Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture Hrs-42(Three hrs per week) Venue -MPH Time -Thursdays 1pm-4pm
COURSE RATIONALE:
It is important for any well-educated person to understand to some degree how we as human
beings develop through the life span. Human Growth and Development addresses the
physical, cognitive, and psychological changes we encounter as we pass through life, from
pre-natal development to death. Students taking this course will be allowed to explore, discuss
and learn about important developmental psychological principles, and to apply these
principles in understanding their own respective growth and development.
COURSE CONTENT
Concepts of growth and development; Nature and Principles of human growth and
development; Theories of Human Growth and Development from Prenatal environment to
Death; Major genetic and environmental influences on human development; Development
tasks of infanthood, Early Childhood, Middle and Late Childhood, Adolescence and
Adulthood; Physiological growth patterns ,Cognitive ; Moral; Language; Emotional and
Personality- Social development across human life span; Domains and Stages of human
development- Physical, Social, Moral, Language, Personality, Cognitive and Emotional
development; Educational implications of the mentioned stages of human development.
MODE OF DELIVERY
The mode of delivery will be lectures, problem-based learning, interactive tutorials; group
based presentations and independent studies.
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REFERENCES
Chairman………………………………………… Date…………………
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HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
One of the most important features of all living beings is change. The changes are most
striking when we see the transition in human life spanning from conception to death. The
journey from an unborn baby to an adult and then on to an old person is very fascinating.
Even a casual observation of the human lives around you will make it clear that several
changes happen each day in our bodies and psychological functioning. Some changes are
noticeable while some cannot be immediately or clearly observed. Some of these changes are
determined more by hereditary or genetic factors, while some depend more on environmental
and cultural factors.
Different cultures hold different goals for development and use different strategies to bring up
children. In order to help individuals develop in the best way possible, it is important to
understand the nature and process of development throughout the life-span. This is the
concept human growth and Development
It is a science
1. The study is systematic i.e. body of information can be classified in an orderly and
consistent manner.
2. It is empirical: The information can be gathered by means of observation and
experimentations.
3. Its terms and terminologies are clear and definable.
4. It attempts to be accurate and reliable in its measurement.
Such changes are not random but orderly and generally follow a pattern. It may be noted that
the developmental changes are not always incremental or evolutionary. They may also
involve a decline in the functioning called “involution”. A child loses milk teeth in the
process of development while an old person may show decay in memory and physical
functioning. Development, therefore, is best viewed as a gain-loss relationship in which
newer and different kinds of changes take place. Older behavior patterns may lose their
salience while new ones may emerge.
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Development is shaped by the joint influences of both nature and nurture in a cultural context.
Nature refers to the hereditary contribution a child receives from parents at the time of
conception. Genetics determines several aspects of a person’s physical structure and
functioning as well as some psychological characteristics to a certain extent. Nurture refers to
the influences of the complex physical and social ecology in which we develop and grow.
Various aspects of the child’s ecology (e.g. physical facilities, social institutions and rituals,
and school) influence the developmental outcomes in important ways.
“Growth” generally refers to the quantitative additions or changes in the organic structure.
For instance as we become older, the body size, height, weight, proportion of parts of our
body change in measurable ways. Also, the vocabulary increases.
It can be measured in terms of physical unit: CM, M, G e.t.c.
It is the change in physical structure as a result of multiplication of cells
It is the quantitative increase in size and structure.
“Development” on the other hand, is a broader term which often includes growth, but is used
more to refer to functional and qualitative changes in cognitive ability, perceptual ability,
personality and emotional development and so on.
Development is changes in the functional capabilities of bodily parts.
Development is the immerging and expanding of the capacities of the individual in order to
provide greater facility in functioning. This development can be enhanced through
reinforcement and exposure to reach adherent experience.
It is the sequential and continuous process both quantitatively and qualitatively resulting into
integrating functions.
It is achieved through growth and interaction with the environment.
“Maturation” is a term that refers to the natural unfolding of changes with increasing age,
e.g. hormonal changes as the individual reaches puberty. An example of this can be seen in
breast development which is influenced by release of estrogen when a girl reaches
adolescence.
Maturation refers to the changes which are primarily biological in nature and occur due to our
genetic programme. Our biological structure follows a predetermined course of changes with
time. This can be seen in the development of teeth during childhood. Changes in body
proportions with age provide an example of such predetermined universal trends. The size of
the head is roughly half of the whole body at birth, but the proportion keeps decreasing until
adulthood, when it is less than one-fourth of the whole body.
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It must be noted that changes in behavior also occur due to “learning”. Learning takes place
as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment. Maturation provides the raw
material and sets the stage for learning to occur. Taking the case of learning to read, the child
needs to be biologically ready. The eyes need to develop proper focusing ability before a
child can learn to read. Therefore, maturation and learning jointly bring about changes in a
person’s behaviour.
Characteristics/Features of Development
Development is multi-directional, i.e. some areas may show a sharp increase while
other areas may show a decline. Developmental changes usually involve an increase
in maturity towards higher levels of functioning, e.g. increase in vocabulary’s size
and complexity. But it may also involve a decrease or loss, such as in bone density or
memory in old age. Moreover the rate of growth and development is not always
constant. ‘Plateaus’ are often seen in the pattern of development, indicating periods
of no apparent improvement
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Developmental changes can be quantitative, e.g. increase in height with age, or
qualitative, e.g. formation of moral values.
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Development is predictable. The structure of the individual can be predicted. The
development of the bones of the child predicts his body structure.
Developmental changes are relatively stable. The temporary changes due to weather,
fatigue or other chance factors will not qualify as development.
Developmental changes are multi-dimensional and inter-related. They may happen
together in many areas at a time, or can occur one at a time. During adolescence there
are rapid changes in the body as well as in emotional, social and cognitive
functioning.
Development is highly plastic or flexible. This means that the same person may
suddenly show greater improvement in a particular area than expected from the past
rate of development. An enriched environment can produce unexpected changes in
the physical strength, or in memory and intelligence levels.
Developmental domains are integrated
Involves movement from whole to parts . Development proceeds from general to the
specific e.g. a newly born baby only communicates through crying but later on will
indicate the source of discomfort.
Developmental domain are interrelated
e.g A healthy body tends to develop a healthy mind that leads to an emotionally
stable individual. Different aspects of development are interrelated i.e. physical,
social, language, morals, etc.
Developmental domains are interactive
Human development is a product of the forces of nurture and nature i.e inheritance
and environmental forces. Development is a product of the interaction between the
individual and the environment i.e. nature versus nurture.
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1. Physical and motor development: It refers to changes in body-size and structure,
functioning of various body systems, brain development, perceptual and motor development.
2. Cognitive development: It refers to the development of cognitive and intellectual
processes, including memory, attention, intelligence, academic knowledge, problem solving,
imagination and creativity. It also includes development of language.
3. Socio-emotional development: It refers to how we develop relationships with other
people, and how our emotions emerge and change as we grow older. It includes emotional
communication and self-control, understanding of self and others, interpersonal skills,
personality, and emergence of friendship and moral reasoning.
These domains or areas are inter-related and combine in a holistic manner to make a person’s
developmental pattern unique. Each domain influences and is influenced by others. As a baby
develops physically, several motor skills are acquired. As the baby becomes capable of
grasping, reaching, sitting, crawling, standing and walking, he/she is able to better explore the
environment, resulting in further cognitive development. Improved thinking and
understanding helps formation of better social relations as well as emotional expression and
comprehension. On the whole, each domain helps the child move towards enriched
experiences, learning and overall development.
Stages of Development
Even though development is a continuous process, some theorists believe that various stages
can be identified for the sake of locating major shifts and determining the developmental
tasks. This helps in monitoring the pace of developmental changes.
It must be pointed out that there is no sharp dividing line between them. Each stage has
certain characteristic features and prepares the ground for the next stage. Some theorists have
suggested stages in specific areas of development. For instance, Piaget who identified stages
of cognitive development and , Freud who suggested stages of psycho-sexual development.
These theories are explained in other lessons.
