MODULE 1: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, MEANING, CONCEPTS AND APPROACHES

Content Outline:
1. Meaning of Human Development
a. Distinction between Growth and Development
2. Principles of Human Development
3. The Lifespan Approach to Human Development
a. Key Principles of Lifespan Perspective
4. Principles of Child Development and Learning that inform Practice

Meaning of Human Development

Santrock (in Corpuz, B., et.al., 2010) defines human development as:
• the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span.
• Development includes growth and decline.

• The definition implies that even negative changes happening in an individual are
considered as development. Negative change may include loss of hair and memory in
old age.
o Traditionally, negative change is not considered in the understanding of human development.
Positive change like increase in height and weight and negative change like memory loss in old
age and skin sagging are all considered as development. Again, growth (positive change) and
decline (negative change) are both developments.
Lumen Learning (n.d.) defines human development as referring to the physical, cognitive and
psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan.
1. Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses,
motor skills, and health and wellness.

2. Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and
creativity.
3. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. Both definitions
highlight the idea of change that happens in the different dimensions of development throughout the
lifespan of the individual.

Distinction between Growth and Development (Shriv, T. (n.d.). Difference between growth and
development.

Principles of Human Development, (Ruffin, N.J., (2019).

The following are set of principles or fundamental truth or propositions about human

development. They serve as foundation of our belief system about human development. Ruffin,

N.J. (2019) outlines the following set of propositions and explains that these principles describe

typical development as a predictable and orderly process. By being orderly, we can predict how

children will develop. There are differences in development between and among individuals but
the principles are characteristics of development are universal patterns.

1. Development proceeds from the head downward. This developmental direction is called the

cephalocaudal pattern which means that the greatest development takes place at the top of the

body, the head, and the physical development moves gradually downwards – neck, shoulder,

and trunks, (Mother & Child Glossary) With this cephalocaudal pattern, the child gains control of

the head first, then the arms, and then the legs. By 6 to 12 months, infants start to gain leg

control, followed by them being able to crawl, stand, or walk.

2. Development proceeds from the center to extremities. This developmental pattern is called
proximodistal pattern which means that growth starts at the center of the body and moves towards the
extremities. Example: development of muscular control of the trunk and arms to the hands and fingers,
(Mother & Child Glossary).

3. Development depends on maturation and learning. Maturation pertains to the sequential

characteristic of biological growth and development. The biological changes occur in sequential order
and results to children’s new abilities, (Ruffin, N.J., 2019). MacDonald, P.M. (2011) defines maturation as
the predetermined unfolding of genetic information. Maturational patterns are innate or genetically
programmed. This sequential unfolding of biological growth combines with learning to bring about
development in children. Learning is the change in behavior as a result of experience or practice.
Example: preschoolers’ ability to write is the result of the development of muscles in arms, hands, and
fingers and the continuous practice of writing. The child’s environment and the learning that occurs as a
result of the child’s experiences largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. A
stimulating environment and varied experiences allow a child to develop to his or her potential, Ruffin,
N.J., 2019).

4. Development proceeds from the simple (concrete) to the more complex (abstract). To learn the
concept of shapes, children must first be given manipulative materials, blocks toys, pictures of shapes
before they understand the word shape. Or they need to learn first 2 + 2 = 4 before they learn to find
the square root of 4,000. Children’s writing skills go through stages. Example: Pre-writing skills are the
fundamental skills children need to develop before they are able to write. These skills contribute to the
child’s ability to hold and use a pencil, and the ability to draw, write, copy, and color. A major
component of pre-writing skills are the pre-writing shapes. These are the pencil strokes that most
letters, numbers and early drawings are comprised of. They are typically mastered in sequential order,
and to an age specific level. These strokes include the following strokes: |, —, O, +, /, square, \, X, and Δ,
(Kids Sense Child Development Corporation, 2020).

5. Growth and development are a continuous process. As a child develops, he or she adds to the skills
already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and mastery of skills.
Most children follow a similar pattern. Also, one stage of development lays the foundation for the next
stage of development.
6. Growth and development proceed from the general to specific. In motor development, the infant will
be able to grasp an object with the whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger. The infant’s
first motor movements are very generalized, undirected, and reflexive, waving arms or kicking before
being able to reach or creep toward an object. Growth occurs from large muscle movements to more
refined (smaller) muscle movements.

7. There are individual rates of growth and development. Each child is different and the rates at which
individual children grow are different. Although the patterns and sequences for growth and
development are usually the same for all children, the rates at which individual children reach
developmental stages will be different.

Understanding this fact of individual differences in rates of development should cause us to be careful
about using and relying on age and stage characteristics to describe or label children. There is a range of
ages for any developmental task to take place.

We shall include one very important principle by Santrock (in Corpuz, et.al. 2010). Development as a
process is complex, because it is the product of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional processes. This
implies that a development in one dimension can impact the other dimensions. Example: Late
development of a child’s facility with language may result to some cognitive problems which in turn may
lead to how the child feels about herself and can even influence how she relates with others.

DEVELOPMENT AS A PROCESS IS COMPLEX, BECAUSE IT IS THE PRODUCT OF BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE,

AND SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROCESSES.

Explanation:

Development as a process is complex because there is No ONE definitive and uniformed explanation for
us all why we become the person that we are today and even what we will become in the future. We are
all unique as a result of our biological/genetic givens, different abilities to think and reason (cognitive
abilities), and different emotions, different ways of dealing and coping with life situations, and different
qualities of social relationships. We also have different set of environmental influences aside from
different biological givens and equally important to consider is, “iba-iba din ang ating interpretasyon at
reaksyon sa mga kaganapan sa buhay, na nagreresulta sa ibat-ibang desisyon at direksyon sa buhay.

Example:

Children from dysfunctional families. Some people think that if you come from a dysfunctional family,
you will also end up making your own dysfunctional family. NOT TRUE in all cases. Some are successful
in building good and loving family. OR the classic “kung mahirap ka, mamamatay kang mahirap” “kung
mula ka sa ‘broken’ family, magiging drug addict ka”.....NOT NECESSARILY TRUE ....we have seen
individuals from the so- called ‘broken’family who are living a successful life.

There is no one explanation for why we become the way we are. Each story is unique due to the
complexity of the process of development and the many possible combination of causes from biological,
cognitive, and socio-emotional influences. We need not go far. In your case, majority of you come from
economically-disadvantaged families, given the same opportunity to study, BUT you have different
abilities/competencies, and different levels of abilities/competencies, different reason/motivation to
study, different levels of effort and perseverance, different levels of emotional maturity – the ending will
definitely be not the same for everyone. Why some fail and others succeed, there is simply no single
explanation.
DEVELOPMENT AS A PROCESS IS COMPLEX, BECAUSE IT IS THE PRODUCT OF BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE
AND SOCIO-EMOTIONAL PROCESSES. THIS IMPLIES THAT A DEVELOPMENT IN ONE DIMENSION CAN
IMPACT THE OTHER DIMENSIONS.

Explanation:

There are three (3) dimensions of development – biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional
developmental processes. They are inter-connected. One can potentially the others.

Example:

In the photo is the famous Nick Vujicic, the famous inspirational/motivational speaker. Obviously,
quadriplegic -without 4 limbs. He was born with an extremely rare congenital disorder known as
Phocomelia, which is characterized by the absence of legs and arms. Growing up in Melbourne,
Australia, Nick struggled mentally, emotionally, and physically. Bullied at school, he attempted suicide
when he was just 10 years old. Eventually coming to terms with his disability, Nick decided to become
vocal about living with disabilities and finding hope and meaning in life. The charismatic Australian now
travels the world addressing huge crowds. He has visited more than 57 countries and given over three
thousand talks, some of which have attracted audiences as large as 110,000 people. Nick has also
founded an international non-profit organization and ministry, Life Without Limbs, through which he
campaigns against bullying. Brimming with life, Nick loves to paint, swim, skydive, and surf. He has also
published his memoir Love Without Limits, which is an international bestseller. Happily married to
Kanae Miyahara, Nick is the proud father of two sons. Think Change India (2016, May 5). Born without
arms or legs, Nick Vujicic is a painter, swimmer, skydiver, and motivational speaker. Retrieved from
Now, let us go back to our topic on the interconnectedness of the 3 dimensions. . . Other individuals
with the same condition may have been affected by the disabilities.

