62.

23 Pythagoras in Higher Dimensions: Three Approaches

Author(s): Lewis Hull, Hazel Perfect and J. Heading
Source: The Mathematical Gazette, Vol. 62, No. 421 (Oct., 1978), pp. 206-211
Published by: Mathematical Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3616695
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206 THE MATHEMATICAL
GAZETTE

The similarityratio between the k-gons is equal to the ratio rB/rA of their
incircle radii and hence has the value Icos(37r/k)/cos(7/k)l (see Fig. 1),
which is a fixed positive number less than 1.
So, iterating this process, we ultimately get a regular lattice k-gon of
diameter less than 1, which is evidently impossible.
For k = 3, 4 or 6 the ratio mentioned above is either > 1 or zero, so the
proof breaks down. On the other hand, when n > 3 these cases obviously
admit solutions; for n = 2 only rational squares are possible, since a convex
rational k-gon has a rational surface area, and the surface area of a regular
triangleor hexagon with side a equals ?a2V/3or ia2V/3 respectively,which in
the rational case would be irrational.

REMARK.For k # 3, 4, 6 it is even impossible to find a regular k-gon in the

plane all of whose vertices have a rational x-coordinate.

References
1. V. Srinivas,Regularpolygonson a squarepinboard,MathlGaz.61,290-292 (No. 418,
December1977).
2. Derek G. Ball, The constructibilityof regularand equilateralpolygons on a square
pinboard,Mathl Gaz.57, 119-122 (No. 400, June 1973).
K. A. POST

Departmentof Mathematics, Universityof Technology,Eindhoven,Holland

62.23 Pythagoras in higherdimensions:three approaches

(1) Dr Bunday's Note 61.22 in the December 1977 Gazettereminds me of
a fourth-year class, which I was teaching some twenty years ago, who
raised the question of whether there might be a three-dimensionalversion
of Pythagoras's theorem. They were not content with the formula for the
square of the diagonal of a cuboid. They regarded this as an application
of the original theorem to a three-dimensionalproblem; what they wanted
was a theorem about "a solid triangle". After some discussion we agreed
that, as a right-angled triangle was a corner cut off a square, its analogue
would be a corner cut off a cube.
We denoted the mutually perpendicular edges of the tetrahedron by
x, y, z, as in the figure. The apparently naive suggestion that A2 = A1 +
A2+ A, where A, , d2, , 3 are the areas of triangles ABC, OBC, OCA
and OAB, came almost at once. We set out to prove or disprove this, with
a result that certainly surprisedme.

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NOTES 207
C

z L
B)

A
FIGURE1.

Our first attempt depended on the cosine rule:

AB2 + AC2- BC2 x2
cos/BAC = =AB.AC
2AB.AC
Thus
A
A2 = JAB2 AC2 sin2 zBAC = AB2 AC2 (- 2)

= (AB2AC2 - x4) = (y2 z2 + z2x2 + x2 y2).

A member of the third-yearsixth form produced a vector version of this:
j2 =- IAB x AC2 = I(yj - xi) x (zk - xi)12= ilyzi + zxj + xykl2
= (y2z2 + z2x2 + X2 y2).

The most interesting proof, as it seems to me, arises by analogy with the
standard similar triangles proof of the two-dimensional theorem. Let P be
the foot of the perpendicularfrom O to the plane AB C. Then triangle BP C,
denoted by A1',is the orthogonal projection of A on the plane ABC. Also,
A is the orthogonal projection of A on the yz-plane. Hence, if a is the angle
between the planes ABC and OBC, we have

cos =a I =>A12= AA,.

Similarly A2 = AA' and A2 = AAJ. By addition, we get

A12 +A22 + 32 = A(Al'+ A2' + A3) = A2.

LEWIS HULL

55 NorthoverRoad, Westbury-on-Trym,Bristol

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208 THE MATHEMATICAL
GAZETTE

(2) In the language of Note 61.22, a "right-angledtetrahedron" in three

dimensions may be specified by its vertices, say (0, 0, 0), (a, 0, 0), (0, h, 0),
(0, 0, c) with respect to a rectangularcartesiancoordinate system. The plane
through these last three points has the equation
1 1 1
x+ y+-z= 1,
a b c
and its perpendiculardistance d from the origin satisfies the relation
1 1 1 1
-= - + +
d2 a2 b2 C2

If we denote by V the volume of the tetrahedron,by A, B, C the areas of the

three faces through 0, and by D the area of the face opposite O, then
V = ?aA = ibB = IcC = JdD,
and therefore
b =
A2 + B2 + C2 = D2 + C+ D 2.
(d2 d2 d2
The n-dimensional analogue may be proved in exactly the same way once
the appropriate metric notions have been defined.
HAZEL PERFECT

Departmentof Mathematics, The University,SheffieldS3 7RH

(3) The interesting Note 61.22, "Pythagoras in three dimensions",

stimulates both application and generalisation. For a right-handed tetra-
hedron, the result proved was: Thesquareof the area of theface opposite the
vertexcontainingthe three90?dihedralangles is equalto thesumof thesquares
of the areas of the other threefaces. Our application in R3 will be to prove
Heron's formula for the area of a triangle with the minimum of geometric
argument. Our generalisation to R" will involve the sum of squares of the
boundary subspacesof the hypotenuse-space of a right-angledconvex poly-
hedron, this sum being expressed in terms of the squares of all subspaces
of equal dimension containing the origin O but not contained in the bound-
ary of the hypotenuse-space.
In the proof given by Dr Bunday, vector products in R3 were used to
calculate the areas of the four triangular sides of the right-angled tetra-
hedron, but this concept is restricted to R3. For our generalisation an
alternativeapproach is necessary; if the vector (1,m, n) denotes the direction
cosines of the normal to any plane area S in R3, then the projections of S
onto the three coordinate planes are Sx = IS, S = mS, Sz = nS,
implying
that S2 = S2 + S2 + S2. