothetical thinking).
They can operate on logic. They are logical thinkers, concretely and
71
 abstractly.

16. However, the adolescent reasoning is affected by adolescent ego-

centrism, which
manifests itself in the form of naïve idealism. Naive idealism is the inability
of the adolescent to differentiate between his own idealistic thoughts and
the “real world’.
They make their judgments on the basis of what is logical and not is
realistic.

Another characteristic of the egocentrism is personal fable. This is the

belief that one is unique and has a personal mission in life so problems
that befall other people (e.g. AIDs and death) cannot befall them.

1naginary audience is the third characteristic of adolescent egocentrism.

This is the belief that those around are focusing all the attention on them,
watching their every move and listening to every word they utter.

NB:

17. These 3 forms of adolescent egocentrism decrease as one encounters

‘hard reality’

9.4 Factors Influencing Cognitive Development

18. Three (3) factors are known to influence cognitive development.

a. Biological factors maturation of the brain and the nervous system

b. Socio-cultural factors: social interaction, schooling and cultural

factors.

c. Experiences in the physical environment rich versus poor

environments vis-à-vis mental stimulation.

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9.5 Implications For Teaching/Leaning And Counseling

19. a. When to teach, what to teach: curriculum materials to consider the

child’s level
of development ‘readiness’ is paramount’

b. How to teach: teaching methods and materials consider the child’s

level of development. The child should be actively involved (i.e.
interacting with learning resources) the child should be also being
encouraged to discover.

c. Encouragement of peer interaction this reduces egocentrism.

d. Consider difference children develop at different rates.

9.6 Topic Activity

20. a. Briefly describe the four stages of cognitive development by Jean

Piaget, and point out the key concepts in each stage.

c. Explain the implications of Piaget’s theory of education and counseling.

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TOPIC 10: LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
10.0 Topic Introduction

1. Language is used throughout the human life span for communication

thinking problem – solving; creative activities; and, learning. Language
acquisition significant alter’s the child’s cognitive and social experiences
and helps children to form a view of themselves.

2. In this topic, we will trace the path of language development. It starts with
the definition of key terms; the process of language acquisition; theories of
language acquisition; and, the factors that influence language development.

10.1 Topic Objectives

3. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

a. Define the key terms in language development.

b. Describe the stages of language development.

c. Discuss and evaluate the basic features of the theories of language

acquisition.

d. Discuss the factors that influence language development.

10.2 Definition of Key Terms

4. a. Language: Language is a system of communication within a particular

society or group. Human language uses sounds to transmit meaningful
communication.

Language has several functions, namely:

i. Communication of thoughts, desires, and needs to.

74
 ii. Translation of experiences into symbols, so that one is able to
remember the experiences better.

iii. Helps to increase understanding.

iv. Social interaction.

v. Transmission of culture (i.e. People’s way of life)

b. Acquisition: The process by which we identity, perceive, register and

record information in our memory.

c. Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in a social context.

d. Morpheme: The smallest unit of a language that by itself has

recognizable meaning. It is a word or sentences.

e. Semantics: The study meaning of how the sounds of language are

related to the real world and over own experiences.

f. Phonology: The study of the sound system of a language and how it

develops.

10.3 The Process of Language Acquisition

5. Language learning is universal. All children of normal intelligence acquire

language. Children acquire language in the same way.

6. The process of language development follows the following stages:

b. Pre-speech communication (birth to 12 months)

 Before the development of speech, babies cry to communicate hunger,

pain, or discomfort, parents / caregivers interpret their cries and respond
to them.

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 Other forms of pre-speech communication include:-

i. Cooling (3 to 5 weeks); these are repeated vowel-like sounds, e.g.

ooh! ah! Vocalizations.

ii. Babbling (4 to 6 months): this involves a mixture of vowels and

consonants, e.g. ma/ma. Pa/pa. etc.

iii. From 10 months, babies use both gestures and changes in pitch to
communicate certain emotions questions, requests or commands.

 It is important to note that children understand language before they are

able to speak.

c. Holophrastic stage (10 to 18 months)

 Children begin to utter single words to refer to specific tangible things

they can see.

 A single word could be used to mean a number of things e.g. ‘door’

could mean, ‘that is a door’, ‘open the door’, e.t.c.

 The language is said to over-extend, e.g. a child will call all animals cow.
Over extension is as a result of limited vocabulary.

d. Telegraphic speech (18 to 30 months)

 Here children begin to put two word together like a telegram, e.g. baby
chair, baby milk, etc

 These sentences contain only the critical content words, leaving out the
articles.

e. Acquiring complex rules (2 years to pre adolescence)

76
  Children learn syntax by building on their knowledge of what words
mean.

 Initially, the rules are over applied, especially for making past tenses, e.g.
make marked; keep-keeped, etc instead of make; keep, etc.

 By three years, children have a vocabulary of 900 words.

 As they begin to make sentences, they discover the rule of combining

words (i.e. syntactical rule). Errors are common in their speech and this
provides an opportunity for correction.

10.4 Theories of Language Acquisition

7. There are 4 theories that explain the process of language acquisition,

namely; the learning theories, biological theories cognitive; and the
interactionist theories.

10.4.1 Learning Theories (Bf Skinner 1957; Albert Bandura)

8. According to this theory, language is ‘verbal behavior that is reinforced by

another persons’ language learning follows the principle of operant
conditioning. Through the continued reinforcement, children acquire syntax,
semantics and phonology.

9. According to the social learning theory of Albert Bandura children observe

what other (adult) people do and imitate.

10.4.2 Biological Theory (Lenneberg, 1967)

10. Advocates that the child is born with an innate language acquisition device
(LAD) which unfolds through the process of maturation. This implies that
language development follows a biological blueprint. The sequence of
77
 language acquisition is broadly similar in all societies.

11. According to this theory, any child will learn any language that they are
exposed to without difficulty.

10.4.3 Cognitive Theory (Jean Piaget, 1926)

12. He views language as part of child’s emerging cognitive abilities.

Accordingly, children acquire language and they use it to satisfy their needs.

10.4.4 Social Interaction Theory

13. This theory deals with the social skills of children and the effect of the social
environment. It emphasizes the child’s early experiences of
communicating and interacting socially with people in their surroundings.

14. Adults give meaning to sounds and utterances of infants through comments,
interpretations, extending and repeating what the child says.

10.5 Factors Influencing Language Development

15. The following are the factors that influence language development;

a. Social environment: The environment needs to be stimulating in terms of

language acquisition. In addition, there should be suitable role models
and regular use of language.

b. Presence of adult speakers rather than other children.

c. Cognitive development.

d. Maturation.

e. Bilinguals.

10.6 Topic: Activity

78
14. a. Describe the stages of language development.

b. Explain the various theories of language acquisition.

c. What is the role of parents / caregivers in language development?

TOPIC 11: PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

11.0 Topic: Introduction

1. In this topic, we will discuss the all-important process of personality. The

following aspects will be considered: personality, two (2) dimensions of
personality; and, the three (3) fundamental theories of personality development
i.e. the psychosexual theory, the psychoanalytic theory, and the psychosocial
theory.

11.1 Topic: Objectives

2. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:

a. Define personality according to Allport (1961)

b. Describe the two (2) dimensions of personality external and internal.

c. Discuss the three (3) theories of personality development; Freudian

psychosexual, Freudian psychodynamic, and Erickson’s psychosocial
79
 theories.

11.2 Personality

11.2.1 Definition

3. Allport (1961) defines as ‘the dynamic organization within the individual

psycho-physical systems that determine his / her characteristic behavior and
thought’.

In simple terms, personality is the whole of a person’s outstanding

characteristics, like the qualities of both the body and mind. These qualities are
blended together to make a whole and unique personality. The qualities include;
attitudes, ideals beliefs; opinions; and prejudices.

11.2.2 Two Dimensions of Personality

4. a. External dimension: Refers to beauty, attractiveness, body structure and

body stature. This external structure is heavily commercialized and may not tell
you much about what is inside.

b. Internal dimension: Consists of attitudes, thoughts, desires, ambitions, self-

concept, fear and anxiety.

Note:

5. Personality is complex in its development and its organization. Some aspects

of personality may change over time, while remain stable throughout life.

11.3 Theories of Personality Development

11.3.1 The Freudian Psychosexual Theory

6. It is a theory of sexuality. According to Freud, sexuality means anything

pleasurable. He proposed a sequence of universal normal psychosexual that

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 every child must pass through to acquire adult personality.

a. The Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

7. During this stage the mouth is the locus of pleasure. The infant takes pleasure
through the mouth (sucking, biting, chewing, e.t.c. therefore, the mouth and
the lips are the erogenous zone. The pleasure. The sexual object is the child’s
mother who provides for the sucking.

8. According to Freud, if something goes wrong during this stage, personality is

damaged. For example, if the mother overindulges then the child will retain
some degree of the oral character, observed in a personality pattern of
dependence, passivity, over trusting, insecurity and envy; nagging, sacarcism,
aggressive tendencies, e.t.c. as an adult, the individual may continue to seek
oral forms of gratification (e.g. chewing gum, love for sweets, smoking,
drinking and fussing with the lips)

b. The anal stage (2 to 3 years)

9. This stage corresponds to toilet training. The erogenous zone shifts from the
mouth to the anus. The child receives internal pleasure from bowel movement.
Initially, gratification comes from expelling faeces; but later on it comes from
retaining the same.

