Notes on Theon of Smyrna

Author(s): G. C. Vedova
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 58, No. 10 (Dec., 1951), pp. 675-683
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2307978 .
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 NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA
G. C. VEDOVA, NewarkCollegeofEngineering
1. Historical backgroundand meaning. In "The mathematical rules neces-
sary for the study of Plato"* Theon of Smyrna (circa 140 A.D.) states the
followingrule:
Let twounitsbe laidout,ofwhichwetakeoneas thesideand theotheras thediagonal. . .
add to thesidethediagonaland to thediagonaltwosides. . . thediagonalis now3 and
theside2. Again,to thesideadd thediagonaland to thediagonaltwicetheside . . . the
diagonalis now7 and theside 5 ... and theadditionbeingthuscontinuously madethe
ratioalternates,
thesquareon thediagonalbeingnowone morenowone lessthantwice
thesquareon the side ... thereforethesquaresof all thediagonalsare thedoubleof the
squaresofall thesides,alternatelyexceedingorfallingshortby one....
Symbolically, if s, d, denote the side and diagonal numbers obtained at
the nth step, thenTheon's rule gives the formulas

Sn+i = Sn + dn,

dn+l= 2sn + d,

whichyield the sequence of ratios dn/sn.

(1) 1/1,3/2, 7/5, 17/12, 41/29, 99/70, . . .

beginningwith di = 1, si = 1. In this sequence, Theon seems to say, the ratio

dn/snalternates so that dn is now 2s'+1, now 2s'- 1.
J. Dupuis** sees in this the solution,in integers,of the indeterminateequa-
tion y2-2X2= +1; for,suppose y=a, x=b is such a solution.Then a2-2b2
= +1. Form by Theon's rule, the values a'=a+2b, b'=a+b. We have
a'2 - 2b12= (a + 2b)2 - 2(a + b)2 = - a2 + 2b2= - 1,
that is, a', b' is a solution also. Now, a= 1, b= 1 is a solution; hence Theon's
rule gives an infinityof solutions.
However, T. L. Heatht sees in Theon's rule an algorithmforsuccessive ap-
proximations to the square root of 2. For, from y2-2x2= +1 we get y/x
= V/2 1/x2whence the limit y/x= \/2,which shows that the term dn/snOf
the sequence converges to \/2,being alternatelyless and greater.
Theon gave neither a derivation nor a proof of his algorithm. But, from
Proclus't assertion that the Pythagoreans discovered the "side and diagonal"
numbers,and that a proofof theircharacteristicpropertywas given by "him"
in the second book of the "Elements," and taking the "him" in question to be
Euclid, Heath reconstructsthe followingderivation (Book II, Proposition 10):
* Theonde Smyrne,ed. JaquesDupuis,Paris 1892.
** Op. cit., p. 72.
t T. L. Heath,Historyof GreekMathematics, Vol. 1, Oxford,1927.See also G. J. Allman,
GreekGeometry fromThales to Euclid,Dublin,1889.
t T. L. Heath,op. cit., Vol. 1.

675

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676 NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA [December,

If a straightlinebe bisected,and a straightlinebe added to it in a straight.line,

the
squareon thewholewiththeaddedstraight lineand thesquareon theaddedstraight line
both togetherare doubleof the square on the halfand of the square describedon the
straightlinemadeup ofthehalfand theadded straightlineas on one straightline,
which means that ifAB is bisected at C, and the whole line is extended to D, as
in the line below,
A C B D

thenAD2+BD2=2(AC2+CD2), or, settingA C=CB=x, and BD=y,

(2x + y)2 + y2 = 2[X2 + (X + y)2]

whence, by transposition,

(2x + y)2 - 2(x + y)2 = 2x2 -y2

an identity.
From this it is clear, says Heath, that if xl, yi, satisfyeitherof
2x2-y2- 1, 2x2-y2- -1,
then x2=xl+yl, y2=2xl+yl satisfy the other.
E

AAG

BLII\C
B B C c - ~~~~~~~~~D
FIG. 1

A curious derivation of Theon's formulas,due to P. Bergh, is given by M.

Cantor.* The proof as given by Bergh is quoted below, with referenceto
Figuire1:
ABC, ofside snand diagonaldn,and extend
If we startwithan isoscelesrighttriangle,
eachofthelegsa distancedn,to thepointsE and D, and completethetriangle
EBD, then
thenewdiagonalwillbe 2s.+d", and thenewsides"+d". If theperpendiculars A F, CG
are drawntheproofis obvious.
* M. Cantor,Vorlesungen tiberGeschichteder Mathematik,I, p. 437, Leipzig,1880.Also
T. L. Heath,The ElementsofEuclid,I., p. 401. Cambridge,1924.

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1951] NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA 677

It is implied in this constructionthat the sides and diagonals obtained in

the way described are Theon's "side" and "diagonal" numbers; that they can-
not be, however,becomes immediatelyevident when it is noticed that forany
pair sn, dn and Sm, dmof Bergh's numbers we always have d1/s,=din/Sm,an
equality which is never true of Theon's numbers.
It is probablyfar-fetchedto see in this algorithmof Theon's eithera deliber-
ate attempt to solve* the indeterminateequation y2 -2X2 = + 1, or one to find
successive rational approximations to the square root of 2 though,obviously,
considerable success was achieved, incidentally,in both. A clew to what seems
to have been Theon's purpose is provided by a statement**he prefixesto his
rule:
ratio,so
accordingto thehighestand generating
As unityis the principleofall figures,
also is theratioofthediagonalto theside foundin theunit.
This stronglysuggests that Theon, a known Pythagorean,is still trying,some
600 years after the death of Pythagoras, to defend the Master's doctrinethat
the unit is the constituentelement of all numbers and the point that of all
figures.
It has already been said that Proclus definitelyassigned the "side" and
"diagonal" numbers to the Pythagoreans. But it can also be shown that a
derivationof Theon's numbers,proceedingentirelyon Pythagoreanconsidera-
tions is entirelyfeasible. Consider Figures 2, 3, and 4. That d2- 2s2=0 has no
solutions in integerswas known. Hence, that the ratio d/s= V/2could not be

d S~~~~~~~~~~2S

FIG. 2 FIG. 3 FIG. 4

generated by the unit was obvious, since d and s are incommensurable.This

contradictionof the Pythagorean doctrinewas to be combatted. The fact that
x2+y2 = z2 had solutions in integershad been shown both by Pythagoras and
by Plato. Hence, that the relations,
2 2
2s1+ 1 = dl,
2 2
d2 + 1 = 2S2v
* This wouldbe not onlyan anticipation of Diophantusby overa hundredyears,but also a
vast improvement over the paucityof his solutions.
** J. Dupuis,op. cit., p. 72.

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678 NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA [December,

mighthave solutions in integerswas not impossible.These are the cases of Fig-

ures 3 and 4 above. Euclid's theorem (Bk. II, prop. 10) would then come to
mind. The ratio d4/sncould still be found in the unit, though by a limiting
process. The day was saved.
It should be noticedthat the identityof Book II, proposition10, would make
the solution of the more general case, y2 -2X2= ? k possible, forany number k.
Thus, for k = 2, if x1,y, satisfyeitherof

y2 - 2x2= 2, y2 - 2x2 -2

thenxi+y1, 2x1+yi satisfythe other. Now xi= 1, Y1= 2 satisfythe firstof these.
Hence,
(2) 2/1, 4/3, 10/7,24/17, ...

is another sequence of rational approximationsto \/2.But now the ratio dn/sn

alternatesso that the square of the diagonal is now 2 more,now 2 less than twice
the square on the side. The unit does not play now the all-importantrole of
"generatingprinciple."
2. Some generalizations.A generalizationof Theon's Rule to cover the more
general case
y2- 2x2= ? k
has been pointed out. It will be observed,of course, that the biggerthe number
k the sloweris the convergenceof dn/snto V/2. But here is another,more useful
generalization.
Starting with the equation,
y2 - KX2 = C,

and supposing that (xi, yi) is a solution, one may seek numbers m, n, r, s,
which would make
X2 = mx1 + nyl,

y2 = rxl + Syl,

also a solution, that is, such that

Y2- Kx2 (rx1 + syl) - K(mxl + nyl) = C.

This would give

(A) (rx-+ syi) -K(mxl + nyi) - 2Kx

whence
2 2 22 222 2
(s - Kn )yj + 2(rs - Kmn)xlyl + (r -Km )xi --y Kx1.

If, now, m, n, r, s are chosen to satisfythe conditions,

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1951] NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA 679

s2- Kn2 = 1,
(B) rs-Kmn = O,
r2- Km2 = - K,
then (A) will become an identityand (x2, y2) a solution.* This would give the
recursionformula,

Y2 = rx, + syil,
X2= mx1 + nyl,

forthe sequence yil/xi,y2/x2, y3/X3, * * of successive rational approximationsto

V/K, fromabove if C>0, from below if C<0, the convergencebeing rapid or
slow according as ICl is small or large.
If successive rational approximationsalternatelyfromabove and below were
desired, then numbers m, n, r, s could be sought such that if xi, Yi satisfied
either of y2 - Kx2 = C, y2 - Kx2 = - C, then
X2= mx1 + nyl,

Y2 = rx, + syl,
would satisfythe other. This would lead to the condition
(rxl + Sy,)2 - K(mxl + nyl)2 = -Yi2 + Kx12,

and hence to the system

S2- Kn2 = - 1
(C) rs-Kmn= 0,
r2- Km2 = K,
which, if solvable for m, n, r, s, would lead to the required approximations.
Thus, to find rational approximations to a/5, fromabove, we may start
with y2 - 5x2=1, taking X2=4, yi=9 as a firstsolution. Then, from (B), with
K=5, satisfiedby m=9, n=4, r=20, s=9, we would get
X2 = 9X1 + 4yi,

y2 = 20xl + 9yi,
as a recursionformula,and fromthis the sequence
(3) 9/4, 161/72, 2889/1292, ...

of rational approximationsto a/5 fromabove.

