UNIT I: INTRODUCTION

a) Concept of human development - Meaning.

b) Aspects of human development - Physical, social, cognitive, moral.

c) Principles of human development (Baltes).

d) Issues of human development – nature v/s nurture, goodness and badness, activity

and passivity, continuity v/s discontinuity, universality/s context specificity.

e) Overview of theories of human development –Erickson, Piaget, Kohlberg.

CONCEPT OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT – MEANING

Human development is the scientific study of processes of change and stability throughout
the human life span.

Life span development is the concept of development as a lifelong process, which can be
studied scientifically.

From the moment of conception, human beings undergo processes of development. The field
of human development is the scientific study of those processes.

Developmental scientists---professionals who study human development-are interested in the

ways in which people change throughout life, as well as in characteristicsthat remain fairly
stable. The formal study of human development is a relatively new field of scientific inquiry.

Since the early nineteenth century, efforts to understand children’s development have
gradually expanded to include the whole life span.

Early Approaches to the scientific study of development were baby biographies, journals kept
to record the early development of a child.

It was Charles Darwin, originator of the theory of evolution, who first emphasized the
developmental nature of infant behavior. By the end of the nineteenth century, several
important trends in the western world were preparing the way for the scientific study of
development. Scientists had unlocked the mystery of conception and were arguing about the
relative importance of “nature” and “nurture” (inborn characteristics and the influence of
experience).

As the field of human development became a scientific discipline, its goals evolved to
include description, explanation, prediction and modification of behaviour.

These four goals work together, as we can see by looking at language development. For
example, to describe when most normal children say their first word or how large their
vocabulary typically is at a certain age, developmental scientists observe large groups of
children and establish norms, or averages, for behavior at various ages. They then attempt to
explain what causes or influences the observed behaviour-'for example, how children acquire
and learn to use language. This knowledge may make it possible to predictwhat language
ability at a given age can tell about later behaviour. Finally, awareness of how language
develops may be used to modify behaviour.

The questions that developmental scientists seek to answer, the methods they use, and the
explanations they propose are not the same today as they were even twenty-five years ago.
These shifts reflect progress in understanding, as new investigations build on or challenge
earlier ones. They also reflect advances in technology and changes in cultural attitudes.

ASPECTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT - PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE,

PSYCHOSOCIAL AND MORAL.

Domains of Development Change and stability occur in various domains, or dimensions, of

the self. Developmentalscientists talk separately about physical development, cognitive
development, psychosocial development and moral development. Actually, though, these
domains are interlinked. Throughout life, each domain affects the others, and each domain is
important throughout life.

Following are the domains(aspects) of human developmenent:

1. Physical Development
It is the growth of body and brain and change or stability in sensory capacities, motor
skills and health.
For example, a child with frequent ear infections may develop language more slowly
than a child without this problem.
During puberty, dramatic physical and hormonal changes affect the developing sense
of self. And, in some older adults, physical changes in the brain may lead to
intellectual and personality deterioration.

2. Cognitive Development
It is the change or stability in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory,
language, thinking, reasoning and creativity.
Cognitiveadvancesare closely related to physical and emotional growth. The ability to
speak depends on the physical development of the mouth and brain. A child who has
difficulty expressing themselves in words may evoke negative reactions in others,
influencing their popularity or self-worth.
 3. Psychosocial Development

It is the change and stability in emotions, personality and social relationships.

Psychosocial development can affect cognitive and physical functioning. For
example, anxiety about taking a test can impair performance. Social support can help
people cope with the potentially negative effects of stress on physical and mental
health.

4. Moral Development
Moral development is the process through which individuals develop proper attitudes
and behaviors toward other people in society, based on social and cultural norms,
rules, and laws.Moral development focuses on the emergence, change, and
understanding of morality from infancy through adulthood.

Although we look separately at physical, cognitive, psychosocial and moral

development, a person is more than a bundle of isolated parts. Development is a
unified process.

PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT (BALTES)

Paul B. Baltes and his colleagues (1987) have identified six key principles of the life-span
developmental approach. Together these principles serve as a widely accepted conceptual
framework for thestudy of life-span development:

1. Development is lifelong.
Development is a lifelong process of change in the ability to adapt to the situations one
selects, or in which one finds oneself. Each period has its own unique characteristics and
value; none is more 'or less important than any other. Although it was once widely believed
that development stops at adolescence, we now know that even very old people can grow.
The experience of dying can be a final attempt to come to terms with one’s life.

