Prof. Ed 1 Modules

Chapter Title: BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Topic/Lesson:
1. Meaning, concepts and approaches to human development.
2. Issues on human development
3. Stages of development and developmental tasks
Module 1: Meaning, concepts, and approaches to Human Development
Introduction:
The study of human development is often required for many college students taking up Education
courses. Are you thinking about taking a class in development? Why are such classes so important? If
you are enrolled in Education courses, some background knowledge of how people grow and change
throughout life is essential. However, understanding how humans develop throughout the lifespan can
be helpful for anyone.
The growth and development of a person plays an important role in the behavior of every
individual. It is indeed necessary that as a future educator, you need to have a wider understanding of
those varied changes that may occur in a child as they grow.
This chapter may help you understand that growth and development of a child has its sequence
and may vary as the child learns, matures and develops his/her capabilities.
Hence, in this module, you will realize the importance of studying human development.
Objectives:
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
1. explain the meaning of human development

2. evaluate, summarize and share their insights on the different principles of human development.
3. distinguish and compare the two approaches to human development
Acero, V.,et.al. (2008). Child and Adolescent Development. Manila: Rex Bookstore Inc.
Santrock, J. (2018). Life-Span Development. 17th ed. New York: McGraw Hills Companies.
1
Learning Content:
To have a better understanding of this chapter, let us define and discuss the following terms;
 Human Development
- Is the scientific study of the quantitative and qualitative ways by which people change
overtime? The study of human development is enormously frustrating, fascinating, and
almost bewildering phenomena that produces physical and psychosocial throughout the
lifespan.
 Growth
-It refers to a quantitative change that happened and experienced by an individual. These
changes happened in number or in physical nature, like height, weight, increase number of
teeth, improvement or growth on hair.
 Development
-it is the qualitative changes, increase of skills and complexity of function and specialization.
This also involves a progressive series of changes that is orderly, coherent and constantly
changing as a result of maturation and experiences encountered. These changes are:
behavior, attitudes, skills or specialization of someone.
When we say:
“Progressive”
-These are changes that are directional, leading forward rather than backward.
“Orderly” and “coherent”
-Means development is not of a haphazard casual type but rather that there is a definite
relationship between each stage and the next stage in the developmental sequence.
“Maturation”
- it refers to the general process of growing up in relation to heredity. It is also the
biological process that it is in relation to age, changes in growth and development and
requires favorable support from the environment.
“Learning”
- is an aspect of human development that comes from past experiences, modifications
of behavior, a result from practice or daily living.
2
Here are five reasons you should consider studying human development:
1. TO BETTER UNDERSTAND OURSELF

 We were all kids once, so learning more about how children develop and grow can provide
additional insight into how you have become the person you are.
 Studying human development can also help you learn more about your future. By
understanding the aging process, you'll be better prepared when you face issues associated
with growing older.
2. IT’S ONE WAY TO LEARN MORE ABOUT CHILDREN OR YOUR LEARNERS
 Whether you are a parent now or are planning to become one in the future, or you are
choosing the teaching profession soon, studying human development can teach you a
great deal about your children and learners. In addition to learning things that can help
make you a better parent and effective teacher, you can gain greater insight into how
your children/learners behave, think, learn, and feel.
 Development is a complex process, so learning more about how kids grow physically,
socially, emotionally, and cognitively can lead to a deeper understanding of kids of all
ages.
3. IT HELP YOU TO BETTER UNDERSTAND HOW TO INTERACT
 If you plan on having children or working with them at some point, studying human
development can greatly improve your ability to interact with kids.
 Once you better understand the stages of development and what makes kids tick, you
will feel more comfortable talking, playing, and working with them.
 And for adult learners, this helps you better understand individual differences and
uniqueness of every human being.
4. GAINING A GREATER APPRECIATION OF DEVELOPMENT THROUGHT OUT LIFE

 When we think of human development, it's easy to think of it as a process that is
largely complete once we hit early adulthood. It is important to realize, however, that
development is an ongoing process that continues all throughout life. 1
 As an individual enter adulthood, navigate middle age, and face the onset of old age,
having a greater understanding of how people continue to grow and change as they
get older can help us appreciate and manage all the stages of your life.
3
5. TO HAVE A DEEPER UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT’S NORMAL AND WHAT’S NOT
 Another important reason to study development is that you can gain a greater
understanding of what's normal. While every person is a little bit different, human
development tends to follow a remarkably predictable pattern. Once you have studied
development, you'll know what's typical at certain ages and stages.
 Perhaps most importantly, studying human development makes it easier to spot possible
signs of trouble. From problems with cognitive, social, or emotional development in early
childhood to struggles later in life, being able to identify potential problems is important.
THE PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Development follows a Pattern
Development in every specie follows a pattern in rate and it has its limit. The same pattern
is followed from pre-natal up to the post-natal period and up to adolescent stage. A baby cannot
stand first without going through creeping and crawling. He must stand first before he walks.
a. Cephalo-caudal sequence development

- Development proceeds from the head downward.
This principle describes the direction of growth and development:
Facts:
 The head region starts growth at first, following by which other organs starts
developing.
 The child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the legs.
 Infants develop control of the head and face movements at first two months.
 They gain control over leg and able to crawl, stand, walk, run, jump, climb, day
by day
b. Proximo-distal sequence development

- Development proceeds from the center of the body outward.
- The directional sequence of development during both prenatal and postnatal
stages may either be (i) from head to foot, or (ii) from the central axis to the
extremities of the body
Facts:
 The spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body
 The child’s arms develop before the hands, the hands and feet develop before the
fingers and toes.
 Fingers and toe muscles are the last to develop in physical development.
4
2. Development proceeds from general to specific responses
In all phases of development, whether motor and mental, the child development and responses
start from general then later on learn to do the specific tasks.
Facts:
 A baby moves his whole body at one time then later on learn to move one part of his body
as he grows older.
 A baby can see first the large objects before he sees the small ones.
 A baby produces first babbling sounds before he produces specific words that could be
understood by adults.
3. Development is continuous
Facts:
 Growth and development continues from the moment of conception until he/she reaches
maturity. The learning abilities is continuous until he reaches her/his senescence period or
until death.
 In the early years of life, development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity not
only of body size and functioning, but also of behavior. Even after maturity has been attained,
development does not end.
 Changes continue which lead to the period of life known as senescence or old age
4. Development proceeds from the simple to more complex
Facts:
 Children use their cognitive and language skills to reason and solve problems.
 Children at first are able hold the big things by using both arms, In the next part able to
hold things in a single hand, then only able to pick small objects like peas, cereals etc.
 Children when able to hold pencil, first starts draw circles then squares then only letter after
that the words.
a. Growth is a personal matter - Each child grows in his own personal manner. He/she should be
permitted to grow at his/her own rate. If we expect too much, he/she may do even less than
he/she is able to do
b. Growth comes from within: One or surrounding environment can encourage or can hinder the
energy of a child, but the drive force that pushes a child to grow
c. Growth has certain characteristics that are common at particular stages and it is in gradual and
orderly but uneven.
5
5. Development has the characteristics of continuity, differentially, sequentially, and generality
to specificity
a. Sequentially: All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to the next.
Facts:
 Infants stand before they walk; draw circles before they make squares
 The directional sequence of development stages may either be:
(A) from head to foot, or
(B) from the central axis to the extremities of the body.
6. Development depends on maturation and learning
Facts:
 Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and development.
 The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children new abilities.
 Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. And help
children to improve in thinking and motor skills.
 Children must mature to a certain point before they can progress to new skills.
Maturation and learning play important roles in development of a human being. Maturation is the
unfolding of the individual's inherent traits. Learning is development that comes from exercise and effort
on the individual's part.
7. Development is a product of the interaction

Facts:
 Development is a process resultant from a constant flux or interchange of energy within
an organism and his environment.
 Hereditary forces inherent in the genetic constitution of the individual and environmental
forces influence the development of the organism.
8. Different aspects of development are interrelated
Facts:
 Different aspects of development are interrelated and interdependent.
 Child's early social behavior is interrelated with his physical development. If the child is
physically handicapped his social behaviors will be related.
 The child whose intellectual development is above average is generally above average in
size, sociability and special aptitudes.
9. Development is individualized process
Facts:
 All individuals develop in their own way.
6
 Each child has own rate of physical, mental, emotional and social development. If we
observe six-year old children, we find great differences in their height, weight, social,
emotional, and learning readiness.
10. Development is cumulative
Facts:
 Development is a cumulative process. Certain changes impress the observer with their
dramatic suddenness but actually these changes do not emerge all of a sudden.
 The child's first word, first step is the result of cumulative progress for the child has
continuously been preparing for these functions.
 Each change is the culmination of his prior growth and experience.
11. Rate of development differs in male and female child
Facts:
 There is a difference in the growth rate of boys and girls.
 Girls mature earlier in comparison to boys.
 Girls are taller and heavier than boys during pre-adolescence but by the end of adolescence
boys surpass them.
12. Each phase of development has hazards
Facts:
Each phase of development has its hazards. There is ample evidence that each period in the
life span has associated with it certain developmental hazards, whether physical, psychological,
or environmental in origin and these inevitably involve adjustment problems.
WHY IS THERE A NEED TO KNOW THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT?

1. It helps us to know and understand what to expect and when to expect the development.
2. It gives the adult a wider information and understanding as to when to stimulate and when not to
stimulate growth in the child.
3. Knowing the normal development of a child, it helps us to prepare the child ahead of time the
changes that may occur in his body, interests, behavior or attitudes.
4. Having a wider understanding of a normal growth and development of a child, it helps parents or
teacher to deal properly on the changes of moods, likes, preferences of children.
5. It gives the future teachers great ideas on how to deal on the individual differences of children,
their tantrums and anger.
Factors Which Influenced Human Growth and Development

It is important for you to know these factors, for you to have a wider understanding on the uniqueness
of each child. Always remember, no one is alike, every human being is different from each other.
7
The following are factors which influenced human growth and development:
1. Heredity
-Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of physical and social
characteristics from parents to off-springs. Different characteristics of growth and development
like intelligence, aptitudes, body structure, height, weight, color of hair and eyes are highly
influenced by heredity.
2. Sex
- Sex is a very important factor which influences human growth and development. There is lot of
difference in growth and development between girls and boys. Physical growth of girls in teens
is faster than boys during the early years of life. Overall the body structure and growth of girls
are different from boys.
3. Socioeconomic
- Socioeconomic factors definitely have some effects. It has been seen that the children from
different socioeconomic levels vary in average body size at all ages. The upper level families
being always more advanced. The factors behind this; better nutrition, better facilities, regular
meals, sleep, and exercise. Family size also influenced growth rate as in big families with limited
income sometimes have children that do not get the proper nutrition and hence the growth is
affected.
4. Nutritional
- Growth is directly related with nutrition. The human body requires an adequate supply of
calories for its normal growth and this may vary with the phase of development. As per studies,
malnutrition is referred as a large-scale problem in many developing countries. They are more
likely to be underweight, much shorter than average, and of low height for age, known as stunting.
If the children are malnourished, this slows their growth process. There are nine different amino
acids which are necessary for growth and absence of any one will contribute to stunted growth.
Other factors like zinc, Iodine, calcium, phosphorus and vitamins are also essential for proper
growth and deficiency of anyone can affect the normal growth and development of the body.
5. Hormones
-There are a large number of endocrine glands present inside our body. These glands secrete
one or more hormones directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are capable of raising or
lowering the activity level of the body or some organs of the body. Hormones are considered to
be a growth supporting substance. These hormones play an important role in regulating the
process of growth and development.
6. Pollution
- According to studies, air pollution not only affects the respiratory organs but also have harmful
effects on human growth.
8
-Indoor pollution or the pollution from housing conditions can result in ill health which can
negatively impact human growth and development. For example, lead exposure from
deteriorated lead-based paint in older housing can be very harmful. Lead is very harmful for
children as it simply gets immersed into the growing bodies of children and obstructs with the
normal development of brain and other organs and systems.
7. Race
-Racial factors also influenced height, weight, color, features, and body constitution of a human
being. The body growth and development differences show a relationship with varied cultural
groups. For example a child of black race will be black, their height, their hair and eye color,
facial structure are all governed by the same race.
Activity 1
Read this link (http:// www. cdipage.com/development.htm) entitled, “Child and Adolescent
Development Resource Book.”
Using this graphic organizer, give the major principles of human development (Santrock, 2002) from a
life-span perspective. Give at least one example or application of each principle in the teaching- learning
process. Also, what have these principles done with you as you teach the learners or the implication of
this knowledge to you being the teacher.
Principles of Human Explanation Implication of these

Development knowledge to you
1.
2.
3.
9
4.
5.
Activity 2
State your own understanding on the factors which influenced human growth and development:
1. Heredity
2. Sex
3. Socioeconomic
4. Nutritional
5. Hormones
6. Pollution
7. Race
REFERENCES
[1] Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, Ma. Rita,etal., Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at
Leraners at Different Stages, 2005.
[2] Santrock, john W., Life Span Development ,8th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Companies
[3] Trawick-Smith,Jeffrey. Early Chjildhhod Development A Multicultural Perspective USA:
Prentice Hall, 4th edition,2006.
E-REFERENCES
[1] http:// www. cdipage.com/development.htm
10
Module 2: Issues on Human Development

Topic/Lesson: Issues on Human Development
Introduction:
There are number of issues that have been debated throughout the history of human
development. Furthermore, it emphasizes the involvement and relative importance of early
experiences to those that occur later at the process of life.
Moreover, influence of this childhood events can have a dominating effect over their
knowledge, behaviour, and experience which provides childhood adversity that may or may not
contribute to greater level of either stress or progress in the later years.
Objectives:
1. explain the meaning of human development;

2. evaluate, summarize and share their insights on the different principles of human
development; and
3. distinguish and compare the two approaches to human development.
Learning Content:
Key Issues in Human Development
There are many different theoretical

approaches regarding human development. As we
evaluate them in this course, recall that human
development focuses on how people change,
and the approaches address the nature of change
in different ways:
 Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous
versus discontinuous)?
 Is this pattern of change the same for
everyone, or are there different patterns of
change (one course of development versus
many courses)?
 How do genetics and environment interact to influence development (nature versus nurture)?
11
1. IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS?
Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on

existing skills (Figure 2). With this type of development, there is a gradual change. Consider, for example,
a child’s physical growth: adding inches to their height year by year.
In contrast, theorists who view development as discontinuous believe that development takes
place in unique stages and that it occurs at specific times or ages. With this type of development, the
change is more sudden, such as an infant’s ability to demonstrate awareness of object permanence
(which is a cognitive skill that develops toward the end of infancy, according to Piaget’s cognitive theory.)
Figure 2. The concept of continuous development can be visualized as a smooth slope of progression, whereas discontinuous development
sees growth in more discrete stages.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopenlifespandevelopment/chapter/human-development/)
2. IS THERE A SINGLE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY?
Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children (i.e., there is one course of
development) or does development follow a different course for each child, depending on the child’s
specific genetics and environment (i.e., there are many courses of development)? Do people across the
world share more similarities or more differences in their development? How much do culture and
genetics influence a child’s behavior?
Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal. For example, in cross-cultural
studies of language development, children from around the world reach language milestones in a similar
sequence (Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all cultures coo before they babble. They begin babbling
at about the same age and utter their first word around 12 months old. Yet, people live in diverse contexts
that have a unique effect on each of us.
For example, researchers once believed that motor development followed one course for all
children regardless of culture. However, childcare practices vary by culture, and different practices have
been found to accelerate or inhibit the achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling,
and walking (Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda, & Bornstein, 2010).
12
3. HOW DO NATURE AND NURTURE INFLUENCE DEVELOPMENT?
Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who we are because
of nurture (our environment and culture)?
This longstanding question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It seeks
to understand how personalities and traits are the products of the genetic makeup and biological factors,
and how they are shaped by the environment, including parents, peers, and culture.
For instance, why do biological children sometimes act like their parents—is it because of
genetics or because of early childhood environment and what the child has learned from their parents?
What about children who are adopted—are they more like their biological families or more like their
adoptive families? And how can siblings from the same family be so different?
People are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from parents, such as eye color, height,
and certain personality traits. Beyond this basic genotype, however, there is a deep interaction between
genes and the environment. The unique experiences in the environment influence whether and how
particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, genes influenced how people interact with the
environment (Diamond, 2009; Lobo, 2008). There is a reciprocal interaction between nature and nurture
as they both shape who they become, but the debate continues as to the relative contributions of each.
(http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint)
4. CONTINUITY VS DISCONTINUITY
Are two competing theories in developmental psychology that attempt to explain how people
change through the course of their lives,
CONTINUITY theory says that someone changes throughout their life along a smooth course
while DISCONTINUITY theory says, people change abruptly. These changes can be described as wide
variety of someone’s social and behavioral makeup like their emotions, traditions and beliefs.
(https://www.reference.com/education/continuity-versus-discontinuity-developmental-psychology)
5. IS CHILD DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS?

On this issue, not all psychologists agree that development is a continuous process. Some view
development as a discontinuous process. They believe that development involves distinct and separate
stages with different kinds of behavior occurring in each stage.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_stage_theories)
6. STABILITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY

Deals with the issue whether or not personality traits present during infancy endure, remain
constant through the lifespan.
For example, does a naturally extroverted and talkative baby remain that way for their entire life.
(http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stability)
13
Activity 1
There are many issues concerning human development, it is expected that you need to read the following
terms and do the comparison.
Based from your readings, give your additional reasons to the following:
1. Nature vs. Nurture Nature Nurture
2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity Continuity Discontinuity
3. Stability vs. Change Stability Change
4. Heredity vs. Environment Heredity Environment
Activity 2
Interpret the following statements in relation to human development.
1. Describe the nature versus nurture controversy. Give an example of a trait and
how it might be influenced by each?
2. Compare and contrast continuous and discontinuous development?
3. Why should developmental milestones only be used as a general guideline for
normal child development?
4. How are you different today from the person when you were a 6 years old?
What about 16 years old?
How are you the same as the person you were at those ages?
5. Your 3 year-old daughter is not yet potty trained. Based on what you know about
the approach, should you be concerned? Why or why not?
14
Activity 3 - Essay Writing
Based on the lecture that we have discussed, explain the following based on your own
perception.
1. Is development continuous or discontinuous?

2. Is there any course of development or many?
3. How do nature and nurture influence development?
4. Continuity versus discontinuity
5. Is child development continuous or discontinuous?
Self-Assessment
Link to open and read to answer these questions.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.78.1.173
https://www.google.com/search?q=continuity+vs+discontinuity+examples
Directions: To finally check your understanding and to evaluate your readings from the given links.
Answer the following statements with Nature and Nurture as you analyze the statements or situations.
I. Choices: Nature or Nurture
______________1. Temperament of a child
______________2. Intrinsic maturation
______________3. Personality
______________4. Child aptitude
______________5. Self-Directedness
______________6. Cooperativeness
______________7. Self-Transcendence
______________8. Intelligence
______________9. Character
______________10. Wit
II. Choices : Continuity vs Discontinuity

________1. Children go from only being able to think in very literal terms to being able to think
abstractly. They have moved into the 'abstract thinking' phase of their lives.
_________2. Changes are gradual
_________3. Changes are sudden
_________4. Development is taking place in specific steps or stages
_________5. Development vary from one child to other
15
E-REFERENCES:
[1] http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint- on nature vs. Nurture.

(Accessed on October, 2021)
[2] https://www.reference.com/education/continuity-versus-discontinuity-developmental-
psychology (Accessed on October, 2021)
[3] https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.78.1.173 (Accessed on

October, 2021)
[4] https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.78.1.173 (Accessed on

October, 2021)
[5] https://www.google.com/search?q=continuity+vs+discontinuity+examples (Accessed on

October, 2021)
[6] http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stability- (Accessed on October, 2021)
[7] https://www.reference.com/education/continuity-versus-discontinuity-developmental-
psychology- (Accessed on October, 2021)
16
Module 3: The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Topic/Lesson: The stages of development and developmental tasks
Introduction:
A living creature must have a life span in which to grow, develop, mature and learn. Its
growth and development must be guided with a blue-print that everyone must know. The growth and
development of an individual is shaped by a continual active interplay or interaction between
genetically controlled behaviors or pattern and the environment.
The first five years of life are a time of incredible growth and learning. An understanding
of the rapid changes in a child's developmental status prepares parents and caregivers to give active
and purposeful attention to the preschool years and to guide and promote early learning that will
serve as the foundation for later learning. Understanding child development is an important part of
teaching young children.
Developmental change is a basic fact of human existence and each person is

developmentally unique. Although there are universally accepted assumptions or principles of human
development, no two children are alike. Children differ in physical, cognitive, social, and emotional
growth patterns. They also differ in the ways they interact with and respond to their environment as
well as play, affection, and other factors. Some children may appear to be happy and energetic all
the time while other children may not seem as pleasant in personality. Some children are active while
others are typically quiet.
You may even find that some children are easier to manage than others. Having an
understanding of the sequence of development prepares us to help and give attention to all of these
children.
Objectives:
After having gone through with this lesson, the students will be able to:
1. Identify developmental stages of learners in different in each stage;
2. Describe and explain the development tasks in each stage; and
3. Elaborately explain these developmental tasks affect your role as facilitator of learning.
Learning Content
Child Development
Development -refers to change or growth that occurs in a child during the life span from birth to
adolescence.
This change occurs in an orderly sequence, involving physical, cognitive, and emotional
development. These three main areas of child development involve developmental changes which take
place in a predictable pattern (age related), orderly, but with differences in the rate or timing of the
changes from one person to another.
17
The General Patterns of a Child Growth and Development
Newborn Infant - The World Health Organization (who)defines the new born period as the first 28 days
of life. This is also called the neonatal period, and the medical term for your new born baby is neonate.
Period of Partunate- This is the first 15 to 30 minutes of life, including the time during and
immediately after the parturition.
Period of Neonate- This is the period where the newly born baby are making adjustments
essential to life, free from the protection of the intrauterine environment.
Period of Adjustments of a New Born Baby

 Adjustment to temperature changes
 In the mother’s womb, he is accustomed to a constant temperature of around 100 degrees. But
after birth, the usual temperature is between 68 to 70 degrees and sometimes it varies.
Adjustment to breathing
 Inside the womb, in its amniotic sac in the uterus, the fetus is surrounded by a fluid environment
and all the oxygen needed comes from the placenta through the umbilical cord, but after birth,
the newborn need to inhale and exhale air.
Adjustment to nourishment
 In the sac in the mother’s uterus, the supply of nourishment has been from the placenta through
the umbilical cord, but after birth, he needs to be nourished by sucking and swallowing his
mother’s milk.
Adjustment to elimination
 Inside the womb, elimination is through the umbilical cord and the maternal placenta, after birth,
elimination activities of a newly born is through excretory organs-the normal way.
Factors that May Influence the Mortality rate during the Neonatal Period
1. Sex differences – More boys die than girls
2. Racial differences
3. Economic status
4. Birth weight, nutrition and gestation period
5. Birth order
6. Disease, illnesses of mothers
7. Ordinal position of siblings
8. Fetal activity
Sensitivities of the New Born Baby
1. Sight - The retina has not reached its mature development, at 30 to 32 hours after birth, the
pupillary reflex is well established.
18
2. Hearing - Some infants do not respond on sounds, due to stoppage of the middle ear with
amniotic fluid.
3. Taste - They have slight development on taste, they prefer sweet taste.
4. Smell - it is well developed at birth. They respond easily to any smell stimuli
5. Skin sensitivities - the sensation of touch, pressure, pain and temperature is present at birth
6. Organic sensitivities- the sensation on hunger and thirsts are not specifically developed at birth,
but the usual practice of mothers of which they give milk every time the baby cries.
Vocalization period of the newborn

 The Birth Cry- marks the beginning of vocalization
It serves two purposes:
1. To supply the blood with sufficient oxygen
2. To inflate the lungs
FACTS:
 During the first 24 hours after birth, the infant’s cry may have different meanings
according to its pitch, intensity and continuity of the cry
 Stimuli which arouse the infant to cry may be from environment, psychological
condition like:
a. hunger
b. pain or discomfort
c. fatigue or lack of exercise
d. wet diapers
e. vomiting
 Explosive Sounds- this is another type of vocalization which are commonly referred
as the “coos”, “grunts” and “gurgles”
 Sneezing- healthy infant sneezes several times in a day and thus it helps clears the
nose of any unnecessary matter in it.
 Yawning
 Whining
 Hiccupping
Understanding Pre-Mature Babies

It is indeed necessary to know some basic information about the child background to understand
his or weaknesses or shortcomings. This will enable us to adjust from their tantrums or unexplainable
behavior.
19
Facts about Prematurity
 The healthy premature infant does not acquire any unnatural precocity: neither does he suffer
any set back. He still follows the basic sequence of normal growth upon coping up.
 The premature infants develop faster in his post-natal environment than do infants who are born
at full term
 On Physical development, the time needed to regain their weight lost at birth is inversely related
to the length at the gestation period.
 At the age of 20, premature babies are likely smaller than those who born at full term.
 Premature infants have ore illnesses while growing up.
 The most serious defect develop among premature babies are related to their eyes.
 The use of oxygen for premature babies usually results to retrolental fibroplasia. This is the
formation of scar tissue that makes the lens of the eye opaque and leaves damage ranging from
mild impairment of vision to blindness.
 On developmental status, premature babies are somewhat retarded for the first 5 months of life.
But after that, retardation becomes increasingly less.
 On their motor control, premature infants are most likely backward in terms on motor
performance.
 On their speech development, most probably, premature babies are retarded in their speech
development. They have more speech defects than of normal birth.
 Babies who are born premature, are most probably have retardation in their intellectual
development and performance during the first two years of life.
 On their emotional development, Psychologist found out that they are perturbed, shy, irascible
and negativistic. They are described as “gentle babies”
 On their social adjustments, there are researches that says, premature babies’ personal social
adjustment is superior, and some are shy, attached to their mothers and show more dependency
reactions from mothers.
 In pre-school years and adolescence period, premature babies were found to be less well-
adjusted than full term children.
 On their nervous traits or behavior disorders have been found to be more numerous among
prematurely born babies than among full-term babies.
Some indications of behavior disorders are:

 Thumb and finger sucking, nail biting
 Masturbation
 Psychosomatic difficulties like poor sleep, fatigability
 Emotional difficulties like irritability, shyness, hot-tempered
 Disturbances on intellectual performance like concentration and attention
difficulties, forgetfulness
PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
People sometimes mistakenly or probably the lack knowledge about the role of heredity and
environment.
20
In this chapter, important concepts to remember will be presented in order to understand better
the concept about heredity, genes, chromosomes, zygote, cytoplasm and many other terms that will make
us understand the importance of pre-natal development of an unborn child.
The Carriers of Heredity
a. Gene - the transmitter of hereditary traits

b. Zygote - fertilized germ cell, this consist of the male cell (sperm cell) and female cell (ova or egg
cell)
c. Cytoplasm - outer ring part of the cells- this is composed of a mass relatively undifferentiated
protoplasmic material
d. Nucleus - the “life- giving part” of the cell, this is within the cytoplasm
e. Chromosomes - these are found in the nucleus and each chromosomes contains about 3,000
genes. There are 48 chromosomes in the fertilized germ cell of the human being, of which 24
comes from the mother and 24 comes from the father.
The Zygote and the Process of Cell Division

 The hereditary is transmitted at the time of conception when the female egg cell is
fertilized by the male sperm cell.
 The union of the egg cell and sperm cell within the mother’s womb results in a new cell
called zygote.
 The hereditary units that a child receives from a parent and transmit to the offspring are
carried by microscopic particles known as chromosomes.
 Each chromosome is composed of many individual hereditary units called genes, which
also occur in pairs- one gene in each pair comes from the sperm chromosomes.
Maturation of Sex Cells

Terms to Remember:
a. Gonads - these are the reproductive organs where the maternal and paternal germ cells
develop
b. Testes - this is a male gonads and this produce male germ cells –called sperm or
spermatozoa/spermatozoon
c. Ovaries - this is the female gonads; this produces the female germ cells- egg cell or
ova/ovum’
d. Haploid cell - a cell with one half its usual chromosomes
e. Gametes - another term for germ cells or also called the “marrying cells”
Outstanding features of ovum and spermatozoon

The ovum is large compared with other cells of the body.
Spermatozoon is among the smallest cells of the body.
21
A. The ovum is round shape and non –motile with no means of locomotion within itself, while the
spermatozoon is elongated in shape and very motile.
B. Normally, only one ovum is produced each menstrual cycle with 28 days, the spermatozoon is
very numerous, approximately three million found in 3 cubic centimeters of seminal fluid in one
ejection.
C. The ovum contains 24 matched chromosomes while half of the spermatozoa contain 23 matched
and 1 unmatched, and half contain 24 matched chromosomes
Chromosomes of the Father determine the sex of the child:

a. Woman have two special chromosomes called X chromosomes (XX).
b. Men have 2 kinds of sperm, half of which have the X chromosome and half the Y chromosome.
c. Men have only one X chromosome paired with a much smaller one, a Y chromosomes(XY).
d. If an egg fertilized by an X sperm – it produces a baby girl.
e. If an egg fertilized by a Y sperm –it produces a baby boy.
HOW LIFE BEGINS?

EARLY STAGES OF GROWTH
Ovulation - the process of maturing and escaping from an ovary of one ovum during the
Menstrual period.
Fertilization or conception - this is the stage of formation of the fertilized egg or zygote.
PERIOD IN PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Period of the OVUM – it is called the “germinal period” which extends from the moment of
conception to the end of 2nd week.
2. Period of the EMBRYO - this is the second week to the end of second month or 6 weeks’
period of pregnancy.
3. Period of FETUS - it starts from the end of second month till it reaches baby’s birth
Two hormones that prepare the uterine wall to receive and nourish the ovum
1. ESTROGEN - this is present in the follicle in which the ovum matured and released when
the follicle ruptured.
2. PROGESTERONE - this is being produced in the wall of the ovary.
Three layers from which all parts of the body develop

1. ECTODERM - the outer layer part
-it produces the epidermis of the skin, hair nails, parts of the teeth, skin glands,
sensory cells, and the entire nervous system
2. MESODERM - the middle layer part
22
- the mesoderm is responsible for the formation of a number of critical structures
and organs within the developing embryo including the skeletal system, the
muscular system, the excretory system, the circulatory system, the lymphatic
system, and the reproductive system.
3. ENDODERM - innermost layer

- The endoderm is an embryonic germ layer that gives rise to tissues that form
internal structures and organs.
Activity 1
To test your awareness on the developmental stages of each child, try to observe a model or a
child or an individual to answer the table presented below.
There are eight (8) developmental stage cited by Santrock. Choose an individual for you to observe their
development tasks or outstanding development at every stage. Record the data that you have gathered
from your observation in the matrix below. Give at least 3 outstanding development in each stage.
Developmental Development Development Development Development

Stages Domain Domain Domain Domain
( Social and (Emotional (Cognitive
(Physical Moral Changes) Changes) Changes)
Changes)
1. Prenatal Period
From conception to
birth
2. Infancy
( from birth to 18-
24 months )
3. Early Childhood
(end of Infancy to
5-6 years )
4.Middle and late

Childhood ( 6-11
years of age
23
5. Adolescence
10- 12 years
ending up to 18- 22
years of age
6. Early adulthood
Late of 20’s lasting
through the 30’s
7. Middle adulthood
(40 to 60 years of
age)
8. Late Adulthood
( 60’s and above
Activity 2
To further enhance your awareness and to reflect well on your role as a future teachers, answer
honestly the following questions:
1. What are the implications of these developmental tasks as facilitator of learning to your learners?
Please pay particular attention to the stages that corresponds to schooling like early childhood, middle
and late childhood and adolescence period.
a. Early Childhood
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
b. Middle and late Childhood
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
24
c. Adolescence
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
Reflect on your own experiences

Think of a teacher you cannot forget for positive or negative reasons. How did she /he help you with your
physical, emotional, social, moral and cognitive needs? (Just choose one and share your experience)
How did it affect you? How this helped you become an effective teacher in the future?
a. Experience
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
b. How did it affect you?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
c. How could this help you become an effective teacher? Reflect on what you should do as a teacher to
facilitate student’s situations and not to experience the same unforgettable memories.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________
Recommended Reading Materials

You may open these link:
Embryo period = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lVS6lyG-4z0
25
Fertilization period = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lVS6lyG-4z0
How to get pregnant with twins = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PkO9VJ39Ogo
Prenatal period = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yJtRitVKsaY
Stages of pre-natal period = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPmJ-A40ySU
Activity 3
Explain the following factors that may influence the mortality rate during the Neonatal Period
Factors Facts Explanation
1. Sex difference
2.Racial Differences
3.Economic Status
4. Weight /Nutrition
5.Birth Order
6. Illnesses of
mothers
26
7.Ordinal Position of
siblings
8. Fetal activity
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Quiz: Using the eight (8) developmental stages cited by Santrock II, analyze and identify what stage of
development in column A that match the statements in column B. Write your answer in the space provided
before each number.
Choices:
Column A Column B
_____1.Extreme dependence on adults A. Prenatal Period
_____2. Vocabulary and pronunciation continue to expand B. Infancy
_____3. Readiness for reading C. Early Childhood
_____4. Emotional maturation continue to develop D. Middle and Late Childhood
_____5. Usually knows how to profit from others E. Adolescence
_____6. Starting to build their career F. Early adulthood
_____7. Self- actualization is being realized G. Middle Adulthood
_____8. Sense of accomplishment and leadership is enhanced H. Late Adulthood
_____9. Mental alertness deteriorate
____10. Achieving personal independence
____11. Adjusting to decreasing strength and health
____12. Starting a family
____13.They are now ready to build a family
____14.Develeoping adult leisure time activities
____15.Meeting with social and civic obligations
REFERENCES:
[1] Corpuz, Brenda B., Lucas, Ma. Rita,etal., Child and Adolescent Development: Looking at Leraners at Different Stages, 2005.
[2] Santrock, john W., Life Span Development ,8th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Companies
{3} Trawick-Smith,Jeffrey. Early Childhhod Development A Multicultural Perspective USA: Prentice Hall, 4 th edition, 2006.
27
[1]
[2]
MODULE 4
The ego is not master in its

own house.”
- Sigmund Freud
[3] Introduction
[4] Freud’s views about human development are more than a century old. He can be
considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory about
the[5]unconscious and all about sexual development. Although a lot of his views were
criticized and some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of his earlier
views).
[6]
Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most influential in psychology. His theory
sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of the theorists and thus became the starting point
of many other theories, notable of which is Erickson’s Psychoanalytic theory in Module 6.
[7]
Learning Outcomes
 Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.

 Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education.
Activity
1. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate
the situation below. Indicate the actions made, the factors involved and how you
arrived with your decision.
What factors influenced you in making your decision?

___________________________________________________________
Analysis___________________________________________________________
Which of the following factors did you consider most in making
your decision: what makes you feel satisfied; what is the most beneficial or
practical; what do you believe was the most moral thing to do? Elaborate
your answer.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
_______________ 28
•Erogenous Zone
_______________________________________
________
•Description of the Stage
_______________________________________
______
Oral Stage • Fixations
________________________________________________
_________
• Erogenous Stage
___________________________________
________
• Description of the Stage
_____________________________________________
• Fixations
Anal Stage _______________________________________________
__________
Erogenous zone, a
specific area that
becomes the focus of
pleasure needs. This
• Erogenous Stage
may be the mouth, ___________________________________
arms and the ________
genitals. • Description of the Stage
___________________________________
_______
Fixation. Results
Phalic Stage • Fixations
_______________________________________________
from failure to __________
satisfy the needs of a
particular • Erogenous Stage
psychosexual stage. ___________________________________
_________
___________________________________
Latency ________
• Fixations
Stage _______________________________________________
__________
• Erogenous Stage
___________________________________
________
___________________________________
Genital _______
• Fixations
Stage ___________________________________
_______________________
29
Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of personality,
also probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual development includes five
distinct stages/ According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages
and along the way there are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not, determines
whether the person will develop a healthy personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for
many because Freud identified specific erogenous zone for each stage of development. These
are specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are not
met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors
related to this erogenous zone.
The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral

Oral Stage
stage, the child is focus on oral pleasures (sucking). Too
(birth to 18 months) much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation
or Oral Personality which is shown in an increased focus
on oral activities.
This type of personality maybe oral receptive, that
is, have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol,
overeat, or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite
his or her nails, become too independent on others, easily
fooled, and lack leadership traits. On the other hand, they
may also fight these tendencies and become pessimistic and
aggressive in relating with people.
Anal Stage
The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is the
(18 months to 3 years) anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and
retaining feces. Though society’s expectation,
particularly the parents, the child needs to work on toilet
training. Let us remember that between one year and a
half to three years the child’s favorite word must be “No!”
Therefore a struggle might exist in the toilet
training process when the child retains feces when asked
for some reason. In terms of personality, fixation during
this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession
with cleanliness, perfection and control; or anal
expulsive where the person may become messy and
disorganized.
30
The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals. During
Phallic Stage the preschool age, children become interested in what makes
boys and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen
(ages 3 to 6)
fondling their genitals.
Freud’s studies led him to believe that during this stage
boys develop unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys
then see their father as a rival for her mother’s affection. Boys
may fear that their father will punish them for those feelings,
thus, the castration anxiety.
Oedipus Complex = closeness of a son and mother.
Electra Complex = closeness of a daughter and father.
Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)

It’s during this stage that sexual urges
remain repressed. The children’s focus is the
acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys
usually relate more with boys and girls with girls
during this stage.
Genital Stage
(puberty onwards) The fifth stage of psychosexual development
begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are
once again awakened. In the earlier stages,
adolescents focus their sexual urges towards the
opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the
genitals.
31
Freud’s Personality Components
Freud described the personality structures as having three components, the id, the ego, and the
superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id, followed by the ego and last to develop is the
superego.
While reading about the three components, use the graphic organizer below to put your notes
and questions about them.
Ego
One's
Personality
Id Superego
Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The

id plays a vital role in one’s personality because as a
baby, it works so that the baby’s essential needs are
met. The id operates on the pleasure principle.
If focuses on immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good now is
what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality, logically or practically of the situation. For example,
a baby is hungry. Its id wants food or milk so the baby will cry. When the child needs to be changed, the
id cried. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks
up until his or her needs are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It is not oriented towards
considering reality nor the needs of others.
32
As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a
preschooler, he/she relates more with the environment, the
ego slowly begins to emerge. The ego operates using the
reality principle.it aware that others also have needs to be met.
It is to negative consequences later, so it reasons and
considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the
deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help
the id meet its needs, it always takes into account the reality of
the situation.
Near the end of the preschool years, or the end of the

phallic stage, the superego develops. The superego
embodies a person’s moral aspect. This develops from
what the parents, teachers and other persons who
exert influence on what one considers right and wrong.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Freud used the case study method to gather the data he used to formulate
the theories. Among the many case studies, five really stood out as bases of his
concepts and ideas. Do further reading of these case studies and write a reaction
paper on one of these case studies focusing on how he explained the personality
development of the individuals in the case studies.
From your internet search engine, just type Freud’s case studies. It will be
easy to find a pdf file which you can readily download.
ACTIVITY
Describe Freud’s family background. Explain the composition of his family.
What do you think was it like for Freud growing up in this family?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
33
Chapter II: Developmental Theories and Developmental Tasks
MODULE 5 Piaget’s Stages of Development
“The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things, not
simply of repeating what other generations have done—men who are creative, inventive,
and discovers.
 Jean Piaget
INTRODUCTION
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of development is truly a classic in the field of educational
psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of development and learning. Its focus is
on how individuals construct knowledge.
OBJECTIVES
1. Describe Piaget’s stages in your own words;
2. Conduct a simple Piagetian Task interview with children; and
3. Match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage.
LEARNING CONTENT
The children in the situations presented above were of different ages and so also should apparent
differences in the way they thought. They were in different stages of cognitive development. Perhaps no
one has influenced the field of cognitive development more than Jean Piaget. As you read through this
Module you will come to understand cognitive development of children and adolescents and also identify
ways of applying this understanding in the teaching learners.
34
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His research method
involved observing a small number of individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed.
The tasked were later known as Piagetian tasks.
Piaget called his work theoretical framework “genetic epistemo-logy” because he was interested
in how knowledge develop to human organisms. Piaget was initially into biology and he also had a
background in philosophy. Knowledge from both these disciplines influenced his theories and research
of child development. Out of his research, Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive development.
Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also to
intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied widely to teaching and curriculum
design especially in the preschool and elementary curricula.
Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt
to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s way to
Schema understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.it is like
the mind has a filing cabinet and each drawer has folder that
contain files of things he has had an experience with. For instance,
if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema of what a dog is. it has four legs and a
tail. It barks. It’s furry. The child then “puts this description of a dog “on file” in his mind”. When he sees
another similar dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal, and says,
four legs, tail, barks, furry…. That’s a dog!”
This is the process of fitting new experience into an

Assimilation existing or previously created cognitive structure or
schema. If the child sees another dog, and say “Look
mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!”
then the mommy explains, “That’s not a funny looking dog. That’s a goat!” with mommy’s further
descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing
cabinet.
Piaget believed that the people have the natural need to

understand how the world works and to find order,
Equilibrium structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibrium is
achieving proper balance between assimilation and
accommodation.
When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we
experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and
what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium
once more.
35
The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially
reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The
term sensorimotor focuses on the prominence on the senses and muscle movement through which the
infant comes to learn about himself and the world. In working with children in the sensori-motor stage,
teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.
This is the ability of the child to know that an object still

Object exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in
the sensory motor stage.
permanence
The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to
the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make
metal representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever close to the use of symbols.
This stage is highlighted by the following:

Symbolic
This is the ability to represent objects and events. A
Function symbol is a thing that represents something else. A
drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to
be understood as representing a real object like a real
MRT train.
Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years. Riel, a two-year old
may pretend that she is drinking from a glass which is really empty. Though she already pretends the
presence of water, the glass remains to be a glass. At around four years of age, however, Nico, may,
after pretending to drink form an empty glass, turn the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone. By the age
of 6 or 7 the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six, can do a
whole ninja turtle routine without any costume nor “props”. Tria, who is seven can pretend to host an
elaborate princess ball only in her mind.
36
This is the tendency of the child to only see his
point of view and to assume that everyone has
Egocentrism also has his same point of view. The child
cannot take the perspective of others. You see
this in five year-old boy who buys a toy truck
for his mother’s birthday. Or a three year old
girl who cannot understand why her cousins
call her daddy “uncle” and not daddy.
This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on

Centration one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other
aspects. For example, when a child is presented with
two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the
child will say they have the same amount of water.
However, once one of the water from one of the glasses
is transferred to an obviously taller but narrow glass, the child might say that there is more water in the
taller glass. The child only focuses on “centered” only one aspect of the new glass that is a taller glass.
The child was not able to perceive that the new glass is also narrower. The child only center on the height
of the glass and is excluded the width in determining the amount of water in the glass.
Pre-operational children still have the inability to

Irreversibility reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2 +
3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.
This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits

Animism or characteristics to inanimate objects. When at night, the
child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, “Mr. Sun is
asleep.”
This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that

Transductive is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be
from particular to particular i.e., if A causes B, then B causes A.
reasoning For example, since her mommy comes home very six o’clock in
the evening, when asked when it is already night, the child will
say, “because mom is already home.” (For more notes on the
cognitive development of the toddler, refer to unit 2.)
37
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete
objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years.
The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:

This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or
Decentering
limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more
logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations.
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can

now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse. For
Reversibility example, they can already comprehend this commutative
property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse
addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped
into a dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.
This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects

like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a
change in appearance. Because the development of the child’s
Conservation
ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete operational
child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but
narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. The children
progress to attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a traditional thinker and then a
conserver.
This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a

series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or
Seriation size.
38
In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes
more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.
This stage is characterized by the following:
This is the ability to come up with different

Hypothetical Reasoning hypothesis about a problem and to gather and
weigh date in order to make a final decision or
judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with “What
if” questions.
This is the ability to perceive the relationship in

one instance and then use that relationship to
Analogical Reasoning narrow down possible answers in another similar
situation or problem.
The individual will reason that since the UK is found in the continent of Europe then the
Philippines can found in what continent? Then Asia is his answer. Through reflective thought and even
in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now understand relationships and do analogical
reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning This is the ability to think logically by applying a

general rule to a particular instance or situation.
For example, all countries near the North Pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North Pole.
Therefore, Greenland has cold temperatures.
From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive
development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage
learners and require adaption (i.e., assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or
mental operations for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that
are beyond their current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges.
39
Activity 1
Read the following situations. The class may choose to dramatize each of the situations before
analysis will be done.
1. Its Christmas time and Uncle Bob is giving “aguinaldo” to the children. Three-year old Karen did
not want to receive one hundred peso bill and instead preferred to receive four 20 peso bills. Her
ten year-old cousins were telling her it’s better to get the one hundred bill, but they failed to
convince her.
2. Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and riel, 4; were sorting out their stuffed animals. They had 7 bears,
3 dogs, 2 cows, and 1 dolphin. Mommy, a psychology teacher, enters and says, “Good thing
you’re sorting those. Do you have more stuffed animals or more bears?” Tria and enzo says,
“stuffed animals” Riel said, “Bears”.
3. While eating on her high chair, seven-month old Liza accidentally dropped her spoon on the floor.
She saw mommy picked it up. Liza again drops her new spoon, and she does this several times
more on purpose. Mommy didn’t like it at all but Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons the
whole time.
Activity 2
1. On situation 1: Why do you think did Karen prefer the 20-peso bills?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. On situation 2: Why do you think Riel answered “Bears”? What does this mean on how she
answers the question?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. On situation 3: Why do you think baby Liza enjoyed dropping the spoons?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
40
Activity 3
5-minute Non-stop Writing Begins…. Now!
From the Module on Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development, I learned that….