For example,

Student XX has the same congenital disorder known as Phocomelia (biological) characterized by having
no arms and legs -quadriplegic (physical) can possibly and negatively affect how one feels about
himself/herself (emotional), may even feel sorry that s/he was born (emotional). His/Her physical
appearance with his/her negative feelings may affect how s/he relates not only with himself/herself but
others as well (social). S/he may not have the confidence to interact with others, or the other children
may bully him/her. Further resulting to negative emotions about himself and life in general. Now the
combined effect of physical appearance and socio-emotional situation may influence Cognitive
Development. The individual may not want to learn, may not be motivated to study and understandably
may not want to go to school. The person may interpret (cognition) himself/herself as unworthy freak of
nature. Not wanting to learn or not wanting to go to school may further endanger cognitive
development. The case of Student XX and that of Nick Vujicic resulted to two different outcomes – one a
negative while the other to a happy and successful life. There we find the complexity of development
and the idea that the 3 dimensions can affect each other.

THE LIFE-SPAN APPROACH TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

There are two approaches to understanding human development:

1. traditional approach which believes that there is an extensive change from birth to adolescence, the
little or no change in adulthood then decline in ate old age, and

2. life-span approach which believes that change takes place throughout the lifespan of an individual.
The focus of this module is on the Life-Span Perspective.

The Lifespan Developmental Approach provides a broad and all-embracing framework for
understanding human development from the moment of conception to death, (APA, 2018). It advocates
for the following beliefs:

1. Lifespan development is a continuous process influenced jointly by biology and environment.

• Are we a product of biological inheritance (nature) or of our environment (nurture). It is no longer a

question of Nature Versus Nurture but the prevailing view is Nurturing Nature (nurturing what is
biologically given). Example: Intelligence. We are all intelligent beings but environment plays a
significant role in nurturing or developing it.

2. Development unfolds a process that includes both gains and losses across the lifespan that results in a
multi-dimensional, multidirectional and multifunctional perspectives

• multi-dimensional (physical, cognitive, socio-emotional),

• multidirectional (can go in many directions, positive-negative, success-failure)

• multifunctional perspectives (understanding development can be studied, viewed from different

perspectives, theories, approaches).
3. Development across the lifespan results in changes in the interaction between biological and
environmental influences that impact the allocation of resources.

Example (Illustrated)

4. Lifespan development is a modifiable process that is amenable to intervention.

• This means that it is possible to change something in their physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional
conditions through intervention – medical intervention, medication, therapy, rehabilitation, counselling,
etc.

5. Biological and environmental influences are embedded in age-graded, history-graded, and non-
normative contexts.

• Normative age-graded influences are the biological and environmental factors that are related with
chronological age (puberty, menopause, age=based practices such as beginning school, retirement)

• Normative history-graded influences are related with a specific time period that defines the broader
environmental and cultural context in which an individual develops. Example: World War II, Covid-19
Pandemic

• Non-normative influences are unpredictable and not ties to a certain developmental time in a
person’s development or to a historical period. They are unique personal experiences that could either
be biological or environmental that shape the development process. Example: graduating with honors,
losing a parent, separation of parents, break-up.
Lumen Learning (n.d.) The lifespan perspective.

Paul Baltes (in Lumen Learning, n.d.) identified the key principles of the lifespan perspective.

1. Development occurs across one’s entire life. It is lifelong. It means that development does not stop at
a particular stage in human development but continues from the moment of conception until death.

2. Development is multidimensional, meaning it involves the dynamic interaction of factors like

physical, emotional, and psychosocial development. Multidimensionality refers to the complex interplay
of a host of factors influencing development across the lifespan – biological, cognitive, and socio-
emotional changes. The lifespan perspective argues that the dynamic interaction of these factors is what
influences an individual’s development.

The example given is that of an adolescent going through the puberty stage. During that stage, there are
physiological, hormonal and physical changes happening – the development of primary and secondary
sex characteristics, change in height and weight.

However, those physical and biological changes are not the only change happening in an adolescent.
They also go through cognitive changes, such as the ability to think critically, the ability to imagine,
hypothesize. There are also emotional and social changes that involve the regulation of emotions,
relationship with peers, and awareness of their sexuality. All those factors interact to bring about
change in the adolescent.

3. Development is multidirectional and results in gains and losses throughout life. It means that the
development of a particular domain does not occur in a strictly linear fashion (not along a straight line)
but that the development of certain traits has the capacity for both increase and decrease in efficacy
over the course of an individual’s life.

Example: The aging process is multidirectional in the sense that it involves loss (decrease in physical
stamina) but accumulates gains (increase in knowledge or wisdom)

4. Development is plastic, meaning that characteristics are malleable or changeable. It emphasizes that
there are many possible developmental outcomes.

5. Development is influenced by contextual and socio-cultural influences. Contextualism refers to the

idea that the three systems of biological and environmental influences work together to influence
development. Development must be viewed and understood taking into account the context within
which it happens – person’s biological givens, family, school, church, neighborhood, culture, etc. The
most important aspect of contextualism is that those three systems of influence work together; they
interact to bring about development in an individual.

6. Development is multidisciplinary. Our understanding of human growth and development come from
many disciplines – Psychology, Sociology, Neuroscience, Anthropology, Education, Medicine, etc.
Knowledge acquired from those disciplines put together provide us a wholistic understanding of how
human being develop.
Understanding the nature of human growth and development, its stages, processes, intervening
variables, theories and principles have guided educators in developing age- appropriate learning
objectives, methods and strategies to facilitate learning of children.

In the box are the PRINCIPLES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING WHICH ARE THE BASES OF
DEVELOPMENTALLY- APPROPRIATE PRACTICES.

Developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) is a research-based framework that outlines practices in the
early childhood environment that provide optimal education for young children’s learning and
development or “best practices.” DAP requires teachers to be aware of children’s development, meet
them where they are as individuals and know about the social and cultural contexts in which each child
lives. These three considerations make up the core of developmentally appropriate practice. The first
core consideration is knowing about child development and learning. Child development follows
general, sequential and predictable patterns. These patterns are interrelated across developmental
domains, including physical, social, emotional and cognitive. Effective early childhood educators know
and understand milestones and sequences of development across all domains, and use this information
when they are planning activities and structuring the environment. Developmentally appropriate
practice is based on knowledge, not assumptions, of children’s growth and development. Through this
knowledge, teachers are able to plan for appropriate activities that challenge children enough to
continue to promote their progress and interest.

THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE EDUCATION OF YOUNG CHILDREN OFFERS 12 PRINCIPLES OF
CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND LEARNING TO GUIDE BEST PRACTICES IN THE CLASSROOM:

1. All areas of development and learning are important.

• The areas/dimensions of development are biological/physical, cognitive (ability to think and

reason), and the socio-emotional development. All those areas are important.

2. Learning and development follow sequences.

• Examples of sequence

• Crawl – walk – run

• Words – phrases - sentences

3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates.

 • Each individual follows own rate of development (slow, fast, very fast)

4. Development and learning result from an interaction of maturation and experience.

• Maturation or the process of advancing to full development plus experience or training leads to
development and learning

• Example: learning how to write depends on the growth and maturation on hand and finger muscles
to be able to hold a pen plus continued exercise how to write

5. Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.

• Our early childhood experiences, whether good or bad, have effects on development and learning

• Example: traumatic experiences may affect later socio-emotional development

6. Development proceeds toward greater complexity, self-regulation and symbolic or representational

capacities.

• Complexity: from simple 2 + 2 = 4 to solving algebra, geometry or trigonometry to physics problems

• Self-regulation from simply being able to handle sibling rivalry to handling jealousy in love-
relationship

• Symbolic representation: from knowing what an apple is with the help of concrete apple fruit to
understanding the letters a p p l e and read as apple to understanding concept of love, justice,
forgiveness; or being able to read a novel (letters and numbers are symbols; letters put together to form
a word represents a thing or an idea)

7. Children develop best when they have secure relationships.

• Studies and even our own personal experiences tell us that when we have loving, caring, nurturing,
forgiving, understanding people in our lives, we feel good and confident about ourselves making us
approach life with confidence and trust. The confidence we get from those relationships enable us to
seek opportunities to learn, take more risks, learn from experiences which further develop us.

8. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple social and cultural contexts.

• This has been explained previously that environment, society and culture all contribute to our
development and learning.
9. Children learn in a variety of ways.

• There is no one way to learn. (hearing, seeing, experiencing, watching, etc.)

10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting language, cognition and
social competence.

11. Development and learning advance when children are challenged.

• People want to be challenged. There is no fun and no pride in doing easy tasks. How can you be
proud of being able to do something that everybody can do? BUT there is tremendous feeling of
excitement when the task is difficult and when you are able to do it when others cannot, there is that
sense of pride and fulfilment.

12. Children’s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.

• How we approach academic tasks is partly determined by our previous experiences.

• Example: You are afraid to participate in class discussion because you were laughed at by your grade
1 classmates; or you are not afraid to make mistakes in class because you have had supportive
classmates in the past from those experiences you learned to be confident.
 MODULE 2: THE PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Content Outline

1. The Prenatal Development: Your early beginnings

• Definition and description of prenatal development

• 3 divisions of prenatal development

i. Germinal

ii. Embryonic

iii. Fetal

• Common Problems

i. Congenital abnormalities

ii. Maternal derived abnormalities

iii. Prematurity

• Risks in Prenatal Development

• Parental Concerns

The text on Prenatal Development is lifted from Encyclopedia of Children’s Health (n.d.). Prenatal
Development. http://www.healthofchildren.com/P/Prenatal-Development.html. You will be directed to
some Related Videos on prenatal development from Youtube for visual presentations of the different
processes involved in development during the early stages of human development. To impress upon you
the importance of prenatal development and its possible link and impact later learning of the child,
below is an illustration of the idea.
 The Prenatal Development: Your Early beginnings

Definition: Prenatal Development refers to the process in which a baby develops from a single

cell after conception into an embryo and later a fetus.

Description of Prenatal Development

• The average length of time for prenatal development to complete is 38 weeks from the

date of conception.

• During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a full-term baby.

The three primary stages of prenatal development are the

Germinal stage

• Conception occurs when the female egg (ovum) is fertilized by the male sperm.

• Under normal circumstances, one egg is released approximately once a month from a woman's ovary
during a process called ovulation.

• The egg makes its way into a fallopian tube, a structure that guides the egg away from the ovary
toward the uterus.

• For fertilization to occur, sperm ejaculated during sexual intercourse (or introduced during artificial
insemination) in a substance called semen must have made their way from the vagina into the uterus
and subsequently into the fallopian tube where the ovum has been released. This process can take up to
ten hours after ejaculation.

• For fertilization to occur, a sperm must penetrate the tough outer membrane of the egg called the
zona pellucida.

o When one sperm successfully binds with the zona pellucida, a series of chemical reactions occurs to
allow only that sperm to penetrate.

o Fertilization occurs when the sperm successfully enters the ovum’s membrane.

• The genetic material of the sperm and egg then combine to form a single cell called a zygote and the
germinal stage of prenatal development commences.
• The zygote soon begins to divide rapidly in a process called cleavage, first into two identical cells called
blastomeres, which further divide to four cells, then into eight, and so on.

• The group of diving cells begins to move along the fallopian tube toward the uterus. About sixty hours
after fertilization, approximately sixteen cells have formed to what is called a morula, still enclosed by
the zona pellucida; three days after fertilization, the morula enters the uterus.

• As cell division continues, a fluid-filled cavity called a blastocoele forms in the center of the group of
cells, with the outer shell of cells called trophoblasts and an inner mass of cells called embryoblasts. The
zona pellucida disappears and the morula becomes a blastocyst.

• At this stage the blastocyst consists of 200 to 300 cells and is ready for implantation.

IMPLANTATION

• is the process in which the blastocyst implants into the uterine wall,

• occurs approximately six days after conception.

• Hormones secreted from the mother’s ovaries and a chemical secreted by the trophoblasts begin to
prepare the uterine wall.

• The blastocyst first adheres to the wall then moves into the uterine tissue.

• Implantation marks the end of the germinal stage and the beginning of embryonic stage.

EMBRYONIC STAGE

The embryonic stage begins after implantation and lasts until eight weeks after conception. Soon after
implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to take on different functions
(called differentiation). A process of gastrulation leads to the formation of three distinct layers called
germ layers:

ECTODERM, outer layer; eventually forms skin, nails, hair, brain, nervous tissues and cells, nose, sinuses,
mouth, anus, tooth enamel and other tissues.

MESODERM, middle layer; eventually develops into muscles, bones, heart tissue, lungs, reproductive
organs, lymphatic tissue, and other tissues.
ENDODERM, inner layer; forms the lining of lungs, bladder, digestive tract, tongue, tonsils, and other
organs.

As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates into different tissues and structures as
described previously. The process of differentiation takes place over a period of weeks with
different structures forming simultaneously. Some of the major events that occur during the
embryonic stage are as follows:

WEEK 3: Beginning development of the brain, heart, blood cells, circulatory system, spinal cord,
and digestive system.

WEEK 4: Beginning development of bones, facial structures, and limbs (presence of arm and leg
buds); continuing development of the heart (which begins to beat), brain, and nervous tissue.

WEEK 5: Beginning development of eyes, nose, kidneys, and lungs; continuing development of
the heart (formation of valves), brain, nervous tissue, and digestive tract.

WEEK 6: Beginning development of hands, feet, and digits; continuing development of brain,
heart, and circulation system.

WEEK 7: Beginning development of hair follicles, nipples, eyelids, and sex organs (testes or
ovaries); first formation of urine in the kidneys and first evidence of brain waves.

WEEK 8: Facial features more distinct, internal organs well developed, the brain can signal for
muscles to move, heart development ends, external sex organs begin to form.
SEE:

Bethea Medical Media (2014, October 14). The Placenta: Its Development and Function.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bped-RVWsLk A three-part animation depicting the
development and function of the human placenta. Updated version can be found at
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xdibm... Creative Learing. (2013, February
17).Development of Zygote. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jsFn-_SC2Q8 The
development of the zygote into an embryo proceeds through specific recognizable stages of
blastula, gastrula, and organogenesis. The blastula stage typically features a fluid-filled cavity,
the blastocoel, surrounded by a sphere or sheet of cells, also called blastomeres. The embryo of
a placental mammal is defined as the organism between the first division of the zygote (a
fertilized ovum) until it becomes a fetus. An ovum is fertilized in a fallopian tube through which
it travels into the uterus. In humans, the embryo is defined as the product of conception after it
is implanted in the uterus wall through the eighth week of development. An embryo is called a
fetus at a more advanced stage of development and up until birth or hatching. In humans, this
is from the eighth week of gestation. However, animals which develop in eggs outside the
mother's body are usually referred to as embryos throughout development, e.g. one would
refer to a chick embryo, not a "chick fetus" even at late stages. During gastrulation the cells of
the blastula undergo coordinated processes of cell division, invasion, and/or migration to form
two (diploblastic) or three (triploblastic) tissue layers. In triploblastic organisms, the three germ
layers are called endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm. The position and arrangement of the
germ layers are highly species-specific, however, depending on the type of embryo produced.
In vertebrates, a special population of embryonic cells called the neural crest has been
proposed as a "fourth germ layer", and is thought to have been an important novelty in the
evolution of head structures. The endoderm forms: the stomach, the colon, the liver, the
pancreas, the urinary bladder, the lining of the urethra, the epithelial parts of trachea, the
lungs, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid, and the intestines. The mesoderm forms:
skeletal muscle, the skeleton, the dermis of skin, connective tissue, the urogenital system, the
heart, blood (lymph cells), the kidney, and the spleen. The ectoderm forms: the central nervous
system, the lens of the eye, cranial and sensory, the ganglia and nerves, pigment cells, head
connective tissues, the epidermis, hair, and mammary glands.

By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been
formed. The embryo is now referred to as a fetus.

Prenatal development is most dramatic during the fetal stage.

• When an embryo becomes a fetus at eight weeks,

• it is approximately 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) in length from crown to rump and

• weighs about 3 grams (0.1 ounce).

• By the time the fetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, he or she may be 50
centimeters (20 inches) or 3.3 kilograms (7.3 pounds).

• Although all of the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they continue
to develop and grow during the fetal stage.

• Examples of some of the major features of fetal development by week are as follows:

WEEKS 9–12 The fetus reaches approximately 8 cm. (3.2 in.) in length; the head is
approximately half the size of the fetus. External features such as the face, neck, eyelids, limbs,
digits, and genitals are well formed. The beginnings of teeth appear, and red blood cells begin
to be produced in the liver. The fetus is able to make a fist.

WEEKS 13–15 The fetus reaches approximately 15 cm. (6 in.) in length. Fine hair called lanugo
first develops on the head; structures such as the lungs, sweat glands, muscles, and bones
continue to develop. The fetus is able to swallow and make sucking motions.

WEEKS 16–20 The fetus reaches approximately 20 cm. (8 in.) in length. Lanugo begins to cover
all skin surfaces, and fat begins to develop under the skin. Features such as finger and toenails,
eyebrows, and eyelashes appear. The fetus becomes more active, and the mother can
sometimes begin to feel fetal movements at this stage.
WEEKS 21–24 The fetus reaches approximately 28.5 cm. (11.2 in.) in length and weighs
approximately 0.7 kg (1 lb. 10 oz.). Hair grows longer on the head, and the eyebrows and eye
lashes finish forming. The lungs continue to develop with the formation of air sac (alveoli); the
eyes finish developing. A startle reflex develops at this time.

WEEKS 25–28 The fetus reaches approximately 38 cm. (15 in.) in length and weighs
approximately 1.2 kg (2 lb. 11 oz.). The next few weeks mark a period of rapid brain and
nervous system development. The fetus gains greater control over movements such as opening
and closing eyelids and certain body functions. The lungs have developed sufficiently that air
breathing is possible.

WEEKS 29–32 The fetus reaches approximately 38–43 cm. (15–17 in.) in length and weighs
approximately 2 kg (4 lb. 6 oz.). Fat deposits become more pronounced under the skin. The
lungs remain immature but breathing movements begin. The fetus's bones are developed but
not yet hardened.

WEEKS 33–36 The fetus reaches approximately 41–48 cm. (16–19 in.) in length and weighs 2.6–
3.0 kg (5 lb. 12 oz. to 6 lb. 12 oz.). Body fat continues to increase, lanugo begins to disappear,
and fingernails are fully grown. The fetus has gained a high degree of control over body
functions.

WEEKS 36–38 The fetus reaches 48–53 cm. (19–21 in.) in length is considered to be full- term
by the end of this period. Lanugo has mostly disappeared and is replaced with thicker hair on
the head. Fingernails have grown past the tips of the fingers. In a healthy fetus, all organ
systems are FUNCTIONING.

COMMON PROBLEMS

Although 90 percent of babies born in the United States are considered healthy, abnormalities
may arise during prenatal development that are considered congenital (inherited or due to a
genetic abnormality) or environmental (such as maternal derived abnormalities). In other
cases, problems may arise when a fetus is born prematurely.
 CONGENITAL ABNORMALITIES

• In some cases abnormalities may arise during prenatal development that cause physical
malformations or developmental delays or affect various parts of the body after the child is
born.

o The cause may be a small mutation in or damage to the genetic material of cells, or a major
chromosomal abnormality (each normal cell has two copies each of 23 strands [called
chromosomes] of genetic material, and abnormalities can arise if there are three copies of a
strand or only one).

o Sometimes the abnormality is inherited from one or both parents; in other cases, the defect
occurs because of an error in prenatal development.

• Some abnormalities are minor and do not affect the long-term prognosis once the child is
born.

• At the other end of the spectrum, abnormalities may be so severe that fetal demise is
inevitable.

• Approximately 10 to 15 percent of pregnancies end before the twentieth week, a process

called miscarriage or spontaneous abortion; congenital abnormalities account for a significant
proportion of miscarriages.

• Genetic abnormalities account for approximately 5 percent of miscarriages.

MATERNAL DERIVED ABNORMALITIES

The age, health status, nutritional status, and environment of the mother are all closely tied to
the health of a growing embryo or fetus. Some examples of environmental factors that may
lead to developmental abnormalities include:
● AGE:

o as of 2004, research showed that babies born to mothers between the ages of seventeen
and thirty-five tend to be healthier.

▪ One reason is that the risk of certain congenital abnormalities such as Down syndrome
increases with mother's age (particularly mothers over forty).

▪ Another reason is that the risk of having pregnancy or birth complications is greater with
women over the age of thirty-five.

● HEALTH STATUS:

o in some cases a mother may pass a viral or bacterial infection to the fetus, such as in human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

o in other cases, a mother's illness may cause congenital malformations; an example is rubella,
which can cause heart defects, deafness, developmental delays, and other problems in a fetus if
the mother contracts it during pregnancy.

● NUTRITIONAL STATUS:

o A well-balanced diet rich in nutrients such as folic acid, calcium, iron, zinc, vitamin D, and the
B vitamins is recommended for pregnant women.

o Certain vitamin and mineral deficiencies can interfere with normal prenatal development.
For example, a deficiency in folic acid during the early stages of pregnancy may lead to neural
tube defects such as spina bifida.

o Mothers are recommended to eat approximately 300 additional calories a day (above and
beyond a normal non-pregnancy diet) to support the fetus's growth and development.

● OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:

o Exposure to certain substances called teratogens (agents that may interfere with prenatal
development) during pregnancy may cause embryonic or fetal malformations.
o Examples of teratogens include alcohol, thalidomide, cocaine, certain seizure medications,
diethylstilbestrol (DES), and the anti-acne drug Accutane.

PREMATURITY

Advances in medical care have made it possible for many infants born prematurely to survive
and develop normally.

• The earlier the gestational age, the greater the chance of death or significant medical
problems.

• Whether or not a premature infant will survive is intimately tied to his or her gestational age:

Preterm birth (<37 weeks gestation) is a global problem.

• Risk factors for preterm delivery include:

o multi-fetal pregnancy, uterine abnormalities, placental bleeding, prenatal drug exposure,

chronic maternal illness, hypertensive disorders, chorioamnionitis, prolonged rupture of the
membranes and bacterial vaginosis. Lack of prenatal care, under- immunization and inadequate
treatment for maternal infections or other medical issues, including STIs, can all contribute to
developmental disabilities in a preterm infant.

An estimated 15 million infants are born prematurely each year, approximately 1 in every 10
births. Over 60% of preterm births occur in Africa and South Asia (Table 1). Within countries,
poorer families are at higher risk, (Caring for Kids New to Canada, 2019).

TERMS:
MISCARRIAGE —Loss of the embryo or fetus and other products of pregnancy before the
twentieth week. Often, early in a pregnancy, if the condition of the baby and/or the mother's
uterus are not compatible with sustaining life, the pregnancy stops, and the contents of the
uterus are expelled. For this reason, miscarriage is also referred to as spontaneous abortion.

TERATOGEN —Any drug, chemical, maternal disease, or exposure that can cause physical or
functional defects in an exposed embryo or fetus.

UTERUS —The female reproductive organ that contains and nourishes a fetus from
implantation until birth. Also called the womb.

OTHER COMMON PROBLEMS DURING PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT, (APARNA , 2018)

The fetal period of prenatal developmentis of intense growth and, hence, is very sensitive to
other conditions. There are the general problems one might observe during this stage.

1. GENETIC PROBLEMS

• As the baby grows, there are chances of some abnormal formations or development issues in
the physical aspects of the child, across multiple organs.

• It could be due to a genetic mutation, gene damage, abnormality of chromosomes, and so on.

• This could descend primarily from the parents. However, certain cases have shown that these
could arise by themselves during the prenatal stage.

• These abnormalities could range from being dismissively minor to absolutely fatal. Chances of
miscarriage at this stage are roughly 10-15%, mostly caused by these abnormalities.

IMPORTANT POINTS TO BEAR IN MIND:

• The prenatal stage is extremely critical for any child.

• The majority of physical and psychological development takes place during this stage,
preparing the child to live by himself once he is born and out into the world.

• When any problems or issues occur, it is important to understand the reason behind its
occurrence and what actions can be taken.
• Preventive measures are always better than actions to counter the problems already afflicted.

• Even after birth, the infant continues to develop and grow, and it is important that they are
not exposed to any of the factors even then.

• The brain development is still taking place and it is important for that to continue unabated
without any issues, to have a child that is strong, independent, and healthy like his peers.

PARENTAL CONCERNS

Many parents have questions or concerns about the prenatal development of an existing or
anticipated child and what steps they should take to ensure their child's health.

• During prenatal visits to an obstetrician, a pregnant mother should be educated in proper

nutrition and prenatal care; often, prenatal vitamins are prescribed to avoid nutritional
deficiencies.

• Prenatal testing is often recommended to parents-to-be as a means of assessing the fetus's

health and the risk of developing certain conditions.

• Some common prenatal tests that relate to prenatal development are as follows:

● blood tests to check for diseases that could affect the fetus, such as HIV, hepatitis B, or other
sexually transmitted diseases

● blood tests to check if the mother carries a protein called Rh factor on her red blood cells; if
she does not and her baby does (determined by whether the father is Rh-positive or not), she
will require treatment to prevent a potentially damaging reaction to the baby

● chorionic villus sampling, a prenatal test that takes a tiny sample of the placenta with a
needle to test for chromosomal abnormalities

● nuchal fold or nuchal translucency screening test, which measures a small space at the back
of the fetus's neck using ultrasound; fetuses with larger nuchal folds have a greater risk of
having a chromosomal abnormality
● amniocentesis, a test that takes a sample of the fluid that surrounds the fetus in the uterus to
identify certain genetic disorders, congenital malformations, or the maturity of the fetus's
lungs.