2. Development involves both gain and loss

Development is multidimensional and multidirectional. It occurs along multiple dimensions
i.e., biological, psychological, social and moral- each of which may develop at varying rates.
Development also proceeds in more than one direction. As people gain in one area. they may
lose in another, and at the same time. Children grow mostly in one direction-up-both in size
and in abilities. Then the balance gradually shifts. Adolescents typically gain in physical
abilities but lose their facility in learning new language.

3. Relative influence of biology and culture shift over the life span
The process ofdevelopment is influenced by both biology and culture, and the balance
between these influences changes over time. Biological influences, such as sensory accuracy,
muscular strength and coordination become weaker as aperson gets older, but cultural
supports, such as education, relationships, and technologically age-friendly environments,
may help compensate.
4. Development involves a changing allocation of resources
Individuals choose to “invest” their resources such as time, energy, talent money, and
social support in varying ways.
Resources may be used for three purposes:
(a) growth (for example, learning to play an instrument or improving one’sskill),
(b) maintenance or recovery (practicing to maintain or regain proficiency), and
(c) dealing with loss when maintenance and recovery are not possible.

The allocation of resources to these three functions changes throughout life as the total
available pool of resources decreases. In childhood and youngadulthood, the bulk of
resources typically goes to growth; in old age, to regulation of loss. In midlife, the
allocation is more evenly balanced among thethree functions.

5. Development is modifiable
Throughout life, development shows plasticity. Manyabilities, such as memory, strength,
and endurance, can be significantly improved with training and practice, even late in life.
However, the potential for change has its limits.

6. Development is influenced by the historical and cultural context

Each person develops within multiple contexts--circumstances or conditions defined in
part by biology, in part by time and place. Human development is influenced by, their
historical-cultural context. As we discuss throughout this book, developmental scientists
have found significant cohort differences in intellectual functioning, in women’s midlife
emotional development, and in the flexibilityof personality in old age.

Issues of Human DevelopmentTheories

There are a number of important issues that have been debated throughout the history of
developmental psychology. The major questions include the following:

1. The Goodness-Badness of Human Nature

A question that arise while looking into different human development theories is that
‘are people innately good, innately bad, or neither?’.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), believed children are inherently selfish and bad and
believed that it was society’s responsibility to teach them to behave in civilized ways.

By contrast, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) argued that children were innately

good, and that they were born with an intuitive understanding of right and wrong, and
that they would develop in positive directions as long as society did not interfere with
their natural tendencies.

In the middle was English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704), who maintained that
infants are tabulaerasae, or “blank slates,” waiting to be written on by their
experiences. That is, children were neither innately good nor innately bad but could
develop in any direction depending on their experiences.
2. Nature-Nurture
The nature versus nurture debate involves the extent to which aspects of human
development is a result of either nature or nurture. The nature refers to the inherited
(i.e., genetic) influence and nurture refers to the acquired (i.e., learned) influences.
The nature-nurture issue is the most important and most complex issue in the study of
human development. Strong believers in nature stress the importance of individual
genetic and biological makeup. They are likely to claim that all normal children
achieve the same developmental milestones at similar times because of maturation.

By contrast, strong believers in nurture (like Locke, who claimed experience shapes
development) would emphasize environment or the range of influences outside the
person. Nurture includes influences of the physical environment (crowding, pollution,
and the like) as well as the social environment (for example, learning experiences,
child-tearing methods, peers, societal trends, and the cultural context in which the
person develops).

3. Activity-Passivity
The activity-passivity issue focuses on the extent to which human beings are active in
creating and influencing their own environments during the process of their
development or are passively shaped by forces beyond their control. Some theorists
believe that humans are curious, active creatures who plan their own development by
exploring the world around them and shaping their environments.
Other theorists view humans as passive beings shaped largely by forces beyond their
controlusually environmental influences but possibly strong biological forces.

4. Continuity-Discontinuity
One aspect of the continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on whether the changes
people undergo over the life span are gradual or sudden. Continuity theorists view
human development as a process that occurs in small steps, without sudden change. In
contrast, discontinuity theorists tend to view the course of development as more like a
series of huge steps, each of which causes a huge change in the individual.

5. Universality-Context Specificity
Finally, developmental theorists often disagree on the universality and context
specificity issue. Theorists who believe in universality suggests that the
developmental changes are common to all humans across different cultures. For
example between 6 and 9 months, babies babble in syllables and start imitating tones
and speech sounds and this is same throughout the world. In contrast, theorists who
agree to context specificity believe that human development is different for different
cultures. The stages of development followed in one culture may be different from the
other culture.
Overview of theories of Human Development
 Human development is complex. It is multidimensional, multidirectional, contextual,
and in many ways, quite particular to each individual. These characteristics make it
difficult to study and challenging to know accurately.