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
REFERENCE:
[1] Corpuz, B. et.al (n.d.). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
41
Erikson's Psycho-Social
MODULE 6 Theory of Development
Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death."
-Erik Erikson
INTRODUCTION
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development is a very relevant, highly regarded and
meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and trials which help us to
grow. Erikson's enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us why.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module, the students should be able to:
1. explain the eight Stages of Life to someone you care about;
2. write a short story of your life using Erikson's stages as framework; and
3. suggest at least six ways on how Erikson's theory can be useful for future teachers.
Introduction to Eight stages
1. Erikson's “Psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words - namely psychological
(or the root, 'psycho' relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc) and social (external
relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson's theory. Occasionally, you'll see the
term extended to biopsychosocial, in which "bio" refers to life, as in biological.
2. Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory and
incorporated cultural and social aspects into Freud's biological and sexually-oriented theory.
3. It's also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his own journey
through the "Psychosocial crisis" stages model that underpinned his work.
4. Like other influential theories, Erikson's model is simple and well-designed. The theory is a basis
for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior, and also for
understanding and for facilitating personal development - of self and others. It can help the
teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time understanding of the various
environmental factors that affects his own and his students' personality and behavior.
42
5. Erikson's eight stages theory is a tremendously powerful model. It is very accessible and
obviously relevant to modern life, from several different perspectives for understanding and
explaining how personality and behavior develops in people. As such Erikson's theory is useful
for teaching, parenting, self-awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and
generally for understanding self and others.
6. Various terms are used to describe Erikson's model, for example Erikson's biopsychosocial or
bio-psycho-social theory (bio refers to biological, which in this context means life); Erikson's
human development cycle or life cycle, variations of these. All refer to the same eight stages
psychosocial theory, it being Erikson's most distinct work and remarkable model.
The epigenetic principle. As Boeree explains, "This principle is developed through a

predetermined unfolding of personalities in eight stages. Our progress through each stage is in
part determined by our success, or lack of success, in all the previous stages. A little like the
unfolding of a rose bud, each petal opens up at a certain time, in a certain order, which nature,
through its genetics, has determined. If we interfere in the natural order of development by pulling
a petal forward prematurely or out of order, we ruin the development of the entire flower."
Erikson's theory delved into how personality was formed and believed that the earlier stages
served as a foundation for the later stages. The theory highlighted the influence of one's
environment, particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon the next and result into
one's personality.
7. Each stage involves a psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces. A helpful term
used by Erikson for these opposing forces is "contrary dispositions". Each crisis stage refers to
a corresponding life stage and its inherent challenges. Erikson used the words "syntonic" for the
first-listed "positive" disposition in each crisis (e.g., Trust) and "dystonic" for the second-listed
"negative" disposition (e.g., Mistrust). To signify the opposing or conflicting relationship between
each pair of forces or dispositions, Erikson connected them with the word "verus".
8. If a stage is managed well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which will
help us through the rest of the stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis
involves "achieving" a healthy ratio or balance between the two opposing dispositions that
represent each crisis.
9. On the other hand, if we don't do so well, we may develop mal-adaptations and malignancies, as
well as endanger all our future development. A malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves
too little of the positive and too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as a person who
can't trust others. A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and
too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.
10. The crisis stages are not sharply defined steps. Elements tend to overlap and mingle from one
stage to the next and to the preceding stages. It's a broad framework and concept, not a
mathematical formula which replicates precisely across all people and situations.
43
11. Erikson was keen to point out that the transition between stages is "overlapping". Crisis stages
connect with each other like interlaced fingers, not like a series of neatly stacked boxes. People
don't suddenly wake up one morning and be in a new life stage. Changes don't happen in
regimented clear-cut steps. Changes are graduated, mixed-together and organic.
12. Erikson also emphasized the significance of "mutuality" and "generativity" in his theory. The
terms are linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generations on each other, especially among
families, and particularly between parents and children and grandchildren. Everyone potentially
affects everyone else's experiences as they pass through the different crisis stages.
Generativity, actually a named disposition within one of the crisis stages (Generativity vs.
Stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best
interests of children - one's own children, and in a way everyone else's children - the next
generation, and all following generations.
The first stage, infancy, is approximately the first year or year and half
Psychosocial of life. The crisis is trust vs. mistrust. The goal is to develop trust
without completely eliminating the capacity for mistrust. If the primary
Crisis caregivers, like the parents can give the baby a sense of familiarity,
consistency and continuity, then the baby will develop the feeling that
the world is a safe place to be, that people are reliable and loving. If the parents are unreliable and
inadequate, if they reject the infant or harm it, if other interests cause both parents to turn away from the
44
infant's needs to satisfy their own instead, then the infant will develop mistrust. He or she will be
apprehensive and suspicious around people.
Maladaptation/Malignancy
Please understand that this doesn't mean that the parents have to be perfect. In fact, parents
who are overly protective of the child, who are there the minute the first cry comes out, will lead that child
into the maladaptive tendency which Erikson calls sensory maladjustment: Overly trusting, even
gullible, this person cannot believe anyone would mean them harm, and will use all the defenses at their
commands to find an explanation or excuse for the person who did him wrong. Worse, of course, is the
child whose balance is tipped way over on the mistrust side. They will develop the malignant tendency of
withdrawal, characterized by depression, paranoia, and possibly psychosis.
Virtue
If the proper balance is achieved, the child will develop the virtue of hope, the strong belief that,
even when things are not going well, they will work out well in the end. One of the signs that a child is
doing well in the first stage is when the child isn't overly upset by the need to wait a moment for the
satisfaction of his or her needs.: Mom or Dad doesn't have to be perfect; I trust them enough to believe
that, if they can't be here immediately, they will be here soon; things may be tough now, but they will work
out. This is the same ability that, in later life, gets us through disappointments in love, our careers, and
many other domains of life.
45
STAGE 2
The second stage is early childhood, from about eighteen

months to three or four years old. The task is to achieve a degree of Psychosocial
autonomy while minimizing shame and doubt. If mom and dad, or
caregiver permits, the child, now a toddler, to explore and manipulate
Crisis
his or her environment, the child will develop a sense of autonomy or
Independence. The parents should not discourage the child, but neither
should they push.
A balance is required. People often advise new parents to be
"firm but tolerant" at this stage and the advice is good. This way, the child
will develop both self-control and self-esteem. On the other hand, it is
rather easy for the child to develop instead a sense of shame and doubt.
If the parents come down hard on any attempt to explore and be
independent, the child will soon give up with the belief that he/she cannot
and should not act his/her own. We should keep in mind that even
something as innocent as laughing as the toddler's efforts can lead the
child to feel deeply ashamed and to doubt his or her abilities.
There are other ways to lead children to shame and doubt. If you give children unrestricted
freedom and no sense of limits, or if you try to help children do what they should learn to do for
themselves, you will also give them the impression that they are not good for much. If you aren't patient
enough to wait for your child to tie his or her shoe-laces, your child will never learn to tie them, and will
assume that this is too difficult to learn.
46
Nevertheless, a little "shame and doubt" is not only inevitable, but beneficial. Without it, you will
develop the maladaptive tendency Erikson calls impulsiveness, a sort of shameless willfulness that
leads you, in later childhood and even adulthood, to jump into things without proper consideration of your
abilities.
Worse, of course, is too much shame and doubt, which leads to the malignancy Erikson calls
compulsiveness. The compulsive person feels as if their entire being rides on everything they do, and
so everything must be done perfectly. Following all the rules precisely keeps you from mistakes, and
mistakes must be avoided at all costs. Many of you know how it feels to always be ashamed and always
doubt yourself. A little more patience and tolerance with your own children may help them avoid your
path. And give yourself a little slack, too.
Virtue
If you get the proper, positive balance of autonomy and shame and doubt, you will develop the
virtue of willpower or determination. One of the most admirable - and frustrating - things about two- and
three-year-olds is their determination. "Can do" is their motto. If we can preserve that "can do" attitude
(with appropriate modesty to balance it) we are much better off as adult.
47
STAGE 3
Stage 3 is the early childhood stage, from three or four to five

Psychosocial or six. The task is to learn initiative without too much guilt. Initiative
means a positive response to the world's challenges, taking on
Crisis responsibilities, learning new skills, feeling purposeful. Parents can
encourage initiative by encouraging children to try out their ideas. We
should accept and encourage fantasy and curiosity and imagination.
This is a time for play, not for formal education. The child is now
capable, as never before, of imagining a future situation, one that isn't
a reality right now. Initiative is the attempt to make that non-reality a
reality.
But if children can imagine the future, if they plan, then they
can be responsible as well, and guilty. If my two-year-old flushes my
watch down the toilet, I can safely assume that there were no "evil
intentions". It was just a matter of a shiny object going round and down. What fun! But if my five year old
does the same thing... well, she should know what's going to happen to the watch, what's going to happen
to daddy's temper, and what's going to happen to her! She can be guilty of the act and she can begin to
feel guilty as well. The capacity for moral judgment has arrived.
Erikson is, of course, a Freudian, and as such, he includes the Oedipal experience in this stage.
From his perspective, the Oedipal crisis involves the reluctance a child feels in relinquishing his or her
closeness to the opposite sex parent. A parent has the responsibility, socially, to encourage the child to
"grow up -- you're not a baby anymore!" But if this process is done too harshly and too abruptly, the child
learns to feel guilty about his or her feelings.
Too much initiative and too little guilt means a maladaptive tendency Erikson calls ruthlessness.
To be ruthless is to be heartless or unfeeling to be "without mercy." The ruthless person takes the initiative
alright. They have their plans, whether it's a matter of school or romance or politics or career.
48
It's just that they don't care who they step on to achieve their goals. The goals are the only things
that matter, and guilty feelings and mercy are only signs of weakness. The extreme form of ruthlessness
is sociopathy.
Ruthlessness is bad for others, but actually relatively easy on the ruthless person. Harder on the
person is the malignancy of too much guilt, which Erikson calls inhibition. The inhibited person will not
try things because "nothing ventured, nothing lost" and, particularly, nothing to feel guilty about. They are
so afraid to start and take a lead on a project. They fear that if it fails, they will be blamed.
Virtue
A good balance leads to the psychosocial strength of purpose m a sense of purpose is something
many people crave for in their lives, yet many do not realize that they themselves make their purposes,
through imagination and initiative. I think an even better word for this virtue would have been courage,
the capacity for action despite a clear understanding of your limitations and past failing
49
STAGE 4
Stage 4 is the school-age stage when the child is from about

Psychosocial six to twelve. The task is to develop a capacity for industry while
avoiding an excessive sense of inferiority. Children must "tame the
Crisis imagination" and dedicate themselves to education and to learning the
social skills their society sphere at work now: The parents and other
family members are joined by teachers and peers and other members
of the community at large. They all contribute.
Parents must encourage, teachers must care, peers must
accept. Children must learn that there is pleasure not only in conceiving
a plan, bit in carrying it out. They must learn the feeling of success,
whether it is in school or on the playground, academic or social.
A good way to tell the difference between a child in the third
stage and one in the fourth stage is to look at the way they play games.
Four-year-olds may love games, but they will have only a vague
understanding of the rules, may change them several times during the
course of the game, and be very unlikely to actually finish the game,
unless it is by throwing the pieces at their opponents. A seven-year-old, on the other hand, is dedicated
to the rules, considers them pretty much sacred, and is more likely to get upset if the game is not allowed
to come to its required conclusion.
If the child is allowed too little success, because of harsh teachers or rejecting peers for example,
the he or she will develop instead a sense of inferiority or incompetence. Additional sources of inferiority,
Erikson mentions, are racism, sexism, and other forms of discrimination. If a child believes that success
is related to who you are rather than to how hard you try, then why try?
50
Too much industry leads to maladaptive tendency called narrow virtuosity. We see this in children
who aren't allowed to "be children," the ones that parents or teachers push into one of competence,
without allowing the development of broader interests. These are the kids without a life: child actors, child
athletes, child musicians, child prodigies of all sorts. We all admire their industry, but if we look a little
closer, it's all that stands in the way of an empty life.
Much more common in the malignancy called inertia. This includes all of us who suffer from the
"inferiority complexes" Alfred Adler talked about. If at first you don't succeed, don't even try again! Many
of us didn’t do well in mathematics, for example, so we'd die before we took another math class. Others
were humiliated instead in the gym class, so we never try out for a sport or play a game of basketball.
Others never developed social skills -- the most important skills of all -- and so we never go out in public.
We become inert.
Virtue
A happier thing is to develop the right balance of industry and inferiority -- that is, mostly industry
with just a touch of inferiority to keep us sensibly humble. Then we have the virtue called competency.
51
STAGE 5
Stage 5 is adolescence, beginning with puberty and ending

around 18 to 20 years old. The task during adolescence is to achieve ego Psychosocial
identity and avoid role confusion. It was adolescence that interested
Erikson first and most, and the patterns he saw here were the bases for Crisis
his thinking about all the other stages.
Ego identity means knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest
of society. It requires that you take all you've learned about life and yourself and
mold it into unified self-image, one that your community finds meaningful.
There are a number of things that make things easier: First, we should
have a mainstream adult culture that is worthy of the adolescent's respect, one
with good adult role models and open lines of communication.
Further, society should provide clear rites of passage, certain

accomplishments and rituals that help to distinguish the adult from the child. In
primitive and traditional societies, an adolescent boy may be asked to leave the
village for a period of time to live on his own, hunt some symbolic animal, or
seek an inspirational vision. Boys and girls may be required to go through
certain tests of endurance, symbolic ceremonies, or educational events. In one
way or another, the distinction between the powerless, but irresponsible, time
of childhood and the powerful and responsible time of adulthood, is made clear.
Without these things, we are likely to see role confusion, meaning an uncertainty about one's
place in society band the world. When an adolescent is confronted by role confusion, Erikson says, he or
she is suffering from an Identity crisis. In fact, a common question of identity: "Who am I?"
52
One of Erikson's suggestions for adolescence in our
society is the psychosocial moratorium. He suggests you take
a little "time out." If you have money, go to Europe. If you don't,
bum around the Philippines. Quit school and get a job. Quit your
job and go to school. Take a break, smell the roses, get to know
yourself. We tend to want to get to "success" as fast as possible,
and yet few of us have ever taken the time to figure you what
success means to us. A little like the young Oglala Lakota,
perhaps we need to dream a little.
There is such a thing as too much "ego identity," where a
person is so involved in a particular role in a particular society or
subculture that there is no room left for tolerance. Erikson calls
this maladaptive tendency fanaticism. A fanatic believes that his way is the only way. Adolescents are,
of course, known for their idealism, and for their tendency to see things in black-and-white. These people
will gather others around them and promote their beliefs and life -styles without regard to others' rights to
disagree.
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will have the virtue Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity
means loyalty, the ability to live by societies standards despite their imperfections and incompleteness
and inconsistencies. We are not talking about blind loyalty, and we are not talking about accepting the
imperfections. After all, if you love your community, you will want to see it become the best it can be. But
fidelity means that you have found a place in that community, a place that will allow you to contribute.
53
STAGE 6
If you have made it this far, you are in the stage of young
Psychosocial adulthood, which lasts from about 18 to about 30. The ages in the adult
stages are much fuzzier than in the childhood stages, and people may
Crisis differ dramatically. The task is to achieve some degree of intimacy, as
opposed to remaining in isolation.
Intimacy is the ability to be close to others, as a lover, a friend,
and as a participant in society. Because you have a clear sense of who
you are, you no longer need to fear "losing" yourself, as many
adolescents do. The "fear of commitment" some people seem to exhibit
is an example of immaturity in this stage. This fear isn't always obvious.
The young adult relationship should be a matter of two
independent egos wanting to create something larger than themselves.
We intuitively recognize this when we frown on a relationship between
a young adult and a teenager. We see the potential for manipulation of
the younger member of the party by the older.
Erikson calls the maladaptive from promiscuity, referring particularly to the tendency to become
intimate too freely, too easily and without any depth to your intimacy. This can be true of your relationships
with friends and neighbors and your whole community as well as with lovers.
The malignancy he calls exclusion, which refers to the tendency to isolate oneself from love,
friendship, and community, and to develop a certain hatefulness in compensation for one's loneliness.
54
Virtue
If you successfully negotiate this stage, you will instead carry with you for the rest of your life the
virtue of psychosocial strength Erikson calls love. Love, in the context of his theory, means being able to
put aside differences and antagonisms through "mutuality of devotion." It includes not only the love we
find in a good marriage, but the love between friends and the love of one's neighbor, co-worker, and
compatriot as well.
55
STAGE 7
The seventh stage is that of middle adulthood. It is hard

Psychosocial to pin a time to it but it would include the period during which we
are actively involved in raising children. For most people in our
Crisis society, this would put it somewhere between the middle
twenties and the late fifties. The task here is to cultivate the
proper balance of generativity and stagnation.
Generativity is an extension of love into the future. It is
a concern for the next generation and all future generations. As
such, it is considerably less "selfish" than the intimacy of the
previous stage: Intimacy, the love between lovers or friends, is a
love between equals, and is necessarily mutual. With
generativity, the individual, like a parent, does not expect to be
repaid for the love he gives to his children, at least not as strongly.
Few parents expect a "return on their investment" from their
children: If they do, we don't think of them as very good parents!
Stagnation, on the other hand, is self-absorption, caring for no-one. The stagnant person stops
to be a productive member of society.
It is perhaps hard to imagine that we should have any "stagnation" in our lives, but the
maladaptive tendency Erikson calls overextension illustrates the problem: Some people try to be so
generative that they no longer allow time for themselves, for rest and relaxation. The person who is
overextended no longer contributes well. I'm sure we all know someone who belongs to so many clubs,
or is devoted to so many causes, or tries to take so many classes or hold so many jobs that they no
longer have time for any of them!
56
More obvious, of course, is the malignant tendency of rejectivity. Too little generativity and too
much stagnation band you are no longer participating in or contributing to society. And much of what we
call "the meaning of life" is a matter of how we participate and what we contribute.
This is the stage of the "midlife crisis." Sometimes men and women take a look at their lives and
ask that big, bad question "what am I doing all this for?" Notice the question carefully: Because their focus
is on themselves, they ask what, rather than whom, they are doing it for. In their panic at getting older
and not having experienced or accomplished what they imagined they would when they were younger,
then try to recapture their youth.
Virtue
But if you are successful at this stage, you will have a capacity for caring that will serve you
through the rest of your life.
57
STAGE 8
Psychosocial This last stage, referred to delicately as late adulthood

or maturity, or less delicately as old age, begins sometime
Crisis around retirement, after the kids have gone, say somewhere
around 60. Some older folks will protest and say it only starts
when you feel old and so on, but that's an effect of our youth-
worshipping culture, which has even old people avoiding any
acknowledgement of age. In Erikson's theory, reaching this
stage is a good thing, and not reacting it suggests that earlier
problems retarded your development.
The task is to develop ego integrity with a minimal
amount of despair. This stage seems like the most difficult of
all. First comes a detachment from society, from a sense of
usefulness, for most people in our culture. Some retire from
jobs they've held for years; others find their duties bas parents coming to a close; most find that their
input is no longer requested or required.
In response to this despair, some older people become preoccupied with the past. After all, that's
where things were better. Some become preoccupied with their failures, the bad decisions they made,
and regret that (unlike some in the previous stage) they really don't have the time or energy to reverse
them. We find some older people become depressed, spiteful, paranoid, hypochondriacal or developing
the patterns of senility with or without physical bases.
Ego integrity means coming to terms with your life, and thereby coming to terms with the end
of life. If you are able to look back and accept the course of events, the choices made, your life as you
lived it, as being necessary, then you needn't fear death. Although most of you are not yet at this point in
life, perhaps you can still sympathize by considering your life up to now. We've all made mistakes, some
of them pretty nasty ones; Yet, if you hadn't made these mistakes, you wouldn't be who you are. If you
had been very fortunate, or if you had played it safe and made a very few mistakes, your life would not
have been as rich as is.
58
The maladaptive tendency in stage eight is called presumption. This is what happens when a
person "presumes" ego integrity without actually facing the difficulties of old age. The person in old age
believes that he alone is right. He does not respect the ideas and views of the young. The malignant
tendency is called disdain, by which Erikson means contempt of life, one's own or anyone's. The person
becomes very negative and appears to hate life.
Virtue
Someone who approaches death without fear has the strength Erikson calls wisdom. He calls it
a gift to children because "healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity not to fear death."
He suggests that a person must be somewhat gifted to be truly wise, but I would like to suggest that you
understand "gifted" in as broad a fashion as possible. I have found that there are people of very modest
gifts who have taught me a great deal, not by their wise words, but by their simple and gentle approach
to life and death, by their "generosity of spirit.
Activity 1
Erik Erikson's Stage Theory of Development Questionnaire
This contains selected items from Rhona Ochse and Cornelis Plug's self-report questionnaire
assessing the personality dimensions associated with Erikson's first 5 stages of psychosexual
development. It can serve to make the stages personally relevant to you. Indicate how often each of
these statements applies to you by using the following scale:
0 = never applies to you
1 = occasionally or seldom applies to you
2 = fairly often applies to you
3 = very often applies to you
Read the instructions at the end before putting scores here

Stage 1: Trust Versus Mistrust (Infancy and Early Childhood) Score
_____1. I feel pessimistic about the future of humankind.
_____2. I feel the world's major problems can be solved.
_____3. I am filled with admiration for humankind.
_____4. People can be trusted.
_____5. I feel optimistic about my future.
Total Score Stage 1
59
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt (Infancy and Childhood) Score
_____6. When people try to persuade me to do something I don't want to, I refuse.
_____7. After I have made a decision, I feel I have made a mistake.
_____8. I am unnecessarily apologetic.
_____9. I worry that my friends will find fault with me.
_____10. When I disagree with someone, I tell them.
Total Score in Stage 2
Stage 3: Initiative Versus Guilt (Infancy and Childhood) Score

_____11. I am prepared to take a risk to get what I want.
_____12. I feel hesitant to try out a new way of doing something.
_____13. I am confident in carrying out my plans to a successful conclusion.
_____14. I feel what happens to me is the result of what I have done.
_____15. When I have difficulty in getting something right, I give up.
Stage 4: Industry Versus Inferiority (Infancy and Childhood) Score

_____16. When people look at something I have done, I feel embarrassed.
_____17. I get a great deal of pleasure from working.
_____18. I feel too incompetent to do what I would really like to do in life.
_____19. I avoid doing something difficult because I feel I would fail.
_____20. I feel competent.
60
Stage 5: Identity Versus Identify Diffusion (Adolescence) Score
_____21. I wonder what sort of person I really am.
_____22. I feel certain about what should I do with my life.
_____23. My worth is recognized by others.
_____24. I feel proud to be the sort of person I am.
_____25. I am unsure as to how people feel about me.
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus Isolation (Early Adulthood) Score