Again, starting with y2- 5X2= -1, taking x, =1, y, =2, as a first solution
* The chargeis oftenmadeagainsttheancientsthattheyfailedto make (at timesobvious)
But herethe solutionofy2-2x2=k wouldnot serveTheon's purposeexceptfor
generalizations.
k=1, and thesolutionof themoregeneraly2-Kx2 = C was altogether
beyondhimsincetheonly
identity(A) availableto himwas theone forthecase K=2 (Eucl. BK II, 10).

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680 NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA [December,

and proceedingas above we would findthe same recursionformula(it may be

seen, from(B) or (C) that m, n, r, s are independentof the constant C of the
equations y2- Kx2 = + C) whichyields the sequence
(4) 2/1, 38/17,682/305,*
of rational approximationsto -V5frombelow.
Finally,startingwithy2- 5x2 -1, and the firstsolutionx= 1, yi=2, we
get, from

(rx, + syl) - 5(mxl + nyl) = - (y -5X),

the conditions
2- 5n2 = -1,
rs - 5mn= 0,
r2- 5m2 = 5,
satisfiedby m =2, n =1, r =5, s =2, and thus the recursionformula,
X2= 2x1 + yi,
'V2= 5X1 + 2Yi,
whichyieldsthe sequence
(5) 2/1, 9/4, 38/17,682/305,*
of rational approximationsto a/5, alternatelyfrombelow and above.
We inquirenow into the necessaryand sufficient conditionsunder whichthe
method outlined above is effective.Suppose rational approximationsto a/K, K
not a perfectsquare, are to be found.We finda solutionof y2 - Kx2 = C (this can
always be done by choosing C suitably)* and then seek numbersm, n, r, s, to
satisfy conditions (B) or (C), above, for a monotonic or an alternating se-
quence, respectively.
Conditions (B) lead to
K = rs/mn,s = m= V/rn+ 1-=/Kn2 + 1, whence m2- Kn2= 1.
Now m2- Kn2 = 1 is always solvable in integers;**hence the monotonicse-
quence of rational approximationscan always be found,the convergencebeing
frombelow or above according as C<0 or C>0.
Conditions (C) lead to:
K = rs/mn, s= m = Vrn-1=-/Kn2-1, whence m2 - Kn2=-1.
This last equation is solvable in integersonly if the number of quotients in

* Forexample,we can take x =1, C = tP-K, wheret2is the smallestsquaregreaterthanK;

thisyieldsy=t. Thus x=1, y=t is a solution.
Algebra,Part II, p. 450. Edinburgh,1889.
** See G. Chrystal,

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1951] NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA 681

the period of the development of V\K as a simple continued fractionis odd;*

hence, the alternatingsequence of rational approximationscan be foundonly if
the period of V/K is odd.
This method does not seem to be capable of extension to the findingof
rational approximations to roots of higherindex, that is, to YK, v> 2. For, to
findthe vth root of K one begins with
yV - Kx' = C,

and the solutionx = xi, y = yi, whichmay be foundforany K by a suitable choice

of C. Then, assuming
X2 = mx1 + nyl,

y2 = rx, + Syl,
one seeks rational values of m, n, r, s that will make

(rx, + syl) - K(mxl + nyi) = y- Kx;

an identity.This leads to the conditions:

(1) rv- Km" = -K,
(2) r-ls -Km-ln = 0,
(3) r-2s2 - Km-2n2 = 0,

(v-1) r2s-2 - Km2n-2 = 0,

(v) rsv-l - Kmn-' = 0,
(v + 1) Sp_ Kn' = + 1.
If non-zero solutions of this system exist, then from (2) and (3) we find
r/s= m/n where nr/ms= 1; then from(3) we find
rp-2s2 rp-2s2 n2r2 rv
K= = = =_
m'-2n2 m-2n2 m2s2 mP

Hence, a necessaryconditionforsuch a solution to exist is that K be a perfect

vth power of a rational number. But in such a case rational approximationsto
VK are unnecessary.
We examine now the possibilityof zero solutions. We find:
(a) If r-'O, then m = 1, n = O, s = 1 and (D) becomes x2= x1, Y2 =y1, whichyields
no convergentsequence.
(b) If n = 0, the same result is obtained.
(c) If m=O, then K= -(r)P, a perfectvth power.
(d) If s = O, then K = -(1/n)', a perfectvth power again.
Hence, under any assumptions,no useful results are obtained.
* G. Chrystal,
op. cit., p. 451.