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Middle adulthood (40-60 years): At this stage the person is at the peak of his/ her
career. There is a need to help children begin independent lives, and to look after own
parents who are aging.
Late adulthood (60 years till death): This period is marked by retirement from work,
decrease in stamina and physical health, bonding with grand-children and dealing
with impending old age and death of self and spouse.
Developmental Tasks
Each developmental stage is characterized by a dominant feature or a leading characteristic
which determines its uniqueness. For example, a child is expected to go to school and study
while an adult is expected to work and raise a family. Certain characteristics stand out more
prominently than others and each period is called a stage. People learn certain behavior
patterns and skills more easily and successfully at certain stages and this becomes a social
expectation.
Influences on Development
It is important to understand the factors that determine the course of development. Each one
of us is a product of genetic factors and environmental influences as described below
A. Genetic Influences
At the time of conception, the ovum of the mother and the sperm cell of the father unite to
form a new cell. The small particles in the nucleus of the cell are called chromosomes. The
chromosomes exist in pairs. The human cell has 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. One
member from each pair comes from the mother and the other one from the father.
Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information.
The genes, which are the actual trait carriers, are found in very large numbers in each
chromosome. The fertilized zygote brings together various combinations of chromosomes. In
this way, different genes are transferred from each child of the same set of parents. Due to this
reason each child bears greater similarity to his on her blood relatives than to anyone else. At
the same time there are also many differences amongst blood relatives.
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in the male this disorder is dominant, whereas in female it is recessive. The genes form pairs.
If both genes in a pair are dominant, the individual will display the specific trait (e.g. color
blindness). If one gene is dominant and the other recessive, the dominant will prevail. The
recessive gene will be passed on and may show up in a later generation.
The dominant gene, therefore, is the one responsible for a particular trait to show up in a
person. The characteristics which show up and are displayed e.g. eye color, are called
phenotypes. The recessive gene does not show up as a trait, unless paired with another gene
just like it. The characteristics that are carried genetically as recessive genes but are not
displayed are called genotypes.
Genotype, therefore, refers to the actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage while
phenotype refers to the individual’s physical and behavioral characteristics which are
determined by both genetic and environmental factors.
Heredity is thus one of the internal factors that involves what is transferred to the offspring
from it immediate parent e.g. Height, Weight, Colour of eyes, Skin characteristics, X-tics of
the hair, Physical structure, Nervous system
C. Environmental Influences
Nature refers to what a child has inherited genetically from her parents, while the influence of
environment on the development of the child is referred to as nurture. To understand the
development of a person, we have to study the complex interaction between nature and
nurture or heredity and environment. Environmental influences are important both at the
prenatal and postnatal stages of human development. At the prenatal stage, when a fetus is in
the mother’s womb, internal or external harmful agents, such as certain legal or illegal drugs,
alcohol, lead and pollutants can harm the unborn baby’s development. The mother’s nutrition,
diseases and emotional stress can also affect the development of the fetus.
After birth, several types of environmental factors operate to influence the development of the
child. The ecological systems theory of development views environmental factors organized
as concentric circles of systems.
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agencies such as work-place of the parents or community services. The macro-system is the
outermost layer which includes cultural values, laws and customs. The systems are ever-
changing and dynamic. There is also a chronosystem which refers to the time dimension. As
the child grows, there are changes within each system, and also changes due to the child’s
interaction with the environment. On the whole, in ecological systems theory, children are
both products and producers of their environments, in a network of interdependent effects.
The present view of development gives importance to both nature and nurture.
Heredity and environment are inseparably interwoven, each affecting the impact of the other
on the child. Development therefore has certain universal features, as well as features unique
to the individual. It is important to understand the role of heredity, but more fruitful to
understand how the environment can be improved, so as to help the child develop in the best
possible way within the limits set by heredity.
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Transverse- Baby’s body lies across the uterus
Instrumentation (forceps)- Baby is too large to pass through the normal birth canal.
Instruments must be used to widen the passage.
Caesarian section- Baby is removed through an incision in the mothers abdomen and
uterus. The maximum number of children a mother can have through caesarian is 4.
Precipitate- Where the birth process is very fast. There is no need of instruments or
hospitalization.
Normal or spontaneous delivery is where the baby’s head emerges first before the
rest of the body.
ii) Length of labour.
Prolonged labour may cause suffocation or damage to brain tissues which are still
very delicate.
iii) Induced labour
This happens when the baby goes beyond 40weeks or when the mother’s life is at
risk.
iv)Quality of the physical environment where the child is born eg hygienic standards of both
the mother and the health facility.
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3. It helps to parents, teachers and others who work with children, to prepare them for the
physical and psychological changes that are to take place.
4. It helps us to be prepared for changes in our bodies and personalities as we grow older.
5. It helps us to understand that it is possible to facilitate the process of development by
providing an enriched environment.
6. It helps understands individuals differences that arise at all stages of human growth and
development.
7. Helps teachers to understand what can be expected in terms of proper growth and
development.
8. The teacher is able to plan learning process and arrange suitable learning experience in
terms of teaching aids and methodology.
9. Helps us understand human behavior at different stages of development so as to be able to
predict it..
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Summary
Development refers to the process by which the individual grows and changes
during its life-span, from conception to death.
Development is systematic, orderly, progressive, multi-dimensional, multidirectional,
plastic and contextual.
The major domains of development are physical, cognitive and socio-emotional.
Stages of development can be categorised for the sake of convenience, ranging from
prenatal stage to late adulthood or old age.
Each stage is characterized by certain developmental tasks which are social
expectations for a given age group.
Hereditary factors are determined at the time of conception and genetic information is
carried by genes and chromosomes.
Genotypes refer to the characteristics which are carried genetically but not displayed.
Phenotypes refer to those characteristics which are displayed.
Environmental factors influence both prenatal and post-natal development.
External harmful agents can cause damage to the fetus in the mother’s womb.
Maternal disease, nutrition and stress can influence fetal development.
The ecological systems theory proposes several sub-systems in the growing child’s
environment which can influence development.
Both nature and nurture jointly influence development.
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Excessive kissing
Individuals who did not fixate are
Optimistic
Trustworthy
b) Anal stage 2-3 years
The anal region becomes a source of pleasure especially when the training empties the
bowel. Toilet training is introduced at this stage. If toilet training is strict, during
adulthood the individual becomes a miser.
Obsessed with orderliness and neatness
Perfectionist tendencies
Very stingy
Where there was no training, the individual becomes overgenerous
c) Phallic stage 4-6 years
During this stage a boy develops unconscious sexual desire for his mother until he
imagines that the father might castrate him hence develops a conflict called Oedipus
complex. The girl develops unconscious desire for her father. She imagines that she is
a rival of the mother over her fathers. This leads to electra complex or conflict. The
boy that fixates at this stage is likely to become a homosexual whereas a girl becomes
lesbian.
d) Latency stage 6-8 years
Boys identify with their father as girls identify with their mother.
e) Genital stage 8 years
The individual develops heterosexual.
10. The study helps us to control human or learner’s behaviors according to Maslows
hierarchy of needs.
Self actualization
Students should be helped to develop their potentials and talents fully by encouraging
them to engage in co-curricular activities.
6. The study enables people to understand the mechanism of cognition as outlined by
Jean Piaget. He came up with various stages of cognitive development.
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Sensory motor
Pre-operational
Concrete –operational
Formal –operational
The stages are innovative since higher depend on lower for development.
g. It helps us to understand the mechanism of cognition. This is in with
jean piaget’s cognitive theory.
-Sensory motor- (0-2yrs)-Child manipulates objects through the use of senses
-pre-operational stage (2-7) yrs-Language appears, engage in imaginative play the
child is egocentric and think that all things have life eg tables and walls.
-Concrete operational (7-11yrs)- Child performs simple operations with physical
objects,uses simple objects to arrive at conclusions, reasons deductively etc.
-Formal operational (11-above)- reasons abstractly, employs logical thought,
solves problems through reasoning etc.
7. It helps in assigning duties and responsibilities to different children eg Group
leaders, Prefects etc
8. It helps in designing curriculum according to various levels ie different
concepts are taught at different age levels.
9. It helps learners understand the level of concentration. This assists in allocation
of time per lesson.
10. Enables a teacher dismiss the misconceptions and myths about children’s
growth and development
1. 11. An understanding of growth and development makes guidance
meaningful and effective.
.
Sex determination
The 23rd chromosomes of the female and male cells contain the sex and sex –
related traits.
Normally the male gamete has XY chromosomes while the female has XX.
Fusion between male X and female X chromosomes result into a female
offspring while fusion between male Y and female X result in a male
offspring.
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It is therefore the man who determines the sex of the baby although he may
have not control over it.
Occasionally, the female may procedure two ripe ova and if these are fertilized
by two separate sperms, they develop into fraternal twin (none identical
twins).
On the other hand, if a fertilized ovum splits into two cells that develop
independently, the resultant offspring are identical twins.
A study conducted by MacMillan (1971) and Stern (1973) found that the
chance XY and XX is in the ratio 60:40 i.e. for every 150 males conceived,
there are 100 females.
However, males are miscarried more often during the 1 st trimester (first 3
months) such that at birth there are 106 male babies to 100 females. Why the
difference?
1. The Y chromosome swims after faster because it is smaller and
lighter unlike the X chromosome which is larger and heavier.
2. The Y chromosome is more resistant to adverse bio-chemical
conditions present in the intra – uterine environment.
NB: Couples may conceive the desired sex by altering the bio – chemical conditions
of the women’s productive tract. Less acidic environment (alkaline) favours the
conception of male babies.
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Each of the gametes has 23 chromosomes giving rise to 46 chromosomes that
make up the zygote.
Consequently, a process of cell division called mitosis (multiplication of cells)
starts. The dividing cells get embedded on the uterine wall – a process called
implantation.
Finger – like projections develop around the developing cluster and the liquid
filled sac (amniotic bag) enables the child to float.
After 4 weeks, the finger – like projections interact with the cells of the uterus
to form the placenta and umbilical cord.
Other organs develop eg umbilical cord, placenta, and the amniotic fluid.
In the third month, the embryo develops into a foetus.
The organs start functioning. The child engages in the motor behaviour.
In the firth month there is appearance of hair and sweat glands.
In the sixth month the eyes are well developed and reflex actions eg grasping,
blinking are at work.
If born prematurely the child can survive. At 8 months the foetus is 4cm and
over 2kg. Around 9 months the foetus is 3.5 kgs and above.
SIGNS OF PREGNACY
Discontinuation of monthly period
Morning sickness
Enlargement of the breast
Releasing of the bladder more frequently
Enlargement of the stomach
Movement of the fetus
THE PROCESS OF TWIN FORMATION
If the two ova are fertilized by different sperm cell they develop independently to
form fraternal twins.
If the ovum that has been fertilized splits into two cell then develop independently
the resulting offspring are identical twins.
Types of delivery
Vaginal delivery
Caesarean
THE BIRTH PROCESS
It comprises of 3 signs.
Occasional contraction of the womb/ onset of labour
Discharge of bloody mucus
Discharge of the amniotic fluid
LABOUR
Comprises of the following stages-:
The mother experiences lighting as the foetus turns upside down to face the birth
canal.
There is expulsion of the body from the womb where the mother is to push. There
is expulsion of the placenta umbilical cord and amniotic membrane after birth.
The new born is called a menate for the first 7 days should be 3-5 kgs. Research
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indicates that more boys than girls are delivered but the boys have more
abnormalities than girls hence many of them tend to die before 2nd birth day.
The neonates infants display various reflexing behaviors e.g. blinking, knee jerks,
sucking.
The baby is able to fight various diseases through the following ways:
1. By nature means
2. Through immunity from the mother breasts.
3. Through artificial source of immunization
TOPIC 3
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN
Are biological changes in the physical structures and sizes of the body. Normal
growth in height is governed by the secretion of a growth hormone from the thyroid
gland. When the secretion is normal growth but when the secretion is in excess, then a
giant develops. Changes in bone, muscles and fat, leads to a gain in height.
According to Sheldon, there are three body types.
1. Endomorphs (short oral round fellows)
2. Ectomorphs (slender, bony, tall fellows)
3. Mesomorphs (heavy tall) authoritative and feel in militant
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Ability of individual to exercise proper control over his bodily movements through
the co-ordination activity of the nerves centre and the muscles.
It involves a) locomotion- Refers to body movement and control
b)pretension-involves reaching out for some activities eg grasping, picking etc
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Are sex linked genes disorder or recessive and dominant genes disorders eg
phenylektonuria (PKL). It is a metabolic disorder that results into mental retardation it
is caused by:-
Recessive gene that is responsible for breaking down of chemical l referred to as
phenylalanine.
This results to accumulation of the chemical in the blood leading to severe brain
damage.
It affects the motor-coordination, leads microcephaly, hydrocephaly, it affects the
vision, wide set eyes, protruding tongue e.t.c.
2. CHROMOSOMAL ABBRERATIONS.
a) Dawn’s syndrome (trysomy 21)
It results from an extra 2 chromosome which leads to a total of 47 chromosomes
instead of 46.
Characteristics
Heavy and heart problems, folded eye led myopic conditions, protruding tongue,
small and irregular disquieting eyes, infertility.
b) Trysomy 18
Results when the 18 chromosome pairs resulting into 3 chromosomes during meosis.
Characteristics
M. retardatory, low IQ, heart disease, facial abnormalities deformed fingers and teeth.
c) Turners syndrome 38 XO lack missing one X chromosome, common in
females and characterized by short stature M. retardatory visual and
perceptual.
d) Klinefelter’s syndrome in males, have extra X chromosomes XXY, late speed,
XXY
delayed low verbal IQ.
PLAY
It is a sympontenous activity in which individuals engage themselves to the life
pleasure.
STAGES OF PLAY
1. Simple motor activities.-The child explores the environment e.g. feeling,
sucking and touching.
2. Independent/solitary-Child plays alone with toys
3) Parallel play-The individual starts to accommodate other e.g. skipping, hide and
seek.
4 socialized play
Play becomes complex with rules that have to be followed, therefore the content of
play involves fiction, function and reception.
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environment. It helps them to understand themselves and the environment
better. Play enhances learning skills
ii. Social development
Play provides excellent opportunities for children to learn to live harmoniously
with others, and also experience a sense of achievement which boosts their
self-esteem. Children learn to share materials, take turns, cooperate with
others, listen to others and to respect what others do. Children develop
empathy and concern for others as they play. Children learn negotiation skills
and how to solve problems. Leaders emerge to decide the role-play to be done.
These leaders assign role to other children. They also tell them what to do. It is
a good opportunity for training for those being led as they learn to obey rules
These are very important social skills, which prepare children for a better life in other
levels of schooling and in later life in society
iii. Emotional development
Children develop positive self-image as they play. They develop skills and
abilities that make them feel good about themselves. Play provides
opportunities for children to express their emotions of joy, anger, frustrations,
guilt, insecurity and anxiety. If you watch a young child playing you will be
able to identify emotions she expresses.
Play helps children to acquire knowledge, skills and positive attitudes about
adult roles
Therefore, it is important that allow children to express their emotions during
play as this helps to demonstrate what they feel. As children grow older they
need to be trained on how to express these same emotions in socially
acceptable way in order to maintain good social relations.
iv. physical Development
play is important for the development of strong and healthy bodies
Children acquire muscle strength and also learn to control and co-ordinate
their bodies through play.
Children learn to use their bodies to express themselves and to communicate
with others through body movements
Children also learn to use of their senses
Children learn to observe, talk about, investigate and experiment through the
use of their hands, eyes, ears, nose, mouth and other parts of the body.
They learn by touching, smelling, observing, discovering, imitating,
identifying, exploring describing and experiencing.
By so doing they learn to understand things and the world better.
v. Language Development
Children develop a lot of vocabulary. They learn to communicate with others,
to listen and express themselves during play. This is because they talk as they
play even when alone
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vi. Aesthetic Development
Children learn to enjoy and have fun. Develop their talents. Adults can use this
opportunity to nurture talents of children. Children also develop leadership
skills and ability to lead
vii. Understanding adult roles
Role-playing is one of the most frequent plays for young children. They like to
play adult roles. They act ‘mother’ ‘father’ etc .As they engage in their role-plays
they do what the person they are imitating does. Engaging in these role-plays
helps children to start to understand and appreciate adult roles better.
viii. Knowledge and appreciation of self
As children play, they learn what they are able to do and what they cannot do.
They also compare themselves with others which helps them to understand
their potentials even better. Understanding of self is important for
development of self identity, self-esteem and confidence
ix. Knowledge and appreciate of culture
Through indigenous and traditional toys, other They acquire values, beliefs
and attitudes that are associated with culture and way of life of their people.
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2. Physio- therapy –This involves going through exercises designed to reduce pain
and also minimize muscular deformities
3. Occupational therapy –This ensures proper movement of the hand, legs or head.
4. Speech therapy - Improve on his or her communication abilities eg use of gestures,
writing down what they want
5. Self care skills- This is where children are helped to live an independent life later
on eg ability to feed themselves, washing, bathing etc
6. Barrier free access – The buildings should be accessible to the physically
challenged. Construct ramps on storied buildings
7. Adaptive and assistive services e.g special scissors, book turners, brails, wheel
chairs etc
VISUALLY IMPAIRED
Individual that is all inclusive and embraces the totally blind and partially sighted.
Identification.
Appearance of their eyes is swolen, red,or watery eyes.
Cases of rubbing of the eyes
Blinding of the eyes
Holding books closer to their eyes
Eye aching or itching complaints
Double vision.
TYPES
1. Totally blind
Individuals who are unable to identify the source of light.
Unable to read
May use brails
2. Partially blind
Individuals having low vision.
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4. Low intelligence level.
5. Educational adaptation that are put in place
Interventions
1. Learning materials given e.g brails i.e computers and printers.
2. Attend special schools so that they are expose to specialized services.
3. Attend regular school
4. Taught by experienced and qualified teacher who have skills in sensory
stimulation and sensory skills.
5. They should be taught right from infancy in order to develop self confidence.
6. Presented with concrete objects that can be manipulated/touched.
HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Individuals that are deaf or hard of hearing. we measure hearing intensity and
sensitivity through units which are referred to as decibels
A deaf person is one that is unable to successfully process any singlestick
formation but a hard of hearing person generally uses a hearing aid to enable
him in the linguistic formation
Identification of hearing
Painful aching
Discomfort in ears ringing ears discharge
Request for repetition
Poor articulation of sounds e.g. talk coldly
Reluctance to participate in all discussion
Causes of hearing impairment
a. Heredity 20 – 50% due to heredity stems with sex linked genes responsible for
that majority are men
b. Diseases e.g. meningitis, maternal rubella prematurely damages the ear
c. Rhesus incompatibility
d. Atitis media – a condition associated with infection that cause accumulation of
the fluids in the middle of the ear
e. Accidents pealing of the expectant mother causes hearing impairment
Types of hearing impairment
1) Conductive bearing loss – the outer and middle ear region are interfered with
waxes that affect sound passage.
2) Sensory neuron hearing loss inner ear affected hence interfered with the
conduction of sound
3) Mixed hearing loss- occurs when both middle and inner ear are affected
simultaneously
Intervention to strategies
- Emphasis auditory training
- Hearing aid pranced to hearing impaired people
- Emphasis in speech reading or lip reaching
- Introduce to sign language/ finger spellings
- Taken to special schools or integrated school set – up.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Emotions are outward expressions of the inner feelings e.g anger, Joy, Pleasure
Audience, Fear, Jealousy, Confidence, Self image, Excitement etc. It is a feeling
about a person or an event. According to Mourns (1979) emotions are complex
effective experiences that involves diffuse psychological changes and can be
expressed overtly in characteristic behavior patterns.
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The issue of emotions exists from birth to old age. Emotions are physiological and
behavioral responses caused by hormonal secretions; they can be positive or negative.
This is because they are a product of perception e.g when you perceive a dangerous
animal/person, you can develop fear and run away.
Functions of Emotions.
They perform an adaptive function i.e emotions ensure survival of organisms.
If a child sports a wild dog, she will run away.
It also acts as a means of communication eg a person who is unhappy will cry
or become abusive.
It promotes social relationships. Emotions such as love/affection enhance
social bonds and attachment.
Emotions offer a motivating function. Students who fear exams are motivated
by anxiety to read frequently in fear of failing exams.
Provides direction towards goal achievement.
Source of pleasure or pain e.g if happy, laugh cry, pain.
components of emotions
1. Feelings- negative or positive
2. Behavioural responses e.g among children temper tantrums, crying.
3. Physiological arousal –sweating shivering or trembling of muscles
4. Environmental stimulus-student or individual encounters a threatening stimulus like
a lion will tremble and run away.
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snake, the person gets frightehed and run away. i.e the emotions reaction accompanies
physiological behavior.
3. Schachter Singer
Sometimes called the cognitive theory of emotion. It suggests that our physical
arousal together with our perception and judgement of a situation jointly determine
our emotions. Situations based on previous reactions determine emotions thus the
cognitive element of our behavior is in the form of our previous knowledge and
interpretation of the previous situation. Eg if a thief stole and nothing was done, he
will go ahead and steal again. Therefore, interpretation of a given stimuli influence
behaviour.
4. Windsley Activation Theory
It states that emotion represents a highlighted arousal within the individual. The
degree of emotions depends on rate arousal
Emotion provoking stimuli activates the reticular activating system in the brain area
which in turn sends impulse both upwards towards the cortex and downwards towards
the muscles.
Characteristics of emotions
1. Instinct e.g parental love is natural without inborn reason way of behaviour reason
or training love, depression.
2. Perception of a particular stimuli e.g react on situation according to law they
perceived them.
3. Feeling e.g negative or positive feelings.
4. Physiological changes in an individual
5. Physiological changes e.g anxiety, depression.
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2. Home climate
Democratic climate promotes positive emotions. Children are pleasant and
jovial. Undemocratic promotes jealousy
3. Relationship with peers
If well accepted by peers, they develops positive emotions
4. Parental expectations
High and unrealistic expectation from parents makes the child become
ashamed and embarrassed if they falls below those expectations.
6. Guidance and counseling
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MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Morality is a social variable which involves exercising of self-control and
consideration of others. It is the ability to distinguish between good and bad.
Morals are accepted behavior standards by a group of people within a certain social
context. It refers to the ability of an individual possessing a sense of right and wrong
behaviours with respect to the society’s code of ethics. It concerns rules about what
people should do in their interactions with others. It refers to the acquisition of values,
norms beliefs andunderstanding of culture of the society. Behavior standards vary
from group to group e.g. in Christian laws, certain denominations have prescribed
behavior standards e.g. protestants have to abide by certain behaviors. Smoking and
drinking a little in accepted in Catholic Church. Here morals are relate rather than
absolute i.e not universally accepted.
Components or constituents of morality
These are Societal values, norms, beliefs and customs. Individuals who adhere to these
are socially accepted. Those who deviate are perceived as social misfits ( not accepted).
Consequences for non-conforming include being punished or reprimanded by society
Influence of Peer groups e.g peers have same norms. Each member is
supposed to conform to those peer norms. If not so the individual is
threatened.
Influence of Church –there are set of rules based on biblical standards e.g.
Protestants consider taking of alcohol as wrong.
Youth organizations- scouts, girl guides, CU, SDA, CSA have set rules and
regulations that guide members behavior.
Mass-media e.g. TV, Radio-individuals would like to imitate and practice
what they see on TV. They do not question what is displayed on TV.
Guilt and Shame play an important role in the individual’s moral developments
Jerome korgan(1991)observed that soon before 2nd birthday, children begin to
acquire concept of right and wrong e.g. a small child looks at a torn curtain and utters
“broke” meaning there is a tear on the curtain.(knowledge of disapproval). Here the
concept of right and wrong has developed. Parents and Teachers use various methods
to shape individuals behavior.
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2) Punishment
Means to impose a penalty on a person for a fault, offence or violation in rules. This is
given to prevent recurrence of the unwanted behavior
Functions of punishment
a) offers a restrictive function e.g. interdiction, sucking or suspension
b) offers an educational value.
3). Rewards
are any form of appreciation for attainment: they have an education value as
they motivate the individual to practice or repeat socially approved behaviour.
They rein force socially approved behaviour eg praises, approval or material
rewards, Recognition e.g. calling students by name, Gifts or tangible things,
Social approval e.g. good, excellent and Special treats e.g. outing
4). Provision of guidance and counseling services-
Give learners ideas of how to manage themselves and relate with others well. Invite
guest speakers to address different issues in real life situations.
5)..Leadership roles.
Students should be given opportunities to experience leadership roles as prefects.
They should be allowed to elect their own leaders in school.
6..Participation in co-curricular activities-
This aims at tapping the potentials, talents and abilities of the learners, promote
physical and mental health, and to use up the excess energy.
7).Teaching subjects-
The teaching of subjects such as religious education, and life skills enable learners to
acquire the expected moral values.
8.Teachers and parents should act as immediate role models for Children to emulate.
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This is the first stage of moral development in children. It lasts from birth to
about 2yrs of age. In this stage, children do not simply understand the concept
of rules and the idea of morality. They see themselves as right and want to be
favored in all circumstances e.g when playing with other children, they refuse
to give back toys that don’t belong to them.
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don’t see the benefits. Children at this stage feel that good act is sold for a price. It is
important for them to resolve peer conflicts to allow them share their rewards.
Level II: Conventional moral reasoning (10- 18years)
At this stage children start to consider the social standards of the society which
reflects what is right and wrong. Here, children are mature enough to obey rules and
standards of the community/school. Their behavior is not to avoid punishment or
receive rewards but they realize that rules are theirs and not for other people.
Stage 3: Good boy/Nice girl orientation
Children at this stage want to do good to help and to please others. They want to be
approved by others. They feel that one should do what he or she would want others to
do to him or her. For example, they may say it is wrong to steal if you do not want
your property to be stolen.pre adolescents and adolescents adopt parents and teachers
moral standards in order to be thought of as good girl or good boy.
Stage 4: Law and order orientation
People at this stage conform to societal rules by considering what is right or wrong
according to society. Moral judgment is based on social order, justice and law of the
society. This stage concedes with Adolescence. The adolescence observes established
order. They conform to rules and take law as fixed eg secondary school and college
students.
Level 3: Post conventional stage.
This is the highest level of kohlberg’s theory. At this level every member understands
the reason for being moral. Therefore morality at this level is internalized and not
based on other people’s ethical standards of behavior. People know the importance of
upholding moral values.
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etc. Children perceive the actors in these programs as heroes and heroines
and thus imitate and emulate without considering the consequences.
3. The breakdown of the traditional social fabric.
In the traditional African society, it was the responsibility of all adults to
ensure moral uprightness among children. Today, the individualistic
attitude has taken toll and each person for himself and his family. Families
have moved out of the social ties and live independently.
4. The human rights movement.
This has made children rebellious and have little respect for authority and
even their parents. Children of today can choose to do what they want in
the name of rights.
5. Negative peer influence.
Students learn from each other both good and bad habits. In most cases,
they influence one another negatively in the way they behave e.g dug
abuse.
6. Poverty in society leading to cases of stealing/robbery, prostitution, and
child labor among others.
7. Generation gap
Many modern parents fear discussing moral issues with their children. The
adults are perceived by adolescents to be old fashioned and outdated. This
is unlike in the traditional African system where elders freely discussed
moral issues with the adolescents.
APPPLICATION TO EDUCATION
Help the students realize that they are responsible for their actions.
Give the students opportunities to hear different perspectives especially in
deciding what is right or wrong. Have discussions, forums, debates, play
groups about certain issues. This will be more meaningful and relevant if the
issues and roles are related to the students’ lives.
Discuss issues in a multi cultural or global perspective. Learners should be
presented with how certain issues are tackled in other cultures. Through this,
students can widen their understanding and learn to respect different views
and beliefs since moral values are not-universal.
Most elementary and secondary school learners are said to be in the stages 1
and 4 of Kohlberg’s moral development. We actually use this in maintaining
classroom control, behavior modification and establishing routines inside the
classroom by reinforcing desirable behaviors.
Teachers should act as models and be examples to the students. Teachers must
show good examples. So teachers should present values, attitudes and habits
worth imitating by others and other on-lookers.
Discipline must be used when a child violates the rules and regulations set by
parents, teachers and adults in charge of a child’s life. Discipline is thus the
society’s way of teaching a child moral behavior approved by the group. The
role of discipline is to mould behavior so that one can conform to the roles
prescribed by a cultural group.
Socialization and education are key to learning values and turning them into
action and so children’s ability to choose between right and wrong should be
brought about through these processes. Classrooms atmosphere should be
made democratic; the use of provocative language can be avoided, discussion
of moral dilemmas should be avoided. Provision of opportunity for learners to
engage in helpful behavior should be encouraged. Teachers should teach
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social education and ethics, religious studies, moral storytelling to bring out
moral lessons.
Learners should be given opportunities to take part in group activities so that
they can learn what is right, to act for the common good and to avoid doing
wrong. This can be accomplished most successfully by associating pleasant
reactions with what are right and unpleasant reactions with what is wrong.
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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Language – is a system of communication which uses sound and gestures to transmit
meaningful messages. It is the ability to use both verbal and non verbal cues to
communicate. Language is a channel of communication among people which gives
messages . It can also be understood as transmission of ideas and feelings by means
of verbal symbols
Properties of language.
- Context – It consists of emotions, feelings, motivations and actions that
accompany the utterance of speech.
- Semantics – constitutes meaning of the said word ie the speaker must
understand what he means when he speaks
- Grammars – This are rules and principles for organizing every language into
meaningful phrases such as phrases ,and clauses.
- Phonology – This component is made up of sounds (phonemes) which are
produced when one speaks.
- Morphology – made up of words or part of words called morpheme.
-
Functions of Language
- Leads to satisfaction of the individual needs and feelings
- Enables individuals get attention from others
- It regulates and controls behaviors of other people
- Facilitates meaningful human relations
- Influences thoughts and feelings of other people
- Leads to academic success
- Expression of individuality within the concept of self.
- Can be used to explain imaginations e.g. stories
- Helps in process of association
Factors facilitating learning of language
- Physical readiness of the individual
- Mental readiness of the individual
- Existence of good role models for imitation
- Level of motivation or reinforcement offered to individual
- Existence of proper guidance being offered by role models.
a) Individual health
Healthy children talks faster / sooner the unhealthy ones
b) Level of intelligence
Low 1 Q are likely to experience impaired speech
c) Economic status
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Children from higher social economic group talk earlier than those from low
economic group.
d) Gender
Boys lag behind girls in learning to speak.
e) Family size
Children from small size speaks early and better than those from large or average
ordinal position of an individual in family 1st born speech is always superior.
f) Parenting Style.
Authorization child training is an obstacle to learning language.
g) Intelligence of multiple births
Children of multiple births normally delay in their development of speech
h) Individual personality.
Well adjusted children tend to speak better than those poorly adjusted.
c) Functional theories
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How a Teacher can enhance language development
1. Parents and teachers need to be good role models in articulation and
pronunciation of words.
2. Those impaired should be referred to the language psychologists for
assistance.
3. Provide adequate print materials to encourage the emerging language eg text
books, poems, magazines, story books etc..
4. Avoid introduction of too many languages the mastering of one language is
faster.
5. Offer support, understanding and acceptance of individual or learners with
language difficulties.
6. Encourage learners towards self expression by asking them thought provoking
Questions.
7. Encourage storytelling, riddles, drama, debating , symposium etc in order to
enhance fluency.
8. Assign responsibilities in order to instill self confidence and self expression in
them.
9. Encourage group activities where they share, ask Questions and listen to
others
10. Teachers should correct grammatical mistakes immediately.
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Man is a social being with innate drives to associate and socialize with others. This
continue through out our lifespan.
It is a gradual process in which the growing child develops social skills, feelings,
attitudes and behaviors towards him// herself and other people. It means acquisition
of the ability to behave in accordance to with social expectations. Becoming
socialized involves three processes i.e
a). Learning to behave in socially accepted and approved ways.- Every social group
has its standards of what is approved behavior and what is not for its members.
b) Playing approved social roles- Every social group has its own patterns of
customary behavior that are carefully defined and expected of its members eg roles of
parents and children and for teachers and pupils.
c). Development of social attributes- To be socialized, children must like social
activities, norms and beliefs
Social development emerges as an individual is born i.e. the significance of
others or parent.
Early childhood development entirely depends on social learning and
development
SOCIALISATION
This is the process by which persons acquire knowledge, skills and altitude
that make them be integrated members of the society. Therefore individuals
undergo the following processes
Status socialization-An individual is prepared to occupy a generalized status
in the society.
Role socialization-An individual is prepared for a specific vocation or function
or roles in society.
Agents of Socialization
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Family- This is the primary and basic agent of socialization. It provides basic needs ,
care, love and protection. It imparts basic life skills and reinforces community values,
norms, behaviors and beliefs.
School- Has rules and regulations that direct behavior. There exists peers and teachers
upon which children imitate. Schools have cultures and tradition which
enhances .bonding.
Peers- Influences the behavior of each other positively or negatively. Peers have
common grounds in terms of characteristics, ideas, interests and experiences.
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b. Desired of social approval expected
c. Empathy and dependence-ant- social behaviour e.g. aggression bully and teas
others
d. Negativism
e. Prejudice dislikes some people
Children gang- spontaneous local group having the socialization from outside and
more social approved
Conformity
A behavior intended to reflect group expectations or social expectation social
expectation defined into terms of development tasks and learning experiences
Condition leading to variation in social group influences or conformity accepted
1) Security status of the individual who feels secure in a given group are bound to be
influenced or remain in that group.
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2) Acceptability of the individual to the group- those who see the possibility of
gaining group acceptance are influenced more by the group
3) Personality of the individual joining the group- Those who suffer feeling of
inferiority or inadequate are likely to be influenced by members of the group?
4) Affiliation nature- Stronger it is the higher the design to be accepted.
Self concepts
Images people have of themselves believe in term of their physical social and
emotional responses.
6) Self difference 3 -4 years
7) Sex roles role for se
8) Social class differences
9) Social development can be impaired through
1) Ability to develop the understanding of oneself.
2) Misconceptions facility interpretation of different sensory
Can be attributed to
a) Receiving incorrect information
b) Individual experience or exposure
c) Faulty reasoning e.g. poor reasoning
d) Unrealistic thinking e.g. constant exposure to development of unrealistic
thinking confusion
3) Conflicting information that the individual received from others
4) Difficulty in correcting
Serious as misconceptions are to the understanding the difficulty in changing is even
greater hazard to individual or personal development
Categories of social acceptance
1) Star
Everyone in the group claims to be his or her intimate friend everyone wants to pick
him or her
2) Acceptance
Accepted children are liked by many members of the group however their status is lss
secure than that of the star
3) Isolates
Have no friends seen to be lonely.Have not chosen anyone and have not been chosen
4) Fringer
Border line of acceptance accepted or not.
5. Climbers
Gain acceptance is one group but want to gain acceptance in a socially name favoured
group.
6. Neglectees
Neither liked nor disliked very shy and withdraws.
Characteristics of leaders in social group
1. High sense of security
2. Better overall appearance as compared 2 others e.g clothing (cleanliness)
3. Popular among their peers
4. Mature in terms of age
5. Adjusted well in terms of age personality and social level.
6. High level of personal drive
7. Personal warmth
8. Creative
PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
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o This refers to total organization of the individual’s dynamic organization within
the individual psycho- physical system that determine his unique adjustment to the
environment. Personality is either public of private.
o Public personality refers to that behavior which others observe (what is seen by
everybody)
o Private personality refers to fantasies and hidden behaviours known to the person
alone..
o It encompasses individuals physical appearance, temperament, intelligence, moral
values and interest of an individual
Determinants of personality
These are classified into two
a) Genetic factors
b) Environmental factors
Mental abilities-The mentally retarded tend to be dull and therefore develop
unfavorable self concepts.
Health- which in long run affects their personalities they can be perceived in terms
of malnourishment fatique tined are very quarrel, some disease e.g chronic
diseases irritating physical environments.
Temperaments and Emotions also influence personality.
Unjustified emotional outbursts influences other two judges the individuals as
immature and hence making him to be rude or uncooperative, success or failure in
life.
The person self concept is influenced by whether he regards himself as being
successful or failure. Success may influence one to be proud, derive self
satisfaction independently cheerful and happy whereas failures influences one to
be unsafe of his abilities, feelings or depressed.
Social acceptance of an individual influences him or her to develop social
personality traits e.g being friendly self confidence and also leadership skills.
Influence of the school which encompasses the emotional climate of the class e.g
if people are happy and hard working, teachers playing their role well, discipline
they administer is autocratic, individuals are said be focused, confident,
independent with high respect for authority.
Democratic –happiness and corporation academic achievement and fast learners.
PERSISTENCE IN PERSONALITY
This refers to endurance/ recurrence of certain personality traits and that is why opt
observes that personality is the individual relatively. During and unique organization
that is influenced by: heredity e.g. interest, is passed over from parents.
o Individuals training techniques- training as a method ensure that the individual
remain relatively stable in terms of personality
o Parental values - personality traits that are highly reinforced by parents tend to be
stable over period of time
o Social environment influence e.g. violence, aggression, Christian etc
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o Role play e.g. the role individuals learn to play in the home, it influence their self
concept e.g. directing others development learning personality
PERSONALITY CHANGE
These are alterations that occur in the individual’s personality development. These
changes are normally occasioned by:
a) Maturation e.g. stable emotions
b) Disturbance in the brain due to Injuries and accidents
c) Drug use and abuse
d) Environmental changes affects individuals
e) Social status and hence power
f) Social pressure, the stronger the drive for conformity
g) Social acceptance the more the individual is likely to develop personality trait
that conform to socially approved patterns
h) Increase in the individual’s competence level due to changes in the psycho
motor skills eg through experience
i) Self concept because of social recognition that increases the individual
competence
j) Increase in the individuals competence
k) Influence of counseling and guidance in the sense that psychotherapy helps
individual develop favourable self concept as they gain insight into the cause
of their un favourable self concept
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develops the feelings of guilt father make up their own rules on how this work is
done. If not allowed the child begins to feel guilty for having failed.
2) Industry vs. inferiority 6-11years if the initiative is successful, the individual
will produce actions, or engage in action that develop the attribute of industry.
Develops all kind of skills and get reward for what they have done children should be
encouraged/ to do more hence becoming industrious if modeled rewards to not
forthcoming they feel inadequate inferior.
Feelings of inferiority develop when a child fears to undertake the task.
5) Identify vs. Role Confusion (Adolescent 12-20 years)
The key issues that affect the individuals and identified and role reality.
Therefore role confusion hampers a sense of identity, a stage where a adolescent want
to know who they cove they come up with group which they identify with and keep
them self free from adults or outsiders where some behaviours strait searching for
solutions like religious, vocational and personal issue, failure to develop a strong
sense of self results in uncertainty about what one is supposed to do and be her role
confusion
6)Intimacy vs. isolation 20-45 years (Young adults)
Young people establish intimate relationships with someone of the opposite sex.
Failure to achieve intimacy leads to feeling of isolation (starts in adulthood time of
permanence of relationship which are intimate, usually with a member of opposite sex
provides feeling of true satisfaction because you are important to at least one special
person mutual relationship exists without it there is loneliness (hence isolation).
7) Generativity vs. stagnation 45-65 years
Stage of middle adult hood
The individual is not productive and creative activities e.g a very effective teacher’s
counselor if the individual is not productive at this stage he stagnates and moves to
ego-integrity vs despair.
At this stage somebody should contribute something very important to the world e.g
family job generate or he or she stands still psychologically and produces nothing thus
stagnation.
8) Ego integrity vs. despair 60 and above
An individual has a wide view or perception of himself he understands what he has
done and what he is, thus a sense of integrity if he regrets in life he develops.
At this stage somebody should accept that end is despair coming and life has been a
worth while event that self ego integrity if he doesn’t feel this views that life has been
meaningless hence being despair. Integrity completion while despair incompletes.
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The Ego
Develop through the process of socialization is governed by the reality principles. It
delays on withholds the immediate gratification. It is abit logical and tolerant.
The Super Ego
It controls both Id and the Ego. It develops as a result of the societal influence, it s a
perfectionist and becomes internalized and forms part of the individuals and
philosophy of life. It is the judicial branch of personality
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Cognition means receiving, perceiving, producing and utilizing information. It is
concerned with how knowledge is acquired with reasoning, comprehension, memory,
perceptual organization and problem solving. It changes with age and experience. It
involves development of mental skills which are characterized by changes in the level
of remembering, thinking, memorizing, classifying and comparing. ,At age 3-6 years,
cognitive development is marked by high level of curiosity and numerous questions
that children ask. This helps them to reason and think about cause and effect of
various situations in life.
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Images referred to schemata mental picture that an individual forms.
Quiz
Describe the stages of Jean Piagets’ theory of cognitive development
Explain how a student’s cognitive development can be enhanced.
.
2. Maturation
Changes and developments brought about in the cognitive structure are
due to the process of natural growth.
3. Experience
The changes and developments in the cognitive structure are brought
about by experience that involves the process of assimilation,
adaptation and equilibration.
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1. Sensory motor stage
2. Pre- operational
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They learn sex roles. They are creative and constructive in his play. Teachers
should provide a lot of drawing materials, correct speech and encourage them
to express their feelings.
Educational implications
- Teachers should allow them to carry out various activities to learn actively eg
modeling.
- Emphasize on classification and ordering in order to develop concepts.
- Make use of stories to arouse their interests.
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It has emphasized the importance of drives and motivation in the
field of learning and development.
It provides valuable information of advice on aim planning and
structuring of the scheme of services.
It helps teachers to understand the nature of thought process of
children at a particular level of maturation or chronological age.
Teachers must emphasize discovery leaning rather than giving all
the information to the learners.
Emphasis should be put on individualization of education(child-
centered learning)
Enactive mode
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This stage is characterized by motor reflexes as reflected in touching, testing, moving
and grasping.
The infant perceives the object in terms of what’s done to it and its thinking is based
on what one does.
This stage is also associated with the adolescents or adults whenever they engage in
new motor activity e.g. swimming, playing piano and finding their way through
unfamiliar territory.
Iconic mode:
During this stage, the child’s system of representing information expands so that
objects and experience not only continue to exist in their absence but form part of his
internalized experience.
They are able to form images and pictures of experience.
They can interact with objects that are physically absent but readily available in his
mind. This should encourage them to use their imagination.
They should be encouraged to participate in developing Teaching- Learning
resources.
Symbolic mode
According to Brunner, it’s the highest form of thinking. The child represents
information on the basis of symbols, ideas, thoughts, or concepts.
The child has good command of language that enables him express his thoughts.
He develops problem solving and logical reasoning.
The individual develops cognitions through:
Acquisition of new information from the Environment. It is a transformation stage
whereby the newly acquired information is manipulated to meet new tasks.
Evaluation stage is whereby the assessment is given to establish whether the
individual has correctly and successfully manipulated the information.
Educational Implication
Teach children using concrete objects or materials plus action to enable them to learn
effectively.
Instruction ought to be sequenced based on the level of difficulty of the task.
Learners should be exposed to a variety of teaching aids in order to develop the iconic
mode of thinking.
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT
Is the capacity to learn and adjust to relatively new and changing conditions
1) Ability to learn quickly how to solve problems and understand complex issues
and generally behave in a reasonable and purposeful manner
2) IQ is measured using the formula below
I Q = MA X 100:
CA
If a learner is 15 years old, and his IQ is 100, what is the mental age?
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130 – 145 is gifted
100 – 115 is above average
85 – 100 is average
65-85 is below average
50-65 is a slow learner
20-50 is severe retardation
Below 20 is profound
MA/CA X 100=_IQ
100= MA/15 X 100
=15years.
A child whose chronological age is 20 years has the IQ of 100. What is the mental
age?
MA= IQ X CA/100
MA=100X 20/100
= 20years.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
1. Factor theory
2. Cognitive theory
Factor theories
a)Unitary or monarchic theory
According to this theory, intelligence consists of one factor, a fund of intellectual
competence which is universal to all activities of the individual. It claims that a good
standard in mathematics should be good in all other subjects.
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Deals with recall or memorizing this
Perpetual factors
Deals with the ability to perceive objects accurately.
Problem solving ability factor
Involves solving problems independently.
b) Crystallized intelligence
This is intelligence that is learnt and depends on education and individuals’ culture.
Displayed or manifested in the general knowledge of current affairs, endowment in
vocabulary, knowledge of customs and traditions, knowledge of keeping records of
accounts etc
Its characterized by high degree of socio-cultural experiences, Education, reasoning
and imagination
2) Theory of mental functioning by Jensen Arthur
According to this theory, the functioning of a person’s mind depends upon the type
and degree of intelligence one posses. Intelligence is composed of two types.
A. Associate abilities
Involves the ability to remember, reproduce, identify, discriminate, synthesize,
assimilate transfer and apply the task measured include, free re-cal. It is dependent on
biological or maturational factor.
B. Conceptual abilities
This Involves one’s ability to carry out high order thinking, reasoning,
analyzing, and capacity to solve problems. It is measured by tasks that
involve the use of conceptual ability, abstract reasoning, analytical and
divergent thinking. It’s dependent on individual’s educational level and
culture. Its required as people interact with others in school or wider
society.
3.Campion’s and Brown Theory
It was proposed by Joe Campion and Ann Brown (1979) According to this
theory, an individual’s intelligence is composed of two parts system:-
i) Architectural system (biological)
These are systems that form the base of the individuals intellectual functioning. It
includes basic mental abilities e such as memory capacity, rate of loss of memory and
information processing ability based on biological or innate factors (inborn).
ii) Executive system( environmental)
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This system is influenced by the environment and it works as a store house of
knowledge. It includes cognitive abilities e.g mental schemata and Cognitive learning
strategies. It is the ability to plan, evaluate, and regulate learning. It is dependent on
training, culture, education and experience.
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a. Influence of heredity- identical twins similar IQ e.g. reasoning and
clothing.
b. Nature of home environment enough
c. Multi- media, enough resources to able to be exposed.
d. Nature of schools and associated facilities.
e. Size of he of the family- large families have a tendency of children.
f. Ordinal positions in the family- later born children score lesser IQ than
earlier born children.
g. Education background of the parents- low performers would produce
children with low IQ.
h. Social economic status- baring on health condition e.g. nutritional level
i. Physical and social surrounding of the home
INTELLIGENCE TESTS
Are two common types
Wechsler Bellevue intelligence test
This is based on language or verbal competence of an individual which involve
testing on comprehension, vocabulary and arithmetic reasoning.
Stanford Binet intelligence scale
Was developed by A. Binet, a French psychologist. It was used as a tool for
identifying children who are ready for formal schooling from those who needed
remedial program. It was used for approximating the mental age of children. It
was based on the principal of normal distribution of intelligence. It encompasses
the following areas
i. verbal reasoning
ii. Quantitative reasoning
iii. abstract reasoning
iv. short term memory
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EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
This refers to individuals who deviates from normal or average individuals in terms
of mental, physical, emotional and social characteristics. The person differs from
others in terms of learning abilities, social behaviour, sensory abilities and mental
characteristics.
MENTALLY EXCEPTIONAL
1. Gifted and talented
2. Mentally retarded
Gifted and talented
One who shows consistently remarkable performance in any worthwhile line of
endeavour i.e is superior in some ability or group of abilities.
Exhibit superior performance in areas of their giftedness.
They make enormous contributions to the welfare of the individual and the society
at large.
Display skills and talents in music and drama, social leadership, creative scientific
experimentations.
Display superiority sense of love and belongings.
Knowledge and understanding.
Require opportunities to satisfy the need for self esteem and self consideration.
Some have very low TQ.
CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLECTUALLY GIFTED/ACADEMICALLY
TALENTED CHILDREN
Talented person
Large vocabulary in thinking
Original thinking
Quite inquisitive ask questions
Learn at a faster rate
Perform difficult mental task use great deal of common sense and practical skills
such individuals are always alert, thinly and observant.
They are able to tell what they hear and read.
There is no need for vote drill.
In a school set up, the academically gifted persons one only 2-3 % however they are
normally neglected because:-
Inability to identify them
Some people think that they don’t require special attention
Factors that contribute to poor performance in class by the gifted and talented
people
1) Poor and boring curriculum so many subjects which are irrelevant.
2) Have many disabilities e.g. deaf, physical, mental
3) Parents lack knowledge and skills to enhance their development.
4) Subjected to unrealistic goal set by their parents
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5) Lack support from their peers
6) Inadequate facilities in school to faster their talents.
MENTAL RETARDEDNESS
Mentally retarded individuals experience condition of incomplete development of
mind that exists before the age of 18 years. This can be established through
1.). conducting test of the fluids surrounding the foetal scalp or evaluation
( collecting information and using the information for decision making.)
2) Detection at the time of birth e.g. cases of microcephaly and hydrocephaly can
be detected soon after birth
3) Trussing three-story of the causation or development of the labour condition of
the mother long, caecevia, blood group incompatibility
4) Accidents
5) Exposure to some infections e.g. STDS
6) Assessing the intellectuals functioning of the individual i.e. 1 Q tests help classify
them i.e. imbecile gauging
Behavioral characteristics
1)Display low power of ability in understand abstract concepts ( imagination
concepts)
2)Poor at following simple verbal instructions e.g. to or move things would not
3)Low intellectual label development 1 Q
4)There areas of interest aptitude and choices are limited e.g. (menu same)
5.Creativity aspect is almost absent
6Low ability in the areas of imagination even reasoning or thinking
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Appear clumsy, mortor inco-ordination i.e limbs.
Dull can be trained instead of being educated.
Rate of learning is low
Require some consisted attention
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4) Public education related to causes and ways of preventing mental retardation
5) Medical assistance to those affected/patients
6) Special education and training that emphasizes on the following
a) Co- curricular experiences to experiences to enhance the students social and
emotional development
b) Vocational adaptation for trainable individuals
c) Qualified teachers required who are equipped with knowledge and skills in
special education
d) Proper grouping or classification of the mentally retarded children
CREATIVITY
Various scholars have
Ability of the person to create, discovers, or produce a new idea or object. May also
involve re-shaping or re-arrangement of the existing objects based on individuals on
unique skills.
Therefore it’s the power of the human mind to create new contents / ideas/
information, hence it’s universal (not confined to a given individual inborn/ innate-
God given or nurtured.
It involves producing new things/ ideas
Its adventurous, emphasis on divergent thinking.
It includes ego- involvement (individual takes pride in a given creation).
Cannot be separated from intelligence
Creativity and sociability are very related (majority of creative individuals are
sociable)
Creativity and anxiety are related (anxiety to push to do something).
THEORIES OF CREATIVITY
TAYLOR
Developed the level theory of creativity, hence it exists at various levels, in an
ascending hierarchy,
1) Expressive level of creativity
An individual doesn’t not refer/ make reference to originality
2 ) productive creativity
Individual is innovative at producing things
2) inventive creativity
Emphasis on novel use of old things (recycling old)
4) Innovative
Based on highly developed abstract or conceptualized skills individual can come up
with a new idea or model
5) Emergentive creativity
Rarely achieved/ is the most abstract level of thinking involving developing
assumptions that forms the basis of the knowledge of Art and science.
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ARIET
Com up- theoretical notions understanding the theory of creativity.
1) Creativity and mental illness are parallel to one another, has the eager to
know something.
It involves transformation of reality.
2) To say that a creative person is mentally ill is guilt incorrect
CREATIVE PROCESS
Has the following stages
1) Preparation
The problem is defined or analyzed.
2) Incubation
Characterized by absence of activity (thinking of a problem somebody deliberately
turn away from the problem.
3) Illumination/ inspiration
There is a sudden appearance of a solution to a problem occurs anytime/ when the
individual is sleeping
3) revision/ verification
Involves determining the solution or idea that appeared through insight is the
correct one or not. Therefore modification may be undertaken to make the
solutions workable. Therefore creative individual display the following behavioral
i. Original in ideas and expressions
ii. High sense of adventure
iii. Good memory i.e. general knowledge
iv. High sense degree of concentration and enthusiasm.
v. Investigative and curious
vi. Make independent decisions
vii. Fluent in expressions based on divergent thought
viii. Take pride in creation
ix. Quite tolerant and respect opinions of other.
x. High sense of self respect and justice.
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Individual is supposed to answers unusual questions based on a particular picture
Or photograph. Who among these seem to be criminal?
v. just suppose type
The subject is required to predict out comes of unusual situations: how would you
Behave if you had other eyes back on your head?
PERSPECTIVE OF ABNORMALITY
Medical perspective the rout course of abnormal behaviour is found in physical
examination of a person i.e. hormonal imbalance, brain injury.
PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE
Children conflict/ expressions over the opposing wishes regarding sex and aggression,
VARIOUS BEHAVIOURS
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SOMATO FORM DISORDER
Psychological difficulty that takes a physical form e.g. constant fears of illness.
Dissociative disorders
Psychological disorder characterized by separation of critical personality facets are
normally integrated e.g. pair of shoes and glasses.
MOOD DISORDERS
Strong emotional feeling that interfere with individuals daily life e.g. Mania intense
happiness/ power.
Dipolar disorder- characterized by periods of mania and depression.
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Individual’s emotion and perception detritions characterized by unshakable believers
e.g. somebody.
Hallucinations- perceive non existence things withdrawal.
PERSONALITY DISORDER
Mental disorder characterized by inflexible multi adaptive personality traits e.g. anti
social personality disorder. (Psychopath) individual is unable to tolerate frustrations
can injure other people, display criminal behaviors caused by death of parents or
poverty.
BORDERLINE PERSONALITY DISORDER
Individuals have difficulty in developing a secure sense of who they are, unable to
control their anger, engage in self distractive behaviors.
TREATMENT FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
a) Behavioral treatment approach
Based upon the use of reinforcements or rewards in order to control a certain
behavior e.g. aversive conditioning technique help one who is a drug addict.
Systematic desensitization- introduction the individual in steps to an anxiety
provoking stimuli until fear is eliminated.
Operant condition.
b) psycho-dynamic approaches- one has a lot of conflict individual develops
defensive mechanism to protect time self from anxiety provoking stimuli e.g. identify.
Cognitive approach
Help the individual thinking in more adaptive ways or think rationally or logically.
Bio- medical treatment/ therapy
Drug therapy e.g. use of depressants e.g. valium
Psycho-surgery
Brain surgery to reduce symptom of mental disorders.
Physiological and psychological needs of the food, companion needs of the youth.
ADOLESCENCE
Adolescence stands out as a fascinating, interesting and challenging period of
human growth and development. It is a span of year between 12 yrs to 22 yrs of age.
Culturally, It is seen as transit period with individuals changing from children to
adults. Transition implies the following;
i)Age at which young people are no longer children but are not yet grown up
Individuals are looking to the future of adulthood while disregarding the present
(ii)Adolescents don’t accept they are in transition and prefer to be called teenagers
About biological changes signal the end of childhood and marks the onset of
adolescence. These changes result in rapid growth in being and weight in bodily
proportions and attainment from adolescence to young adulthood is marked by social
and emotional changes.
Development tasks that have to be satisfied during adolescence include:
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Attaining individuality
Making progress towards organized personality pattern
Developing a physiology of life
Developing a concept of values and desirable behavior
Achieving a place in the society
Understanding personal assets and inabilities
Establishing deep personal relationships with individuals of both sexes
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