_____26. I feel that no one has ever known the real me.
_____27. I have a feeling of complete "togetherness" with someone.
_____28. I feel it is better to remain free than to become committed to marriage for life.
_____29. I share my private thoughts with someone.
_____30. I feel as though I am alone in the world.
ACTIVITY 3
MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the best answer in each item and write your answer on the space
provided before the number.
1. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their Math test because Hannah agreed to let her copy during
their AP test.
a. Pre-conventional c. Post-conventional
b. Conventional d. Post and Pre-convetional
2. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight.
a. Egocentrism c. Object Permanence

b. Centration d. Symbolic Functions
3. This allow the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete object and situation.
a. Symbolic Functions c. reversibility

b. Decentering d. Centration
61
4. The ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow
down possible answers in another similar situation or problem.
a. Analogical reasoning c. Centration

b. Deductive reasoning d. reversibility
5. The tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate objects.
a. Analogical reasoning c. reversibility

b. Centration d. Animism
6. Based on Erickson’s theory, what is the greatest danger in the elementary school year for
children’s development? The development of sense of __________.
a. Identity confusion c. Guilt

b. Isolation d. Inferiority
7. The stage of exploring of the physical and social environment.
a. Initiative vs Guilt c. Identity vs. role confusion

b. Industry vs. inferiority d. Generativity vs. sensitivity
8. The stage dedicated to finding oneself in another.
a. Initiative vs. guilt c. Identity vs. role confusion

b. Industry vs. inferiority d. Intimacy vs. isolation
9. According to Erickson, preschool children are attempting to resolve which of the following socio-
emotional issues?
a. Initiative vs. guilt c. identity vs. role confusion

b. Trust vs. mistrust d. intimacy vs. isolation
10. The concepts of trust vs. maturity, autonomy vs. self-doubt, and initiative vs guilt are most closely
related with the works of ________ .
a. Erickson c. Freud
b. Piaget d. Jung
11. Freud, the primary motivation for human is sexual in nature while for Erickson, it is
____________ in nature.
a. Intellectual c. social
b. Biological d. Emotional
12. Who proposed the Social Cognitive Theories?
a. Erick Erickson c. John Dewey

b. Albert Bandura d. Jean Piaget
62
13. It is important to be able to control and manage your impulses and emotions. What Goleman’s
Emotional Intelligence is implies?
a. Self- awareness c. Self- management

b. Self- regulation d. Self- motivation
14. This leads to sustained motivation, clear decision making and a better understating of the
organization’s aims.
a. Self- awareness c. Self- management

b. Self- regulation d. Self- motivation
15. A pioneer in the field of personality development.
a. Jean Piaget c. Erik Erikson

b. Carlos Goleman d. John Mark
16. Goleman describes them as “friendliness with a purpose”, meaning everyone is treated politely
and with respect, yet healthy relationships are then also used for personal and organizational
benefit. What Emotional Intelligence is imply?
a. Social Skill c. Internal motivation

b. Empathy d. Self- regulation
17. A child who is cold towards the people around him might have failed to attain what basic goal
based on Erickson’s theory on psychological development?
a. Autonomy c. initiative
b. Trust d. Mistrust
18. What is the BEST description of Erickson’s psychological theory of human development?
a. Eight crises all people are to face

b. Four psychosocial stages in the latency period
c. The same number of stages as Freud’s, but with different names
d. A stage theory that is not psychoanalytic
19. The stage where the focus is “I am what I learn.”
a. Initiative vs Guilt c. Identity vs Role Confusion

b. Industry vs Inferiority d. Generativity vs Sensitivity
63
20. The stage of exploring of the physical and social environment.
a. Initiative vs guilt c. identity vs. role confusion
b. Industry vs inferiority d. Intimacy vs isolation
REFERENCES:
[1] Acero, V.D., Javier, E.S., & Castro, H.O., (2008). Child and Adolescent Development. Manila,
Philippines
[2] Bullock, Merry, and Paul Lukenhaus. "Who Am I? The Development of Self-Understanding in
Toddlers."Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 36 (1990):217-238.
[3] Corpuz, B.B., Lucas, M.D., Borabo, H.L., Lucido, P.I, (2010). Child and Adolescent Development. Manila,
Philippines
[4] “Child and Adolescent Resource Book”, The Center of Child and Family Studies.
[5] “Child Development Milestone “, The Northern California Children and Family Service
[6] Cohen, L.E, & Stupiansky, S.W., (2017) Theories of Early Childhood Education. New York
[7] Herdt, Gilbert, ed. "Introduction: Gay and Lesbian Youth, Emergent Identities, and Cultural Scenes at Home
and Abroad." In Gay and Lesbian Youth. New York: Harrington Park Press, 1989.
[8] Kail, Robert V., and John C. Cavanaugh. Human Development: ALifespan View, 2nd edition. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 2000.
[9] Marcia, James. "Identity and Self-Development." In Richard Lerner, Anne Peterson, and Jeanne Brooks-Gunn
eds., Encyclopedia of Adolescence (Vol. 1). New York: Garland, 1991.
[10] Goleman, Daniel. (1995). Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books, 1995. Print.
[11] Goleman, Daniel. (1998). What Makes a Leader? Harvard Business Review, 1998. Print.
[12] Goleman, Daniel. (2000). Working with Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books, 2000. Print.
[13] Salovey, Peter, Marc A Brackett, and John D Mayer. (2004). Emotional Intelligence. Port Chester, N.Y.: Dude
Pub., 2004. Print.
64
Module 7: LAWRENCE KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Introduction:
Individuals when confronted by situations where they need to make moral decisions, exercise
their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was interested in studying the development
of moral reasoning. He based his theory on the findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our
ability to choose right from wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.
Objectives:
At the end of this Module, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the stages of Moral Development;
2. Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to moral
dilemmas; and
3. Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as a
teacher.
Learning Content:
Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work and set the groundwork for the present debate within
psychology on moral development. Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking through
their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts such as:
- justice
- rights
- equality
- human welfare
From his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three major
levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social – moral reasoning or perspective of the
person.
65
KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
LEVEL STAGE DESCRIPTION

Pre-conventional Stage Punishment/Obedience
Moral reasoning is based on the consequence result of the One is motivated by fear of punishment.
act, not on the whether the act itself is good or bad. 1 He will act in order to avoid punishment.
Conventional Mutual Benefit

Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or “norms” of One is motivated to act by the benefits
society. This may include approval of others, law, and order. 2 that one may obtain later. You scratch
my back, I’ll scratch yours.
Post-Conventional Social Approval

Moral reasoning is based on enduring or consistent One is motivated by what others expect
principles. It is not just recognizing the law but the principles 3 in behaviour – good boy, good girl.
behind the law.
Law and Order
One is motivated to act in order to
uphold law and order. The person will
4 follow the law because it is the law.
Social Contract
Laws that are wrong can be changed.
5 One will act based on social justice and
the common good.
Universal Principles
This is associated with the development
6 of one’s conscience.
Situational example to be used and related to the given stages above:
Ryan, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this concert of rock band. His
parents have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with a rowdy crowd. The band
is notorious for having out-of-control audience who somehow manages to get drunk and stoned
during the concert.
Ryan agreed not to watch anymore but a day before the concert, Nic, 15 years old
brother of Ryan, saw a corner of what appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of
Ryan’s bag. Nic examined it and confirmed it was indeed a ticket.
Looking at Ryan’s bag, Nic also found an extra shirt and 2 sticks of marijuana so he
figured that Ryan will go to the concert after all. That night, Ryan told his parents that he was
spending tomorrow night at classmate’s house for a school requirement. Then later that evening, he
told Nic of his plan to go to the concert. Nic didn’t say anything but he found it difficult to sleep that
night thinking whether to tell their parents or not.
66
Activity 1
Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following:
1. Joy allows her classmates to copy her homework so that they will think she is kind and will like
her to be their friend.
2. Ricky does everything to get passing grades because his Mom will take his play station away
if he gets bad grades.
3. A civic action group protects the use of pills for family planning, saying that although the
government allows this, it is actually murder because the pills are abortifacient (causes
abortion).
4. Jinky lets Hannah copy during their math test because Hannah agreed to let her copy during
their Sibika test.
5. Karen decides to return the wallet she found in the canteen so that people will praise her
for being honest and think she’s such a nice girl.
6. John decides to return the wallet he found in the canteen because he believes it’s the right
thing to do.
7. Lyka wears her ID inside the campus because she likes to follow the school rules and
regulations.
8. A jeepney driver looks if there’s a policeman around before he u-turns in a “No U-turn” spot.
9. Liza volunteers to tutor children-at-risk in her community for free so they will learn to love
school and stay in school.
10. Little Riel behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.
Activity 2
Provide a situation wherein you also experienced the same situation with Nic and
mention how you battle with your moral development.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
From Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, I realized that

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
67
REFERENCE:
68
MODULE 8:
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION:
This module will enhance your knowledge, skills, and experiences in dealing with various level
of thinking and personality differences. It will also provide you the needed and appropriate approach in
terms of solving the current trends and issues when it pertains to the study of socio-cultural theory and
in connection with the real life situations.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. describe the importance of socio-cultural theory in relation to Cognitive Development;

2. share situational examples under the study of socio-cultural theory; and
3. explain that every person should establish respect and understanding to their socio-
cultural development.
LEARNING CONTENTS:
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a major
impact on a child’s cognitive development. Piaget and Gesell believed development stemmed directly
from the child, and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic development, he argued that it is the
language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking
(Crain, 2005). He believed that the social interactions with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a
child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would
not advance very far as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some
of Vygotsky’s key concepts.
Zone of Proximal Development and

Scaffolding: Vygotsky’s best known concept
is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).
Vygotsky stated that children should

be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they
can almost perform a task, but not quite on
their own without assistance. With the right
kind of teaching, however, they can
accomplish it successfully. A good teacher
identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the child
stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher)
gradually withdraws support until the child can
then perform the task unaided. Researchers
have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary platforms on which construction workers stand) to
this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a
task.
69
Private Speech: Do you ever talk to yourself? Why?
Chances are, this occurs when you are struggling with a
problem, trying to remember something, or feel very
emotional about a situation. Children talk to themselves
too. Piaget interpreted this as Egocentric Speech or a
practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see
things from another’s point of view. Vygotsky, however,
believed that children talk to themselves in order to solve
problems or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think in
words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their
lips and engaging in Private Speech or inner speech.
Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and talking to
oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn something or remember
something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when communicating with others
(Vygotsky, 1962).
Contrast with Piaget: Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction believing that
teachers who take control of the child’s learning place the child into a passive role (Crain, 2005). Further,
teachers may present abstract ideas without the child’s true understanding, and instead they just repeat
back what they heard. Piaget believed children must be given opportunities to discover concepts on their
own. As previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe children could reach a higher cognitive level without
instruction from more learned individuals. Who is correct? Both theories certainly contribute to our
understanding of how children learn.
INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES
INFORMATION PROCESSING
Information processing researchers have focused

on several issues in cognitive development for this age
group, including improvements in attention skills, changes
in the capacity and the emergence of executive functions
in working memory. Additionally, in early childhood memory
strategies, memory accuracy, and autobiographical
memory emerge. Early childhood is seen by many
researchers as a crucial time period in memory
development (Posner & Rothbart, 2007).
ATTENTION
Changes in attention have been described by many

as the key to changes in human memory (Nelson & Fivush,
2004; Posner & Rothbart, 2007). However, attention is not a
unified function; it is comprised of sub-processes. The ability
to switch our focus between tasks or external stimuli is called
divided attention or multitasking.
70
This is separate from our ability to focus on a single task or stimulus, while ignoring distracting
information, called selective attention. Different from these is sustained attention, or the ability to stay
on task for long periods of time. Moreover, we also have attention processes that influence our behavior
and enable us to inhibit a habitual or dominant response, and others that enable us to distract ourselves
when upset or frustrated.
DIVIDED ATTENTION
Young children (age 3-4) have considerable difficulties in
dividing their attention between two tasks, and often perform at
levels equivalent to our closest relative, the chimpanzee, but by age
five they have surpassed the chimp (Hermann, Misch, Hernandez-
Lloreda & Tomasello, 2015; Hermann & Tomasello, 2015). Despite
these improvements, 5-year-olds continue to perform below the
level of school-age children, adolescents, and adults.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
Children’s ability with selective attention tasks

improve as they age. Guy et al. (2013) found that children’s
ability to selectively attend to visual information outpaced that
of auditory stimuli. This may explain why young children are
not able to hear the voice of the teacher over the cacophony
of sounds in the typical preschool classroom (Jones, Moore
& Amitay, 2015). Jones and his colleagues found that 4 to 7
year-olds could not filter out background noise, especially
when its frequencies were close in sound to the target sound.
In comparison, 8 to 11 year-old older children often performed
similar to adults.
SUSTAINED ATTENTION
Most measures of sustained attention typically ask

children to spend several minutes focusing on one task, while
waiting for an infrequent event, while there are multiple
distractors for several minutes. Berwid, Curko-Kera, Marks &
Halperin (2005) asked children between the ages of 3 and 7
to push a button whenever a “target” image was displayed,
but they had to refrain from pushing the button when a non-
target image was shown. The younger the child, the more
difficulty he or she had maintaining their attention.
71
MEMORY
Based on studies of adults, people with amnesia, and

neurological research on memory, researchers have proposed
several “types” of memory (see Figure 4.14). Sensory memory
(also called the sensory register) is the first stage of the memory
system, and it stores sensory input in its raw form for a very brief
duration; essentially long enough for the brain to register and start
processing the information. Studies of auditory sensory memory
have found that the sensory memory trace for the characteristics of
a tone last about one second in 2 year-olds, two seconds in 3-year-
olds, more than two seconds in 4-year-olds and three to five
seconds in 6-year-olds (Glass, Sachse, & vob Suchodoletz, 2008).
Other researchers have found that young children hold sounds for a shorter duration than do older
children and adults, and that this deficit is not due to attentional differences between these age groups,
but reflect differences in the performance of the sensory memory system (Gomes et al., 1999).
The second stage of the memory system is called short-

term or working memory. Working memory is the component of
memory in which current conscious mental activity occurs.
Working memory often requires conscious effort and adequate
use of attention to function effectively. The capacity of working
memory, that is the amount of information someone can hold in
consciousness, is smaller in young children than in older children
and adults. The typical adult and teenager can hold a 7 digit
number active in their short-term memory. The typical 5 year-old
can hold only a 4 digit number active. This means that the more
complex a mental task is, the less efficient a younger child will be
in paying attention to, and actively processing, information in order
to complete the task.
Changes in attention and the working memory system also involve changes in executive function.
Executive function (EF) refers to self-regulatory processes, such as the ability to inhibit a behavior or
cognitive flexibility, that enable adaptive responses to new situations or to reach a specific goal. Executive
function skills gradually emerge during early childhood and continue to develop throughout childhood and
adolescence. For instance, scaffolding was positively correlated with greater cognitive flexibility at age
two and inhibitory control at age four (Bibok, Carpendale & Müller, 2009).
The third component in memory is long-term

memory, which is also known as permanent memory. A
basic division of long-term memory is between
declarative and non-declarative memory. Declarative
memories, sometimes referred to as explicit
memories, are memories for facts or events that we can
consciously recollect. Non-declarative memories,
sometimes referred to as implicit memories, are
typically automated skills that do not require conscious
recollection. Remembering that you have an exam next
week would be an example of a declarative memory
72
Declarative memory is further divided into semantic and episodic memory. Semantic
memories are memories for facts and knowledge that are not tied to a timeline, while episodic
memories are tied to specific events in time.
A component of episodic memory is

autobiographical memory, or our personal narrative. As
you may recall in Chapter 3 the concept of infantile amnesia
was introduced. Adults rarely remember events from the
first few years of life. In other words, we lack
autobiographical memories from our experiences as an
infant, toddler and very young preschooler.
Several factors contribute to the emergence of

autobiographical memory including brain maturation,
improvements in language, opportunities to talk about
experiences with parents and others, the development of
theory of mind, and a representation of “self” (Nelson & Fivush, 2004). Two-year-olds do remember
fragments of personal experiences, but these are rarely coherent accounts of past events (Nelson &
Ross, 1980). Between 2 and 2 ½ years of age children can provide more information about past
experiences. However, these recollections require considerable prodding by adults (Nelson & Fivush,
2004). Over the next few years children will form more detailed autobiographical memories and engage
in more reflection of the past.
BIO-CULTURAL THEORIES
Biocultural theory, related to the

anthropological value of holism, is an integration of
both biological anthropology and social/cultural
anthropology. While acknowledging that “the term
biocultural can carry a range of meanings and
represent a variety of methods, research areas, and
levels of analysis” (Hruschka et al. 2005:3), one
working definition of biocultural anthropology “a
critical and productive dialogue between biological
and cultural theories and methods in answering key
questions in anthropology” (Hruschka et al. 2005:4).
The use of a biocultural framework can be viewed as the application of a theoretical lens through
which disease and embodiment are integrated. This way of understanding takes local, cultural views and
understanding of illness and disease and the local practices of traditional or biomedical healing. “This
integrative work requires a significant focus on methods, and an openness to different, often competing
theoretical paradigms. Studying health and healing from a biocultural perspective takes illness and/or
disease and puts it in the context of how a culture embodies the illness they feel as a result of the disease.
Thus, a biocultural approach can be understood as a feedback system through which the
biological and cultural interact; biology allows certain behaviors to exist and in turn those behaviors
influence biological traits.
73
Through the understanding of both the biological and cultural implications of disease and
embodiment, healing becomes a cultural product, something that makes sense within a particular cultural
context. Biocultural research involves integrating how cultures approach health and healing based on
gender, class, age, education, and their own traditional experience with illness and healing.
There are three different approaches to bio-cultural research:
1. Biological: ‘biology matters’ this approach focuses on evolution and how it influences disease
2. Cultural: ‘culture matters’ this approach focuses on the interpretation and explanations of illness
3. Critical: ‘inequality matters’ this approach focuses on how inequality shapes disease in society
4.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE THAT INFLUENCE INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES
Triarchic Theory (Robert Sternberg)
The triarchic theory of intelligence consists of three subtheories: (i) the componential subtheory
which outlines the structures and mechanisms that underlie intelligent behavior categorized as
metacognitive, performance, or knowlege acquistion components , (ii) the experiential subtheory that
proposes intelligent behavior be interpreted along a continuum of experience from novel to highly familar
tasks/situations, (iii) the contextual subtheory which specifies that intelligent behavior is defined by the
sociocultural context in which it takes place and involves adaptation to the environment, selection of
better environments, and shaping of the present environment.
According to Sternberg, a complete explanation of intelligence entails the interaction of these

three subtheories. The componential subtheory specifies the potential set of mental processes that
underlies behavior (i.e., how the behavior is generated) while the contextual subtheory relates intelligence
to the external world in terms of what behaviors are intelligent and where. The experiential subtheory
addresses the relationship between the behavior in a given task/situation and the amount of experience
of the individual in that task/situation.
The componential subtheory is the most developed aspect of the triarchic theory and is based
upon Sternberg (1977) which presents an information processing perspective for abilities. One of the
most fundamental components according to Sternberg’s research are the metacognition or “executive”
processes that control the strategies and tactics used in intelligent behavior.
74
Application
The triarchic theory is a general theory of human

intelligence. Much of Sternberg’s early research focused
on analogies and syllogistic reasoning. Sternberg has
used the theory to explain exceptional intelligence (gifted
and retardation) in children and also to critique existing
intelligence tests. Sternberg (1983) outlines the
implications of the theory for skill training. Later work
examines topics such as learning styles (Sternberg,
1997) and creativity (Sternberg, 1999).
Example
Sternberg (1985) describes the results of various analogy experiments that support the triarchic
theory. For example, in a study that involved adults and children solving simple analogies, he found that
the youngest children solved the problems differently and theorized that this was because they had not
yet developed the ability to discern higher order relations. In another study of analogies with children at
a Jewish school, he discovered a systematic bias towards selection of the first two answers on the right
and suggested that this could be accounted for by the right-to-left reading pattern of Hebrew.
Principles
1. Training of intellectual performance must be socioculturally relevant to the individual.

2. A training program should provide links between the training and real-world behavior.
3. A training program should provide explicit instruction in strategies for coping with novel
tasks/situations.
4. A training program should provide explicit instruction in both executive and non-executive
information processing and interactions between the two.
5. Training programs should actively encourage individuals to manifest their differences in
strategies and styles.
The Gender Schema Theory
Gender schema theory was introduced by psychologist Sandra Bem in 1981 and asserted that
children learn about male and female roles from the culture in which they live. According to the theory,
children adjust their behavior to align with the gender norms of their culture from the earliest stages of
social development.1
75
Bem’s theory was influenced by the cognitive
revolution of the 1960s and 1970s as well as her desire
to remedy what she believed to be shortcomings in the
psychoanalytic and social learning theories of the time.
Freudian theories, she suggested, were too

focused on the influence of anatomy on gender
development. Instead, Bem proposed that a child’s
cognitive development combined with societal
influences largely influence the patterns of thought
(schema) that dictate "male" and "female" traits.1
Gender schema theory was introduced by

psychologist Sandra Bem in 1981 and asserted that
children learn about male and female roles from the
culture in which they live. According to the theory, children adjust their behavior to align with the gender
norms of their culture from the earliest stages of social development.1
Bem’s theory was influenced by the cognitive revolution of the 1960s and 1970s as well as her
desire to remedy what she believed to be shortcomings in the psychoanalytic and social learning theories
of the time.
Freudian theories, she suggested, were too focused on the influence of anatomy on gender
development. Instead, Bem proposed that a child’s cognitive development combined with societal
influences largely influence the patterns of thought (schema) that dictate "male" and "female" traits.
ACTIVITY 1
Fill in the table below with the way you understand the different forms of selection under
Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory.
SELECTION DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Divided
Selective
Sustained
76
ACTIVITY 2
Follow the given instructions:
1. Choose a skill that you are good in.

2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will benefit from scaffolding.
3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.
4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will do to scaffold.
5. Teach the skill to the individual.
6. Describe how the learning activity went.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Relate what you have learned to classroom situation. Cite atleast five examples.
1. _____________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________
4. _____________________________________________________________
5. _____________________________________________________________
REFERENCE
77
Module 9: URIE BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL MODEL
Introduction:
Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the different factors that
exert influence on an individual’s development. It points out the ever widening spheres of influence that
shape every individual from his/her immediate family to the neighbourhood, the country, and even the
entire world.
Objectives:
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:
1. describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model;
2. identify factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s development;
and
3. use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect
a child and adolescent development.
Learning Content:
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as Bioecological Systems theory presents child
development within the context of relationship systems that compromise the child’s environment. It
describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect on the development of the child.
Each layer is further made up of different structures. The term “bioecological” points out that a
child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one’s development.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of Environment

1. The Microsystem. It is the layer nearest the child. It compromises structures which the child directly
interacts with. It includes structures such as one’s family, school, and neighbourhood.
 As such, the microsystem covers the most
basic relationships and interactions that a
child has in his/her immediate environment.
Example: A mother’s deep affection for her
child moves her to answer to the baby’s
needs and keep the baby safe. In turn, the
baby smiles and coos bring the mother the
feeling of warmth and an affirmation that
indeed she is a good mother.
 The child is affected by the behaviour and

beliefs of the parents. However, the child
also affects the behaviour and beliefs of the
parents. Bronfenbrenner calls these as bi-directional influences and he shows how
they occur among all levels of environment. This is quite similar to what Erikson termed
as mutuality in his psychosocial theory.
78
2. The Mesosystem. This layer serves as the connection between the structures of the child’s
microsystem. For example, the mesosytem will include the link or interaction between the parents and
teachers, or the parent and health services of the community and the church.
3. The Exosystem. The layer refers to the bigger social system in which the child does not function
directly. This includes the city, government, workplace, and mass media. The structures in this layer may
influence the child’s development by somehow affecting some structure in the child’s microsystem.
 Example:
1. Circumstances of parents’ work like the location
2. Schedules
 The child may not interact directly with what is in the exosystem but he is likeky to feel
the positive or negative impact this system creates as it interacts with the child’s own
system.
4. The Macrosystem. This layer is found in the outermost part in the child’s environment. It includes:
a. Cultural values
b. Customs
c. Laws
 The belief system contained in one’s macrosystem permeates all the interactions in the
other layers and reaches the individual.
Example:
In Western countries like the United States, most of the young people are
expected to be more independent by the time they end their teenage years.
In Asian countries like ours, parents are expected to support or at least want to
support their children for a longer period of time. It is not common to see even married
children are still living with their parents.
In China and even other parts of the world, sons are more valuable than
daughters. This may pose challenges for girls as they are growing up because of the
differences in beliefs and customs, children from different parts of the world experienced
different child-rearing practices and therefore differences in development as well.
5. The Chronosystem. It covers the element of time as it relates to a child’s environments. This involves
“patterns of stability and change” in the child’s life. This involves whether the child’s day is
characterized by an orderly predictable pattern or whether the child is subjected to sudden changes
in routine.
Example: As children get older, they may also acquire the ability to cope and decide to what
extent they will allow changes around them to affect them.
79
Activity 1
Give descriptions of your own understanding regarding the different
bioecological model or structure.
Activity 2
Draw examples in each bioecological model.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
From the model of Bronfenbrenner, share your learnings that you got from the lesson
which are useful to your chosen profession.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________.
REFERENCE:
80
Chapter III: DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNER AT
VARIOUS STAGES
MODULE 10: PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT
INTRODUCTION
It is important to understand the beginning stage of human development. The more we know
how all it began, the easier it becomes to grasp the truth about our well-being. By learning more about
pre-natal development, we can conquer our doubts on how did we exist, how life becomes meaningful.
We begin to see the dawn of truth about our existence and the changes due to physical development in
our body.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. explain the stages in pre-natal development; and
2. demonstrate knowledge on factors that influence pre-natal development of learners.
LEARNING CONTENT
 Prenatal Development
How did you come to be who you are? From beginning as a one-cell structure to your birth,
your prenatal development occurred in an orderly and delicate sequence. There are three stages of
prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Let’s take a look at what happens to the developing
baby in each of these stages.
A. Germinal Stage (Weeks 1–2)
In the discussion of biopsychology earlier in the

book, you learned about genetics and DNA. A mother
and father’s DNA is passed on to the child at the
moment of conception. Conception occurs when sperm
fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. A zygote begins
as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and
egg merge. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby
are set at this point.
81
During the first week after conception, the zygote
divides and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to
two cells, then four cells, then eight cells, and so on. This
process of cell division is called mitosis. Mitosis is a
fragile process, and fewer than one-half of all zygotes
survive beyond the first two weeks (Hall, 2004). After 5
days of mitosis there are 100 cells, and after 9 months
there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they become
more specialized, forming different organs and body
parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to
attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus. Once it
does, the next stage begins.
B. Embryonic Stage (Weeks 3–8)
After the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and

has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and
implants itself in the lining of the uterus. Upon
implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called
an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the
placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the
uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the
mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord.
Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas
that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During
the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs
form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along
the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord
and brain.
C. Fetal Stage (Weeks 9–40)
When the organism is about nine weeks old, the

embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about
the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the
recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins
to disappear.
From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to

differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is
approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully
developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the
fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks),
it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so
the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs,
such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have
formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother’s
womb. Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from
weeks 16 to 28.
82
Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5
inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive
outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues
to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to
move around and birth becomes imminent. The progression through the stages is shown in Figure 2.
Physical Development from the Start
When healthy babies are born, some of their internal systems, such as those developed for
breathing and processing food, are developed and functional. However, infants require responsive care
from loving adults, proper nutrition, and appropriately stimulating environments to support the best
possible physical development. Infant and toddler physical development occurs quickly, and it is essential
to understand physical development during various stages.
From birth, infants want to explore their world. While each child has their own schedule for
development and mastering new skills, infants are often eager early on to move their mouths, eyes and
bodies toward people and objects that comfort or interest them. They continue to practice skills that let
them move closer to desired objects. Ongoing observation and frequent conversations with their families
can help you learn what infants and toddlers are able to do, what they are learning to do, and in what
areas they could use your support.
83
Signs of Physical Development - Infants & Toddlers
By 3 months  Does notice hands

 Supports head well
 Use hands to grasp or hold objects
By 6 months  Sucking
 Gaining weight or growing in height
 Responding to sounds and voices
 Bring objects to mouth
 Roll over from front to back or back
to front
 Flexible limbs (arms, legs)
 Strong limbs (arms, legs)
 Using hands to grasp or hold objects
By 12 months  Pointing to communicate needs or

ideas
 Crawling or sitting on own
 Picking up small objects
By 18 months  Imitating
 Playing with toys
 Scribbling or picking up objects to,
for example, put in a container
 Self-feeding
84
By 24 months  Physically active
 Scribbling or stacking blocks
 Showing interest in playing with
toys
By 36 months  Active
 Feeding self
 Helping dress or undress self
 Interested in playing with a variety
of toys
Activity
Activity 1. In your own words, identify the three stages in pre-natal development? Explain.
Activity 2. List five examples of hazards in the pre-natal development and state how it affects the child.
Activity 3. Interview a mother. What are the struggles that she has undergone during her pregnancy?
List five examples of these struggles and how did she overcome it.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Do you agree or disagree with human abortion? Write atleast 3-4 paragraphs to justify your
answer.
85
REFERENCES
E-REFERENCES
[1] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UA-Tk9qlG9A. Accessed October, 2021

[2] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMyDFYSkZSU. Accessed October, 2021
86
Module 11: INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD
Introduction
Infants and toddlers are born ready to learn. They learn through cuddling with a caregiver,
listening to language, trying out sounds, stretching on the floor, reaching for objects, tasting foods, and
exploring their environments in countless ways every day. Their brains go through amazing changes
during the first three years of life. This lesson highlights physical, cognitive, and social-emotional
development milestones for infants and toddlers.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
1. discuss the physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development of infants and toddlers; and
2. determine implications of physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development of infants and
toddlers to learning.
Physical Development
In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood,

the body’s physical development is rapid (Figure 1).
On average, newborns weigh between 5 and 10
pounds, and a newborn’s weight typically doubles in
six months and triples in one year. By 2 years old the
weight will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a
2-year old should weigh between 20 and 40 pounds.
The average length of a newborn is 19.5 inches,
increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4
inches by 2 years old (WHO Multicentre Growth
Reference Study Group, 2006).
During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate (Carel, Lahlou, Roger, &
Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6 years old: During this time children gain 5–7 pounds
and grow about 2–3 inches per year. Once girls reach 8–9 years old, their growth rate outpaces that of
boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt continues until around 12 years old, coinciding
with the start of the menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and the average
boy weighs 85 pounds.
Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as

infants move from reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and
rooting) to more advanced motor functioning. For instance,
babies first learn to hold their heads up, then to sit with
assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later by
crawling and then walking.
87
Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and
manipulate objects.
1. Fine motor skills focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes,

enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing with
a pencil, using a spoon).
2. Gross motor skills focus on large muscle groups that control our
arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running,
and jumping).
Physical Development Milestones – Infants and Toddlers
2 Months Old
 Holds head up with support
 Begins to push up when lying on tummy
 Makes smoother movements with arms and legs
4 Months Old
 Holds head steady without support
 Pushes down on legs when feet are on a hard surface
 Rolls over from tummy to back
 Holds and shakes toys, swings at dangling toys
 Brings hands to mouth
 Pushes up to elbows when lying on tummy
6 Months Old
 Rolls over both from stomach to back and from back to
stomach
 Begins to sit with support
 Supports weight on legs when standing and might bounce
 Rocks back and forth, sometimes crawls backward before
moving forward
9 Months Old
 Crawls
 Sits without support
 Moves into sitting position with support
 Stands, holding on to adult or furniture for support
 Pulls to stand
88
1 Year to 6 Months Old
 Moves into sitting position without support
 Pulls up to stand and walks alone while holding onto
furniture
 Takes few steps without support of adult or furniture
 Stands alone
18 Months Old
 Walks alone
 Runs
 Pulls toys while walking
 Helps undress self
 Drinks from a cup
 Eats with a spoon
2 Years Old
 Begins to run
 Climbs onto and down from furniture without support
 Walks up and down steps while holding on for support
 Throws ball overhand
 Draws or copies straight lines and circles
 Stands on tiptoes
 Kicks a ball
Keep in mind that the milestones above are simply the average ages at which specific development is
observed.
Certain conditions must exist for an infant or toddler to grow and develop. A young child’s basic needs,
or physical needs, include:
 Food (nutritious and age-appropriate)
 Shelter (protection from harm)
 Warmth
 Clean air and environment
 Health and dental care
 Activity and rest
Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddler
Infants’ and toddlers’ thinking skills grow as they interact with the world and people around them.
Their early experiences matter. Consistent, nurturing experiences help infants and toddlers make sense
of the world. These experiences literally build brain architecture. As infants and toddlers develop, they
begin to understand and predict how things work: they open and close a toy busy box door over and over,
they fill and dump a cup of water in the water table, they bang a spoon on a high chair to hear the sound.
89
Watching an infant or toddler make new discoveries is truly exciting. Think of how exciting it is
the first time an infant stacks blocks (and knocks them down) or the first time a toddler pretends to read
a book to you. The chart below highlights infant and toddler cognitive development. Keep in mind that
individual differences exist when it comes to specific ages at which infants and toddlers meet these
milestones and that each infant and toddler is unique. As you may have already learned in other courses,
milestones provide a guide for when to expect certain skills or behaviors to emerge.
Think of milestones as guidelines to help you understand and identify typical patterns of growth and
development, or to help you know when and what to look for as young children mature. As a family child
care provider, you can use information about developmental milestones, and what you learn from
families, to create interactions, experiences, and environments for infants and toddlers.
Cognitive Developmental Milestones
2 Months Old
 Pays attention to faces
 Begins to follow things with eyes and recognize people at a
distance
 Begins to act bored (cries, fussy) if activity doesn't change
6 Months Old
 Looks around at things nearby
 Brings things to mouth
 Shows curiosity about things and tries to get things that are
out of reach
 Begins to pass things from one hand to another
12 Months Old
 Explores things in different ways like shaking, banging,
throwing
 Finds hidden things easily
 Looks at the right picture or thing when it's named
 Copies gestures
 Starts to use things correctly (like drinks from a cup, brushes
hair)
 Bangs two things together
 Puts things in a container, takes things out of a container
 Lets things go without help
 Pokes with index (pointer) finger
 Follows simple directions like "pick up the toy"
18 Months Old
 Knows what ordinary things are; for example telephone, brush,
spoon
 Points to get the attention of others
90
 Shows interest in a doll or stuffed animal by pretending to feed
 Points to one body part
 Scribbles on own
 Can follow one-step verbal commands without any gestures; for example, sits when you say "sit
down"
24 Months Old
 Finds things even when hidden under two or three covers
 Begins to sort shapes and colors
 Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books
 Plays simple make-believe games
 Builds towers of four or more blocks
 Might use one hand more than the other
 Follows two-step directions like, "Pick up your shoes and put
them in the closet."
36 Months Old
 Can work toys with buttons, levers, and moving parts
 Plays make-believe with dolls, animals, and people
 Does puzzles with three or four pieces
 Understands what "two" means
 Copies a circle with a pencil or crayon
 Turns book pages one at a time
 Builds towers of more than six blocks
 Screws and unscrews jar lids or turns door handles
Social-Emotional Developmental Milestones
6 Months Old
 Knows familiar faces and begins to know if someone is a stranger
 Likes to play with others, especially parents or guardians
 Responds to other people’s emotions and often seems happy
 Likes to look at self in mirror
12 Months Old
 Is shy or nervous with strangers
 Cries when Mom or Dad leaves
 Has favorite things and people
 Shows fear in some situations
 Hands you a book when he or she wants to hear a story
 Repeats sounds and actions to get attention
 Puts out arm or leg to help with dressing
 Plays games such as peekaboo and pat-a-cake
91
18 Months Old
 Likes to hand things to others as play
 May have temper tantrums
 May be afraid of strangers
 Shows affection to familiar people
 Plays simple pretend, such as feeding a doll
 May cling to caregivers in new situations
 Points to show others something is interesting
 Explores alone but with a parent or guardian close by
24 Months Old
 Copies others, especially adults and older children
 Gets excited when with other children
 Shows more and more independence
 Shows defiant behavior (doing what she or he has been told
not to do)
 Plays mainly beside other children, but is beginning to
include other children, such as in chase games
36 Months Old
 Copies adults and friends
 Shows affection for friends without prompting
 Takes turns in games
 Shows concern for a crying friend
 Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”
 Shows a wide range of emotions
 Separates easily from Mom, Dad, or guardian
 May get upset with major changes in routine
 Dresses and undresses self
The table below highlights possible developmental warning signs for infants and toddlers:
Possible Warning Signs for Infants & Toddlers
Young Infants
 Doesn't watch things as they move
 Doesn't bring things to mouth
92
Mobile Infants
 Doesn't try to get things that are in reach
 Has difficulty getting things to mouth
 Doesn't play any games involving back-and-forth play (i.e.,
peekaboo)
 Doesn't seem to recognize familiar people
 Doesn't look where you point
 Doesn't transfer toys from one hand to another
 Doesn't learn gestures like waving or shaking head
 Loses skills he or she once had
 Doesn't search for things he or she sees you hide
Toddlers
 Doesn't copy others
 Doesn't point to show things to others
 Doesn't know what to do with common things, like a brush,
phone, spoon
 Doesn't follow simple directions
 Doesn't play pretend or make-believe (at 3 years)
 Loses skills she or he once had
Emotional well-being during the early years has a powerful impact on social relationships. Children who
are emotionally healthy are better able to establish and maintain positive relationships with adults as well
as with peers. Social-emotional development is essential to a young child’s sense of well-being. Their
first relationships help shape who they are, who they become, and their understanding of the world. The
important people in young children’s lives help lay the foundation for a range of social-emotional skills
such as:
 Self-regulation
 Empathy
 Turn-taking and sharing
 Positive relationships with adults and peers
Social-Emotional Developmental Milestones

6 months
 Knows familiar faces and begins to know if someone is a
stranger
 Likes to play with others, especially parents or guardians
 Responds to other people’s emotions and often seems happy
 Likes to look at self in mirror
12 Months Old
 Is shy or nervous with strangers
 Cries when Mom or Dad leaves
 Has favorite things and people
 Shows fear in some situations
 Hands you a book when he or she wants to hear a story
 Repeats sounds and actions to get attention
 Puts out arm or leg to help with dressing
93
 Plays games such as peekaboo and pat-a-cake
18 Months Old
 Likes to hand things to others as play
 May have temper tantrums
 May be afraid of strangers
 Shows affection to familiar people
 Plays simple pretend, such as feeding a doll
 May cling to caregivers in new situations
 Points to show others something is interesting
 Explores alone but with a parent or guardian close by
24 Months Old
 Copies others, especially adults and older children
 Gets excited when with other children
 Shows more and more independence
 Shows defiant behavior (doing what she or he has been told not to
do)
 Plays mainly beside other children, but is beginning to include other
children, such as in chase games
36 Months Old
 Copies adults and friends
 Shows affection for friends without prompting
 Takes turns in games
 Shows concern for a crying friend
 Understands the idea of “mine” and “his” or “hers”
 Shows a wide range of emotions
 Separates easily from Mom, Dad, or guardian
 May get upset with major changes in routine
 Dresses and undresses self
Activity 1
Conduct a mini survey with regard to nanny effect on language development of toddlers. Write
a summary of your survey.
Activity 2
What are the ups and downs of being in a broken family? Does this situation affect a child’s
learning? Explain your answer.
Activity 3
For children whose parents are OFW’s, how do they cope with separation anxiety? Discuss
your answer in a group (break out room).
94
SELF-ASSESSMENT
Read news articles on COVID-19. What are the details that pertain to child care amid the
pandemic? Create a 30-second infomercial based on your gathered resources.
E-REFERENCES:
Cognitive development. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hOMQnSpxuUE
Corpuz, B. (n.d.). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
Play Ideas for baby cognitive development. www.raisingchildren.net.au
Murphy, L. B. & Moon, R. Babies and their senses. Zero to Three: National Center for Infants,
Toddlers, and Families. Retrieved from http://www.zerotothree.org/child-
development/temperament-behavior/babies-and-their-senses.html. Accessed
October, 2021.
Rothbart, M. K. (2004). Temperament and the pursuit of an integrated developmental

psychology. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50 (4) , 492–505.
doi:10.1353/mpq.2004.0035. Retrieved from
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/merrillpalmer_quarterly/v050/50.4rothbar t.html.
Accessed October, 2021.
95
Module 12: EARLY CHILDHOOD
INTRODUCTION
Physical Development involves many different factors: height, weight, appearance, nvisual,
hearing and motor abilities. Primary school children undergo many different changes as they go through
this stage of development. This could be caused by different factors, both natural and environmental.
Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist on Cognitive Development. According to him, intelligence
is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance in the relations between the person and the environment.
Everything that a person experiences is a continuous process of assimilations and accommodations.
Piaget described four main periods in cognitive development. For Piaget, intellectual ability is not the
same at different stages.
The developmental theorist, Erik Erikson, formulated eight stages of man’s psychosocial
development. Each stage is regarded as a “psychosocial crisis” which arises and demands resolution
before the next stage can be achieved.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
In this module, challenge yourself to:

1. describe the different physical, cognitive, and social-emotional characteristics of early school-
aged children in your own words;
2. explain ideas on how you can apply the concepts in this module in the teaching-learning
process.; and
3. enumerate the several ways on how to encourage an age- appropriate active physical,
cognitive, and social-emotional lifestyle to primary school children.
LEARNING CONTENT
Physical Development
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this stage, physical
development involves:
(1)having good muscle control and coordination,
(2) developing eye-hand coordination
(3) having good personal hygiene and
(4) being aware of good safety habits.
In this developmental stage, children will have started their elementary grades, specifically their
primary years- Grades 1 to 3.
96
These children are extremely active. Because most of the activities in traditional schools are
sedentary , they often release their unusual amount of energy in some forms of nervous habits including
fidgeting, nail biting and pencil chewing.
Primary- school age children get fatigued most easily because of physical and mental exertions
both at home and in school. Hence, activities should be alternated between strenuous one and relaxing
or quiet activities (example: storytelling time after the Math period).
Height and Weight

This period of gradual and steady growth will give children time to get used to the changes in
their bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inches in a year in both boys and girls will
introduce them to many different activities that they can now do with greater accuracy.
Weight gain averages about 6.5 pounds a year. Most children will have slimmer appearance
compared to their preschool years because of the shifts in accumulation and location of their body fat,
although girls tend to develop additional fat cells relative to muscle cells. A child’s legs are longer and
more proportioned to the body than they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes in the body
will take place:
 Genes
 Food
 Climate
 Exercise
 Medical conditions
 Diseases/ Illnesses
Bones and Muscles
Childhood years are the peak bone- producing years- bones grow longer and broader. This is
the best time for parents and teachers to educate children of good dietary and exercise habits to help
them have strong. Healthy bones throughout their lives. Replacement of primary teeth, also known as
baby teeth , with permanent teeth occur around ages 6 to 7 years and up until age 12 , most children will
have all their primary teeth replaced. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity, can
substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood.
Because children’s bones have proportionately more water and protein- like materials and fewer
minerals and fewer minerals than adults, ensuring adequate calcium intake will greatly help them in
strengthening bones and muscles.
Large muscles control is at bigger play over fine motor. Some may still have difficulty holding a
pencil properly or putting color inside the lines. We have to limit writing time, since children may develop
a negative attitude towards writing.
Bone and muscle growth are still not complete during this stage. Most activities which use heavy
pressure will be very difficult for growing bones, muscles and ligaments. If students are engaging in too
much strenuous activities to test their strengths, teachers may suggest or provide more coordinated
physical activities or competition or rotate players during sports or games.
97
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Young school-aged children are gaining control
over the major muscles of their bodies. Most children have
a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscle
strength and skills. They enjoy doing real-life tasks and
activities. They pretend and fantasize less often because
they are more in tune with everything that is happening
around them.
Children during this stage love to move a lot- they run skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll and dance.
Because their gross motor skills are already developed, they can now performed activities like catching
a ball with one hand and tying their shoelaces. They can manage zippers and buttons.
Performing unimanual (requiring the use of one

hand) and bi-manual (requiring the use of two hands)
activities becomes easier. Children’s graphic activities,
such as writing and drawing, are now more controlled but
are still developing. They can print their names and copy
sample designs, letters and shapes. They hold pencils,
crayons, utensils correctly with supervision.
Motor development skills include coordination,

balance, speed, agility and power. Let us look into the
definitions of the different motor skills. Coordination is a series
movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way
to bring about a particular result (Strickland, 2000). The more
complex the movement is, the greater coordination is required.
Children develop eye- hand and eye – foot coordination when
they play games and sports. Balance is the child’s ability to
maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in different
positions. Balance is a basic skill needed especially in this
stage, when children are very active. During this time, children
have improved balancing skills. Static balance is the ability to
maintain equilibrium in a fixed position, like balancing on one
foot.
Dynamic Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium
while moving. Sp eed is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time while agility is
one’s ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely important in
most sports. Power is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period. All these
motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports. Development of these skills may
spell the difference success and failure in future endeavours of the child.
98
Large scale body movement is the key in this stage. Most of the time, boys develop motor skills
slightly faster than girls except for skills involving balance and precise movements.
Here are some motor milestones of primary school-age children: (Bergin and Bergin, 218)
Fine Motor Skills Gross Motor Skills
 Zip zippers and lace shoes  Hop
 Able to learn piano or violin  Skip on altering feet
 Control pencil with the finger and thumb.  Jump rope
Movement comes from the elbow  Walk on a balance beam
 Write & draw with more control, but  Throwing, catching, and kicking become
writing looks choppy and uneven. Letters smoother
are getting smaller. Uppercase letters  Begin to participate in organized games
are somewhat mastered, but lowercase (e.g. hopscotch) and sports (e.g.
letters continue to be challenging basketball)
through 3 Grade, especially letters with
rd  Skate, ski, bike and other specialized
slants and curves. skills with training
Some Issues Affecting Physical Development

1. OBESITY
This is becoming a major concern for parents and health care providers, since it seems its
becoming a trend. According to the World Health Organization-Western Pacific Region, “the Philippines
is not spared from this scenario, and the results of national nutrition surveys are showing slow but
increasing childhood overweight among children 5-10 years old has risen from 5.8 percent in 2003 to 9.1
percent in 2013”.
Childhood obesity may be linked to a number of health-related consequences. Evidence also
shows that overweight and obese children are likely to stay obese well into their adulthood and are more
prone to develop non- communicable diseases like diabetes and some cardiovascular diseases at a much
younger age.
2. CHILDHOOD NUTRITION
Malnutrition remains a major health issue in the Philippines. This has been proven to have
serious effect on the physical and mental development of children. For most Filipino children, poverty is
the chief reason why they do not get the nutrients and energy required for their age.
School-age children’s diet should include a good supply of vitamins, minerals and protein found
in most fruits and vegetables to combat the trend of eating out and eating too much which puts children
at risk of increased consumption of soft drinks , sugary and salty snacks like crackers and chips.
99
3. SLEEP
Primary school-age children need 9 to 11 hours of sleep every day (including daytime naps).
Sometimes, due to their schedule in school, midday naps or siesta is not possible anymore. Because of
this, children may need to go to bed earlier rather than nap.
Children’s increased sports affiliation, extra-curricular activities, TV, internet, computers and
sometimes, intake of caffeinated products could result to difficulty in falling asleep, disruptions in their
sleep and sometimes even nightmares.
Poor and inadequate sleep may result to mood swings, behavioural problems such as
hyperactivity and cognitive problems which may impact their ability to concentrate in school.
4. IMPLICATIONS TO CHILD CARE, EDUCATION & PARENTING

Two major ways to help primary school-age children to be physically healthy:
(1) provide them with good nutrition; and
(2) involve them in coordinated and age-appropriate physical activities.
Specifically, health – care providers, teachers and parents must do the following:
 Encourage children to join or enrol them in related programs during summer or their free time, if
children show interest in a particular activity or sport.
 Advocate better nutrition in foods provided in the school canteen by providing healthier options
and accessible healthier products.
 Provide a balance between rigorous physical play activity and quiet activities in designing
classrooms activities.
 Create an exercise plan for children. Not only does it promote motor skills but also improves
strength and endurance, builds healthy bones and muscles, and increases positive emotions.
 Maintain a daily sleep schedule and consistent bedtime routine.
 Make children’s bedroom conducive for a peaceful sleep. If possible, keep computers and TV
out of the bedroom.
100
ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY #1
Put a photo of yourself in the box below when you were an early- school age child (around Grade 1-3).
Write a description on the given areas.
Height
Weight
Body Shape
Activities you
could do
Based on the observations you have made, what can you conclude on the general physical
characteristics of children in their primary school years?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
What do you think are the necessary skills that will help them to be physically ready for primary schooling?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
101
ACTIVITY #2
1. Answer the following questions with a learning partner and write your product of
collaboration on the provided space.
a. What are the general physical characteristics of children in the primary school-age?
b. What are the factors affecting physical development?
b. Compare the motor skills of a pre-school child with a primary school- age child.
Preschool Child Primary School-Age Child

Fine motor skills
Gross motor skills
ACTIVITY #3
In Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development, primary schoolers are in the fourth stage. This
involves industry versus inferiority.
1. Read on how Erik Erikson defined these two terms. Write them below.
a. Industry -
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. Inferiority-
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
102
2. Observe primary- schoolers during their play time (recess or lunch break) . Search online. Take
note of their:
a. Behavior during play
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. Communication with their peers

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
c. Facial expressions, gestures and body language.

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3. Paste some pictures of your observations. Discuss important points and observations.
SELF-ASSESSMENT
1. Observe a primary school classroom and take down notes on the following areas of
cognitive development.
a. Language and speech
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
103
b. Reasoning
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
b. Creativity
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will you help these learners cope
with their socio-emotional difficulties?
Dear Teacher,
I am really heart –broken. My 8 year old daughter is feeling lonely, isolated and
friendless. It seems that she has felt this way for quite a while. She says that she mostly
spends time alone- that she has no friends because no one wants to play with her.
he tags along, but is usually left out eventually. She can become angry if things don’t
always go her way and also teary. I don’t know where to turn to help her the thought that
she finds school so painful is heart breaking.
Sincerely,
Worried Mother
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
104
REFERENCE
[1] Corpuz, B. (n.d.). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
105
Module 13: MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD
Introduction
Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they have when they were in
primary school. They become more active and have greater liberty to choose the hobbies or sports that
they want to get involved in.
Children in their late childhood stage always seem to be in a hurry- they get so busy with their
school work, interacting with their school work, interacting with their friends, exploring other possible
activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on leisure pace. This may also be the
stage when puberty may begin. Puberty is the period in which the body undergoes physical changes and
becomes capable of sexual reproduction.
Since children in this stage are already in their childhood, rapid development of mental skills is
evident. According to Jean Piaget, concrete operational thinkers can now organize thoughts effectively.
Although, they can now logically perceive the immediate situation. They can apply what they have learned
to situation and events that they can manipulate.
Thus their reasoning and logical thinking are still very limited. But with proper guidance and
nurturance from parents, teachers and the rest of the community, these children can easily succeed in
their intellectual endeavors.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

1. identify the different physical, cognitive, and social-emotional characteristics of
intermediate schoolers;
2. discuss ways and practices which will aid children in successfully development
physically; and
3. design a simple exercise program appropriate for intermediate school children.
LEARNING CONTENTS
(Topic 1) Early Puberty

On the average, girls are generally as much as two
(2) years ahead of boys in terms of physical maturity, although
these developments may be determined by how close a child
is to puberty. Puberty may begin early. Budding breasts for
girls- which is the initial sign of puberty. Some girls may also
start with their menstrual period as early as 8 and some as
late as 13.
106
Puberty is made up of a clear sequence of stages, affecting the skeletal, muscular,
reproductive, and nearly all other bodily systems. Physical changes during puberty tend to be
more gradual and steady. This is comforting to many parents who feel childhood passes much
too quickly.
Physical Development in Boys and Girls: What to Expect

Every person’s individual timetable for puberty is different. Below is an overview of some physical
changes boys/ girls can expect during these years.
BOYS GIRLS
o enter puberty, a time when hormones o hormones produced in the pituitary gland
produced in the pituitary gland trigger trigger production of
production of testosterone in males, estrogen/progesterone in females. This
(later in boys – eleven to 14) usually begins earlier in girls (nine to 12)
o may also have swelling on their chest o hips widen in females

but tends to go away within a year or two
o body proportions change (shoulders o in females, genitals mature, breasts
broaden in males). develop (small lumps from behind the
o penis and scrotum start to grow (genitals nipple may occur, which sometime could
mature, and wet dreams are more be painful but eventually, the pain goes
frequent) away). It is normal for one breast to
develop more slowly than the other
o semen may be released when he is o vaginal lubrication increases, and

awake or even during sleep ovulation and menstrual cycle begin
o subtle increase in testicle size o the vagina gets longer

o the uterus gets bigger
o masturbate and have fantasies about o the vulva starts in increase a bit.
others and about sexual intimacy
o hair grows under arms and on pubis and, o hair will start to grow in the armpits and
on face and chest. pubic areas
o growth spurt begins earlier for girls; lasts

longer for boys, who end up taller
o skin becomes oilier and may develop pimples.
o sweating increases and youth may have body odor.
o joints may ache due to rapid growth.
107
(Topic 2) Height and Weight Development
Many bodily structures like the liver, muscles, skeletons,

kidneys and face follow a normal curve of development for both boys
and girls. Other structures like brain, intestine and other organs and
bodily systems mature at their own time, thus, affecting growth
patterns.
 Children gain an average of 7 pounds in weight, and average
of 2 ½ inch in head circumference (height) each year.
 Children at this stage have growth spurts (sudden boost in
height and weight) which are usually accompanied by increase
in appetite and food intake
 Children may become concerned about their physical
appearance
 Increase in body preparation for girls during adolescence.
 The body fats increase occurs earlier in girls and is greater in quantity
 Girls appear to be “chubby” while boys tend to have more lean body mass per inch of
height than girls
Tips for Parents/ Teachers/ Caregivers
In United States, the number of children with obesity has continued to rise over the past
two decades. Obesity in childhood poses immediate and future health risks.
Parents, guardians, and teachers can help children maintain a healthy weight by helping
them develop healthy eating habits and limiting calorie- rich temptations. You also want to
children be physically active, have reduces screen time, and get adequate sleep.
The goal for children who are overweight is to reduce the rate of weight gain while
allowing normal growth and development. Children should not be placed on a weight reduction
diet without the consultation of a health care provider.
 Develop health eating habits

To help children develop healthy eating habits:
- provide plenty of vegetables, fruits, and whole- grain products
- include low- fat or non- fat milk or dairy products, including cheese and yogurt
- choose lean meats, poultry, fish, lentils, and beans for protein
- encourage your family to drink lots of water
- limit sugary drinks
- limit consumption of sugar and saturated fat
REMEMBER that small changes every day can lead to success!
 Limit calorie- rich temptations

Reducing the availability of high- fat and high- sugar or salty snacks can help your
children develop healthy eating habits. Only allow your children to eat these foods
rarely, so that they truly will be treats.
108
 Help children stay active
In addition to being fun for children, regular physical activity has many health
benefits, including:
- strengthening bones
- decreasing blood pressure
- reducing stress and anxiety
- increasing self- esteem
- helping with weight management
Children ages 3 through 5 years should be active throughout the day. Children and
adolescents ages 6 through 17 years would be physically active at least 60 minutes each day.
Include aerobic activity, which is anything that makes their hearts beat faster. Also include bone-
strengthening activities such as running or jumping and muscle- strengthening activities such as
climbing or push- ups.
 Ensure adequate sleep

Too little sleep is associated with obesity, partly because inadequate sleep makes
us eat more and be less physically active. Children need more sleep than adults,
and the amount varies by age (https://www.cdc.gov)
(Topic 3) Motor Skills
Motor skills are behavioral abilities or capacities.

Gross motor skills involve the use of large bodily movements
(running, jumping, throwing, and catching, kicking, batting,
and dribbling). Gross motor skills are better coordinated. Fine
motor skills involve the use of small bodily movements
(drawing- through diagonal placement, overlapping objects,
and converging lines, painting, writing). Both gross and fine
skills continue to refine during this stage.
Children love to run, jump, leap, throw, catch, climb, and balance. Children play baseball,
ride bikes, roller skate, take karate lessons, take ballet lessons, and participate in gymnastics.
As school- age children grow physically, they become faster, stronger, and better coordinated
(https://www.cliffnotes.com ). Children during this stage prefer to be active rather than passive to
refine their skills.
From the age of 8, children show greater coordination in writing. Their fine motor skills
develop gradually which may be evidenced by the size of the letters and numbers. Font size
becomes smaller and are more even. They may even produce good quality crafts or have greater
control in playing instruments like the piano or guitar. In this skills, girls surpass the boys.
(Topic 4) Insecurities
At this stage, children may become very concerned about their physical appearance.
Girls especially, may become concerned about their weight and decide to eat less. Boys may
become aware of their stature and muscle strength.
Since this stage can bring about insecurities, parents and teachers must be very
conscious about their dealings with these children. Appropriate activities must be designed so
that children will be guided into the right direction. Children must be given opportunities to engage
themselves in worthwhile activities that:
109
a. promote healthy growth
b. give the feeling of accomplishment, and
c. reduce the risk of certain diseases
(Topic 5) Implications to Child- care, Education and Parenting
During this stage, children are more physically active

however, they still have a lot of physical maturity to undergo. Here
are some points to consider for health- care providers, teachers,
and parents.
1. Provide ample opportunities at home and in school for

physical exercises and sports.
2. Encourage children in varied worthwhile activities until
they are able to discover the ones they are interested in.
3. Develop a strong emotional attachment with your children so as to address any
insecurities and social concerns.
4. Since children in this stage have more control over their eating habits, provide them
healthier food choices.
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
(Topic 1) Initial Cognitive Characteristics
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the abilities that they can now utilize. Their thinking
skills have become more effective as compared during their primary years. Their school work is now
complicated. Reading text have become longer; problem solving have become every part of their lives.
 Concrete Operational Thought
According to Piaget, children in early childhood are in the pre-operational stage of

development in which they learn to think symbolically about the world. From ages 7 to 11, the
school- aged child continues to develop in what Piaget referred to as the concrete operational
stage of cognitive development. This involves mastering the use of logic in concrete ways. The
child can use logic to solve problems tied to their own direct experience but has trouble solving
hypothetical problems or considering more abstract problems. The child uses inductive
reasoning, which means thinking that the world reflects one’s own personal experience.
The word concrete refers to that which is tangible; that which can be seen or touched or
experienced directly. The concrete operational child is able to make use of logical principles in
solving problems involving the physical world.
As children’s experiences and vocabularies grow, they build schema and are able to
classify objects in many different ways. Classification can include new ways of arranging
information, categorizing information, or creating classes of information. Many psychological
theorists, including Piaget, believe classification involves a hierarchical structure, such that
information is organized from very broad categories to very specific items.
One feature of concrete operational thought is the understanding that objects have
identity or qualities that do not change even if the object is altered in some way.
110
For instance, the mass of an object does not change by rearranging it. Piece of chalk is
still chalk even when the piece is broken in two.
During middle childhood, children also understand the concept of reversibility, or that
some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state. Water can be
returned to their original state. Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again. But
eggs cannot be unscrambled.
Children who thinks that a tall beaker filled with 8 ounces of water was “more” than a
short, wide bowl filled with 8 ounces of water? Concrete operational children can understand the
concept of reciprocity which means that changing one quality (in this example, height or water
level) can be compensates for by changes in another quality (width)so there is the same amount
of water in each container although one is taller and narrower and the other is shorter and wider.
These new cognitive skills increase the child’s understanding of the physical world.
Operational or logical thought about the abstract world comes later.
(Topic 2) Reading Development
Children in this stage, marked by wide application of “word attack”. Because of previous
knowledge, they have wide vocabulary which enables them to understand the meaning of unknown words
through context clues- this is the “Reading to Learn” stage in reading development. They are no longer
into fairy tales and magic type of stories but are more interested in longer and more complex reading
materials (e.g. fiction books and series books).
The website www.readingrockets.org listed a few

strategies in choosing age- appropriate to their age, consider the
following:
 Consider who the child is- his or her personality traits and
personal preferences when choosing a book.
 Make a selection with the child in mind, choose an
informational book or a novel in an area of specific
interest.
 Choose books that encourage discussion and insight- building.
(Topic 3) Attention
Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to younger children. Their
span of attention is dependent on how much they will required by giving task. In terms of school works,
older children can concentrate and focus more for longer period of hours especially if they are interested
in what they are doing.
111
(Topic 4) Creativity
“Creativity is not the finding of a thing, but making something

out of it after it is found” - James Russel Lowell
Children at this stage are open to explore new things. Creativity is

innate in children, they just need a little guidance and support from parents,
teacher and people around them. They are usually at their best when the work
is done in small pieces.
Creativity in children is encourage when the activities:

o Encourage different responses from each children
o Celebrate uniqueness
o Value process over product
o Reduces stress and anxiety in children
o Support to share ideas, not only with teacher/ parents but also with other children
o Minimize competition and external rewards
(Topic 5) The Impact of Media
“Television viewing is a highly complex, cognitive activity during which children actively involved
in learning.”
--- Anderson and Collins, 1988
The dream of television unit in every classroom started in the 1950’s. it was considered
as one of the first technological advancement in schools. The impact of the use of television and
other media like the computer has gained popularity because students are given more
opportunity to:
o Communicate effectively in speech and writing
o Work collaboratively
o Use technological tools
o Analyze problems, set goals, and formulate strategies for achieving those goals
o Seek out information skills on their own, as needed, to meet their goals
(Topic 6) Media Aggression
Violence and aggression are often dubbed as one of the

result of media. According to the Public Health Summit in
2000, the following are some of the negative results of
media:
Children…
o Will increase antisocial and aggressive
behavior
o May become less sensitive to violence and those
who suffer from violence
o May view the world as violent and mean, becoming more fearful of being a victim of
violence
o Will view violence as an acceptable way to settle conflicts
The school and the home provide children with unlimited access to media, not only television
and computers, but also videos, movies, comic books and music lyrics.
112
The responsibility now lies with the parents, teachers and the whole community. It should be a
collective effort among the factors working together to support children in every aspect of development.
Having a role model is extremely important for children at this stage of transition (from childhood
to adolescence). It gives children an adult to admire and emulate. Role models also provide them with
motivation to succeed. One of the most important roles of teachers is to become a very good role model
to children.
(Topic 7) Role of Teachers
Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles may be based on influences on
learning and achievement. Parents, childcare providers and teachers should be able to recognize these
through:
o need to be an eager participant in children’s growth and development
o must understand how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help make the appropriate
development leaps in their skills and abilities
o must create an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries made while
children remain safe.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
The following are some of the characteristics of intermediate school children:
1. Want to blend in and not stand out from their peers in any way, particularly as to gender roles
and sexuality
2. Feel concern about outward appearance
3. Become self-conscious and self-centered
4. Have ambivalent, conflicting feelings about puberty and about sexual desire
5. Care greatly about relationships with peers, friendships, dating, and crushes, and give peers
more importance than family
6. Relate to both same-gender and different-gender peers; may develop sexual feelings for
others as a new dimension within relationships
7. Develop the capacity to understand the components of a caring, loving relationship
8. Experience feelings of insecurity and begin to doubt self-concept and previous self-
confidence. Often experience a significant drop in self-esteem.
9. Struggle with family relationships and desire privacy and separation from family (They test
limits and push for independence.)
10. Experience mood swings, especially evident in family relationships
11. Develop romantic feelings and may begin dating
***Source: www.advocatesforyouth.org (October, 2021)
Socio- emotional skills are essential for connecting with others. They help us manage our
emotions, build healthy relationships, and feel empathy. Some examples of socioemotional skills in use
are:
• Recognizing if someone is sad, and asking if they’re okay

• Expressing yourself with your friends in a different way with your parents
• Understanding your thoughts and feelings, and being able to relate to others
113
While these skills may sound complex, socioemotional development begins at a very young
age. Parents help to nurture socioemotional skills so kids develop healthy relationships with friends and
family members. Even as a baby, your little one is picking up on how your respond to their social and
emotional needs. They notice how safe the feel at home and in your presence. They learn how to feel
empathy, recognize emotions and say “I’m sorry” by following your lead. (https://pathways.org)
(Topic 1) Understanding Self- Competence, Self- Identity and Self- Control
At this time of socioemotional period, the children

should have a growing sense of competence. It is because
their understanding about the self is changed by the
environment that they are living. They should develop sense
of perseverance and offered to both fail and succeed, along
with sincere feedback and support.
During the late childhood the children can now

describe themselves, most likely employ more socio-
comparison- distinguishing themselves from others. As their
age increase their perspective- taking also increase their perspective- taking also increases. Perspective
taking enables the child to a) judge others intentions, purposes and action, b) give importance to the
social attitudes and behaviors, and to c) increase skepticism of other’s claim. Note that child’s definition
of self and accomplishments varies.
(Topic 2) Emotional Development
At nine, children are better able to handle conflict. Their growing independence will lead to them
to seek relationships independent of their family, including sleepovers at friends’ houses.
Many nine-year- olds will have a strong desire to belong to a group and establish their place
within the social order of school. As result, many will become vulnerable to peer pressure because they
want to impress their peer group.
At nine, children are capable of taking on a wider range of chores and responsibilities around the
house and will want to start participating in decisions affecting the family.
Children of nine can be paragons of contradiction. While most

will want to expand social circles, they will still greatly have influenced by
their parents.
Most children at this stage benefit from the freedom to exercise

their growing independence but still seek emotional reassurance from
their parents. They may also be moody, and may be upset one minute
and then fine the next. (Nine- Year-Old Child Development Milestones,
L. Garbi,MD,2020)
Children at this age are also becoming more aware of real- world
dangers and disasters. Fears about events such as crime or storms or anxieties about a parent dying
one day may replace fears they may have had as younger kids such as a fear of monsters.
114
Children in this stage show improve emotional understanding; increases understanding that
more than once emotion can be expected in a single experience. They may also show greater ability to
conceal or show emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and capacity for genuine empathy.
Children in this stage also they increase their emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the
ability to monitor feelings to oneself and others. Emotional Intelligence has four main areas.
a. Developing emotional self- awareness
In Philosophy of self, self- awareness is the experience of one’s own personality or

individuality. It is not to be confused with consciousness in the sense of qualia. While
consciousness is being aware of one’s environment and body and lifestyle, self – awareness
is the recognition of that awareness. In addition, self- awareness is the ability to see yourself
clearly and objectively through reflection and introspection
(https://www.psychologytoday.com) – October, 2021 *** Watch video of Self- awareness on
Youtube - ThinkTVPBS
b. Managing emotions (self- control)
“The self- controlled man craves for the things he ought,

as he ought, and when he ought.” -Aristotle
Self- control- or ability to manage one’s impulses, emotions, and behaviors to achieve
long-term goals- is what separates humans to animals. Self- control is the ability to control
oneself, in terms of having mastery over one’s desires and appetites. Those who are self-
controlled can temper what they want, to ensure that they do not over- or under- indulge.
https://www.skillsyouneed.com (October, 2021)
Three Habits of Self- Controlled People

1. Self- Preservation
2. Self- Assertion
3. Self- fulfilment
c. Reading emotions (perspective taking)
Perspective taking is the ability to look beyond your own point of view, so that you can
consider how someone else may think or feel about something. For example; if you are a
child speaking to another child, you may easily talk about lots of details in the latest video
game… but… if you are a child talking to an adult, it is helpful to realize that most adults don’t
play a lot of video games and they may not be interested in this topic or able to follow along
with what you are saying. (https:///www.sociallyskilledkids.com) - October, 2021.
*** As a teacher, parent or guarding, how to teach children to take

other’s perspectives and improve their perspective taking abilities?
c.1. Model the Skill/Behavior – practicing what you preach can be

harder than it seems, but demonstrating perspective taking skills, in
real time with your students/ children, is good for you and them.
115
Young children learn much by watching you, so when you show them the value
of perspective taking, they will be more likely to engage in it too.
c.2. Talk about Challenging Feelings- talk about

feelings with your students/ children, not just the
positive emotions, and teach your students/ children
that feelings are valid. Acknowledge and respect
student’s feelings. Children will be better able to
understand others’ perspectives when they feel their
thoughts, feelings, and experiences are understood
and respected.
c.3. Demonstrate Understanding- show your

students’ that you understand their perspective by
repeating back to them what you hear them saying or
describing to them what you think they may be
thinking or feeling, wanting or intending.
c.4. Respecting Different Opinions Vs. Agreeing-

remember that understanding someone else’s
perspective does not m=necessarily mean that you
agree with them, it is however, an acknowledgement
of how they are thinking, feeling, what they want or
need.
c.5. Show Them the Other Side – it is important to help

children understand how their behaviors affect other
people. If your student throws a toy and it hits another child,
help your student build that cause- and- effect connection
by taking about how their actions impact other people or
their environment.
c.6. Be a Detective- just like real life detectives

search for clues to solve a crime, people who are
skilled at perspective taking look for clues to
understand other people. Help your students develop
these skills by encouraging them to observe and
evaluate other people’s actions or behaviors.
c.7. Encourage Community- children learn to value

and respect others through the building of community,
developing relationships and sense of belonging.
Encourage your students not only to engage with others but to work together,
collaborate, problem solve and truly value their relationships. This mutual respect and
sense of community will encourage your students to think about others’ points of view.
116
d. Handling emotions (resolve problem)
Developing skills in this area will help children to relate better to others, manage his or
her behavior, and cope with situations of all kinds. It may also be a great benefit to a
teacher/parent- child relationship, as children grow in their capacity to explain their
disappointments or frustrations with words, rather
than acting out. (www.imom.com)
(Topic 3) Friendships
As the children go through their late childhood their peer

interaction increases. For them, good peer relationships are
important. The peer size also increases and less supervision by
adults is required.
Friendships, especially same- gender friendships, are prevalent during middle childhood. Friends
serve as classmates, fellow adventurers, confidantes, and sounding boards. Friends also help each other
to develop self- esteem and a sense of competency in the social world. As boys and girls progress through
middle childhood, their peer relationships take greater importance. For example, older children are likely
to enjoy group activities, such as skating, riding bikes, playing house, and building forts. Peer
relationships may also cause the development of concerns and worries over popularity and conformity.
As with same- age peers, friendships in this stage are mostly based on similarities. The
awareness of racial or other difference may or may not affect friendships. Intolerance for those children
who are not similar leads to prejudice, or negative perceptions about other groups of people. While peers
and friends may reinforce prejudicial stereotypes, many children eventually become less rigid in their
attitudes toward children from other backgrounds.
Five Types of Peer Status:
a. Popular- frequently nominated as the best friend and one who is rarely dislike by peers
b. Average- receives an average number of positive and negative nominations from peers
c. Neglected- very seldom nominated as the best friend but is not really disliked
d. Rejected- infrequently nominated as best friend but one who us also disliked
e. Controversial- frequently nominated as a best friend but as the same time is disliked by
peers
Characteristics of the popular children which the peer find every positive has the
following skills
1. They give out reinforcements