Since human development is complex, there is a need for multiple perspectives and
theories. Theories provide a structure for the study of human development. Some of
the theories of human development are:
1. Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
2. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
3. Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

1. Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

Erikson proposed that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight

stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage,
the person experiences a psychosocial crisis, which could have a positive or negative
outcome for personality development.
The crises are of a psychosocial nature because they involve psychological needs of
the individual (i.e., psycho) differing with the needs of society (i.e., social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a healthy
personality and the achievement of a virtue.
Virtues are characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete
further stages and thereby developa unhealthy personality and sense of self.  

Stage 1: Trust vs Mistrust (Birth to 12-18 months)

Trust vs. mistrust is the first stage in Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial
development. This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age.
During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks
towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care. The baby
develops a sense of whether the world is a good and safe place.
Virtue: Hope

Stage 2: Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (12-18 months to 3 years)

According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of
personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. If children in this
stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become
more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
Virtue: Will

Stage 3: Initiative vs Guilt (3 to 6 years)

During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with
other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the
opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities. The child
develops initiative when trying out new activities and is not overwhelmed by guilt.
Virtue: Purpose

Stage 4: Industry vs Inferiority (6 years to puberty)

It is at this stage that the child’s friends group will gain greater importance and will
become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win
approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society and begin
to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
Virtue: Skill

Stage 5: Identity vs Identity confusion (Puberty to young adulthood)

During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through
an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals. This is a major stage of
development where the child has to learn the roles he/she will occupy as an adult. It is
during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his/her identity and try to find out
exactly who he or she is.
Virtue: Fidelity

Stage 6: Intimacy vs Isolation (Young Adulthood)

During this period, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We
explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other
than a family member.Successful completion of this stage can result in happy
relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
Virtue: Love

Stage 7: Generativity vs Stagnation (Mature Adult)

The individual is concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation or else
feel a sense personal failure. Here the individual will focus on raising children, being
productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and
organizations. By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel
unproductive.
Virtue: Care

Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs Despair (Late Adulthood)

It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.Erik Erikson believed if we
see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not
accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often
leading to depression and hopelessness.
Virtue: Wisdom
 2. Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through
four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature
of intelligence.

Through his observations, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development

that included four distinct stages:

Stage 1: The Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations. Children learn
about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening. Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence).

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the

understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of developing. They are separate beings from the
people and objects around them. They realize that their actions can cause things to
happen in the world around them.

Stage 2: The Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 Years)

Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others. While they are getting better with language and thinking, they
still tend to think about things in very concrete terms. Children become much more
skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet continue to think
concretely about the world around them.  Children at this stage will still struggle with
logic and understanding the point of view of other people i.e., they are egocentric.
They also often struggle with understanding of law of conservation.

Concept of conservation: According to Jean Piaget, Conservation refers to a

logical thinking ability that allows a person to determine that a certain quantity will
remain the same despite adjustment of the container, shape, or apparent size.
 Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years)

During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events. They
begin to understand the concept of conservation. Their thinking becomes more logical
and organised. Children begin to use inductive reasoning, a logical process in which
multiple informations are combined to obtain a generalised conclusion. The
egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at
thinking about how other people might view a situation. During this stage, children
also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think
and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their
thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their
thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (12 and above)

At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems. Teens during this stage begin to think more about moral,
philosophical, ethical, and social issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning.
The adolescent begins to use deductive reasoning at this stage, it is a logical process
in which from one or more information to reach the children learn to come to a logical
specific conclusion.  The ability to plan for future and reason about hypothetical or
abstract situations are the other important abilities the emerge during this stage.

3. Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Kohlberg theory of moral development was developed based on Jean Piaget's  work
on cognitive development to form a theory that explained how children develop moral
reasoning.
Kohlberg's theory of moral development has six stages within three different levels.
Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a continual
process that occurs throughout the lifespan.

Level 1: Preconventional Morality

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally

controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents
and teachers.  A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted society’s
conventions (rules) regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

It focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example,
an action is perceived as morally wrong because the child is punished; the worse the
punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

This stage involves a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it
might add to the individual’s own interests. Therefore concern for others is not based
on loyalty or fundamental respect, but rather a ‘you help me and I will help you’
mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do some
work. The child asks “what’s will I get if I do it?”.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but
this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these
stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is rarely questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance
in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone,
and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and
important. Here morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional Morality

Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in

terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are
unjust and should be changed or eliminated. At the post-conventional level people
live by their own ethical principles and view rules as useful but changeable
mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as having different opinions, rights, and values. And
these difference in opinions are mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid laws. Laws that do
not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the
greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority
decision and inevitable compromise.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as
equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in
justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust
laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate
those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally
right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best
interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon.