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The study of development offers much insight into human nature. Development refers to
systematic changes in the individual that occur between the moment of conception and death.
The development changes are somehow orderly or patterned. Human development also refers
to the study of how individuals develop and change throughout their lives.
Domains of development
Physical development.
This refers to biological growth or maturation which is developmental changes in the body
that result from the aging process, Physical development includes changes in the body size,
the brain, sense organs, muscles, bones, etc. It also includes the ways a person uses his or her
Cognitive development
This has to do with changes in intellectual-related abilities i.e., reasoning and thinking.
language acquisition, and how individuals gain and store knowledge of their physical and
social environments, it includes learning i.e. the process through which our experiences
Psychosocial development
This focuses on changes in feelings or emotions as well as changes in how individuals relate
▪ It can give you appropriate expectations for children and adolescents. Developmental
psychology tells you, for example, when infants usually begin talking and it suggests
▪ Knowledge of human development can help you recognize when departures from
▪ Researchers and practitioners may apply what they have learned and may help human
▪ It can also help individuals understand how to cope with changes that occur during
old age, as individuals grow old, they face many challenges that they need to adjust to
information we receive from our parents at the moment of conception that signals the
encounter in their homes, neighborhoods, schools, and communities. One popular idea
maturation i.e. genetic influences are first and environmental influences second. Some
psychologists believe that genetic factors are important in the process of development.
about whether children are active contributors to their own development or rather,
theorists view human development as an additive process that occurs gradually and
road to maturity as a series of abrupt changes, each of which elevates the child to a
Note: Continuity theorists hold that developmental changes are gradual and
qualitative.
development are universal ie. normative outcomes that everyone is said to display or
cultures and are therefore universal. For instance, all normal humans begin to use language at
11-14 months of age, reach sexual maturity during the pre-teen or teenage period, and show
signs of aging by mid-life. Other theorists believe that paths of development followed in one
culture may be very different (unique) from those followed in another culture. The
particularistic theorists argue that human development can proceed in many directions and is
Five major psychological perspectives focus on human development and behavior. The
The biological perspective emphasizes the relationship of biological systems to behavior and
mental processes. Within developmental psychology, this perspective began with Darwin's
influence in the mid-1800s. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution stressed the role of
biogenetic factors in determining the development of individuals and the evolution of species.
Darwin's ideas had an enormous impact on later developmentalists. They believed that
development was a result of genetic inheritance that directed the development of the
individual's anatomy and physiology. Maturation i.e., the unfolding of the individual's genetic
argument among various theories within the biological perspective is that development is the
human development.
factors/hereditary factors are believed to provide a blueprint for development with the
psychologists focus on the role of learning and experience in shaping development. The first
proponent of this perspective was John B. Watson (1878-1958) who focused the attention of
The perspective emphasizes the individual's active role in influencing his/her development in
relationship with intellectual abilities i.e., the perspective focuses on the development of
thinking, reasoning, and related intellectual abilities. From the cognitive viewpoint, humans
actively select and process information from their knowledge. A leading theorist in the area is
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) who proposed a cognitive development theory. He maintained that
process by the individual. He maintained that from birth onwards cognitive or mental
cognitive development proceeds through the same stage for all people from infancy, through
childhood up to adulthood.
4. Psychodynamic perspective
This perspective stresses that development is the result of dynamic inner forces of which
individuals are normally unaware e.g., sexual energy, aggressive energy. Given this
perspective, developmental psychologists maintain that humans are born with an innate set
of forces that shape and determine later development. Freud's psychoanalytic theory provides
the historical basis for many of the perspective's key ideas. A common idea among all
psychodynamic views is that people are always in a state of conflict between their internal
This perspective emphasizes individuals' active roles in their ongoing development vis-a-vis
social and personality development. An underlying belief from this perspective is that we
make conscious choices that directly affect how we develop i.e., development results from
striving to fulfill our growth potential. The humanistic existential perspective focuses on the
idea that each of us has the capacity development to make our choices and to change those
Developmental principles
1. Cephalocaudal principle
and strongest in the head region and proceeds down the body trunk. The infant's head
2. Proximodistal principle
According to this principle, development occurs from the center of the body outward i.e.,
3. Differentiation principle
According to this principle, different parts of the body become increasingly distinct in their
patterns and functions. They do not develop at the same rate. Additionally, it is also important
to recognize that individual differences in rates of development occur and are normal.
Theories differ in how they explain the processes and mechanisms of developmental change.
Some place emphasis on biologically determined sources of change called maturation/ Others
development is thought to occur in a series of stages. At each stage, the child experiences
conflicts that he or she must to some degree resolve to go to the next stage. Psychodynamic
theories that have been most influential in developmental psychology are those of Sigmund
how human beings seek to increase pleasure and avoid discomfort by fulfilling their physical
and emotional needs. This approach assumes that children move through a series of stages in
which they confront conflict between biological drives or forces and social expectations.