2. They act naturally
3. They listen carefully and keep open communication
4. They are happy and in control of their negative emotions
5. They show enthusiasm and concern to others
Characteristics of the rejected children
1. They participate less in the classroom

2. They have negative attitudes on school tardiness and attendance
117
3. They are more often reported as being lonely
4. Aggressive
4.1. In boys
- They become impulsive, have problems in being attentive and disruptive
- They are emotionally reactive and slow to come down
- They have fewer social skills to make and maintain friends
(Topic 4) Family
At this time age family support is needed. If the children don’t see the importance or the support
of the family in everything they do, they can be easily frustrated. But if the family will always be there in
all the time of trouble, problems, and always be there to support them, their self- competence will be
developed. With the help of high- quality adult relationship, specifically, family relationship enables them
to successfully go through the stage of development.
Parenting Tip
Your child may have questions about stories he’s overheard in the news or things going on in
the community. Provide age- appropriate, factual information. Focus on everything that is being done to
keep people safe and consider getting him involved with a simple project, like writing thank you notes to
first responders after a tragic event or donating clothing to victims of natural disaster.
Remember
This module stresses that:

 During late childhood, a wide variety of biological, psychological and social changes take place
across the developmental domains.
 As children progress through late childhood, the family environment remains extremely
important, while the community environment- including the school- also becomes a significant
factor in shaping the child’s development.
 During the late childhood, peers have an increasingly strong impact on development; peer
acceptance becomes very important to the child.
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Read the following statements and choose the best answer that suits the situation stated
below and write the letter on the space provided before each number.
______ 1. Children in the intermediate school age may experience early signs of puberty. How can
parents best handle a situation like this?
a. Encourage them to a mingle with the opposite sex.
b. Be on the look- out for physical changes and report them to their children’s pediatrician.
c. Connect with their friends and ask them to tell you what changes are happening to their children.
d. Provide children with accurate resources that they need to be able to gain information about sex,
drugs, and changes that they experience.
118
______ 2. What can teachers do when children get teased for their physical appearance?
a. Teach the child being teased to fight back
b. Let the teasing slide and continue with the class activity
c. Have a private talk with the offending student and figure out why he is teasing
d. Bring the offending student to the Guidance Counselor.
______ 3. What can a parent do if he/she noticed that his/her child is unusually short or tall relative to
his/ her friends the same age?
a. Ignore since growth vary with children
b. Talk/ consult to the child’s pediatrician
c. Let the child take vitamins that will increase or boost the height
d. Ask his/ her friends regarding what their children are taking to grow taller
______ 4. Nutrition is the sole factor in normal growth processes. is the statement true or false? Why?
a. Yes, because it means to have no growth without food intake
b. Yes, because food is the best in giving nutrients needed of a child’s growth
c. No, because there are two factors that affects the child’s normal growth
d. No, because a number of factors- so called environmental influences- can affect child’s normal
growth as well
______ 5. Is weight gain part of a normal puberty?

a. Yes. As youth are growing taller, it’s normal to gain weight.
b. Yes. As youth are picky eaters, it’s normal to gain weight.
c. No. It is a sign of abnormality and developing illness
d. No. it is a sign of puberty stage
______ 6. Arjun’s mom is baking a cake and realizes that once the batter is mixed, the ingredients cannot
be separated out. Which principle of concrete operational thought Arjun using here?
a. Reciprocity
b. Classification
c. Identity
d. Reversibility
______ 7. When children tell you what they want to be in the future, which is the appropriate response?
a. Don’t be too ambitious. Be realistic.
b. Don’t you think it’s still early for you to plan your future?
c. That’s nice. But I want you to become someone better.
d. I’m so happy to hear that, I will support you all the way.
______ 8. Reading is an essential part in the cognitive development of intermediate school- age kids.
What can teachers do to encourage this skill?
a. Assign a mandatory reading list for children that they must finish until the end of the school year.
b. Set up a mini- library that includes not only books but also internet websites where children can
access different topics that interest them.
c. Read aloud to the children during classroom hours so that they will become more familiar with
words they have not heard before.
d. Make reading a grammar lesson.
119
______ 9. Where does the responsibility lie when it comes to limiting the media exposure of intermediate
school- age children?
a. Only the parents
b. Parents and teachers
c. Parents, teachers and the whole community
d. The children themselves
_____ 10. True or False? Older children have longer and more flexible attention span compared to
younger children.
a. True
b. False
Activity 2
Direction: Using a Semantic Web, write at least five words that are related to the following terms below.
a. Classification (in Concrete Operational Thought)

_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
b. Reciprocity
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
c. Creativity
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
SELF-ASSESSMENT
State the relevance of knowing and studying the different changes during Middle and Late
Childhood and on how it develops your understanding about the lesson.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
REFERENCE:
[1[ Corpuz, B. (n.d.). The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles.
120
MODULE 14
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE/ ADOLESCENT STAGE
Introduction
The term adolescence comes from the Latin word “adolescere” meaning to grow to maturity. It is
the transitional period in the human life span linking childhood and adulthood, it is the stage of human
development in which a juvenile matures into adult. The transition involves biological, social and
psychological changes. It is customary to regard adolescents beginning when children become more
sexually mature and ending when they reach the age of legal maturity.
Young people’s appearance change as a result of hormonal events of puberty. Their thinking
changes, too; they are better able to think abstractly and hypothetically. Their feelings change about
almost everything. All areas of development converge as adolescents confront their major task
“establishing an identity” – including sexual identity that they will carry over to adulthood.
In this module we will see how adolescents incorporate their drastically changed appearance,
their physical yearnings.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the topics and activities presented in this module, the students are expected to:
1. enumerate & explain the characteristics and developmental tasks of adolescents;
2. summarize the overall physical growth;
3. describe the changes in brain maturation;
4. explain gender intensification; and
5. identify eating disorders
LEARNING CONTENT
A. CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENCE
 Adolescent is an important period
 Adolescent is transitional period
 Adolescent is period of change
 Adolescent is a problem age
 Adolescent is a time for search of identity
 Adolescent is a dreaded age
 Adolescent is a time of unrealism
 Adolescent is a threshold to adulthood
121
B. DEVELOPMENTAL TASK OF ADOLESCENCE
 Achieving new and more mature relations with other.
 Achieving a masculine or feminine social role.
 Achieving one’s physique.
 Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults.
 Preparing for marriage and family life.
 Preparing for an economic task.
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior-developing an ideology.
 Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
In a strict sense, the term puberty derived from the Latin word “Puberatum”(age of maturity,
manhood) refers to the bodily changes of sexual maturation rather than the psychosocial and cultural
aspects of adolescence development. Adolescence is the period of psychological and social transition
between childhood and adulthood. Adolescence largely overlaps the period of puberty, but its boundaries
are less precisely defined and it refers as much to the psychosocial and cultural characteristics of
development during the teen years as to the physical changes of puberty.
Puberty can result in the following changes:

 Physical changes- such as rapid growth spurts, the development of breasts in girls and an
increase in penis size in boys.
 Psychological changes- that often cause teenagers to become moody, self-conscious, and
aggressive.
 Behavioral changes- that can cause some teenagers to experiment with new and potentially
risky activities for example smoking, drinking alcohol and sex.
C. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Puberty is the most important marker of the beginning of adolescence is heralded by the rapid
acceleration in height and weight termed “growth spurt”. It is a period of rapid physical maturation
involving hormonal and body changes (that occur primarily during early adolescence) by which a child’s
body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction
External Changes
 Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs.
 Secondary sexual characteristics are visible physical changes not directly linked to reproduction
but signal sexual maturity.
122
Research have found that male pubertal characteristics develop in this order:
1. Increase in penis and testicle size
In Boys, testicular enlargement is the first physical manifestation of puberty and termed
gonadarche. Testes in prepubertal boys change little in size from about 1 year of age to the onset
of puberty, averaging about 2-3 cm in length and about 1.5-2 cm in width. Testicular size
continues to increase throughout puberty, reaching maximal adult size about 6 years after the
onset of puberty. While 18-20 cc is an average adult size, there is wide variation in the normal
population.
The testes have two primary functions:

a . to produce hormone
b. to produce sperm
Male Anatomy
Primary sexual characteristics are changes in the reproductive organs. For males, this
includes growth of the testes, penis, scrotum, and spermarche or first ejaculation of semen
Males have both internal and external genitalia that are responsible for procreation and
sexual intercourse. Males produce their sperm on a cycle, and unlike the female's ovulation cycle,
the male sperm production cycle is constantly producing millions of sperm daily. The main male
sex organs are the penis and the testicles, the latter of which produce semen and sperm. The
semen and sperm, as a result of sexual intercourse, can fertilize an ovum in the female's body;
the fertilized ovum (zygote) develops into a fetus which is later born as a child.
2. Appearance of straight pubic hair
Pubic hair- Pubic hair often appears on a boy shortly after genitalia begin to grow.
Body hair and facial hair- In the months and years following the pubic hair, other areas of skin
that respond to androgens may develop androgenic hair.
3. Minor voice change
Under the influence of androgens, the voice box or larynx, grows in both sexes. This
growth is far more prominent in boys, causing the male voice to drop and deepen, sometimes
abruptly but rarely “overnight”.
123
ANDROGENIC HAIR DEVELOPMENT
4. Minor voice change
Under the influence of androgens, the voice box or larynx, grows both sexes. This growth
is far more prominent in boys, causing the male voice to drop and deepen, sometimes abruptly
but rarely “overnight” about one octave, because the longer and the ticker vocal folds have a
lower fundamental frequency.
5. Spermarche – boy’s first ejaculation (which usually occurs through masturbation or wet dream);
is the principal sign of sexual maturity for males.
6. Appearance of kinky pubic hair.

7. Onset of maximum growth.
8. Growth of hair in armpits.
9. More detectable voice changes.
10. Growth of facial hair.
Order of appearance of physical changes in females:

1. Either the breast enlarge or pubic hair appears.
a) Breast development
The first physical sign of puberty in females is usually a firm, tender lump under the center
stage of the areola of one or both breasts, occurring on average at about 10.5 years of age.
b) Pubic hair
Pubic hair is often second noticeable change in puberty, usually within a few months of
thelarche. It is referred to as pubarche. The pubic hairs are usually visible first among the labia.
Female Anatomy
Female external genitalia is collectively known as the vulva, which includes the mons
veneris, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, vaginal opening, and urethral opening. Female internal
reproductive organs consist of the vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus hosts the
developing fetus, produces vaginal and uterine secretions, and passes the male's sperm through to the
fallopian tubes while the ovaries release the eggs. A female is born with all her eggs already produced.
The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the
fallopian tubes.
124
PHYSICAL CHANGES IN FEMALES
1. Hair appears in the armpits
2. As the first two changes occur, the females Increase in height.
3. Hips become wider than the shoulders
4. Menarche – girls first menstruation – comes rather late in the pubertal cycle, this is the
principal sign of sexual maturity for females.
5. By the end of puberty the female’s breast have become more fully rounded
6. Marked weight gains
Internal Changes:
1. Brain Development - recent research suggests that teens’ brains are not completely developed.
The amygdale which handles the processing of information about emotion develops earlier than the
prefrontal cortex which is involved in higher level cognitive processing. This means that the brain
region responsible for putting the brakes on risky impulsive behavior is still under construction in
adolescence.
2. Digestive System - The stomach becomes longer and less tubular, the intestines grow in length
and circumference, the muscle in the stomach and intestinal walls become thicker and stronger.
3. Circulatory System - The heart grows rapidly during adolescence, by the age of 17 or 18, it is
twelve times as heavy as it was in birth.
4. Respiratory System - The lung capacity of girls is almost at the mature level at the age of 17, boys
reach this level several years later.
5. Endocrine System - The increased activity of gonads at puberty results in a temporary imbalance
of the whole endocrine system in adolescence.
6. Body Tissues - The skeleton stops growing at an average age of 18. Tissues, other than the bone,
continue to develop after the bones have reached their mature size. This is especially true of muscle
tissue.
Adolescent Brain
The brain undergoes dramatic changes during adolescence. Although it does not get larger, it
matures by becoming more interconnected and specialized (Giedd, 2015). The myelination and
development of connections between neurons continues. This results in an increase in the white matter
of the brain and allows the adolescent to make significant improvements in their thinking and processing
skills. Different brain areas become myelinated at different times.
For example, the brain’s language areas undergo myelination during the first 13 years.
Completed insulation of the axons consolidates these language skills but makes it more difficult to learn
a second language. With greater myelination, however, comes diminished plasticity as a myelin coating
inhibits the growth of new connections (Dobbs, 2012). Even as the connections between neurons are
strengthened, synaptic pruning occurs more than during childhood as the brain adapts to changes in the
environment.
125
This synaptic pruning causes the gray matter of the brain, or the cortex, to become thinner
but more efficient (Dobbs, 2012). The corpus callosum, which connects the two hemispheres, continues
to thicken allowing for stronger connections between brain areas. Additionally, the hippocampus
becomes more strongly connected to the frontal lobes, allowing for greater integration of memory and
experiences into our decision making. The limbic system, which regulates emotion and reward, is linked
to the hormonal changes that occur at puberty. The limbic system is also related to novelty seeking and
a shift toward interacting with peers. In contrast, the prefrontal cortex which is involved in the control of
impulses, organization, planning, and making good decisions, does not fully develop until the mid-20s.
According to Giedd (2015) the significant aspect of the later developing prefrontal cortex and
early development of the limbic system is the “mismatch” in timing between the two. The approximately
ten years that separates the development of these two brain areas can result in risky behavior, poor
decision making, and weak emotional control for the adolescent.
When puberty begins earlier, this mismatch extends even further. Teens often take more risks
than adults and according to research it is because they weigh risks and rewards differently than adults
do (Dobbs, 2012).
For adolescents the brain’s sensitivity to the neurotransmitter dopamine peaks, and dopamine
is involved in reward circuits, so the possible rewards outweighs the risks. Adolescents respond
especially strongly to social rewards during activities, and they prefer the company of others their same
age. Chein et al. (2011) found that peers sensitize brain regions associated with potential rewards. For
example, adolescent drivers make risky driving decisions when with friends to impress them, and teens
are much more likely to commit crimes together in comparison to adults (30 and older) who commit them
alone (Steinberg et al., 2017). In addition to dopamine, the adolescent brain is affected by oxytocin which
facilitates bonding and makes social connections more rewarding. With both dopamine and oxytocin
engaged, it is no wonder that adolescents seek peers and excitement in their lives that could end up
actually harming them.
OTHER CHANGES:
Male musculature and body shape
 By the end of puberty, adult men have heavier bones and nearly twice as much as skeletal
muscle.
 This muscle develops mainly during the later stages of puberty and muscle growth can continue
even after a male is biologically adult.
Body odor and acne - Rising levels of androgens can change the fatty acid composition of perspiration,
resulting in a more adult body odor. As in girls, another androgen effect is increased secretion of oil
(sebum) from the skin and the resultant variable amounts of acne. Acne cannot be prevented or
diminished easily, but it typically fully diminishes at the end of puberty.
126
CHANGES IN FEMALES
Vagina, uterus, ovaries
- the mucosal surface of the vagina also changes in response to increasing levels of estrogen,
becoming thicker and a duller pink in color (in contrast to the brighter red of the prepubertal vaginal
mucosa). -Whitish secretions (physiologic leucorrhea) are a normal effect of estrogen as well. In the two
years following the larche, the uterus, ovaries and the follicles in the ovaries increase in size. The ovaries
usually contain small follicular cysts visible by ultrasound.
Menstruation and fertility- The first menstrual bleeding is referred to as menarche, and typically occurs
about two years after thelarche. The average age of menarche in girls is 11.75 years. The time between
menstrual periods is not always regular in the first two years after menarche. Ovulation is necessary for
fertility, but may not accompany the earliest menses.
Body shape, fat distribution and body composition

- Fat issue increases to a greater percentage of the body composition than in males, especially
in the typical female distribution of breasts, hips, buttocks, thighs, upper arms and pubis. Progressive
differences in fat distribution as well as sex differences in local skeletal growth contribute to the typical
female body shape by the end of the puberty.
Body odor and acne

- Rising levels of androgens can change the fatty acid
composition of perspiration, resulting in a more adult body
odor. This often precedes thelarche and pubarche by one
or more years. Another androgen effect is increased
secretion of oil from the skin. This change increases the
susceptibility to acne, a skin condition that is characteristic
of puberty. Acne varies greatly in its severity.
How do these changes affect teens?

 Teens frequently sleep longer
 Teens may be more clumsy because of growth spurt.
 Teenage girls may become overly sensitive about their weight.
 Teens may be concerned because they are not physically developing at the same rate as
their peers.
 Teens may feel awkward about the demonstrating affection of the opposite sex parent.
 Teens may ask more direct questions about sex.
D. PHYSICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH

 For most part, the adolescent years are relatively healthy. Health problems often are associated
with poverty or a risk taking lifestyle. Adolescents are less likely than younger children to get
regular medical care.
127
 Many adolescents especially girls, do not engage in regular, vigorous physical activity.
 Many adolescents do not get enough sleep.
 Concern with body image often leads to obsessive dieting.
 Three common eating disorders in adolescence are obesity, anorexia nervosa and bulimia
nervosa. All can have serious long term effects
o Anorexia Nervosa – eating disorder characterized by self-starvation.

o Bulimia Nervosa – eating disorder in which a person regularly eats huge quantities of
food and then purges the body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting or excessive
exercise.
o Obesity – extreme overweight in relation to age, sex, height and body type.
FIGURE 8.1 ANOREXIA NERVOSA
BULIMIA NERVOSA
 Adolescent substance abuse and dependence have lessened in recent years; still, drug use often
as children move to high school.
 Marijuana, alcohol and tobacco are the most popular drugs with adolescents can be gateways
to the use of hard drugs.
 The prevalence of depression increases in adolescence, especially among girls.
 Leading causes of death among adolescents include motor vehicle accidents, firearm use and
suicide.
128
Jean Piaget’s Formal Operations Stage
Adolescents not only look different from

younger children, they also think differently. Although
their thinking may remain immature in some ways, many
are capable of abstract reasoning and sophisticated
moral judgments and can plan more realistically for the
future.
According to Piaget, adolescents enter the
highest level of cognitive development – formal operations – when they develop the capacity for abstract
thought. This development, manipulate information. They can engage in hypothetical-deductive
reasoning – Piaget’s formal operational concept that adolescents have the cognitive ability to develop
hypotheses or best guesses, about ways to solve problems such as algebraic equation.
By age 16-18 the average young person knows about 80,000 words and can define and discuss
such abstractions as law, justice, freedom, etc. They more frequently use such terms as however,
between, otherwise, anyway, therefore, really and probably to express logical relations between clauses
or sentences. Adolescents also become more skilled in social-perspectives-taking, the ability to
understand another person’s point of view and level of knowledge and to speak accordingly. This ability
is essential in order to persuade or just to engage in conversation – conscious of their evidence,
adolescents speak a different language with peers than with adults.
Adolescent Egocentrism
This is the heightened self-consciousness of adolescents. David Elkind believes that adolescent
egocentrism has two key components: imaginary audience and personal fable
o Imaginary audience – adolescents’ belief that others are interested in them as they
themselves are, as well as attention-getting-behavior attempts to be noticed, visible and on
stage.
o Personal fable – the part of adolescent egocentrism involving a sense of uniqueness and
invincibility. Adolescents’ sense of personal uniqueness makes them feel that no one can
understand how they really feel. They also show a sense of invincibility, believing that they
themselves will never suffer the terrible experiences
Information Processing
Cognitive Control
As noted in earlier chapters, executive functions, such as attention, increases in working
memory, and cognitive flexibility have been steadily improving since early childhood. Studies have found
that executive function is very competent in adolescence.
However, self-regulation, or the ability to control impulses, may still fail. A failure in self-regulation
is especially true when there is high stress or high demand on mental functions (Luciano & Collins, 2012).
129
While high stress or demand may tax even an adult’s self-regulatory abilities, neurological
changes in the adolescent brain may make teens particularly prone to more risky decision making under
these conditions.
Working memory is very short with at a
time only 7 items being retained and that too for a
very short period of time. In case a person wants
to keep the items for a longer period of time or
have larger number of items retained you may
have to use strategies such as rehearsing to keep
the item for a longer period and chunking the
various items into 7 groups and remembering the
chunks and the materials within. In contrast to the
short term memory, the long term memory stores
information for longer periods of time. There is no
need to rehearse the items to keep it in memory
for longer periods. Also any number of items can
be stored and there is no restriction about how much information is to be stored. To give an example,
whenever you are working in the office, you receive letters, emails, notings, phone calls etc. You respond
to some, postpone responding to others and do not give importance or any attention to some items.
You also file some of the notings and papers received as if we are sending the items to long term
memory. Sometimes when a certain note is received, you try to see and relate the contents of the items
with some stored files such as minutes of a board meeting in which you had taken some decisions
regarding that concerned matter. That is, we are retrieving items from long term memory in some fashion
or integrate them in some way to attack a complex problem.
In information processing also we do the

same kind of complex action. Though the diagram
clearly explains how information is received, processed
and stored etc., human brain is not that simple, you are
still not aware how many things happen about which
you do not even know anything and further research at
a high level will be required to know what goes on in the
process mentioned above in the brain. Cognitive
processes are also concerned with how people learn,
understand, think, store and recall the information that
has been acquired over a period of time. You go to
school or college and you learn many things. A large
number of things are immediately available to you as
you are able to remember them , but considerable information may be available to you only when you
put in some efforts and there are many more information that are just not available to you even when you
put in efforts. Sometimes you feel that it is there and you can recall but it slips off and you do not
remember. With certain cues you may be able to recall that information. The entire process of registering,
storing and retrieving information is called information processing which all come under the rubric of
cognitive psychology.
130
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning emerges in childhood and occurs when specific observations, or specific
comments from those in authority, may be used to draw general conclusions. This is sometimes referred
to as “bottom-up-processing”. However, in inductive reasoning the veracity of the information that created
the general conclusion does not guarantee the accuracy of that conclusion. For instance, a child who has
only observed thunder on summer days may conclude that it only thunders in the summer.
In contrast, deductive reasoning emerges in adolescence and refers to reasoning that starts
with some overarching principle and based on this proposes specific conclusions. This is sometimes
referred to as “top-down-processing”. Deductive reasoning guarantees a truthful conclusion if the
premises on which it is based are accurate.
Intuitive versus Analytic Thinking

Cognitive psychologists often refer to intuitive and analytic thought as the Dual-Process Model;
the notion that humans have two distinct networks for processing information (Albert & Steinberg, 2011).
Intuitive thought is automatic, unconscious, and fast (Kahneman, 2011), and it is more experiential and
emotional. In contrast, analytic thought is deliberate, conscious, and rational. While these systems
interact, they are distinct (Kuhn, 2013). Intuitive thought is easier and more commonly used in everyday
life. It is also more commonly used by children and teens than by adults (Klaczynski, 2001). The
quickness of adolescent thought, along with the maturation of the limbic system, may make teens more
prone to emotional intuitive thinking than adults.
131
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
(Kohlberg’s Theory)
Level III: Post Conventional Reasoning – the highest level in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.
People now recognize conflicts between moral standards and make their own judgments on the basis of
principles of right, fairness, and justice. People generally do not reach this level of moral reasoning until
the least early adolescence, or more commonly in young adulthood, if ever. In Kohlberg’s theory, it is the
reasoning underlying a person’s response to a moral development.
Stage 5: Morality of contract of individual rights and of democratically accepted law.