10. Problems arise if the methods of toilet training are bad. For instance, when the
child learns to be ashamed of toilet activity. If the training is too strict, he/she
may find it difficult to control his temper.

11. If the toilet training is smooth, the child develops self-confidence; becomes
creative and productive.

c. The phallic stage (4 to 5 years)

12. Phallus is the Greek word that refers to the ‘penis’. According to Freud, the

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 erogenous zone shifts to the phallus. The boy derives great pleasure and pride
in the phallus, and it becomes a source of self-assurance, courage as well as
recklessness and dare devil activities.

During this stage, boys and girls become aware of their anatomical differences.
They also begin to masturbate.

13. The second phase of the phallic stage is the beginning of the Oedipus complex
in boys, and the electra complex in girls. Oedipus was a Greek boy who was
greatly in love with his mother. He killed his father to get access to the mother,
who he married. At this time for the boy, the mother becomes the first love
object. The mother is loved mentally and sensually, and this makes the father a
sexual rival. The boy sees the father as threatening and he feels castration
anxiety. To resolve the conflict, the boy has to repress the feelings for this
mother, and he has to identity with the father and by so doing, incorporate all
that the father is in his behavior. This explains why the small boy copies all
attitudes and ideals of the father, with the reason that if he was like the father
the latter will not castrate him. If this crisis is not resolved, the boy might end
up moving with women older than him all the life.

Electra complex in girls is quite similar to the Oedipus complex in boys. The
little girl is in love with her father and is very annoyed with the mother. She also
sees herself as a castrated male, and suffers penis envy. To resolve the crisis,
she has to identify with the mother. Failure to resolve the crisis might lead to
the girl moving with men of older age.

NB:

14. It is clear from both Oedipus and electra complexes, how incest within the

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 family can come about.

d. Latency stage (6 to 11 years)

15. During this stage sexual interests are repressed, and hence ‘extent’ (hidden
/ unseen remember latent heat in physical?). The main source of pleasure
comes from the child’s interaction with the physical world. Pleasure is
achieved by satisfying the child’s curiosity. The child acquires the basic
knowledge and skills, which enable him t cope with his/her environment e.g.
mock cooking, baby sitting, e.t.c.

e. Genital Stage (12 to 19 years)

16. During this time sex energy (i.e. libido) is awakened to full sexuality. The sexual
objects this time round are people of the opposite sex. This stage also
coincides with the maturation of the reproductive system. It coincides with the
upsurge of the sex hormones. It is associated with the activation of the genital
zone as the erogenous zone. The underlying goal of the sex instincts becomes
biological reproduction.

11.3.2 The Freudian Psychoanalytic Theory

17. Sigmund Freud believed that the structure of personality had 3 systems, the id,
the Ego, and the super Ego. Each system has its own functions, but all the
systems do interact.

a. The Id (Registration)

18. The Id is a subconscious system. It is the most primitive of the 3 systems. It is

present at birth, and the first to emerge. The Id consists of basic biological
impulses/drives. It is the source of psychic energy, and controls the need to eat,
drink eliminate wastes; the need for pain avoidance, sexual pleasure and
aggressive instincts of man.

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 The Id therefore seeks immediate gratification, and operates on the pleasure
principle. It is also irrational and has no moral values.

b. The Ego

19. This is the second system to emerge. It is conscious (i.e. aware of realities) It is
rational (i.e. appeals to reason) and therefore obeys the reality principle. The
Ego controls the drives of the Id. It brings logic into thought and behavior. It is
the executive arm of personality, and controls actions by selecting what to do
and what to avoid.

c. The Super Ego

20. The super ego is the moral arm of personality. It represents cultural values
and norms. It decides the ‘rightness’ or ‘wrongness’ of behavior. It
stands for the ideal rather than the realistic. It is said to operate on the idealistic
principle. It inhibits the impulses of the Id, especially sexual impulses and
aggressive instincts.

21. The super ego- develops in response to parental rewards and punishments,
especially
from the father. This is because parents set the standards. If parental stands
are too high,
a guilt-ridden personality develops (inhibition, anxiety e.t.c). If parental
standards are too low, the individual will develop a weak-super ego (fails to
incorporate any standards of acceptance social behavior—may lead to
overindulgence or criminal tendencies).

22.The Id, ego, and super ego interact in a very interesting manner. For example:

Id — ‘I want to steal!’(i.e. seeks pleasure)

Ego — ‘you may be caught’ (i.e. tests reality) super ego — ‘stealing is a sin
and a crime!’(i.e. strives for perfection)
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23. The importance of the Freudian theory of personality development is:

a. It stresses the importance of the family in personality development.

b. It emphasizes the importance of child—parental interaction on the later

development of the child.

c. It exposes the fact that personality development problems result from

unresolved/unfinished developmental business in childhood.

d. It appreciates the known fact that the first 5 years of-life (the formative
years) is very important.

e. It shows that sub-conscious motives control behavior and indeed

personality.

11.3.3. The Ericksonian psychosocial theory of personality (1963, 1965, 1968, and
I82).

24. Erick Erickson was a neo-Freudian (i.e. his psychological work was
influenced by Freud’s work) who died between .1902 and 1994.

25.Erickson believed that children are active, adaptive explorers who seek to
control the environment instead of being controlled by it. According to Erickson,
as the child’s personality emerges there are crises/conflicts to be
encountered, and which must be
resolved by the mastery of successive tasks.

26. According to Erickson, a human being faces 8 major crises/conflicts, which

he called the eight ages of man. His theory is also referred to as the epigenetic
principle. Each crisis emerges at its own time and brings major changes in the
personality. The 8 stages are:

a. Trust versus mistrust (birth to 1 year)

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27.At birth infants ate helpless and must rely on others, therefore, they must learn
to trust others to take care of their basic needs. In this context, trust means
confidence optimism, and faith. For the child to trust, the mother or the mother
figure should always be there, be dependable to give food, warmth, comfort,
and love. In addition, they should show sensitivity. The mother should be
predictable, i.e. the child should have hope that this person will always be there
when needed. In this case, positive personality traits of trustworthiness and
confidence develop

28. If the-mother or mother figure is there, discomforts are removed. The child
enjoys physical stimulation. The child’s needs are satisfied consistently and
regularly. This child learns to trust, first the mother, then the self; and that trust
is generalized to the environment. The child acquires that positive virtue of
hope.

If on the other hand, the quality of maternal care is inadequate or inconsistent

where the baby is kept crying, hungry, wet, e t c for long. This baby learns
mistrust. They incorporate an attitude of fear and suspicion. This is first
extended to the mother, then to self, and to the environment. That child ends
up becoming pessimistic, lacks confidence, and is bitter towards others. That
bitterness is extended to the world at large. This is the kind of individual who
rejects advice from anybody.

29. Therefore, we are looking at trust as the foundation upon which positive
personality is developed.

b. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1 to 3 years)

30. At this time the child is able to do many things, such as controlling bowel
movement, acquiring and using language, exploring the environment in all
ways. On the other hand, there are parents who impose their own demands
and restrictions. To them, the child must conform to the rules of acceptable
behavior. The child should reconcile, his/her own needs to explore the
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 environment and the restrictions imposed by the parents.

31. The child should not be punished for the things that they do, e.g. wetting self,
spilling
things, e.t.c. instead they should be a balance. The parent(s) or caregiver
should carefully balance on the amount of control/restrictions;

If self-control is lost because of parental over control, then this child develop
self-doubt and shame. Any child with problems at this stage finds it difficult to
achieve autonomy or
independence during adolescence and adulthood.

c. Initiative versus guilt (3 to 6years)

32.A crisis emerges and should be resolved between 3-6 years. The father
assumes a place of great importance in the child’s life. This is the stage when
the super ego forms:
morality and conscience also develop. During this time the child becomes
aware of his/her sex roles. They initiate motor activities on their own. Parental
response to these initiated activities is very important. The child needs the
opportunity to show their initiative, which should be reinforced.

33.During this stage, children ask so many questions. Their questions should be
answered.
In their curiosity, children take on new tasks. From the parent children need
love-oriented discipline, so that they can develop a strong conscience.
However, if restrictions are imposed, they should be reasonable, failure to
which leads to children developing hypersensitive conscience, which in turn
leads to the incorporation of guilt in their personality. They need not encounter

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 unnecessary criticism at this point.

34. The child should be allowed to achieve a sense of purpose, in order to feel
fulfilled. If
this happens, the conflict is resolved and hence initiative is achieved anything
in the negative leads to guilt.

d. Industry versus inferiority (6 to 12 years)

35. Thee cries emerge and are ie1I’ resolved between 6 and 10 years. The child is
enjoying great physical, intellectual, social and emotional development. He/she
has established some attitudes that may remain with him /her permanently.
These are: feelings towards people, school, learning, and oneself. During this
time, the child has a sense of being, and is able to do things well. This child
wants to win recognition by producing things (e g toys, cars, houses, e t c)

36. Children evaluate their accomplishment by comparing themselves with

others. If they
experience failure, they will develop a sense of inferiority. The child should be
allowed to perform preparatory tasks The teachers and the parents should
recognize, praise and reward the child for industriousness. The children should
also be exposed to a wide variety of tasks, people and events.