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682 NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA [December,

3. Relationships to continued fractions.It has probably been noticed by

the reader that sequences (1) and (5), above, are the convergentsof the simple
continued fractionexpansions of \/2and aV5, respectively,and that sequences
(3) and (4) are, respectively,the even and odd convergentsof the same expan-
sion of V/5.In a mannerthat is consistentwith continued fractiontheory,they
converge to \15 fromabove and below. The terms of sequence (2), however,
are not the successive convergentsof the simple continuedfractionexpansion of
V/2,nor, in general,are the successive alternatingrational approximations

(E) y1/x1,y2/X2,y3/x3,* * *, yi/Xi ..

to VK, obtained by this method fromthe firstsolution xi, y, of the equation

y2- Kx2 = C, the convergentsof the simplecontinuedfractionexpansion of -VIK,
though they are the convergentsof a continued fractionexpansion of \/K of a
more general type. For, if y1/xl, y2/x2, y3/x3, , are the convergents of the
continued fraction
b2 b3
(F) a, + _ ...
a2 + a3 +
then
yi = aiyi-l + biYi-2,
(G)
xi = aixi-1 + bixi-2,
with the initial conditions yo = 1, y = a1; xi = 1, X2= a2. Hence, since yiil/xi-l
$Yi-2/Xi-2, we can solve forai and bi. In other words, the termsof (E) above
are the convergentsof some general continued fraction(F).
Again, if (F) is to be a simplecontinuedfraction,thenbi= 1, fori = 2, 3,
and (G) becomes
(H) yi = aiyiil + yi-2,

xi = aixi-1 + Xi-2,

whence it followsthat
(I) ysxi.-yi - (-l)i.

Hence, if the termsof (E) are to be the convergentsof the simple continued
fractionexpansion of VIK, then,from(I),

(li=yixi-l -yi-lxi = xi-,(rxi-i + syi,) - yi-,(mxi-i + nyi-1)

2 2
= rx- l-nyi-i + SXi-lYi - mxilyii
2 2
= rxi- -lnyi-, since s = m,
2 2
= n(Kxil - yi1), since K = rs/mn = r/n.

Hence, fori=2,

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1951] NOTES ON THEON OF SMYRNA 683

1 = n(Kxi - yi) = - nC, since xi, yi is a solutionof y - Kx = C

by hypothesis. Now n and C are integers,and n is positive; therefore,n = 1,
C= -1.
We have found that K must satisfy the condition m2-Kn2 -1 for an
alternatingsequence (E) to exist. If n= 1 this gives K=m2+1. We conclude
then that the necessary conditions for the terms of (E) to be the successive
convergentsof the simple continued fractionexpansion of VK are:
(1) The period of VK must be odd,
(2) K must have the formm2+1,
(3) x1,y,mustbe a solutionof y2-KX2--1.
It is easy to show that these conditionsare also sufficient.But the firstof the
above conditions is implied by the second; for if K =m2+1 then it is easily
found that
1
K = m+ **
2m+
a recurringcontinued fractionof period 1. Hence, (E) will representthe con-
vergentsof the simple continued fractionexpansion of VK if and only if K is
of formm2+1 and xi, Yi is a solution of y2-KX2= -1. It will be seen now that
sequences (1) and (5), above, are instances of (E) for K=2 = 12+1 and K=5
=22+1.

4. Remarks. The main usefulnessof this method lies in the ease with which
it provides rational approximationsto pure quadratic surds. Thus, to findan
alternatingsequence of rational approximationsto V\13we may proceed thus:
We have: K = r/n= 13/1= 26/2 = 39/3 = 52/4 = 65/5 = *.
We stop at 65/5, for 5 X65 - 1 = 324, a perfectsquare.
Hence, r=65, n=5, s=m=18, and thus
Y2 = 65x, + 18yi,
X2 = 18x, + 5yi.
We solve now equation y2- 13x2= C.
Take x1=1; A =13+C; take C=3; this gives y,=4.
Hence, y/x=4/1, 137/38, 4936/1369, 177833/49322, is a sequence of
rational approximations to V\13 from above and from below alternately.
The third term of this sequence agrees with its limit to six decimal places.
For it is easy to see that the errorEn, made in taking the nth termforthe limit
of the general alternatingsequence, satisfiesthe condition
(n < I YnlXn Yn+l/Xn+l I .
This reduces,by (I) abo-re,to the well-knownform
En < J1/XnXn+l I
if the sequence is the sequence of convergentsof a simple continued fraction,

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