Conflicts experienced shape behavior and personality development. The ways these conflicts
are resolved determine development. From infancy through adolescence, changes are caused
by the conflicts a child experiences in trying to satisfy the libido. As a child develops the
libido is eventually divided among three components of personality namely; the id, ego,
and superego. Therefore, the theory argues that human development is the result of
interactions among the three components. The id is the first part of our personality (between
birth years) because as newborns, it allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that
the id is based on the pleasure principle. In other words, the id wants whatever feels good at
the time, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. When a
child is hungry, the id wants food, and therefore the child cries. When the child is
uncomfortable, in pain, too hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or
her needs are met. The id does not care about reality, about the needs of anyone else, only its
satisfaction.
At the age of 3 years, the child interacts more and more with the world and the second part of
the personality that is the ego begins to develop. The ego is based on the reality principle.
The ego understands that other people have needs and desires and that sometimes being
impulsive or selfish can hurt us in the long run. It is the ego's job to meet the needs of the id
part of us and develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our caregivers.
The superego has two components namely the conscience and the ego-ideal. The conscience
is the part that dictates our belief in right and wrong. The ego ideal is that part that makes us
psychosexual stages. Freud thought that personality develops in a fixed series of stages,
which he called psychosexual, and focused on certain erogenous areas. Each stage is
characterized by different demands for sexual gratification and different ways of achieving
expression of sexual energy in different parts of the body as the child matures. According to
Freud, psychosexual energy was described as the driving force behind behavior and
development. Freud also believed that psychological pleasure begins long before the
individual achieves sexual maturity. He used the term psychosexual pleasure in a broad sense
to include the good feelings arising from the stimulation from different parts of the body
namely; the mouth, anus, genitals, and other body zones. These body areas become a focus of
individuals do not receive an appropriate amount of gratification i.e., receiving either too
or too much, they may become fixated in a particular stage and can experience sexual
and emotional problems in adulthood. Freud noted that if normal psychosexual development
is blocked or frustrated, fixation can occur i.e., the inability to develop psychosexually
beyond a certain stage. As a result of fixation, behaviors from the fixated stage may persist in
It marks the first year of life. During the oral stage, the mouth is the focus of stimulation and
interaction. Feeding and weaning are central activities. Infants who receive either too little or
too much opportunity to suck can be fixated. The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning
process that is, the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at
this stage, the consequences of oral fixation are that much libido and pleasure remain
attached to the mouth. Throughout life a person may continue to receive pleasure from
overeating, over
drinking, gum chewing, nail biting, smoking, kissing excessive talking, etc. Difficulties at
the oral stage also result in personality traits such as excessive dependence, extreme
The focus of stimulation is the anus. Pleasure is obtained from expelling or retaining fecal
material. Toilet training is a central activity. Children must endure the demands of toilet
training given usually by parents. However, not all parents provide the support and
encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule, or
shame a child for errors they make. The emotional climate parents create during toilet
training can leave a mark on one's personality i.e., fixation results if toilet training is either
too lenient or too strict. If toilet training is too lenient fixation results in the development of
On the other hand, if toilet training is too strict fixation results in a development of an anal-
The focus of stimulation is the genitals i.e., children at this stage frequently observe their
genitals
and ask questions about birth and sex. Children derive pleasure from stroking and fondling
their genitals. They become aware of the anatomical differences in males and females.
Young children feel a sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex. Freud called this
situation Oedipus complex in boys and Electra complex in girls. The boys fear the father as
the dominant rival and this fear becomes castration anxiety i.e. the boy develops the fear of
losing his sex organs. On the other hand, the young girl discovers that her sexual organs differ
from those of the boys, i.e., do not possess a penis. This develops in what Freud termed as
Penis envy which is a counterpart of castration anxiety. During this time emotional conflicts
are resolved by eventually identifying with the same-sex parent. A fixation at this stage could
result in sexual deviance (both overindulging and avoidance) and confused sexual identity. It
sexual energy is channeled into socially acceptable activities i.e. sexual energies are re-
Sexual urges remain repressed as children become more independent of their parents and
learn, through developing peer relationships, to interact with other people and respond to
their needs. Children at this stage play and interact mostly with peers of the same sex, make
friends, develop self-confidence, and learn social rules for appropriate male and female
behavior. It is during this stage children interact and play mostly with same-sex peers.
The genitals are the focus of stimulation. Puberty and adolescence mark the beginning of mat
sexual relationships. Individuals settle into the task of establishing mature relationships that
may last throughout their adult years. However, adolescents face conflicts in learning how to
manage these new sexual urges in socially acceptable ways. Throughout adolescence and
young adulthood, energy is invested in such activities as forming friendships, preparing for a
career, courting, and getting married. Fixation may result in behaviors such as promiscuity,
Note
Freud's theory, however, was criticized by Alan Katcher (1955). He found that the majority of
4–5-year-olds were unable to assemble a doll so that its genitals matched with other parts of
the body. The theory has also been criticized in part because of Freud's only focus on