People think in rational terms, valuing the will of the
majority and welfare of society. They generally see these
values as best supported by adherence to the law. While
they recognize that there are times when human need and
the law conflict, they believe it is better for society in the long
run if they obey the law.
Stage 6: Morality of universal ethical principles.

People do what they as individuals think is right,
regardless of legal restrictions or the opinions of others.
They act in accordance with internalized standards,
knowing that they would condemn themselves if they did
not.
According to Kohlberg, moral reasoning is based on
a developing sense of justice and growing cognitive abilities.
Kohlberg proposed that moral development progresses
from external control to internalized societal standards to
personal, principled moral codes.
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized several
grounds, including failure to credit the role of emotion,
socialization and parental guidance.
Changes in Morality During Adolescence

One of the important tasks adolescents must master is learning what the group expects of them
and then being willing to mold their behavior to conform to these expectations without the constant
guidance, supervision, prodding’s and threats of punishment they experienced as children. They are
expected to replace the specific moral concepts of childhood with general moral principles and to
formulate these into a moral code which will act as a guide to their behavior. Equally important, they must
now exercise control over behavior, a responsibility that was formerly assumed by parents and teachers.
132
Five Fundamental Changes in Morality During Adolescents:
1. The individual’s moral outlook becomes progressively more abstract and
less concrete.
2. Moral convictions become more concerned with what is right and less concerned with what is
wrong. Justice emerges as a moral force.
3. Moral judgment becomes increasingly cognitive. This encourages the adolescent to analyze
social and personal codes more vigorously than during childhood and to decide on moral
issues.
4. Moral judgment becomes less egocentric.
5. Moral judgment psychologically expensive in the sense that it takes an emotional toll and
creates psychological tension.
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Self-Concept and Self Esteem
In adolescence, teens continue to develop

their self-concept. Their ability to think of the
possibilities and to reason more abstractly may
explain the further differentiation of the self during
adolescence. However, the teen’s understanding of
self is often full of contradictions. Young teens may
see themselves as outgoing but also withdrawn,
happy yet often moody, and both smart and
completely clueless (Harter, 2012). These
contradictions, along with the teen’s growing
recognition that their personality and behavior seem
to change depending on who they are with or where
they are, can lead the young teen to feel like a fraud.
With their parents they may seem angrier and sullen, with their friends they are more outgoing
and goofier, and at work they are quiet and cautious. “Which one is really me?” may be the refrain of the
young teenager.
As self-concept differentiates, so too does self-esteem. In addition to the academic, social,
appearance, and physical/athletic dimensions of self-esteem in middle and late childhood, teens also add
perceptions of their competency in romantic relationships, on the job, and in close friendships (Harter,
2006). Self-esteem often drops when children transition from one school setting to another, such as
shifting from elementary to middle school, or junior high to high school (Ryan, Shim, & Makara, 2013).
These drops are usually temporary, unless there are additional stressors such as parental conflict, or
other family disruptions (De Wit, Karioja, Rye, & Shain, 2011). Self-esteem rises from mid to late
adolescence for most teenagers, especially if they feel competent in their peer relationships, their
appearance, and athletic abilities (Birkeland, Melkivik, Holsen, & Wold, 2012).
133
Identity
Who am I? What am I all about? What am I going to
do with my life? What is different about me? How can I make
it on my own? These questions reflect the search for an
identity.
Identity is a self-portrait composed of many pieces,
including the following:
 The career and work path the person wants to follow
(vocation, career identity).
 Whether the person is conservative, liberal, or middle-of-the road (political identity).
 Whether the person is single, married, divorced and so on (relationship identity)
 The extent to which the person is motivated to achieve and is intellectual. (achievement,
intellectual identity)
 Whether the person is heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual (sexual identity).
 Which part of the world or country a person is from and how intensely the person identifies with
his or her cultural heritage. (cultural/ethnic identity)
 The kind of things a person like to do, which can include sports, music, hobbies and so on
(interest)
 The individuals personality characteristics such as being introverted or extraverted, anxious or
calm, friendly or hostile and soon. (personality)
 The individuals body image (physical identity)
Erikson: Identity versus identity confusion (or role confusion)
This is the fifth developmental stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory of Development which
individuals experience during adolescence. The chief task of adolescence said Erikson is to resolve the
“crisis” so as to become a unique adult with coherent sense of self and a valued role in society.(the virtue
that should arise from this crisis is fidelity). Adolescents who satisfactorily resolve the crisis develops the
virtue of fidelity; sustained loyalty, faith or a sense of belonging to a loved one or to friends and
companions. Fidelity can also mean identification with a set of values, ideology and other components of
identity mentioned earlier. Fidelity is also an extension of trust, adolescents now extend their trust to
mentors or loved ones.
Adolescent Sexuality
Sexual orientation which is the focus of
consistent sexual, romantic and affectionate interests
either heterosexual (of the other sex), homosexual
(of the same sex), bisexual (of both sexes) appears
to be influenced by an interaction of biological and
environmental factors and maybe at least partly
genetic.
134
Adolescence is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation of sexual fantasies and
realities, of incorporating sexuality into ones identity. They think about whether they are sexually
attractive, how to do sex, and what future hold for their sexual lives. Majority of adolescents eventually
manage to develop a mature sexual identity but most experience times of vulnerability and confusion.
Sexual behaviors are more liberal than in the past. Teenage sexual activity involves risks of
pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases (STD). Adolescents at greatest risks are those who begin
sexual activity early, have multiple partners, do not contraception and are ill informed about sex.
Regular condom is the best safeguard for sexually active teens, this gives some protection
against SDT’s as well as against pregnancy. Many teenagers get misleading information about sexuality.
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Early adolescence is a time when emotional highs and lows increase. Young adolescents can
be on top of the world one moment and down in the dumps the next. In many instances, the intensity of
their emotions seems out of proportion to the events that elicit them. It is important for adults to recognize
that moodiness is a normal aspect of early adolescence; and most adolescents make it through this
moody times to become competent adults. Emotional fluctuation in early adolescence maybe related to
significant hormonal changes during this period. However, most researchers conclude that hormonal
influences are small and that when they occur they usually are associated with other factors such as
stress, eating patterns, sexual activity and social relationships. Both hormonal changes and
environmental experiences are involved in the changing emotional landscape of adolescence – control
of one’s emotions is an important aspect of adolescent development.
James Marcia and Self-Identity

James Marcia is another influential theorist who
expanded upon Erikson's concept of identity crisis and
identity confusion. Marcia's theory descriptively categorizes
four main points or stations along the continuum of identity
development. These stations or points describe very
different identity conditions, ranging from a diffuse and
indeterminate individual identity to a precisely defined and
highly specific individual identity.
Similar to Erikson, Marcia believed that certain situations and events (called "crises") serve as
catalysts prompting movement along this continuum and through the various identity statuses. These
crises create internal conflict and emotional upheaval, thereby causing adolescents to examine and
question their values, beliefs, and goals. As they explore new possibilities, they may form new beliefs,
adopt different values, and make different choices. According to Marcia's theory, these developmental
crises ultimately cause adolescents to develop a progressively greater commitment to a particular
individual identity via the process of identity exploration prompted by developmental crises.
135
Identity diffusion describes youth who have neither explored nor committed to any particular
identity. Thus, this identity status represents a low level of exploration and a low level of commitment.
These adolescents haven't considered their identity at all, and haven't established any life goals. They
are reactive, passively floating through life and dealing with each situation as it arises. Their primary
motivation is hedonic; the avoidance of discomfort and the acquisition of pleasure.
Identity foreclosure status represents a low degree of exploration but a high degree of
commitment. At this identity status adolescents are not actively trying to determine what is important to
them. They are not questioning the values and beliefs they have been taught. Instead, these youth obtain
their identity simply by accepting the beliefs and values of their family, community, and culture. In a sense,
they passively accept the identity assigned to them. While these youth are committed to values and life
goals assigned to them, they do not question why they should be, nor do they consider any alternatives.
Moratorium represents high degree of exploration but a low degree of commitment. At this
status, youth are in the midst of an identity "crisis" which has prompted them to explore and experiment
with different values, beliefs, and goals. However, they have not made any final decisions about which
beliefs and values are most important to them, and which principles should guide their lives. Thus, they
are not yet committed to a particular identity. They are keeping their options open.
Identity achievement represents both a high degree of exploration and a high degree of
commitment. Youth are said to have achieved their identity by a process of active exploration and strong
commitment to a particular set of values, beliefs, and life goals that has emerged from this active
exploration and examination. At this identity status youth will have decided what values and goals are
most important to them, and what purpose, or mission will direct their life. Youth at the identity
achievement status are able to prioritize what is important to them and have sorted through the many
possibilities of who they want to be. They will have experimented with many different beliefs and values,
and analyzed their pathway in life.
136
Relationship with Family, Peers and Adult Society
Adolescents spend more time with peers and
less with family. However, most teenagers’ fundamental
values remain close to their parents than is generally
realized. Even as adolescents to peers for
companionship and intimacy, they look to parents for a
“secure base” from which they can try their wings.
Family interactions change during the
teenage years. There is more intimacy but also more
conflict over issues of autonomy. Conflict with parents
tends to be most frequent during early adolescence and
most intense during mid-adolescence.
Authoritative parenting is associated with the
most positive outcomes. Competent adolescent development is most likely when adolescents have
parents who:
 Show them warmth and respect and avoid the tendency to be too controlling or too permissive.
 Demonstrate sustained interest in their lives. Parents need to spend time with their adolescents
and monitor their lives.
 Understand and adapt to their cognitive and socioemotional development
 Communicate expectations for high standards of conduct and achievement.
 Display constructive ways of dealing with problems and conflict. Moderate conflict is a normal
part of the adolescent’s desire for independence and search for an identity.
 Understand that adolescents don’t become adults overnight. Adolescence is a long journey.
Effects of divorce and single parenting on Effects of maternal employment depend on

adolescents’ development depend on the way such factor as the presence of the other parent,
they affect family atmosphere. Genetic factors how closely parents monitor adolescents’ activity,
may affect the way young adolescents adapt to and the mother’s workload. A mother’s working
divorce. may help shape attitudes toward gender roles.
Economic stress or lack of money is a major Peers are important source of emotional support
problem in many single-parent families as well as during the complex transition of adolescence, as
two-parent families. Poverty can complicate well as a source of pressure for behavior that
family relationships – and also harm adolescents’ parents may strongly disapprove. The peer group
development – through its impact on parent’s is a source of affection, sympathy, understanding
emotional state. and moral guidance; a place for experimentation;
and a setting for achieving autonomy and
independence from parents.
The influence of peers is strongest in early

adolescence; and declines during middle and
late adolescence as relationships with parents are
renegotiated.
137
Adolescents tend to choose friends who are like them and friends influence each other to
become even more alike. Friends tend to have similar academic attitudes and performance. Intimacy with
same sex friends increases during early to mid adolescence after which it declines as intimacy with the
other sex grows. The increased intimacy of adolescent friendship reflects cognitive as well as emotional
development. The capacity for intimacy is also related to psychological adjustment and social
competence. Adolescents who have close, stable supportive friendships generally have a high opinion
of themselves, do well in school, are sociable and are unlikely to be hostile, anxious or depressed. A
bidirectional process seems to be at work: good friendships foster adjustment, which in turn foster good
friendships.
Antisocial Behavior and Juvenile Delinquency
 Research suggests that early and continuing

patterns of parent-child interaction often pave the
way for negative peer influence which reinforces
and promotes antisocial behavior.
 Antisocial adolescents tend to have antisocial

friends, and their antisocial behavior increases
when they associate with them each day.
Authoritarian parenting can help young people
internalize standards that may insulate them
against negative peer influences and open them to positive ones. Improvements n parenting
during adolescents can reduce delinquency by discouraging association with deviant peers.
Juvenile Delinquency
A juvenile delinquent is an adolescent who breaks
the law of engages in behavior that is considered illegal.
Adolescent becomes a juvenile delinquent only after being
judged guilty of a crime by a court of law. Heredity, identity
problems, community influences and family ex periences
have been proposed as causes of juvenile delinquency.
Chronic delinquency is associated with multiple
interaction of risk factor, including ineffective parenting,
school failure, peer influences, neighborhood influences and
low socioeconomic status.
Some interventions can reduce or prevent youth violence. Prevention efforts should include
developmentally appropriate schools, supportive families, and youth community organizations. One
promising strategy for preventing youth violence is the teaching of conflict management as part of health
education in elementary and high school.
138
This period is heightened emotions, glands function under social pressure
 Problems related to romance
 Easily excited and explodes emotionally
 Temper tantrums, mood swings
 Intense self-consciousness
 Daydreaming
Social changes
 searching for identity: young people are busy working
out who they are and where they fit in the world. This
search can be influenced by gender, peer group,
cultural background, media, school and family
expectations
 seeking more independence: this is likely to influence

the decisions your child makes and the relationships
your child has with family and friends
 seeking more responsibility, both at home and at

school
 looking for new experiences: the nature of teenage

brain development means that teenagers are likely to
seek out new experiences and engage in more risk-
taking behaviour. But they’re still developing control
over their impulses
 thinking more about “right” and “wrong”: your child will

start developing a stronger individual set of values and
morals. Teenagers also learn that they’re responsible
for their own actions, decisions and consequences.
They question more things. Your words and actions
shape your child’s sense of ‘‘right’’ and “wrong”
 influenced more by friends, especially when it comes

to behaviour, sense of self and self-esteem
 starting to develop and explore a sexual identity: your

child might start to have romantic relationships or go
on “dates”. These are not necessarily intimate
relationships. For some young people, intimate or
sexual relationships don’t occur until later on in life.
 communicating in different ways: the internet, cell

phones and social media can significantly influence
how your child communicates with friends and learns about the world.
139
Emotional Changes
Teens show strong feelings and intense emotions at

different times. Moods might seem unpredictable. These
emotional ups and downs can lead to increased conflict. Your
child’s brain is still learning how to control and express
emotions in a grown-up way.
 is more sensitive to your emotions: young people get better
at reading and processing other people’s emotions as they
get older. While they’re developing these skills, they can
sometimes misread facial expressions or body language
 is more self-conscious, especially about physical

appearance and changes. Teenage self-esteem is often
affected by appearance - or by how teenagers think they
look. As they develop, teens might compare their bodies
with those of friends and peers.
 goes through a “invincible” stage of thinking and acting as if

nothing bad could happen to him. Your child’s decision-
making skills are still developing, and your child is still
learning about the consequences of actions.
Changes in relationships
Teens want to spend less time with family and more time with
friends
 has more arguments with you: some conflict between

parents and children during the teenage years is normal as
teens seek more independence. It actually shows that your
child is maturing. Conflict tends to peak in early
adolescence. If you feel like you’re arguing with your child
all the time, it might help to know that this isn’t likely to affect
your long term relationship with your child.
 sees things differently from you: this isn’t because your child wants to upset you. It’s because your
child is beginning to think more abstractly and to question different points of view. At the same time,
some teens find it hard to understand the effects of their behaviour and comments on other people.
These skills will develop with time.
140
ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Answer what is called for.
1. Androgen is to male as _______________ is to female.
a. estradiol
b. testosterone Adolescent
c. estrogen
d. hormone
e. gonadotropin
2. Gonads are
a. the testes and penis in males
b. the ovaries and uterus in females
c. the glands that produce gonadotropins
d. part of the hypothalamus
e. the testes in males and the ovaries in females
3. Which of the following plays a role in pubertal growth?

a. pituitary gland
b. thyroid
c. estrogen
d. testosterone
e. All the above are correct
4. What is a girl's first menstruation called?

a. menarche
b. menses
c. amenorrhea
d. menopause
e. melatonin
5. Puberty is the time when a person changes from a child into _____.
a. a person
b. an adult
c. a woman
d. a man
e. an old person
6. Puberty usually begins at around ages _____.

a. 4 to 6
b. 7 to 8
c. 8 to12
d. 13 to 16
e. all of the above
141
7. Sometimes people have pimples during puberty. This is normally caused by _____.
a. catching a virus
b. worrying too much about things
c. getting too much sun
d. a natural increase in the skin’s oils
e. all of the above
8. During puberty, _____ begins to grow under a person’s arms and in the pubic area.
a. hair
b. pimples
c. perspiration
d. layers of fat
e. all of the above
9. When people reach puberty, they need to take showers and wash their hair more often than when
they were young children because _____.
a. they get dirtier than young children
b. they perspire more than young children
c. they need to use up extra energy
d. showers help you grow faster
e. all of the above
10. People start growing quite quickly during puberty because of increased_____ in their blood.
a. hormones
b. sugar
c. protein
d. glands
e. all of the above
11. The _____ gland in the brain causes the body to produce growth hormones.
a. sweat
b. pituitary
c. salivary
d. puberty
e. all of the above
12. During puberty, both boys’ and girls’ voices change because the _____ grows bigger. This is also
known as the Adam’s apple.
a. lungs
b. mouth
c. abdomen
d. larynx
e. all of the above
13. During puberty, a girl’s body produces hormones called _____.

a. pituitaries
b. excedrins
c. estrogens
d. menstruations
e. all of the above
142
14. Menstruation is the periodic shedding of the lining of the _____.
a. vagina
b. uterus
c. pituitary
d. larynx
e. all of the above
15. Ovaries produce hormones throughout the month, but once in each menstrual cycle, a female’s
ovaries produce _____.
a. a period
b. cramps or aches
c. a pregnancy
d. an egg or ovum
e. all of the above
Activity 2
Direction: Identify the following statements, encircle the T (True) or F (False).
T F 1. Females should not exercise during their period.
T F 2. Puberty happens at different times for different children.
T F 3. The fluid released from the penis during ejaculation is made up of sperm and urine.
T F 4. The size of a male’s penis determines the amount of sperm he produces.
T F 5. Sometimes it is hard for children and parents to talk to each other about sex.
T F 6. You should always do what your friends want to do.
T F 7. There is no “right time” to begin dating.
T F 8. There is no such thing as a “perfect female” or a “perfect male” body.
T F 9. If a person has a question about sex, the best place s /he can go to get an answer is
a friend.
T F 10. It is common for a female to have one breast that is slightly bigger than the other
143
SELF-ASSESSMENT
How will you apply your learnings to real-life situations?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________.
E- REFERENCES:
[1] https://www.peelregion.ca/health/commhlth/bodyimg/changes-in-me/lessons/pdf/LessonEight-
b.pdf. Accessed on October, 2021.
[2] http://www.rhodeslab.org/files/Midtermfinalkey.pdf. Accessed on October, 2021.
144

Prof. Ed 1 Modules

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Prof. Ed 1 Modules

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter Title: BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Module 1: Meaning, concepts, and approaches to Human Development

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

1. explain the meaning of human development

1. TO BETTER UNDERSTAND OURSELF

2. IT’S ONE WAY TO LEARN MORE ABOUT CHILDREN OR YOUR LEARNERS

3. IT HELP YOU TO BETTER UNDERSTAND HOW TO INTERACT

4. GAINING A GREATER APPRECIATION OF DEVELOPMENT THROUGHT OUT LIFE

THE PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

a. Cephalo-caudal sequence development

This principle describes the direction of growth and development:

b. Proximo-distal sequence development

4. Development proceeds from the simple to more complex

6. Development depends on maturation and learning

7. Development is a product of the interaction

WHY IS THERE A NEED TO KNOW THE IMPORTANCE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT?

Factors Which Influenced Human Growth and Development

Principles of Human Explanation Implication of these

Chapter Title: BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. explain the meaning of human development;

Key Issues in Human Development

There are many different theoretical

Continuous development views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on

2. IS THERE A SINGLE COURSE OF DEVELOPMENT OR MANY?

5. IS CHILD DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS?

6. STABILITY VERSUS DISCONTINUITY

2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity Continuity Discontinuity

3. Stability vs. Change Stability Change

4. Heredity vs. Environment Heredity Environment

1. Is development continuous or discontinuous?

II. Choices : Continuity vs Discontinuity

[1] http://www.slideshare.net/ruthhewitt125/nature-nurture-powerpoint- on nature vs. Nurture.

[3] https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.78.1.173 (Accessed on

[4] https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.78.1.173 (Accessed on

[5] https://www.google.com/search?q=continuity+vs+discontinuity+examples (Accessed on

[6] http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Stability- (Accessed on October, 2021)

Chapter Title: BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES TO HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Developmental change is a basic fact of human existence and each person is

Period of Adjustments of a New Born Baby

Vocalization period of the newborn

Understanding Pre-Mature Babies

Some indications of behavior disorders are:

The Carriers of Heredity

a. Gene - the transmitter of hereditary traits

The Zygote and the Process of Cell Division

Maturation of Sex Cells

Outstanding features of ovum and spermatozoon

Chromosomes of the Father determine the sex of the child:

HOW LIFE BEGINS?

PERIOD IN PRE-NATAL DEVELOPMENT

Three layers from which all parts of the body develop

2. MESODERM - the middle layer part

3. ENDODERM - innermost layer

Developmental Development Development Development Development

4.Middle and late

Reflect on your own experiences

b. How did it affect you?

Recommended Reading Materials

The ego is not master in its

At the end of this module, the students should be able to:

 Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.

What factors influenced you in making your decision?

The erogenous zone is the mouth. During the oral

Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty)