Environment, Development and Sustainability

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-01493-y

Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study

of sustainability, conservation and pluricultural use
of medicinal plants in traditional herbal shops

Tusheema Dutta1 · Samapika Nandy1 · Abhijit Dey1 

Received: 10 November 2020 / Accepted: 2 May 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V. 2021

Abstract
Kolkata, due to its rich cultural heritage, displays a mixture of Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani
and Chinese medicines in its pharmacopoeia. An ethnopharmacological survey was con-
ducted throughout the 144 wards in Kolkata from October 2019 to February 2020 to record
the Ethnomedicinal practices and plants used for therapeutic purposes by local herbal
medicinal shops and practitioners, the majority of which were situated in North and Cen-
tral Kolkata. A total of 53 medicinal plant species belonging to 36 different families were
reported, with Azadirachta indica, Withania somnifera, Glycyrrhiza glabra and Aloe vera
being the most popular species and Ocimum sanctum as the most prevalent home garden
species. The most important or useful family was Ranunculaceae. The majority of plants
were used against urban lifestyle diseases like hypertension, hypoglycaemia, constipation
and urinary diseases. The home gardens served as tools for ex situ conservation for these
species. Most of the species’ conservation status was least concern, depicting that the local
practitioners know sustainable use of the plants and posed zero threats to the natural popu-
lations and urban ecological systems. The study was performed to analyse the persistence
and flow of traditional herbal knowledge in an advanced city and a comparison of the spe-
cies used was done via several indices so that the impact of this practice on both local habi-
tats and conservation of the medicinal plant species can be inferred.

Keywords  Urban ethnobotany · Medicinal plants · Ethnopharmacology · Sustainability ·

Conservation

1 Introduction

For ages, plants have played a significant role in providing botanical-based medi-
cine, which was used as indigenous therapeutics or active compounds, hence alleviat-
ing human agony (Farnsworth, 1990; Akerele, 1993; Dey & De, 2012). Plant-based
medicines have successfully been applied in modern drug therapies, leading to the

* Abhijit Dey
abhijit.dbs@presiuniv.ac.in; abhijitbio25@yahoo.com
1
Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, 86/1 College Street, Kolkata, West Bengal,
India

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
 T. Dutta et al.

emergence of pristine pharmaceuticals (Cox, 1994; Fabricant & Farnsworth, 2001;

Farnsworth, 1990). Herbal remedies form an essential part of alternative and comple-
mentary medicine, which has been practiced in almost all the nations of the world, both
developed and developing ones, owing to minimal side effects and cost-effectiveness
(Jawla et al., 2009; Firenzuoli & Gori, 2007; Yu & Kaarlas, 2004; Harrison, P., 1998;
Wu et  al., 2011). They may be applicable in some cases where allopathic treatment
fails to give fortunate or predicted results (Ullah, 2008; Szakács et al., 2006; Gull et al.,
2012; Ahmad & Beg, 2001). Almost ¾th of the total population of the world depends
upon herbal medicine. The discipline of “urban ethnobotany” emerged as a collection
of traditional knowledge, ancient civilizations’ history and folklores being circulated
since generations, usage of botanical products, palaeobotany and agronomy. The tales of
magical plants that can heal any disease or even breathe life into the deceased are prev-
alent in almost all cultures. Herbal medicine was popular until the advent of modern
synthetic medicines. As denoted by the term “urban”, the concept of urban ethnobotany
can be defined as using plants and botanical products by city folks and townspeople. In
short, it deals with the complex relationships between people and plants in towns and
cities (Albuquerque et al., 2014; Hurrell & Pochettino, 2014). Urban botanical knowl-
edge (UBK) includes the criteria of selection, consumption and manufacture of plant
products and involves the utilization of such knowledge for conservation purposes (Hur-
rell & Pochettino, 2014). UBK studies have gained importance in recent times since
a majority of these plant species have been overused and endangered. When people
migrate from one region to another, maybe across countries, they bring their traditional
knowledge (TK). So when they settle in cities or towns, they continue using these tra-
ditional remedies even if conventional drugs and other products are available. Urban
ethnobotany explores these dynamics of changes in the existing ethnopharmacological
practices brought about by these introductions from other communities (Ceuterick et al.,
2008; Pieroni & Privitera, 2014).
A significant limitation in the incorporation of traditional medicine in public health-
care practices comes from the fact that the literature available in this realm is limited as
this information has been generally passed verbally from one generation to the next, and
the only literature available is in the form of vernacular trivial ethnographic publica-
tions (Petkeviciute et al., 2010). In the USA, herbal or alternative medicine is accessible
only to the rich and educated due to high costs, and the rest of the society has a negative
attitude towards it (Barkaoui et al., 2017; Jonas et al., 2013; Okoro et al., 2011). Similar
results can be seen in Australia (MacLennan et al., 1996; Lind et al., 2006) and London,
England (Ceuterick et al., 2008). In Brazil, only the poor and less educated natives use
plant medicines (Arenas et  al., 2013; Benz et  al., 2000; Wester & Yongvanit, 1995).
Herbal medicine as a market has massive potential in a country like India, where a vast
majority cannot afford allopathy treatments (Sharma et al., 2008). Being rich in cultural
diversity and heritage, Kolkata, also known as the “City of Joy”, displays a mixture of
Ayurvedic, Siddha, Unani and Chinese medicines in its pharmacopoeia (Kalim et  al.,
2010; Mukherjee et al., 2015; Purkait et al., 2016; Chatterjee & Bandyopadhyay, 2015).
North Kolkata, along with the older parts of South Kolkata, houses the maximum num-
ber of herbal shops. The primary objective of the present study was to carry out an eth-
nopharmacological survey in the 144 wards in Kolkata from October 2019 to February
2020 to record the ethnobotanical practices and plant usage for medicinal purposes by
herbal medicinal shops and practitioners with a note on sustainability, conservation and
pluricultural aspects of medicinal plants’ usage by the urban people of Kolkata.

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

2 Materials and method

2.1 Study area and people

Located in the eastern state of West Bengal, Kolkata is a marshy wetland and belongs to
the biogeographic zone of Lower Indo-Gangetic plain 07. It is stretched across the Hooghly
River with alluvial soil. It is positioned between 22.8726° N latitude and 88.1639° E longi-
tude. The location map of Kolkata is given in Fig. 1.
The city is home to an impressive number of 667 plant species, including 96 medic-
inal plants within a total area of 205 k­ m2; therefore, it has an ethnobotanicity index of
14.39% (Mitra, 2012). Having a tropical climate, it has an average temperature of 26 °C,
wind speed of 18 kmph, relative humidity 70% and 1582 mm annual rainfall. It is more or
less near to the sea level in elevation (average 17 m). It is home to 1.4 crore citizens with
24,000 individuals per ­km2 (Census 2011). It is bordered in the west by Hooghly district,
South 24 Parganas from the south and North 24 Parganas surrounding the northern and
eastern borders.
Being the oldest region, North Kolkata is known for its narrow alleys, ramshackle build-
ings and neo-gothic architecture. It consists of Dum Dum, Burrabazar, Shyambajar, Shob-
habajar, Girish Park, Belgachhia, Manicktala, Jorasanko, Phoolbagan and Ultadanga areas.
The central part houses Dalhousie, Maidan, Rabindra Sadan, Part Street, Sealdah, College

Fig. 1  Location map of Kolkata. Constructed with the help of QGIS 3.10 and Autodesk 4.0

13
 T. Dutta et al.

Street and Park circus areas, with Maidan being “The lungs of Kolkata”. The majority of
the ancestral and old herbal houses and medicine practitioners are located in Central and
North Kolkata. Rashbihari, Kalighat, Bhowanipore, Alipore, Behala, Jadavpur, Tollygunge,
Golfgreen and Garia areas constitute south Kolkata, whereas Salt Lake and New Town
form the east region. Since most southern and eastern zones were formed in the recent
times, prevalence of a number of botanicals are less in these regions. Kolkata has a total of
144 wards. The ethnobotanical survey was done in 140 of these 144 blocks. The survey of
medicinal plant diversity in home gardens was performed in 110 wards.

2.2 Questionnaire design and data collection

The design of the questionnaire used in the survey was adopted from the studies con-
ducted by Dey and De in 2012 in Purulia district and some of the surveys done in urban
and cross-cultural ethnobotanical surveys (Ceuterick et  al., 2008; Leitão et  al., 2009).
The questionnaire for the first survey conducted on botanicals was a semi-structured
one with both open and close-ended questions, as shown in Table  1. There are about
284 shops in the area out of this 145 shops were surveyed. The informants were mainly

Table 1  Interview data sheet for

ethnopharmacological survey 1.Informants
 Date:
 Informant name:
 Name of the shop:
 Location: Ward no:
 Age of the practitioner:
 Experience in years of
the practitioners:
 Gender:
 Occupation:
 Literacy:
2.Ethnobotanical data:
 Vernacular name:
 Scientific name:
 Family:
 Habitat: Wild Cultivated Homegarden
 Plant part used:
 Method of preparation:
 Mode of administration:
 Used for/against:
 Dosage:
 Side effects (If any):
3.Field visits:
 Date:
 Time:
 Place:
 Altitude:
 Weather: Temperature Humidity Rainfall

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

herbal medicinal practitioners and herbalists. Demographic information of the inform-

ants is provided in Table 2.
All the questionnaires were confidential, unbiased and anonymous following the
description by Heinrich and Verpoorte (2014). The Ethics regarding interviewing and
data collection devised by International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics (http://​
ethno​biolo​gy.​net/​code-​of-​ethics/) was followed. Crosschecking of the data was done
with the help of both national and local publications (Bhattacharyya, 1997; Chakraverty
& Raychaudhuri, 2000) and translation of local names to scientific names was done with
the help of Roy (2012). Scientific names and authors’ citations were confirmed by using
The Plant List (www.​plant​list.​org), Tropicos.org and Kew Botanical Garden websites
(Gleason, 1956; Heinrich et al., 2009). Verification of nomenclature was performed by
Dr. Abhijit Dey, Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University.

2.3 Ethnobotanical indices and analyses

Tabulation of the data was carried out with the help of Microsoft Excel 2010 and Microsoft
Word 2010. Graphs were constructed with the help of Python 3.8.3, Microsoft Excel 2010
and R 3.6.3. Maps were constructed with the help of Google Maps and QGIS 3.10. Chemi-
cal and pharmacological information was obtained by exploring scientific databases like
Google Scholar, PubMed and Scopus and books available from university libraries and The
Plant List website.

2.3.1 Use value (UV)

It is a quantitative ethnobotanical index for the assessment of relative importance of local

species. It is used to detect the most frequent medicinal plant for the treatment of diseases.
If a species has a high use value or UV, it means that the given species has maximum uses
in traditional healing and low UV means trivial use. It is determined by the formula:
∑
UV = U∕N

where U is “the number of uses reported by the informants for a given species” and N is
“the total number of informants” (Phillips et al., 1994; Vitalini et al., 2013).

2.3.2 Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

It is used to determine the local value of a plant, i.e. how useful or useless is the species to
locals. The value ranges between 0 and 1. A lesser value shows less number of informants
found it useful and vice versa. It is calculated by the formula (Vitalini et al., 2013):
FC
RFC =
N
where FC = “Number of informants citing the plant as useful”. N = “Total number of
informants”.

13
 T. Dutta et al.

Table 2  Demographic information of the informants in the first study on botanicals

Demographic feature Percentage Graph

Gender Male 76%

24.19

75.81

MALE FEMALE

Female 24%
Age 20–30 8.196721
7% 8%

16%
25%

44%

20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 > 60

30–40 15.57377
40–50 44.2623
50–60 24.59016
 > 60 7.377049
Education Illiterate 0.019 0.019 0.04
ILLITERATE 0.002

6.489 2.18
CLASS 8

CLASS 10 23.89

67.38
CLASS 12

GRADUATE

Class 8 0.04
Secondary 2.18
Higher secondary 23.89
Graduate 67.38
Post graduate 6.489
Doctorate 0.002

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

Table 2  (continued)
Demographic feature Percentage Graph

Occupation Medical practitioner/herbalist 61

1%
31%

61%
7%

MEDICINAL PRACTITIONER
SHOPKEEPER
PHYSIOTHERAPIST
OTHERS

Shopkeeper 7
Physiotherapist 31
Others 1

2.3.3 Family use value (FUV)

It is used to find out the significance or relative importance of families of plants. A low value
means the family is less useful to locals and vice versa. It is calculated by the formula (Prance
ei al., 1987):
UVs
FUV =
ns
where UVs = “Use values of species”. ns = “Number of species under the family”. It has a
range between 1 and 0.

2.3.4 Relative importance value (RI)

It is used to determine the versatility of species. It is calculated by the formula (Albuquerque

et al., 2006.):
RI = PP + AC
where PP is “the ratio of the number of pharmacological properties attributed to a species
to that of the most resourceful species”.
AC is “the ratio of number of Ailment Categories treated by a given species to that of the
most resourceful species”.
Relative importance or RI can have a maximum value of 2, showing the most resourceful
plant with maximum medicinal value.

13
 T. Dutta et al.

2.3.5 Fidelity level (FL)

It shows the percentage or ratio of informants who cite the species for the same application
or purpose. It is also used to indirectly find out the most cited species. It is determined by
the formula (Friedmen et al., 1986):
Ip
FL × 100
Iu
where Ip is “the number of informants who mentioned the use of a particular species for a
particular purpose”. Iu is “the number of informants who mentioned the plant for any use”.

2.3.6 Informant agreement ratio (IAR)

It is also known as informant consensus factor or Fic and is used to determine homogeneity
of usage practises or agreement of informants about which species are to be used for which
specific disorders. It is determined by the following formula (Heinrich et al., 1998):
NUr − Nt
IAR
NUr − 1
where NUr is “the number of use records in each use category”. Nt is “the number of taxa
in each use category”.

2.3.7 Ethnobotanicity index (EI)

It used to find the proportion or percentage of medicinal plants among the total number of
plant species. It is calculated by dividing the total number of medicinal plants by the total
number of plants present in the area.

3 Results

Majority (almost 90%) of the reports on botanicals obtained from the traditional herbal
shops and practitioners of herbal medicine were collected from the older parts of Kolk-
ata. Maximum number of botanicals (11) were present in Bhowanipore in South Kolkata
probably due to rich and old heritage, financial development and preservation of culture in
that area. It was followed by Burrabajar and M.G road areas due to the significant number
of Unani practitioners present. It was followed by Hedua in Girish Park. Figures 2 and 3
depict ward-wise heat map or geo-distribution map of number of botanicals or herbal shops
and total ethnobotanical knowledge obtained from each ward, respectively.

3.1 Traditional botanical knowledge and medicinal plant species

A total of 53 plant species belonging to 47 genera and 36 different families were reported
as having different medicinal values and usages against a variety of common diseases and
ailments. The information regarding the scientific names, local and English names, plant
part(s) used, method of preparation, modes of administration and usages is provided in

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

Fig. 2  Ward wise geo-distribution of botanicals/ethnobotanical shops/herbal medicine shops. Figure con-

structed by Python 3.8.3

Table  3, along with their family names. A box plot of the activity range of each species
is presented in Fig. 4, where the lower and upper limits signify the minimum and maxi-
mum number of uses mentioned by the healers or informants. The different families/sub-
families were Ranunculaceae, Guttiferae, Meliaceae, Piperaceae, Arecaceae, Apiaceae,
Acanthaceae, Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae, Caricaceae, Zingiberaceae, Malvaceae,
Lamiaceae, Santalaceae, Berberidaceae, Sapindaceae, Gentianaceae, Combretaceae, Myrt-
aceae, Pinaceae, Acoraceae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae, Lauraceae, Myristi-
caceae, Burseraceae, Punicaceae, Fabaceae, Bombacaceae, Rutaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,
Rosaceae, Detarioideae, Pyllanthaceae, Asphodelaceae, Solanaceae and Plantaginaceae.
The plant parts used are shown in Fig. 5. As the graph shows, leaves were the most com-
mon plant part used. The most frequent method of preparation was in the form of paste
followed by infusion and powder (Fig. 6a) and was mostly orally administered as shown
in Fig. 6b. Paste and decoctions were mainly made from fresh plant parts. Powdered form
was heat extractions or sun dried plant parts which can then be added as spices or made
into juices. The most common group of ailments to be treated was circulatory diseases (32
species) followed by digestive ailments (21 species). Details of different groups of diseases
treated by medicinal plants are given in Fig.  7. The dosages were variable according to
the needs of the patients which also depended on their age, sex and pre-existing medical
conditions (pregnancy, hypertension, hyperglycaemia, etc.) and on the weather and season.

13
 T. Dutta et al.

Fig. 3  Ward wise geo-distribution of ethnobotanical knowledge in Kolkata. Figure constructed by Python

3.8.3

Also different traditional healers suggested different dosages. Hence proper dosages were
impossible to determine.

3.2 Ethnobotanical calculations

3.2.1 Use value

The UVs calculated for each species have been exhibited by a line graph as shown in
Fig.  8. Withania somnifera had the maximum UV and Terminalia arjuna had the lowest
value. This means Withania somnifera is the most important medicinal plant with maxi-
mum uses and Terminalia arjuna has negligible uses.

3.2.2 Relative frequency of citation

Line graph of the RCF values is shown in Fig. 9. Aloe vera had the highest RCF value, and
Aconitum ferox had the least RFC value. This means Aloe vera is the most frequently cited
species, and Aconitum ferox is the least frequently cited species. So Aloe vera is the most
useful, and Aconitum ferox is the least useful medicinal plant to locals.

13
 Table 3  Common names, scientific names, local names, parts used, method of preparation and ethnobotanical uses of medicinal plants along with number of mentions by
informants
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

1 Ranunculaceae Aconitum ferox Wall Katbish Indian aconite Roots Paste/juice Cough, fever, 15
inflammation,
neuralgia, asthma,
bronchitis, diabe-
tes, gout, cardiac
tonic
2 Aconitum hetero- Ataicha Indian atees Roots Infusion, paste, Anti-pyretic, 38
phyllum Wall. Cat extract/juice anti-helminthic,
malaria, common
cold, influenza,
diarrhoea
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

3 Guttiferae Mesua ferrea Linn Nag Keshar Ceylon ironwood Flower, leaves, Powder, paste, oil Menstrual disorders 25
seeds, roots diuretic, cardiot-
onic, blood puri-
fier, anti-asthma,
anti-allergy, sores,
rheumatism, snake
bite

13

Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

13
4 Meliaceae Azadirachta indica L Neem Indian lilac Leaves, seeds, twigs Paste, juice, gel, oil Cures pimples, 117
rashes, dental
problems, anti-
plaque, anti-bac-
terial, anti-fungal,
eye infections,
controls blood
pressure, blood
purifier, gingivitis,
fever, diabetes,
liver problems,
bloody nose,
diarrhoea, birth
control, intestinal
worms, abortifa-
cient, skin ulcer,
loss of appetite,
mosquito repellent
5 Piperaceae Piper betle L Paan Betel Leaves Eaten raw Carminative, 56
stimulant, laxa-
tive, astringent,
anti-helminthic,
religious uses
6 Arecaceae Areca Catechu L Supari Areca nut palm Nut Eaten with piper Astringent, 55
betle stimulant, relieves
drowsiness and
abdominal dis-
comfort, diuretic
T. Dutta et al.
 Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

7 Apiaceae Foeniculum vulgare Mouri Fennel Seeds Eaten raw, used as Cures heartburn, 40
Mill a spice Gas, loss of
appetite, colic in
infants
8 Piperaceae Piper nigrum L Gol Marich Black pepper Fruit Dried fruit used as Controls hyperten- 36
spice, tea infusion sion, asthma, cold
and cough, anti-
inflammatory
9 Acanthaceae Adhatoda Vasica Bashok Malabar nut Leaves Leaf juice, infusion Leprosy, bronchitis, 27
Nees heart disorders,
blood circulation,
vomiting, anae-
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

mia, leukoderma,
gonorrhoea
10 Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L Roshun Garlic Roots Paste, infusion Control of choles- 30
terol and hyperten-
sion, Cold and
cough, Flatulence,
Intestinal worms
11 Asparagaceae Asparagus rac- Shatamul Wild asparagus Leaves, shoots Cooked as a vegeta- Dyspepsia, bron- 28
emoses Willd ble, leaf juice is chitis, diarrhoea,
ingested tuberculosis,
dementia
12 Amaryllidaceae Allium cepa L Peyaj Onion Bulbs, stem Cooked, eaten raw, Anti-dandruff, hair 35
fried, infusion, growth, blood
juice pressure and cho-
lesterol control,
asthma, cough and
cold

13

Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

13
13 Caricaceae Carica Papaya L Pepe Papaya Fruit Eaten raw, juice Sinus, warts, corns, 38
dyspepsia, blood
pressure, constipa-
tion, amenorrhoea,
infertility
14 Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L Holud Turmeric Rhizome Powder, paste Anti-septic, wound 40
healing, arthritis,
skin and stomach
infections
15 Malvaceae Hibiscus Rosa- Joba Hibiscus Flower Tea infusion, paste Anti-pyretic, hair 23
sinensis L growth, nerve
diseases, diuretic,
liver disease, cold
16 Lamiaceae Ocimum santum L Tulsi Holy Basil Leaves, flower Juice, tea infusion, Cardiac tonic, diabe- 97
paste, oil, dried tes, kidney stones,
flower and leaf eye infections,
powder headaches, vomit-
ing, cough, cold,
fever, stomach
disorders, asthma
17 Santalaceae Santalum Album L Chandan White Sandalwood Heartwood, fruits Oil, paste, infusion Skin problems, 29
bronchitis, urinary
tract infections,
liver problems,
gall bladder stones
T. Dutta et al.
 Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

18 Berberidaceae Berberis aristata Daru Haridra Indian Barberry Root Powder, infusion, Urinary tract infec- 41
Hook. f. & paste tions, syphilis,
Thompson demulcent, jaun-
dice, diaphoretic,
diuretic, diarrhoea,
analgesic
19 Sapindaceae Sapindus Trifoliatus Reetha Soap berry Nuts, fruits Extract, paste, Gout, dandruff, pso- 25
Linn powder riasis, rheumatism,
eczema
20 Gentianaceae Swertia Chirata Chirata Bitter Stick Whole plant Infusion, juice Liver function 21
Buch.-Ham. ex promoter, blood
C.B. Clarke purifier, laxative,
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

upset stomach,
loss of appetite,
fever, carminative,
helps in menstrual
pain
21 Combretaceae Terminallia Arjun Arjun Tree Bark Powder, infusion Bile disorders, 17
Arjuna(Roxb. ex poisoning, insect
DC.) Wight & Arn bites, asthma,
atherosclerosis,
cardiomyopathy,
ischemic
22 Zingiberaceae Zingiber Officinale Aada Ginger Rhizome Paste, infusion Diabetes, menstrual 47
Roscoe pain, morning
sickness, stomach
disorders, anti-
inflammatory

13

Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

13
23 Myrtaceae Syzgium cumini (L.) Jaam Java Plum Berries Eaten raw, juice Diabetes, ulcer, 57
Skeels dysentery, bilious-
ness, asthma, sore
throat, laxative
24 Syzygium aromati- Lobongo Clove Flower buds Dried powder, infu- Cold, cough, tooth- 45
cum L sion ache, sore throat,
gum swelling, bad
breath, blocked
nose
25 Pinaceae Cedrus deodar Debdaru Cedar Tree Bark, leaves Powder, infusion Piles, insomnia, 26
(Roxb.) Loud joint pain, kidney
stones, flatulence,
pulmonary dis-
orders
26 Acoraceae Acorus calamus L Bacha Sweet Flag Rhizome Powder, paste Gastritis, ulcer, 51
diarrhoea, upset
stomach, intestinal
worms, toothache
27 Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus L Bada Nut Sedge Leaves, rhizomes Paste, powder Diabetes, pyrosis, 47
malaria
28 Euphorbiaceae Baliospermum Danti Red Physic Nut Roots, seeds Paste Oedema, pain, as 56
montanum (Willd.) a blood puri-
Müll. Arg fier, anti-pyretic,
purgative
T. Dutta et al.
 Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

29 Rubiaceae Rubia cordifolia L Manjistha Indian Madder Roots, stems Paste, infusion Enterocolitis, diabe- 83
tes, Alzheimer’s
disease, allergy,
acne, rheumatism,
bronchitis, men-
strual heavy flow
30 Euphorbiaceae Ricinus communis L Era Gachh Castor Seeds Oil Bilharziasis, pla- 49
cental expulsion,
muscle pain, back
pain, menstrual
pain, gall bladder,
insomnia
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

31 Lauraceae Cinnamomum cam- Kappur Camphor Leaves, bark Oil Congestion, infec- 31
phora L tion, inflamma-
tion, hysteria,
pneumonia
32 Myristicaceae Myristica fragrans Jayaphal Nutmeg Seeds Grated seed coat, Stomach ulcers, 29
Houtt paste, powder muscle ache,
indigestion, liver
disorders, nervine,
emmenagogue,
diaphoretic, diu-
retic, aphrodisiac

13

Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

13
33 Apiaceae Centella asiatica Thankuni Indian pennywort Leaf Juice, infusion, paste Nerve and brain dis- 39
(L.) Urb orders, improves
memory, blood
circulation, wound
healing, leprosy,
lupus, controls
hypertension,
diabetes, eczema
34 Burseraceae Commiphora wightii Guggulu Indian Myrhh Gum/ resin Dried resin Leprosy, pyor- 16
(Arnott.) Bhand rhoea, hemiple-
gia, opthalmia,
ischemia, pyelitis,
urinary tract infec-
tion
35 Punicaceae Punica granatum L Daalim Pomegranate Fruits Juice Sore throat, tape- 41
worm, anaemia,
arthritis
36 Fabaceae Clitoria ternatea L. Aparajita Blue Pea Flower Flower Tea infusion, juice Anxiolytic, 18
(CT) nootropic, stress
reliever, sedative,
anti-depressant,
anticonvulsant
37 Bombacaceae Bombax malabari- Simul Red Cotton Tree Fruits, seeds, bark, Infusion, powder Diuretic, invigorat- 12
cum DC flowers ing, expectorant,
acne, astringent,
laxative, demul-
cent, anti-inflam-
matory, dysentery,
aphrodisiac
T. Dutta et al.
 Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

38 Dipterocarpaceae Shorea robusta Sal Sal Tree Seeds, fruits Oil Nerve pain, burns, 15
Gaertn spleen enlarge-
ment, fever,
menorrhagia, cold,
leucorrhoea, piles,
diarrhoea
39 Rutaceae Citrus limon L Lebu Lemon Fruit, leaves Juice Loss of appetite, 70
teeth problems,
digestive disor-
ders, scurvy, flu,
tinnitus, vomiting,
Meniere’s disease,
kidney stones
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

40 Zanthxylum alatum Tejovati Prickly Ash Leaves, fruits Paste Bronchitis, asthma, 18
DC indigestion, diar-
rhoea, varicose
veins, cholera,
dyspepsia
41 Lamiaceae Mentha L Pudina Peppermint Leaves Paste, juice, eaten Gastritis, acid 96
raw reflux, inflamma-
tion, flatulence,
irritable bowel
syndrome anal-
gesic, decrease
breast feeding
pain, improve
brain function,
removes bad
breath

13

Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

13
42 Fabaceae Cassia absus L Chaksu Pig’s Senna Leaves, seeds Cooked and eaten Kidney stones, liver 34
cirrhosis, urinary
tract infectionseye
infections
43 Rosaceae Rosa damascena Golap Damask Rose Flower Tea infusion Anti-oxidant, 31
Mill astringent, rashes,
incisions, reduces
cholesterol
44 Apiaceae Apium graveolens L Ajamoda Celery Root Eaten as vegetable Nasal congestion, 16
fluid retention, flu,
cold, cough, indi-
gestion, migraine,
reproductive
problems
45 Detarioideae Saraka asoca Roxb Ashok Asoka Tree Bark Powder Abortifacient, hor- 29
monal disorders,
menorrhagia,
ulcer, biliousness
T. Dutta et al.
 Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

46 Phyllanthaceae Emblica officinalis Amla Indian Gooseberry Fruit Raw, infusion, Jaundice, hypolipi- 44
Gaertn fermented juice, demic, hepato-pro-
syrup, dried tective, diarrhoea,
powder antiscorbutic,
diuretic, anti-dys-
enteric, anti-oxi-
dants, anti-plaque,
promotes hair
growth, good for
skin, anti-biotic,
anti-hypertensive,
hypoglycaemic,
immunity booster,
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

component of
Triphala
47 Combretaceae Terminalia bellirica Bhibhitaki Bastard Myrobalan Fruit Dried powder, raw Component of 32
(Gaertn.) Roxb triphala, laxative,
febrifuge, astrin-
gent, diuretic,
cardio-tonic,
anti-hypertensive,
hypolipidic, hypo-
glycaemic
48 Terminalia chebula Hartaki Chebulic Myrobalan Fruit, fruit rind Dried powder, raw 29
Retz

13

Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

13
49 Asphodelaceae Aloe vera Mill Dhrito Kumari Indian Aloe Leaves Gel, juice Laxative, carmina- 114
tive, abortifacient,
eczema, itchiness,
inflammation,
wound healing,
burns, boils, dia-
betes, arthritis
50 Solanaceae Withania somnifera Aswagandha Indian Ginseng Roots, fruits root paste topically Diuretic, anti- 71
(L.) Dunal applied, berries pyretic, deobstru-
ingested ent, Parkinson’s
disease, male
infertility, steril-
ity, menstrual
disorders, stress,
insomnia, hyper-
tension, diabetes,
debility, premature
aging
51 Plantaginaceae Bacopa monneiri Brahmi Water Hyssop Leaves Juice Anxiolytic, reduces 82
(Linn.) Pennell stress, ADHD,
blood pressure,
depression,
improves memory
and sleep, boost
brain, treats epi-
lepsy, alzheimer’s
disease
T. Dutta et al.
 Table 3  (continued)
Sl. No Family Scientific name Local name English name Plant part used Method of prepara- Applications No. of mentions
tion

52 Apiaceae Cuminum cyminum Jeera Cumin Seeds Infusion, as a spice Gastritis, dyspepsia, 53
L blotting, nausea,
diabetes, high
cholesterol
53 Fabaceae Glycyrrhiza glabra Jasthi Madhu Liquorice Roots Juice, paste, infusion Bronchitis, ulcer, 62
Torr gastritis, asthma,
rheumatism, indi-
gestion, insomnia,
inflammation,
menstrual pain,
helps in weight-
loss
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

13
 T. Dutta et al.

50

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

Fig.4  Boxplot of the activity range of the 53 medicinal plant species as reported by informants. The lower
limits signify minimum number of use mentions or therapeutic applications and upper limits the maximum
use mentions by informants. Constructed by MS Excel 2010

18

16

14

12

10

0
root flower leaves seeds fruits stem rhizome bark wood gum
and bulbs

Fig. 5  Bar chart of different plant parts used

a b
paste
3%
7%
19% juice
5% powder
oral
TOPICAL 27.67

8% infusion
syrup
4% 15% extract
4%
eaten raw
ORAL
topical 72.33
cooked
18% 17% oil
gel
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Fig. 6  a Method of preparation of traditional medicines; b mode of administration of the herbal medicines

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

digesvesystem
Digesve system
32
circulatorysystem
Circulatory system

sensorySystem
Sensory system

musculo skeletalSystem
Musculo-Skeletal system
21
nervousSystem
Nervous system

16
reproducveSystem
Reproducve system
15
14
endocrineSystem
Endocrine system
11
10
9 Urinogenitalsystem
Urinogenital system

6
5
RespiratorySystem
Respiratory system
4

InfecousDiseases
Infecous diseases

Skin and hair problems

Fig. 7  Number of plants used for different groups of diseases

0.25

0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

Fig. 8  Line graph depicting use values of medicinal plant species

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

Fig. 9  Line graph with markers and trend line of RFC values of medicinal plants reported

13
 T. Dutta et al.

2.5

1.5

0.5

PP AC RI

Fig. 10  Line graphs comparing the PP, AC and RI values

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
120 140

120
100

100
80

80
60
60

40
40

20
20

0 0

IP FL IU

Fig. 11  Fidelity Level (FL), Ip (number of informants citing the plant for a certain purpose), Iu (all citations
of the given species)

3.2.3 Relative importance

Neem or Azadirachta indica has the highest relative importance with maximum number of
uses against ailment categories and having highest pharmacological value. Line graphs of
RI are provided in Fig. 10.

3.2.4 Fidelity level

Glycyrrhiza glabra had the highest FL value for bronchitis meaning that maximum propor-
tion amongst the informants of Glycyrrhiza glabra suggested its use for the treatment of
bronchitis. A comparison of Iu, Ip and FL values is given in Fig. 11.

3.2.5 Informant agreement ratio

IAR values are tabulated in Table  4. The different IAR values are provided in Table  4.
Urino-genital system had the highest agreement ratio of informants, i.e. they agreed the
most with each other on the traditional treatment on urino-genital system. Total IAR was
9.818511 which is a high value indicating high overall agreement amongst the informants.
IAR values are shown in graphical format in Fig. 12.

13
 Table 4  Diseases with the IAR values
Category Diseases Number of use reports Number of taxa IAR
(Nur) (Nt)

Digestive system Irritable bowel syndrome, gastritis, flatulence, blotting, gall bladder, liver 247 21 0.918699
problems, colic, upset stomach, dysentery, diarrhoea, piles
Circulatory system Hypertension, atherosclerosis, anaemia, cholesterol, ischemia, coronary 290 32 0.892734
heart disease, cardiomyopathy, arrhythmias, blood circulation obstruc-
tions
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

Sensory system Eye and ear infections, dental plaque, toothache 54 6 0.90566
Musculo-skeletal system Rheumatism, arthritis, muscular pain 70 10 0.869565
Nervous system Hysteria, ADHD, memory loss, Alzheimer’s disease, epilepsy 31 4 0.9
Reproductive system Menstrual pain, amenorrhoea, menorrhagia, sterility, Abortions 132 16 0.885496
Endocrine system Diabetes, thyroid disorders 97 15 0.854167
Urogenital system UTIs, bladder disorders, kidney stones 150 11 0.932886
Respiratory system Asthma, Cold, Cough, Nasal congestion, Bronchitis, Pneumonia 93 14 0.858696
Infectious diseases Intestinal parasites, malaria, jaundice, cholera, leprosy 71 9 0.885714
Skin and hair problems Dandruff, eczema, wounds, burns, boils, rashes, allergy 48 5 0.914894
Total: 9.818511

13
 T. Dutta et al.

Informant agreement rao (IAR)

1
350 0.94

11 0.92 2

300 0.9

0.88

250 10 0.86 3

0.84

200 0.82

0.8

150 9 4

100

8 5
50

0 7 6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
IAR Nur Nt

Fig. 12  IAR, Nur and Nt values represented in form of scatter gram and radial area graphs

3.2.6 Family use value

The most important or useful family was Ranunculaceae. It had 2 species Aconitum hetero-
phyllum and Aconitum ferox. The Families with family use values (FUVs) are presented in
Fig. 13.

3.3 Conservation status and sustainable use of the medicinal plants

The IUCN status of the plants is presented in Table 5. The native practitioners knew sus-
tainable use of the different species as depicted by the least concern, or LC, status of the
majority of plants. These herbalists mainly grow the plants in home gardens or in small
farms, which does not damage the local environment or the ecological stability of the

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

0.2

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

Fig. 13  Bar graph of FUVs of different recorded families

region. The demand for the products are relatively low, and hence, the consumption is mea-
gre. So the yield from such minuscule lands and gardens is enough to satisfy the amount of
raw material needed to meet the local demands. But as the corporate ownership of natural
habitats and agricultural lands grow, the conservation status of the plants is threatened.
Large-scale deforestation and usurpation of land occurs followed by conversion of natu-
ral environments into plantations. As a result, the ecological stability is affected and the
populations of the related organisms are dwindled. The food webs are affected and might
result in anthropogenic selection of certain pests or decrease in the population of pollina-
tors which thereby further decrease the native plant species propagation. The medicinal
plant species were also grown by the locals in their home gardens, and some were self-pre-
scribed. These home gardens serve as reservoirs for the species when their wild varieties
are being exploited and diminished and hence can be considered as an effective tool for ex
situ conservation. The status in Kolkata is quite similar to what seen in urban areas of other
developing countries (Balick & Cox, 1997).

4 Discussion

Though traditional botanical knowledge (TBK) has widely been accepted by urbans, there
are still a number of stones in the path of its progression. The first idea which comes in
mind of urban civilians when they are introduced to a new plant used as a medicine by
rural communities is the fear of toxicity. Another limitation can be the lack of scientific
research validating the efficiency and working principles of the majority of the species
involved due to which people refuse to believe in its fruitfulness. These medicines work
slower than allopathy and require messy preparations and hence citizens tend to use com-
mercial pharmaceuticals giving instant or rapid relief and whose application is relatively
easier. Majority people will prefer getting their medicines delivered at their doorsteps than
spending hours grinding pastes or extracting juices out of leaves, roots, etc. Media plays
an important role in spreading awareness, establishing facts and clearing the concepts of

13
 T. Dutta et al.

Table 5  Conservation status of Sl. No Scientific names IUCN status

the different species 
1 Aconitum ferox EN
2 Aconitum heterophyllum EN
3 Mesua ferrea LC
4 Azadirachta indica LC
5 Piper betle LC
6 Areca catechu DD
7 Foeniculum vulgare NT
8 Piper nigrum LC
9 Adhatoda vasica EN
10 Allium sativum LC
11 Asparagus racemoses VU
12 Allium cepa LC
13 Carica papaya DD
14 Curcuma longa LC
15 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis LC
16 Ocimum sanctum LC
17 Santalum album NT
18 Berberis aristata LC
19 Sapindus Trifoliatus LC
20 Swertia chirata LC
21 Terminallia arjuna LC
22 Zingiber officinale LC
23 Syzgium cumini LC
24 Syzygium aromaticum LC
25 Cedrus deodar VU
26 Acorus calamus LC
27 Cyperus rotundus LC
28 Baliospermum montanum LC
29 Rubia cordifolia LC
30 Ricinus communis LC
31 Cinnamomum Camphora LC
32 Myristica fragrans LC
33 Centella asiatica LC
34 Commiphora wightii LC
35 Punica granatum LC
36 Clitoria ternatea LC
37 Bombax malabaricum LC
38 Shorea robusta VU
39 Citrus limon LC
40 Zanthxylum alatum LC
41 Mentha LC
42 Cassia absus LC
43 Rosa damascena LC
44 Apium graveolens LC
45 Saraka asoca VU
46 Emblica officinalis LC

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

Table 5  (continued) Sl. No Scientific names IUCN status

47 Terminalia chebula VU
48 Terminalia bellirica LC
49 Aloe vera LC
50 Withania somnifera LC
51 Bacopa monneiri LC
52 Cuminum cyminum LC
53 Glycyrrhiza glabra LC

EN endangered, LC least concern, DD data deficient, NT near threat-

ened, VU vulnerable

viewers but at the same time may be misused to spread false rumours or create panic in
the commons. In spite of that, a number of ethnobotanical surveys have been conducted in
different parts of the globe depicting the usage of medicinal plants by the urban folks and
a number of cross-cultural adaptations of ethnobotany in urban context (Ceuterick et al.,
2008; Hurrell, 2014). The present study depicts the urban ethnobotany of one of the oldest
and populated Indian city Kolkata with its true cosmopolitan essence of using ethnobotani-
cals in synergism with Ayurveda, Unani and other medicinal systems.
Traditional medicinal knowledge is mainly passed verbally from one generation to
another. The main limitation to traditional practices comes from the lack of customers or
patients resulting in loss of market and reluctance of younger generations to continue this
practice. Coming to the conservation of these plant species, the majority of the species
had IUCN status of LC and hence are not currently endangered. The home gardens also
serve as reservoirs for these plants. The diseases mainly treated were hypertension, hyper-
glycaemia and urinary disorders which were the result of the lifestyle of urbans. The sec-
ond important group was digestive diseases which might also be a result of unhealthy food
and lifestyle associated with urbans. Hence the ethnic herbalists originally coming from a
rural area, his practices and medications got accustomed to lifestyle diseases of urbans and
hence lead to erosion of TBK of rural diseases in the descendants.
Urban ethnobotanical uses of many medicinal plants cited in this present study have
been reported for similar or different uses. Withanania somnifera was termed as the most
useful plant for medicinal purposes. Aloe vera was the most frequently named species by
the informants, and Azadirachta indica was the most versatile plant used for treating the
maximum variety of ailments. This indicated that the informants regarded Withania som-
nifera as having the highest therapeutic importance even if Azadirachta indica had the
highest number of uses. Withania somnifera had the second highest RI value, even if it
was regarded as the most important medicinal plant species. These differences might be
due to knowledge and cultural differences between the informants. In the present study,
many novel uses of the medicinal plants were also noted which were not recorded earlier.
For example, Aconitum ferox was earlier reported against neuralgia, asthma, diabetes and
inflammation (Purohit, 2013) which is also supported by the present study. Similarly, uses
of Mesua ferrea and Azadirachta indica in the existing ethnobotanical literature are also
supported by their reports in the present investigation. However, in spite of some phar-
macological reports, ethnobotanical uses of Ricinus communis against bilharziasis, Rubia
cordifolia against Alzheimer’s disease and enterocolitis, Cyperus rotundus against pyrosis,
etc., have been reported as novel use in this present survey. However, many of these claims
are needed to be validated by scientific studies on in vivo and/or clinical studies.

13
 T. Dutta et al.

5 Conclusion

Kolkata is inhabited by a number of communities with their age old traditional practices
regarding the use of medicinal plants. In the present survey, it was found that Kolkata
has a splendid variety of medicinal plants being both used in commercial medicinal
purposes and cultivated in home gardens. The present study analysed the use of a total
of 53 medicinal plant species belonging to 36 different families prescribed by the urban
ethnobotany practitioners and their prescribed medicine sold by variety of medicinal
shops across the city. This work is among the very few urban ethnobotanical surveys
conducted in any Asian city especially in India. Many of these reported medicinal plants
house a number of bioactive constituents with potential therapeutic use. Further phyto-
chemical investigations and bioactive guided isolation of important phyto-constituents
may reveal the underlying mechanism of action of the plant extracts, preparations or the
isolated compounds. This way, the cross-cultural adaptations as well as pluralism of the
urban ethnobotanical knowledge of Kolkata can be validated, exploited and preserved in
order to be used against human morbidity and mortality.

References
Ahmad, I., & Beg, A. Z. (2001). Antimicrobial and phytochemical studies on 45 Indian medicinal plants
against multi-drug resistant human pathogens. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 74(2), 113–123
Akerele, O. (1993). Nature’s medicinal bounty: Don’t throw it away. World health forum, 14(4), 390–395
Albuquerque, U. P., da Cunha, L. V. F. C., De Lucena, R. F. P., & Alves, R. R. N. (Eds.). (2014). Meth-
ods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology. (p. 1537). New York: Springer.
Albuquerque, U. P., Lucena, R. F., Monteiro, J. M., Florentino, A. T., & Ramos, M. A. (2006). Almeida
CFCBR: Evaluating two quantitative ethnobotanical techniques. Ethnobotany Research and Appli-
cations, 4, 051–060
Arenas, P. M., Molares, S., Aguilar Contreras, A., Doumecq, B., & Gabrielli, F. (2013). Ethnobotani-
cal, micrographic and pharmacological features of plant-based weight-loss products sold in naturist
stores in Mexico City: The need for better quality control. Acta Botanica Brasilica, 27(3), 560–579
Balick, M. J., & Cox, P. A. (1997). Ethnobotanical research and traditional health care in developing
countries. Medicinal Plants for Forest Conservation and Health Care, 92, 12–23
Barkaoui, M., Katiri, A., Boubaker, H., & Msanda, F. (2017). Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants
used in the traditional treatment of diabetes in Chtouka Ait Baha and Tiznit (Western Anti-Atlas),
Morocco. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 198, 338–350
Benz, B. F., Cevallos, J., Santana, F., Rosales, J., & Graf, S. (2000). Losing knowledge about plant use in
the Sierra de Manantlan biosphere reserve. Mexico. Economic Botany, 54(2), 183–191
Bhattacharyya, U. C. (1997). Flora of West Bengal. In Kolkata: Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India.
Ceuterick, M., Vandebroek, I., Torry, B., & Pieroni, A. (2008). Cross-cultural adaptation in urban eth-
nobotany: The Colombian folk pharmacopoeia in London. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 120(3),
342–359
Chakraverty, R. K., & Raychaudhuri, E. (2000). Calcutta metropolis—pollution and plants. Environmental
Stress Indication, Mitigation and Eco conservation. (pp. 299–314). Dordrecht: Springer.
Chatterjee, D., & Bandyopadhyay, A. R. (2015). Perception of self-medication among the university student
of Kolkata. International Journal of Development Rerearch, 6(7), 5065–5069.
Cox, P. A. (1994). The ethnobotanical approach to drug discovery: Strenghts and limitations. In G. T. Prance
(Ed.), Ethnobotany and the search for new drugs (pp. 25–41). Chichester: Wiley (Ciba Foundation
Symposium 185).
Dey, A., & De, J. N. (2012). Ethnobotanical survey of Purulia district, West Bengal, India for medicinal
plants used against gastrointestinal disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 143(1), 68–80
Fabricant, D. S., & Farnsworth, N. R. (2001). The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug dis-
covery. Environmental Health Perspectives, 109(suppl 1), 69–75

13
Urban ethnobotany of Kolkata, India: a case study of…

Farnsworth, N. R. (1990). The role of ethnopharmacology in drug development. Bioactive Compounds from
Plants, 154, 2–21
Firenzuoli, F., & Gori, L. (2007). Herbal medicine today: Clinical and research issues. Evidence-Based
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 4, 37–40
Gleason, H. A. (1956). On authors’ citations in plant names. Rhodora, 58(688), 88–93
Gull, I., Saeed, M., Shaukat, H., Aslam, S. M., Samra, Z. Q., & Athar, A. M. (2012). Inhibitory effect of
Allium sativum and Zingiber officinale extracts on clinically important drug resistant pathogenic
bacteria. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 11(1), 1–6
Harrison, P. (1998). Herbal medicine takes root in Germany. CMAJ, 158(5), 637–639
Heinrich, M., Ankli, A., Frei, B., Weimann, C., & Sticher, O. (1998). Medicinal plants in Mexico: Heal-
ers’ consensus and cultural importance. Social Science & Medicine, 47(11), 1859–1871
Heinrich, M., Edwards, S., Moerman, D. E., & Leonti, M. (2009). Ethnopharmacological field studies: A
critical assessment of their conceptual basis and methods. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 124(1),
1–17
Heinrich, M., & Verpoorte, R. (2014). Good practice in ethnopharmacology and other sciences relying
on taxonomic nomenclature. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 152(3), 385
Hurrell, J. (2014). Urban ethnobotany in Argentina: Theoretical advances and methodological strategies.
Ethnobiology and Conservation, 3, 1–15
Hurrell, J. A., & Pochettino, M. L. (2014). Urban Ethnobotany theoretical and methodological contri-
butions. Methods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology. (pp. 293–309). New York:
Humana Press.
Jawla, S., Gupta, A. K., Singla, R., & Gupta, V. (2009). General awareness and relative popular-
ity of allopathic, ayurvedic and homeopathic systems. Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Research, 1(1), 105–112
Jonas, W. B., Eisenberg, D., Hufford, D., & Crawford, C. (2013). The evolution of complementary and
alternative medicine (CAM) in the USA over the last 20 years. Complementary Medicine Research,
20(1), 65–72
Kalim, M. D., Bhattacharyya, D., Banerjee, A., & Chattopadhyay, S. (2010). Oxidative DNA damage
preventive activity and antioxidant potential of plants used in Unani system of medicine. BMC
Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 10(1), 77
Leitão, F., Fonseca-Kruel, V. S. D., Silva, I. M., & Reinert, F. (2009). Urban ethnobotany in Petróp-
olis and Nova Friburgo (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil). Revista Brasileira De Farmacognosia, 19(1B),
333–342
Lind, B. K., Lafferty, W. E., Grembowski, D. E., & Diehr, P. K. (2006). Complementary and alternative
provider use by insured patients with diabetes in Washington State. Journal of Alternative & Com-
plementary Medicine, 12(1), 71–77
MacLennan, A. H., Wilson, D. H., & Taylor, A. W. (1996). Prevalence and cost of alternative medicine
in Australia. The Lancet, 347(9001), 569–573
Mitra, P. (November 4, 2012). Green Cover loss spells doom for animals. Times of India.
Mukherjee, P. K., Chaudhary, S. K., Bahadur, S., & Debnath, P. K. (2015). Ethnopharmacology and
integrative medicine an Indian perspective. Ethnopharmacology. (pp. 279–292). Chichester: Wiley.
Okoro, C. A., Zhao, G., Li, C., & Balluz, L. S. (2011). Use of complementary and alternative medi-
cine among USA adults with functional limitations: For treatment or general use? Complementary
Therapies in Medicine, 19(4), 208–215
Petkeviciute, Z., Savickiene, N., Savickas, A., Bernatoniene, J., Simaitiene, Z., Kalveniene, Z., & Mekas,
T. A. (2010). Urban ethnobotany study in Samogitia region, Lithuania. Journal of Medicinal Plants
Research, 4(1), 064–071
Phillips, O., Gentry, A. H., Reynel, C., Wilkin, P., & Gálvez-Durand, B. C. (1994). Quantitative ethno-
botany and Amazonian conservation. Conservation Biology, 8(1), 225–248
Pieroni, A., & Privitera, S. (2014). Ethnobotany and its links to medical sciences and public health: Quo
vadis. Z Phytother, 35(02), 58–62
Prance, G. T., Baleé, W., Boom, B. M., & Carneiro, R. L. (1987). Quantitative ethnobotany and the case
for conservation in Ammonia. Conservation Biology, 1(4), 296–310
Purkait, J. A. (2016). Medical Education in Calcutta Madrasah (1820–1835). Volume V March 2016,
2277, 156–168
Purohit, C. S. (2013). Aconitum Ferox Wall. ex Ser.-An important medicinal plant of Sikkim. Popular
Kheti, 1, 71–75
Roy, A. (2012). Banglar Gachh. West Bengal Biodiversity Board.
Sharma, A., Shanker, C., Tyagi, L. K., Singh, M., & Rao, C. V. (2008). Herbal medicine for market potential
in India: An overview. Acad J Plant Sci, 1(2), 26–36

13
 T. Dutta et al.

Szakács, G., Paterson, J. K., Ludwig, J. A., Booth-Genthe, C., & Gottesman, M. M. (2006). Targeting multi-
drug resistance in cancer. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 5(3), 219–234
Ullah, M. F. (2008). Cancer multidrug resistance (MDR): A major impediment to effective chemotherapy.
Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 9(1), 1–6
Vitalini, S., Iriti, M., Puricelli, C., Ciuchi, D., Segale, A., & Fico, G. (2013). Traditional knowledge on
medicinal and food plants used in Val San Giacomo (Sondrio, Italy)—An alpine ethnobotanical study.
Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 145(2), 517–529
Wester, L., & Yongvanit, S. (1995). Biological diversity and community lore in northeastern Thailand.
Journal of Ethnobiology, 15, 71–88
Wu, C. P., Ohnuma, S., & Ambudkar, V. S. (2011). Discovering natural product modulators to overcome
multidrug resistance in cancer chemotherapy. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 12(4), 609–620
Yu, H. C., & Kaarlas, M. (2004). Popularity, diversity, and quality of Echinacea. Echinacea the Genus Echi-
nacea, 39, 127–149

Publisher’s Note  Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

13