37. It is incumbent upon the parents and teachers to strive to ensure that children
experience success and not failure. Feelings of success contribute to both
personal adjustment and social acceptance. They should thus be helped to
achieve that sense of industry.

Inferiority, on the other hand, means the inability of the child to carry out physical
and intellectual tasks as children enter adolescence

e. Identity versus role confusion (12 to 20 years)

38. During adolescent development the 5th psychosocial stage surfaces and it
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 is called identity achievement versus role confusion. Adolescent development
is a time when the youth consolidate all the achievements of childhood and
examine themselves asking questions that hinge on the need to establish
personal identity. The questions that come to focus have a bearing on where
the person is coming from in terms of the childhood that has ended, where the
person is now and where the person is headed in the future.

39. Depending on the past experiences with the earlier crises and the present
circumstances the person makes identity decisions and prepares for future
challenges. Those adolescents who have no problems with unfinished business
of childhood and who are also comfortable with present circumstances
emerge with good identity decisions while those who experienced challenges
with earlier crises and whose present circumstances are not supportive end
upon identity confusion.

f. Intimacy versus isolation (20 to 40 years)

40. As the person approaches early ‘adulthood the 6th psychosocial crisis
emerges, and it is
approximately called intimacy versus isolation to indicate psychosocial
competencies expected of young adults. During ‘this period the young adult is
expected to relate intimately with another person showing capacity to give and
receive love as well as the ability to demonstrate fidelity. The person also
demonstrates adjustment to adult life by taking up civic responsibilities e.g.
routing / jobs and abiding by the law of the land.

41. If all earlier stages have been successfully negotiated ‘and’ current
circumstances are supportive, the person is able to share one’s life, ‘with an
initiate partner showing commitment, sharing, closeness and love. On the
contrary the person who has not
negotiated earlier crises well and the present circumstances are not supportive
develops psychological isolation and is unable to give and receive love. This

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 person will lack capacity for commitment, sharing, love and closeness: The
person may not undertake his civil duties and may not have respect for the law
of the land and hence may not be averse to criminal activities and anti-social
tendencies.

f. Generativity versus stagnating (40 to 65 years)

42. During young and middle adulthood the person has to negotiate the
psychosocial crisis called generativity versus stagnation or self-absorption.
During this time the person is married and has children and has taken up
income generating activities to support the family.

43. The incorporation of generativity in the personality occurs if the person is

undertaking the care of children while at the same time undertaking duties and
responsibilities that enhance personal development such as holding
responsible positions at the place of work and in the community. Generativity
is also enhanced if the person is building structures that will out- live him/her
and be of use to future generations. The person who builds a house, the
teacher who builds a school, the doctor who builds a hospital or a lawyer who
start a law firm are examples of people who incorporate generativity in their
personality. The person who is unable to do all this will be self-absorbed, and
will incorporate stagnation in his/her personality.

In marriage the person does not show fidelity and may not take parental roles
seriously while at work he may show little commitment. The stagnation person
does not care much for society and its conventions and may either take to
alcoholism, drug or crime.

g. Integrity versus despair (65 and older)

44. The 8th psychosocial crisis emerges as the person enters old age and it is

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 called integrity versus despair, terms that reflect on what happens to the ego of
the person who has lived his life well and the one whose life has been a failed
mission.

45. As life enters its end the person looks back and puts judgment on it by
evaluating the success of failure of major life events. If the marriage was good,
children well raised and doing well in society and if the career life was
successful the person has reason to integrate integrity in the personality. If
given a second chance the person would do things the same way he/she has
done them. On the other hand the person who perceives life as a failed
mission because nothing seemed to work integrates despair as death
approaches.

11.4 Topic: Activity

46. a. Define term personality according to Allport (1961).

b. What are external and internal dimensions of personality?

g. Describe either Freudian psychosexual or Freudian psychoanalytic theory of

personality development.

d. Discuss Erick Erickson’s psychosocial theory of personality development.

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TOPIC 12: SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
12.0 Topic: Introduction

1. Human beings are social beings dependent on social contact (i.e. human
beings depend on others for the needs). In this topic, we will look at:
socialization: theories of social development, stages of social development;
factors that influence social development; agents of social development;
and role of play in social development.

12.1 Topic: Objectives

2. By the end of this topic the learners should be able to:-

a) Define and explain the processes of and social development.

b) Describe the stages of social development.

c) Describe the main theories of social development.

d) Explain the factors influencing social development.

e) Discuss the roles played by various agents of socialization.

f) Discuss play and its role in social development.

12.2 Socialization and Social Development

12.2.1 Socialization

3. Socialization is the process of shaping the young people to adapt to social

norms. Children learn and internalize values and ways of the society.

4. Socialization involves 3 components:

a. Learning how to behave. This includes, learning societal rules and how
to obey them.

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 b. Playing approved social roles according to age, sex, cultural
expectations, religious training and the person’s social status.

c. Developing social attitudes. This involves, feeling positive about group

membership (e.g. family member, member of a peer group, etc)

12.2.2 Social Development

5. Social development is the process through which we acquire the ability to

behave in accordance with social expectations, play approved social roles,
develop appropriate social attitudes, and acquire a sense of self-identity.

12.3 Stages of Social Development

Stage Description
a) Birth to 6 weeks  The child is not a social being, instead, the neonate
is a social. This means that it does not slow
preference for social interactions.
They respond in the same way to interesting social
and non-social stimuli.
 However, to become social human beings, they
need to be nurtured (i.e. cared for), they need to
experience psychological and physical warmth.
This would stimulate them into appreciating human
company, because human company is reinforcing.
b) 6 weeks to 6 months  This is the stage of indiscriminate attachment. They
show preference for human company without
discrimination. They smile more at people than at
objects. They also like being held.
 From 3 to 6 months, they start showing preference
to familiar faces. They enjoy the attention they
receive immensely.

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c) 7 to 9 months  This marks the development of specific attachment.
Infants show preference for a particular person,
especially the mother.
 They like proximity to the mother, and abhor
separation from the latter.
 They develop fear from strangers.
 If separated from the mother for a long time, they
develp regressive behavior (e.g. inability to control
urine flow).
 The formation of strong attachment to caregivers
has very important consequences, because it
promotes the development of social behavior. In
addition, that attachment gives security.
d) 13 months to 3 years  This is the stage of multiple attachments. Children
start to get attached to other people.
 They learn from siblings and other people
 By age 3, the attachment should have developed in
order to enable the child to move in the direction of
socio-psychological health.
e) 3 to 5 years  The pre-schoolers.
 Play is important.
 They acquire the basic social skill, e.g. greetings.
The acquire rules regarding politeness. They begin
to form friendships which are short-lived, and
which keep shifting. They also fight frequently and
briefly.
 This is a time when children are responsive to adult
suggestions about appropriate social behavior.
f) 6 to 11 years  Peer years or play years

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  Adult supervision declines.
 The child relates to other children more. They
engage in peer relationships for play and the
learning of social roles. They also learn the code of
acceptable behavior, (e.g. how to obey rules, and
how to give and receive help – the notion of
reciprocity).
g) 11 to 12 years  Marks the onset of puberty, and the youth go
through culturally specific puberty rites. This is the
rite of passage that marks the coming of age of an
individual.
 They are trained how to become men and women
in the society.
 They learn how to make friends with the members
of the opposite sex.
12.4 Theories of Social Development

12.4.1 The Psychoanalytical Theory:

6. According to this theory, social development is influenced by the

development of sex-typed behavior and attitudes to gender. These are
acquired when children learn to identify with the same sex parent after
resolving the Oedipus and Electra complexes.

12.4.2 The Cognitive Theory:

7. This theory emphasizes the role played by mental processes; through witch
children acquire social behavior by understanding and recognizing their
gender roles. If this does not happen, one may experience gender identity
problems (e.g. as found in transsexuals).

12.4.3 The Social – Learning Theory

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 8. According to this theory, children develop socially through observation and
imitation of others in the immediate environment. The environment provides
role models of social behavior (e.g. parents, peers, teachers etc).
Appropriate imitation is reinforced for example, in the traditional African
Society (TAS) boys were reinforced to aggression while girls were
reinforced by submission and dependence.

Inappropriate behaviors are punished, thus reducing the chances of being

repeated.

12.5 Agent of Socialization

Agent Description
a) The family  In infancy (especially)
 Parents train their children in the following areas:
eating, toilet training, sex modesty, dressing and
tidiness, respect for adults and those in authority, and
cultural inhibitions.
 Children are trained through rewards and
punishments; as well as by imitation of role models.
b) The school  Children learn how to relate to others formally and
informally.
 The school imparts knowledge, skills and proper
attitudes to pupils to help them fit in the society.
 The school also enforces the values of the society
(e.g. emphasizing cleanliness, respect, cooperation,
etc)
c) Peer groups  Children learn meaning of role, status and leadership
from peers.
 Peer groups provide opportunity to practice
leadership skills, learn social skills, provide emotional

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 outlets and support, and provide the opportunity for
free expression among equals without fear of
judgment or reprimands.
d) Social  These include societies, clubs and religious
Organizations organizations.
e) Mass Media  Includes electronic and print media.
 The role id to educate, inform and influence.
 Can enhance pro-social behavior, language and
cognitive development.
 It can also introduce anti-social behavior such as
aggression; and gender and racial stereotypes.

12.6 The Role of Play in Social Development

9. In playing, children learn to combine freedom with personally imposed rules

in activities that have no goal outside of the activity itself. Play involves
freewheeling fantasy, while games have externally imposed rules, they are
usually are competitive and have winners and losers. Young children
engage in play, older children engage in games. Play socializes and
educates youngsters.

12. Styles of play

a) Non-social play (2-3 years)

It includes:-

 Unoccupied play-time is spent observing some event or object.

 Onlooker play – involves watching other children play and not joining in
except to ask a question or suggestion.

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 Solitary independent play – involves playing with oneself without
interacting with others.

 Parallel play – playing by oneself but by other children who are also playing.

b) Social Play (4-5 years) includes

 Associative play – playing with others in a common activity, sharing play

materials and influence each other’s play activity, however there is no
coordination of division of labour or unifies goal.

 Co-operative play – more organized and has a common goal and common
rules.

NB: Social play is declining due to:

 Influence of the television

 Solitary and educational toys.

 Growing use of computers by the children

 Families with fewer siblings.

 Lack of space etc.

10. Type of Play

There are four types of plays;

a) Functional play

Most common in the first and third years and most common in boys and girls.
It involves simple repetitive muscular activities (with or without objects) for
example pulling at toys.

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b) Constructive play

Begins at the age of 2 years. Most common between the age of 4 and 6
years. It involves manipulation of object to build or create something. For
example using blocks, clay etc. Girls engage in more constructive play than
boys. Constructive play aids in problem solving by increasing flexibility and
consolidating learning encouraging elaboration and enhancing creativity.

c) Dramatic play (pretend or fantasy) involves either using imaginary situations

or characters. It may be simple or elaborate, For example playing careers
using puppets or costumes. Dramatic play allows learning through role-play,
permits children to rehearse problems in a no failure situation, and lets
children feel more powerful and competent by taking on the roles of parents,
workers and even super heroes. Pre-school children can use fantasy play to
handle feelings of helplessness, frustration and anger.

d) Games: For older children. Includes activities involving externally imposed

rules, structures and a goal. For example playing hopscotch, marbles etc.
Replace dramatic play and is common in ages 6-12 years. Gives practice in
following complex rules, cooperating in large and small groups, dealing with
winning or losing.

Importance of Play

a) The physical activity of play helps young children to develop and improve
their mental skills.

b) Imaginary and fantasy play is a step towards the development of abstract

thinking.

c) Play helps children to persevere and build attention skills.

d) Play is important in social – emotional development.

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  Children use play to understand, express, share and control emotional
experiences.

 Allow children to get rid of aggression and to learn to control

aggressive urges.

 Through play children from their first friendships and build social skills.

 Provide a fairly safe environment in which children can compare their

own behaviors and skills with those of other children.

e) Helps in muscular coordination and motor skill and refined.

f) Increase self-confidence.

g) Develops cognitive, social and emotional skills for example problem

solving, language competence and interaction.

h) Shows child’s inner needs and desires.

i) Helps children to better understands themselves, others and events.

j) Learns how to formulate, negotiate, argue and follow rules.

k) Improves creativity imagination and tolerance.

l) Helps children to acquire new information and understanding.

m) Learns how to listen to other’s views.

n) Learns to communicate ideas and acquire more vocabularies.

o) Resolve conflict – endurance, sympathy, and self-control, give and

receive.

p) Low impulsivity, low aggression, sharing, cooperation, independence,

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 social maturity.

12.7 Factors Influencing Social Development

a. Presence of a handicap

b. Heredity

c. Culture

d. Appropriate role models and socializing agents.

e. Disciplinary practices at home and school.

f. Birth order

g. Rate of maturation.

12.8 Topic: Activity

13 a. Discuss the three (2) theories of social development.

b. Describe the stages of social development.

c. Discuss the role played by the various agents of socialization.

d. Explain how play contributed to other aspects of development.

TOPIC 13: EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

13.0 Topic: Introduction

1. Emotions are what make us seem most human. We rage, laugh, cry, fear
and love. Having feelings is an important part of being human. Remember
that young infants are emotional creatures, too. In this topic, we will
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 discuss the development of emotions; and the factors that influence
emotional development.

13.1 Topic: Objectives

2. By the end of the topic, the leaner should be able to:

a. Explain what emotions are.

b. Discuss the development of emotions.

c. Explain the factors that influence the expression of emotions.

d. Discuss the factors that influence emotional development.

13.2 What is an Emotion?

13.2.1 Definition

3. Emotion refers to a complex fee ling-state, which involves changes in the

internal functioning of the body, and may also induce external changes in
the body.

4. Internal changes in the body arise when, for example a person is afraid; the
y would experience increased heart rate, sweating and have a dry mouth.
External changes in the body are observed in posture.

13.2.2 Emotion as a Mental Component:

5. Emotion is a conscious experience involving feelings e.g. happiness, fear,

sadness, etc.

13.2.3 Emotion Has Dimensions:

6. Emotion can be experienced in various intensities, e.g. very strong; strong;

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 mild; and weak.

7. Very strong emotions affect behavior and cognition.

13.3 Stages of Emotional Development (Bridges’ Theory, 1930).

Stage Description
a) Neonate (birth to 5  According to bridges, the neonate has only one
months emotion; and this emotion can be described as
excitement. It is the undifferentiated emotion
present between birth and the second week.
 The emotion is caused by intense stimulation, and
consists of uncoordinated skeletal and facial
reactions.
 Between week 3 and week 4, this emotion is
differentiated into: distress and delight. Delight is
caused by relaxation, and therefore the baby
smiles and looks in response to satisfying stimuli
like cleanliness, comfort, being well-fed, and
freedom from pain.
 Distress is marked by muscular tension, and it
involves crying, checked breathing etc, and is in
response to disturbing stimuli like hunger, wetness,
cold, heat and pain.
b) 6-7 months  Distress differentiates further into fear, anger and
disgust.
 Fear is caused by external objects, like strangers,
loud noise etc.
c) 7 – 12 months  Delight differentiates into elation and affection.
Elation is normally in response to events and
objects e.g. pleasant body sensation.

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  Affection is with regard to persons e.g. the feeling
that one loves another.
d) 15 – 18 months  The other emotions differentiate form distress e.g.
jealousy directed towards other children.
 By the second birthday, the new emotion of joy
appears.
e) 2 – 4 years  As early as age 2, children have the same
emotions as adults. What differentiates the two
emotions is the way these emotions are expressed.
 The emotions of shame, anxiety, disappointment,
and envy are differentiated form distress.
 Form delight, the emotions of hope and parental
affection are differentiated.
 Young children express their emotions immediately
and directly, e.g. they cannot wait for their needs to
be met, and therefore they cry and hit out.
f) 6 years plus  By age 6, children are more inhibited in their
expression of emotions. They are more verbal,
more thoughtful. They diversify ways of
expressing emotions. They also acquire and use
defense mechanism.

8. Learning plays a vital role in the expression of emotions.

Children learn how to express their emotions to cope with their feelings.
Then foundations for emotional control and positive development are laid
during early childhood.

13.4 Factors that influence emotional development.

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13.4.1 Socialization:

9. Boys are socialized differently from girls. The boys are socialized not to
fear, and not to cry while in pain. The girls are socialized oppositely.

10. Children learn specific appropriate behavioral expression of emotion. They

do this through the rewards that they receive.

11. They also learn through modeling (i.e. observation and imitation.
Additionally, they also learn through direct instruction.

13.4.2 Culture

12. Many African cultures train their men not to express emotion. Adult males
are not to show their feelings; rather they should master the art of self-
control.

13. When men are told not to show their emotions with time these emotions
become oppressive psychologically.

13.4.3 Emotional needs of individuals

14. All humans have need for love, belongingness (i.e. affiliation), security,
success, new experiences (i.e. to satisfy one’s anxiety and independence,
etc. when any one of these is not met, then negative emotions arise. If met,
then positive emotions arise.

15. Children are greatly concerned about amount of love their parents have for
them.

16. Children experience fear and suspicion. They are afraid of being insulted.
They worry about school, about the names people call them, etc. They
have increased fear of imaginary supernatural beings.

17. When children are emotional, they may in verbal outbursts.

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13.5 Emotional Attachment

18. Attachment refers to the formation of an enduring social-emotional

relationship between an infant and another person. Bowlby (1969) used
the term of describe the strong affectional tie that bind a person to an
intimate companion. The first attachment is always between the infant and
the mother/caregiver. There are 3 qualities of attachment:-

a. Secure attachment – Infant explores while alone with the mother and is
visible upset by separation. When the mother returns, infant is happy
and welcomes physical contact with her. The child is outgoing with
strangers when mother is present.

b. Insecure attachment (anxious and resistant) – Child appears anxious

and are unlikely to explore while mother is present. They become very
distressed when the mother departs. When mother returns they are
ambivalent, that is they are unlikely to initiate contact.

c. Insecure attachment (anxious and avoidant) – Uninterested in

d. Exploring when alone with their mothers. They show little distress when
separated from the mother and will avoid contact with her when she
returns. They are not particularly wary of strangers.

19. Stages of Attachment (Schaffer and Emerson, 1964)

i. The asocial stage (0-6 weeks)

The baby is “asocial” in that many kinds of social and unsocial stimuli
produce favorable reaction, and few produce any protest.

ii. The stage of indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks – 7 months). They

enjoy human contact but they are somewhat indiscriminate. Will protest
if an adult puts them down or leaves them alone. They enjoy attention

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 from anyone.

The stage of specific attachment (7months)

iii. They begin to protest if separated from one particular individual, usually
the mother.

They begin to fear strangers. This shows they have formed their first
genuine attachments.

iv. The stage of multiple attachment

v. They become attached to other people – father, siblings, grandparents

or a regular baby sitter.

Factors promoting attachment

a) Parents begin to prepare long before the baby is born, for example
planning and excited about the development of the baby.

b) Feedings and overall responsiveness and amount of stimulation.

c) Warmth and contact are important.

d) The appearance of the baby-large forehead, chubby cheeks and

soft rounded features. They appear cute and lovable.

e) Level of intellectual development, particularly the ability to

discriminate familiar persons from strangers.

f) Inborn programmed responses that enable them to promote

interactions from which attachment are likely to develop, e.g. rooting,
grasping, smiling and crying.

Factors That May Inhibit Attachment

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 a) Unlovable babies – irritable and unresponsive. For example premature

Babies are less alert and avoid caregiver’s attention; children born to
drug addicts are more irritable, withdrawn, sluggish and unresponsive.

b) Unreachable caretakers – If depressed, pregnancy was unplanned or

following preconceived notions of child-rearing; if they are emotionally
insecure, for example feelings of being unloved, neglected or abused as
children.

c) Environmental factors – Too many children to look after and no help,

unhappy marriage – depression. Unhappily married parents are often
stressed to the point that it is difficult for them to respond warmly and
sensitively to their infants.

20. Effects of attachment on later development

i. If securely attached the child will be more curious; interested in learning;

cooperative friendlier toward adult more liked by peers; better at
problem solving; and more complex and creative in symbolic play during
the infancy stage.

2. A securely attached infant derives comfort from close companions and

can use them as safe bases for exploration.

iii. In nursery school, those who were securely attached become social
leaders, they often initiate activities; they are more sensitive to the
needs and feelings of other children; they are popular with peers and
they are described as curious, self-directed; eager to learn; and less
dependent on adults.

iv. Insecurely attached infants do not venture far from their attachment
object though they derive very little comfort or security from them. They
are usually hostile and aggressive and are likely to be rejected by peers.
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 v. In nursery school, the insecurely attached are socially and emotionally
withdrawn; are hesitant to engage other children in play activities; and
are described by observers as less curious, less interested in learning
and much less forceful in pursuing their goals.

13.6 Importance of Emotional Development

23. Ability to understand and interpret other emotions and to express

emotions is an important aspect of social cognition. It enhances social
development in the following ways:

a. Emotional expressions at infancy help infants and their close companions

“to get to know each other”. For example cries of distress – attention,
smile – social, fear and sadness – insecure, anger – stop what you are
doing, joy – prolong whatever interaction is going on, so infant emotions
promote social contact and help caregivers to adjust their behavior to the
infant’s needs and goals.

b. Ability to interpret others emotions enables one to enjoy good relations with
peers thus becomes better in social competence.

c. Social referencing enables children to acquire knowledge. For example, a

mother’s pained expression and accompanying vocal concern may
suggest that the knife in ones hand is dangerous.

d. The information contained in caregivers’ emotional displays contributes to

the child’s understanding of the world in which he lives.

13.7 Topic Activity

24. a. Discuss the six (6) stages of emotional development

b. Explain the factors that influence emotional development.

c. What is the importance of recognizing and interpreting emotions

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 correctly in others?

d. Discuss the various types of attachment and their effects.

e. Explain factors that promote attachment in babies.

TOPIC 14: MORAL DEVELOPMENT

14.0 Topic Introduction

1. Moral values are social values. They deal with individual behavior in relation to
fellow human beings. In this lesson we will discuss the two (2) important
theories of moral development; as well as the various of moral development.

14.1 Topic Objectives

2. By the end of topic, the learner should be able to:-

a. Define morality, morals and moral development.

b. Outline the characteristics of a moral person.

c. Discuss the various agents of moral development.

d. Discuss the Piaget’s and Kohlberg’s theories of moral development.

14.2. Definition
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14.2.1Morality

3. Morals are standards of behavior that are based on certain values. These are
also the standard by which individuals assess the ‘rightness’ of
‘wrongness’ of behavior.

4. Morality is the relative goodness of people, reflected in belief and behavior it is

determined by the context of the society. Therefore, a moral person behaves in
accordance with the system of values that are self-accepted and self enforced.

14.2.2 Moral Development

5. Moral development is the process through which individuals acquire the ability
to distinguish between good and bad.

6. Moral development is the acquisition of the sense of right and wrong.

7. Moral development occurs as a child begin’s to understand the values that

guide and regulate behavior within a given societal system. Through this
process the child acquires traits that make up his/her character, behavior and
personality. The child learns through social interaction with other people, and
the process is gradual.

14.3 Characteristics of a Moral Person

8. a. Conforms to rules and regulations

b. Is friendly and helpful

c. Possess inner goodwill.

d. Is committed to doing good wholeheartedly expecting payments and favour.

e. Behaves well without selfishness, and is not controlled by fear of punishment.

14.4 Agents of Moral Development

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14.4.1 The Family

9. Through direct instruction, imitation, storytelling, proverbs, rewards and

punishment.

14.2.2 Peer Groups:

10. Increased social experience with peers reduces unilateral respect for adult
authority and increase respect for peers and their points of view.

They also learn to take roles and assume another’s perspective. Can be
influenced to do good or bad.

14.4.3 School:

11. The teachers serve as authority figures who should be observed and imitated.

The school also has rules and peers, both of which influence the individual
morally.

14.4.4 Religious Organizations:

12. These teach moral / religious values.

14.4.5 Culture

13. These have their own laws, customs and social norms to be conformed with.

14.5.6 Mass Media

14. The individual may learn good or bad behavior through observation and
imitation.

14.5 Theories of Moral Development

14.5.1 The Psychoanalytical Theory (Sigmund Freud)

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15. According to this theory, the seat of morality is the super ego. The super ego
develops after successful resolution of the Oedipal and Electra complexes.

16. The child identifies with the same – sex parent and emulates that parent’s
characteristics. The child internalizes parental standards and prohibitions (i.e.
the “dos” and the “don’ts”), which reflect societal norms. When they
indentify with the same – sex parent, they develop ego-ideal: a set of ideal,
guilt conscious develops.

17. According to Sigmund Freud, moral development should be complete by age

six (6). At this age, the child should be able to experience guilt and shame.

14.5.2 Social Learning Theory (B.F. Skinner)

18. According to this theory, moral development is acquired through reinforced

procedures, observation and imitation of models.

19. In operant conditioning, moral development is acquired when parents give

reinforcements in form of approval, affection etc. it says that, any behaviuor
that violates social norms is punished by reproof and loss of privileges.

20. Children learn by observation and imitation of models who determine the
appropriate moral behavior. When these appropriate behaviosr are reinforced,
they increase in frequency.

14.5.3 Cognitive theory (Jean Piaget, 1923/1965; Lawrence Kohlberg,

1973/1975/1981):

21. According to this theory, mental processes that is thinking and perceiving
determine moral behaviours. It says that increasing cognitive maturity and
social experiences gradually lead children to gaining better understanding of
cooperative social achievements to gaining better understanding of
cooperative social achievements that regulate moral responsibility.

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22.The two (2) proponents of this theory are each dealt with in detail.

14.5.3.1 Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development

23.There are two (2) stages of moral development

i) Pre-moral stage (birth to 10  It is pre-moral because during early

years) childhood, children show little
understanding of social rules. Young
children invent their own rules. They
change rules at will. A game for example,
will be conducted according to their own
desires.
 A shift occurs between 5 to 10 years. The
moral thinking of this stage is called
heteronymous morality (moral realism).
From age 5, children believe that rules
form authority figures are fixed, sacred
and absolute. They believe that any
wrong doing is followed by imminent
judgment. They judge actions by looking
at the consequences and not intentions.
ii) Stage of Autonomous  At this stage moral reasoning is more
Morality (moral relativism (10 to relative to the situation. Children judge the
13 years) ‘rightness’ or ‘wrongness’ of an
action depending on the intentions and the
consequences. They no longer consider
rules as absolute and therefore, they are
able to consider social agreement. They
also realize that somebody can be
disobedient, or tell a lie and still be justified

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 in their action. They further raalize that
not all wrong doing can be punished, and
that somebody can even escape
punishment after wrong doing.

24. Factors that lead to moral development, according to Piaget’s are:

The development of cognitive abilities, particularly during middle childhood

when centration (i.e. inability to move forward and backward in thought)
declines when centration declines, moral reasoning improves.

Social experiences, particularly with peer groups. As the child interacts with
his/her peer group, their egocentrism declines. With the decline of
egocentrism, the child learns to consider and to incorporate other people’s
points of view.

Interaction with peers also reduces the unilateral respect for adult authority,
and includes respect for the peers and their points of view. These factors aid
development.

Encouraging independent reasoning when faced with moral ‘dilemmas’ will

help in developing moral reasoning.

14.5.3.2 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (1973)

25.Lawrence Kohlberg expanded in Piaget’s work.

He worked with pre-adolescents, adolescents and adults to develop the theory.

26. Kohlberg would present his subjects with moral dilemmas.

Each dilemma had a conflict situation. Read and carefully consider the
following story of Heinz;

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 Heinz had a wife who was near death from cancer and there was only one
drug to save her life and this drug had recently been discovered by a druggist
within the same town. The drug was pretty expensive to make. Heinz went to
everyone he knew to borrow money for buying the drug, but he was only able
to raise half the amount required. He pleaded with the druggist to sell him drug
but the latter refused. Heinz got desperate, went and broke into the store and
stole the drug which he gave to the wife and she got healed.

27.The obvious question that arises from Heinz’s story above is:

Should he have done what he did?

28. From people’s responses, Kohlberg identified three (3) levels of moral
development with six (6) stages:

Level Stage Description

a) Level 1: pre- State 1: punishment  Morality is not internalized.

conventional morality Avoidance The child is not a morally
functioning human being.

 The child does what is right in

order to satisfy his/her own
Stage 2:
needs and sometimes the
Instrumental
needs of others.
Relativistic
orientation  The child practices that
market place morality. It is
market palace because the
good deed are sold for a
price (i.e. they will do good
things for you in return for
something).

 The child is making deals for

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 a fair exchange.

 The moral act is the one that

leads to the reward.

b) Level II: Conventional Stage 3: Good boy,  The child does good deeds in
Morality (marks the nice girl Orientation order to be recognized. They
internalization of will refrain from cheating in
morality order to look good.

 At this stage, children are

beginning to observe
conventions of the society:
interpersonal cooperation,
playing one’s role, and have
intensions to please others.
They also show some respect
for authority.

 The moral act is the one that

leads to the good boy, nice
girl label etc.

 The major short – coming

her is that they see rules as
fixed. They see the law as
unchanging. They do not
understand the arbitrariness
of the law (i.e. made by man
and can be changed by man).

 Adolescents with problem in

moral development break all
the conventions of the

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 society.

c) Level III: post Stage 5: Legalistic  This is the moral reasoning of

conventional morality orientation the young adult.

 He / she is expected to
recognize the arbitrariness of
the law.

 Expected to enter into

contractual agreements: with
the employer, in marriage,
meet their obligations
towards a child (if any), and
observe all social obligations.

 We expect the young adult to

be committed to their duties,
a commitment that goes
beyond law and order.

Stage 6: Universal  The highest stage of moral

ethical principle reasoning.

 For mature adults

 The person is operating

without fear of punishment.

 The moral reasoning is not

bound by law.

 Should be able to observe the

morality of care (i.e. taking
core of other people and
respecting them).

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  The mature adult safeguards
life the highest morality.

NOTE:

29. Religious observe is not correlated with morality. One can look religious and
yet be quite immoral.

30. Most individuals in most cultures acquire only the conventional level of
morality. They do not grow the morality of care.

31. Many people are hedonistic, i.e. they are guided by the pleasure principle
(principle of self love and pain avoidance).

32.Morals are acquired by learning through observation and imitation of other

people in society (i.e. feelings, mental attitudes, and actions).

33.Moral behavior is relative (to the acceptable code of behavior of the society vis
-a vis the individual observing).

14.6 Topic: Activity

34. a. Define moral development

b. Describe Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

c. Differentiates between heteronymous and autonomous morality.

d. Explain how the school environment can influence moral development.

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TOPIC 15: ADOLESCENT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
15.0 INTRODUCTION

1. The word adolescence comes from Latin verb “adolescere” which means to
grow into maturity. Hall defined it as a period in human development beginning
at puberty and ending when full adult status has been attained by twenty two to
twenty five years. In the African traditional setting the adolescent period is
marked by coming of age ceremonies.

2. In this lesson we will address the following aspects of adolescent development:

developmental tasks; developmental changes, which includes physical,
cognitive, social and emotional aspects; challenges and problems facing the
adolescents and coping strategies.

15.1 Topic: Objectives

3. By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:

a. State the development tasks of adolescence.

b. Describe the physical changes at the adolescent stage and discuss their
impact on adolescent behavior.

c. Describe the cognitive, moral social and emotional changes at the adolescent
stage.

d. Discuss the challenges and problems facing the adolescents and what can
be done to enhance their growth and development.
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15.2 Development Tasks

4. Developmental tasks are inescapable expectations or obligations that a person

has to attain by the end of a specific stage of development. Durojaiye (1979)
suggested eight developmental tasks that have to be satisfied during the
adolescent period:

a. Attaining individuality.

b. Making progress towards an organized personality pattern

c. Developing a philosophy of life.

d. Developing a concept of values and desirable behavior.

e. Achieving a place in society.

f. Understanding personal assets and liabilities.

g. Maturing of plans for future living.

h. Establishing deep personal relationships with individuals of both sexes.

5. Progress towards the attainment of these tasks ensures that boys and girls
move from childhood to adulthood mentally, emotionally, socially and
physically. They also attain the attitudes and beliefs needed for effective
participation in society. In the following sections we are going to see some of
the changes that take place during this period.

15.3 Physical Growth and Development

6. The onset of adolescence is revealed by two significant changes in physical

development.

a. The adolescent growth spirit, that is a rapid acceleration in weight and height
that marks the beginning of adolescence.
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 b. Puberty – derived from the Latin word “pubertas” which means age of
manhood or literally to grow hairy. It refers to that point in life when we reach
sexual maturity and become capable of producing a child. The period
marked by the onset of the maturation of the reproductive functions is
referred to as pubescence. It lasts for two years ending in puberty.

7. It has been established that at some biologically determined time, the pituitary
gland sends a message to a young person’s gonads or sex glands (ovaries
and testis). The timing is regulated by the interaction of genes, the person’s
health, nutrition and other environmental factors. The sex glands then produce
hormones, which stimulate sexual maturation (estrogen, testosterone and
androgen).

8. The average age for the onset of pubescence for girls in ten years with puberty
following at age twelve with a normal range of nine to sixteen years. For boys
the average age is twelve to fourteen years with a normal range from eleven to
eighteen years. Marked physical changes take place during this period:

Primary Sex Development

9. These are changes related to the maturation of the external and internal sex
organs. For example, in males, the penis, scrotum, testes, seminal vesicles
and the prostate gland mature. In females, the ovaries, fallopian tubes uterus,
vagina, and breasts also reach maturity. The most dramatic sign of sexual
maturity in girls is the “menarche” i.e. the onset of menstruation. It occurs
about two years after breast and uterine growth begin to grow and after a
girl’s height has slowed down. It occurs between eleven to sixteen years.
The presence of sperms in the male’s urine is considered the principle sign of
sexual maturation.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

10. These are the features that accentuate the anatomical distinction between
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 boys and girls. For example, in males and voice become hoarse, wet dreams,
hair in armpits and genital areas, facial hair, broadening of shoulders etc. In
females, growth of breasts, widening of the pelvis (hips) and public hair.

Growth Spurt

11. There is an accelerated rate of increase in weight and height. Girls reach their
adult height by fourteen or fifteen years and most boys by eighteen. There are
also changes in the body proportion. The legs and arms lengthen hips in girls
become wider and boys develop around shoulders.

Physiological Changes

12. There are greater changes in the internal systems of the body. Respiratory,
circulatory, digestive, blood pressure and pulse rates reach their full growth.

Physical Activity and Ability

13. There is a greater increase in muscular strength. Males have larger muscles,
lungs, and greater capacity for carrying oxygen in the blood. This accounts for
their considerable greater strength and endurance. Boys are better in activities
that involve speed and muscular strength, while girls are better in jumping and
throwing.

Cognitive Development

14. The middle part of the brain spurts out and reaches full development at this
period.

Psychological and Social Impact of the Physical Changes

15. Adolescence can be a very embarrassing time. This is because young people
are convinced that everyone is watching their every move and their bodies are
constantly betraying them. These changes have significant behavioral
implications.
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 a. If they are not informed of the changes in advance, it can lead to extreme
anxiety, withdrawal and depression.

b. They become very sensitive about their appearance e.g. fat, acne, big,
breasts etc.

c. They worry a lot. For example, girls worry about menstrual accidents while
boys may worry about uncontrolled erections. They may become very
apprehensive about participating in activities such as standing in front of the
class to read.

d. They become very self-conscious and feel that everybody is watching their
every move.

Early and Late Maturation

16. Young people vary widely in the age at which they reach puberty. For example,
at fifteen years, a girl may still be flat chested and very small while another at
the same age may be fully developed and able to reproduce. Therefore, some
adolescents mature early while others mature late due to individual differences.
These variations are normal and do not either help or interfere with the eventual
achievement of full physical and sexual maturity. However, they can affect the
way adolescents’ view themselves and the way they are viewed by others.
The following are some possible effects of either early or late maturation.

Effects of early and late maturation

17. a. Boys

Research has shown that early maturity boys are more poise, relaxed, good
natured, popular with peers, likely to be leaders and less impulsive than late
maturers. They also have a high self-esteem.

Adults and peers rate early maturers as physically more attractive, more

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composes, and more socially sophisticated than late maturers. They are
independent, self-controlled and dominant.

Early maturing boys may have problems in living up to others’ expectations.

They are expected to act mature than they are capable of.

Research has found that late maturers feel more inadequate, rejected, dependent,
more aggressive, and insecure. They are more likely to rebel against parents and
think less of themselves. They may feel and act more childishly.

Late maturers have the advantage of having a longer childhood whereby, they
don’t have to deal with the new and difficult demands of adolescence.

b. Girls

Early maturing girls had been found to be less sociable, expressive, poised and
more introverted and shy.

Early maturing girls make better adjustments in adulthood.

Late maturing girls are initially more gregarious, socially poised, assertive, active,
more popular with peers, and more satisfied with their body image. However, at
late adolescence, the early maturing girls become more popular with both sexes,
more self-poised, better at coping, more self-directed cognitively, socially and
emotionally.

15.4 Cognitive and Psycho-Social Development

18. In this section, we are going to discuss the changes and characteristics of
adolescents in the following aspects of development; cognitive, moral, social
and emotional.

15.4.1 Cognitive Development at the Adolescent Stage

19. Most of the adolescents are at the Formal Operational stage although some

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 may still be at the concrete operational stage. Characteristics of thinking at this
stage are:

a. They can reason about abstract ideas. They are freed from concrete
reasoning. They can think about the future, and can think in terms of symbols
and imaginary events.

b. They acquire the ability to generalize facts – deductive reasoning, see

relationships and solve problems of increasing complexity and difficulty.

c. They have the ability reason hypothetically e.g. what if; supposing… . They
can generate very unusual and creative responses. Concrete operators are
more likely to balk at hypothetical propositions and say it can never happen.

d. They have ability to appreciate metaphoric meaning, i.e. using a word or

phrase with one literal meaning to describe another object or event. For
example, “a blanket of snow”. “shattered Faith”.

e. Their approach to problem solving becomes increasingly systematic and

abstract, like the hypothetical deductive reasoning of a scientist.

f. They have a tremendous development of long-term memory and imagination.

They also develop an increase in language. They have an increased ability to
communicate with other persons.

g. They can identify with conditions and characters in the large world.

h. Argumentativeness. They have the desire to practice their newfound mental

ability to consider various pints of view. It helps to stretch out their reasoning
ability. They need to engage in discussions.

Adolescent Egocentrism

20. In spite of the tremendous development in their cognitive ability, adolescent

thought is limited by adolescent egocentrism. There are three forms of this
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 egocentrism.

a. Personal Fable

Adolescents see themselves as much more central and significant on the

social stage than they actually are. For example, they believe that no one
else has ever had the particular emotional experiences they themselves are
having, e.g. so angry, so much in love etc. an example is a teen telling the
mother “you don’t know how it feels to be in love”. They also see
themselves destined for great fame and fortune e.g. discovering a cure for
cancer or being a great philosopher.

b. Imaginary Audience

They agonize over the fact that others are constantly watching and making
comments about them. They fantasize how others will react to their
appearance and behavior. For instance, they will spend hours before a
mirror thinking other will judge the final result. They will enter a room
regarding themselves as the most attractive and admired human being
alive. It they have a slight blemish, they will not want to go to school, or
they will with they were invisible. They keep seeing disapproval
everywhere.

c. Invincibility Fable

They feeling that they are somehow immune to the laws of mortality and
probability. They believe they have a mission in life and problems cannot
befall them yet. They fee magically protected from harm such ad death,
accident, pregnancies etc. This leads to risk taking behaviors e.g. drunken
driving, promiscuity etc.

d. Naïve Idealism

Inability to differentiate the ideal from the practical. They imagine an ideal
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 world and they feel compelled to try and bring reality closer to the ideal.
For example, they heave perfect answers to social problems. They point
out all the shortcomings in people and things and find fault with almost
everybody especially those in authority.

15.4.2 Adolescent Moral Development

21. a. According to Kohlberg, most adolescents are at the conventional level (stage
three and four), but a small percentage especially the delinquents are at the
pre-conventional level. A few be at the post-conventional level. Rewards and
punishments guide pre-conventional reasoning on right behavior, conventional
– conforms to the laws of society and post – conventional they follow their
own principles.

b. Most adolescent are at a state three, which is characterized by mutual and

interpersonal expectation, relationships and conformity. What is right is living up to
what is expected by people close to you, which generally involves conformity to
stereotypical good behavior. Anticipation of approval or disapproval by significant
others and the need to be a good boy/girl guides behavior.

c. At stage four, what is right is fulfilling the actual duties to which you have
agreed. Right I maintaining the society, group or institution. One does the right to
avoid the breakdown of the system or the institution “if everyone did it”.

d. Due to advances in cognitive development, the adolescent critically examines

the moral code and asks a number of questions. This makes the adolescent to
achieve autonomous moral reasoning. They internalize moral concepts and are
able to choose what is right or wrong by themselves.

15.4.3 Social Development at the Adolescent Stage

22.Physical changes at adolescence have an effect on social development and

relationship. The appearance of adult physical characteristics leads to

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 demands from adults that the adolescent should act more grown up. This may
lead to friction between the adolescent and the adults around him.
Adolescence is a period of ambivalence towards adults especially teachers
and parents whom the adolescent may think are old fashioned and
unreasonable. Let us examine a few aspects of social relationships at this
stage.

a. Parent – Adolescent Relationships

The family is both a source of security and a difficult problem for the
adolescent. It is a source of security because it offers a refuge, a place to
acceptance and a place where material needs are provided e.g. food,
clothing, and shelter. It is a problem because it is barrier to free choice of
activities, friends, subjects etc. This leads to difficult relationships between
parents and adolescents. Parents and teachers need to enhance smooth
relationships with adolescents by doing the following.

i. Parents and teachers need to appreciate the difficulties of this period. They
need to provide abundant love and understanding.

ii. Involve the adolescents in decision –making. There is a need to tone down
parental domination. Identity cannot be achieved if parents are too
domineering.

iii. Avoid dictating to them. Explain your reasons.

iv. The school should provide opportunities to foster social relationships and
development e.g. social functions such as games, debates, seminars,
excursions and trips.

v. Adolescent’s needs to trust parents in order to accept their decisions as

wise and just.

b. Peer-Adolescent Relationship
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 The adolescent develops more relationships with people outside the family,
especially the peer (people of the same age and the same behavior level).
The peer group is important because it gives opportunities to the
adolescent to practice social skills, conversation, courtesy, and
cooperation and leadership roles. Major functions of the peer group are:

i. It provides a source of information and comparison about the world

outside the family.

ii. The adolescent receives feedback about his abilities, e.g. whether
good in sports, popular with peers etc.

iii. Creation and reinforcement of values and attitudes.

iv. Provides moral and emotional support and alternatives.

v. Can try possibilities safely without blames, and rebukes by adults. Can
rehearse roles and test out ideas and behaviours, e.g. information
about sex, co-operative and competitive behavior among equals, sex-
role behaviours and the expression of aggression and play.

vi. Provides refuge from adult pressures and de

NB:

Peer pressure and peer conformity may discourage individuality and self-
assertion. Negative peer pressure is more effective on adolescents from unhappy
homes.

15.4.4 Emotional Development during the Adolescent stage

23.The adolescent experiences similar emotions as the young child, but there are
differences in the amount, intensity, types of responses and types of stimuli
that create the emotions of the adolescent. The physical changes at puberty
make their emotions change so frequently that have been described as
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 ambivalent, or vacillations. Adolescent emotions have also been described as
heightened. This can be explained by the following factors.

a. Causes of Heightened Emotions

i. Parent – adolescent relations

Excessive parental domination: unreasonable restrictions; sibling rivalry etc.

Feels parents and unreasonable and old fashioned. Leads to friction. They
feel like children in decision – making, and when they become emotionally
volatile, parents reprimand them for being childish. This makes the
adolescent confused.

ii. Adjustment at home and at school

The changeover to new patterns of habits creates emotional tensions. The

process of changing from total dependence to independence roles with
greater responsibility disturbs the adolescent.

iii. Unfavorable relations in the home

Lack of proper guidance in preparation for the problems of adolescence;

lack of understanding their interests and points of view.

iv. Social Expectations

They are expected to think and act like an adult for whom he is not physically
and intellectually ready.

v. Adjustment to members of the opposite sex

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 There is attraction towards the members of the opposite sex but the
adolescent is not able to understand the correct social behavior.

vi. Religious conflicts

He critically examines his parent’s beliefs and begins to criticize them

vii. School failure

Failure in school causes heightened emotionality so much so that a number

of adolescents commit suicide leave home or withdraws from school.

viii. Vocational problems

They develop anxiety when they see many unemployed. They worry about
their future occupation.

vii. Happiness

Feels happy when at ease, achieves a sense of superiority over others and
when releases stored up emotional energy.

15.4.5 Challenges and problems facing adolescents

24. The adolescent period can be a very tying and traumatic period for some of
the adolescents. Common adolescent problems include juvenile delinquency,
suicidal tendencies, substance abuse, chronic aimlessness eating disorders
and truancy. In addition, the adolescent is faced by a number of challenges,
which include resolving of identity issues, sexuality related challenges, school
and career-related challenges, choice of friends, peer pressure and conflict
with adults.

25.The following are suggestions that can help adolescent to cope with the
challenges and problems of this period.

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 a. Provide a favorable home environment where there is unconditional
acceptance and love, and respect. Parents also need to model responsible
behavior and learn to listen to what the adolescents have to say. In addition,
provide basic necessities.

b. Develop accountability and responsibility in the adolescents. This can be

achieved through discussion of conflicting values, giving them experience in
decision – making, giving them opportunities to do things for themselves and
letting them experience the consequences of their behavior.

c. Provide continuous guidance and counseling as the need arises. Prepare

them for the changes before they occur. Give them information so as to
make informed choices and decisions.

d. Encourage them to discover their talents and support them. Identify skills
they can train in especially during school holidays.

e. Encourage delay of gratification and self-control. Let them participate in

community service and other sublimation activities.

f. Parents and teachers to tone down their domineering attitudes. Involve them
in decision making and discussion of various issues affecting them. As much
as possible use the democratic process or the participatory approach.

g. Train them in life skills such as decision-making, assertiveness and choice

making.

h. Encourage high self-esteem and positive self-concept.

i. Provide emotional support and intervention for those who may face problems.
For example, provide suicide awareness programs, psychotherapy, drug
therapy and peer counseling to those who may be in a crisis.

15.5 Topic: Activity

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26. a. ‘Adolescence is a crucial stage of development with enormous
implications for the rest of the individuals’ life’. Discuss the core values of
‘adolescents development’ in physical, cognitive, moral, emotional and
social aspects, bringing out reasons why one adolescent will make a smooth
transition while another one finds it difficult to navigate the stages.

b. Explain why peers are important in the life of an adolescent.

TOPIC 16: ADULT DEVELOPMENT

16.0 Topic Introduction

1. The period of adulthood (or maturity) is the beginning of a commitment to

caregiver’s marriage and parenthood.

2. In this topic, the three (3) stages of adulthood will be considered; early
adulthood (20-40 years), middle adulthood (41-65 years), and adulthood and
aging (65 plus). For each stage we will consider the development changes,
developmental tasks, and the accompanying challenges/problems. However,
there are some variations based on factors such as cultural demands, socio-
economic, personality differences, e.t.c.

16.1 Topic: Objectives

3. By the end of the topic, the learner should be able to:-

a. Discuss developmental changes and tasks at each of three (3) stages of

adulthood.

b. Discuss some of the challenges/ problems in childhood, and suggest coping

strategies.

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16.2 Early Adulthood (20-40 Years)

16.2.1 Developmental changes:

4. In physical term; strength, energy and emergence characterize early adulthood.

All the senses are most effective at this time. It is also the peak of muscular
strength (especially at about 25-30 years)

5. In cognitive terms; the main feature of adult thinking is its practical nature.
They focus on solving real problems. They accept contradiction, imperfection
and compromise as part of adult life.

16.2.2 Developmental Tasks:

6. Early adulthood is at Erick Erickson’s 6th stage of intimacy versus isolation. As

such, the developmental tasks here include.

a. Selecting a mate

b. Marrying and learning to live with the spouse

c. Starting a family

d. Rearing children

e. Managing a home

f. Picking on occupation

g. Civic responsibility

h. Separating from parents

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 i. Finding a congenital social group.

j. Financial and psychological independence.

16.2.2 Challenges

7. a. Decision making

b. Leaving (parents) and clearing (onto one’s spouse)

c. Setting down in life.

16.3 Middle Adulthood (41-65 years)

16.3.1 Developmental changes;

8. In physical terms, a number of changes do take place:

a. There is a marked and gradual decline in many aspects of physical

development. Both vision and hearing begin to decline.

b. Incidences of cardiovascular diseases increase. Depending on one’s

lifestyle, blood pressure may rise.

c. Muscular strength declines steadily.

d. Menopause (i.e. end of menstruation) occurs over a prolonged from around

45 – 65 years.

e. Male climacteric syndrome (i.e. loss of ability to reproduce) appears from

the 60s to the 70s.

16.3.2 Developmental Tasks:

9. Middle adults are at Erick Erickson’s 7th stage of generatively versus

stagnation. Hence, the developmental tasks include:

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 a. Achieving adult and civic responsibility.

b. Establishing and maintaining an economic standard of living.

c. Relating to one’s spouse as a person because they both are in an empty

nest.

d. Accepting the physiological changes of middle age.

16.3.3 Challenges/Problems

10. a. This can be a stressful stage as other depend on them (younger and older
generation), but they have nobody to depend on.

b. Gradual decline in sexual activity.

c. Midlife Crisis: This is a period of transition at about 40 to 50 years during which

individual take stock and thoroughly examines their past life, and ask, ‘was it
worth the trouble?’ They may fee l effective and competent and at the peak of
their powers. To others this may be a painful process – caused by unfulfilled
dreams of youth. Midlife crisis re-marry; widows/widowers who thought they
could stay alone also opt to re-marry; some people develop new careers, etc).
One may want to escape from the knowledge that one is getting old(….people do
funny things, e.g. becoming sugar daddies/mummies; funny dressing; some even
divorce; some change jobs; and overindulge in alcohol).

16.4 Late Adulthood And Aging (65 Plus)

16.4.1 Developmental Challenges:

11. In physical terms the following are observed:

a. The entire circulatory machinery is less efficient.

b. Sensory and perceptual functions decline.

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 c. The skin loses its elasticity (i.e. it becomes folded and wrinkled)

d. The hair becomes thinner and turns gray.

e. They shrink in size and stoop

f. The chemical composition of bones changes causing increased chances of

bone fracture.

12. In cognitive terms we have:

a. Lack of mental alertness.

b. Decline in creativity

c. More effective though slow (due accumulated knowledge and experience).

d. Has a large amount of wisdom (should be encouraged to be active both

physically and mentally).

16.4.2 Developmental Tasks:

13. They are set at Erickson’s 8th stage of integrity versus despair. As such, the
developmental tasks include:

a. Adjusting to decreased physical strength and health.

b. Adjusting to retirement and reduced income.

c. Adjusting to the death of a spouse.

d. Establishing affiliation with one’s age group.

e. Establishing satisfactory living conditions.

16.4.1 Challenges / Problems:

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14. Social life is restricted by loss of work mates, relatives, spouse, and friends and
by poor health. So the mainly rely on their families for companionship. They
may feel neglected and lonely at the elderly homes.

16.4. 2 Death And Dying: Epilogue

. Death is a process and not a moment. We have four (4) forms of death:

a. Clinical death: occurs when respiration and heartbeat stop. It is reversible

by simultaneous resuscitation of both the heart and lungs.

b. Brain death: takes place if the brain does not receive enough oxygen for 8-
10 minutes. The person enters into an irreversible comma.

c. Biological death: occurs when it is no longer possible to discern an electrical

discharge into heart and lung tissue.

d. Social death: occurs when a patient is treated as a corpse.

16. Typical reactions to impending death include (compare this with Elisabeth
Kubler Ross’s, theory, elsewhere):

. Denial

b. Anger

c. Depression

d. Bargaining

e. Acceptance

f. Hope

Note:

17. Age is not the major factor determining entry into the 3 stages of adulthood.
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 For instance, a girl who marries at 16 and gets children will slide into the early
adulthood stage (20-40 years). A man who is about to die at 45 years due to
illness, will enter into the integrity versus despair psychosocial stage (65 plus)

16.5 Levinson’s Theory (1986) of Adult Development.

18. Levinson (1986) ties stages to specific age brackets, as shown:

Stage Age Bracket Description

Late 18-19 years  A time to make choices for adulthood.

adolescence

Mid-twenties 24-26 years  A time to establish values of love, occupation

and lifestyle.

Late twenties 27-33 years  A time to re-assess the earlier choices

and early thirties
 Sometimes, a time to make radical changes
e.g. marriage, jobs, living and career.

Mid and late 34-39 years  A time to settle down and develop family and
thirties career.

Age 40 40 years  Brings another transition, which may be

traumatic in life (midlife crisis)

Age 45 45years  Brings a settling down, into a period of calm.

 The person perceives new and more

attainable goals with vigor.

Age 50 50 years  A re-evaluation of goals and lifestyles.

 If the midlife crisis was missed out, it may be

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 experienced at this time.

Age 60 60 years  Age of retirement

 A time to review the achievements of one’s

life.

Late adulthood 65-80  A time to make peace with oneself and with
others.

 A time to be more philosophical

 A time of wisdom

 80 is a time to let go and prepare for the

imminent death.

 Senility (i.e. deterioration of mental

functioning) may occur.

16.6 Topic: Activity

19. a. Describe the 3 stages of adulthood.

b. Discuss four developmental issues in early adulthood focusing on Levinson’s

theory and with examples describe the young adults who transmit smoothly and
those whose ride through the state is bumpy.

c. Explain the term midlife crisis and outline the reasons why it happens.

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References

Dacey, J & Travers, J (2004). Human Development across lifespan. Boston. Mc

Graw-Hill.

Leifer, G & Hartstan, H. (2004). Growth and Development across the Lifespan.
Philadelphia. Saunders.

Newman, B. Et Al. (2003. Lifespan Development: A Casebook. Australia.

Thompson…

Papalia, D. & Duskin, R. (2003). Human Development. California. Mc Graw Hill.

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Rayner, E. Clulow, C, Joyce, A & Rose, J. (2005). An Introduction to the
Psychodynamics of Growth Maturity And Aging. New York Routledge.

Santrock, J.W. (2000. Lifespan Development (2nd Ed). St. Louis. Mc Graw Hill.

Zanden, J & Vander, W. (2003). Human Develoment (7th Ed). Boston. Mc Graw
Hill.

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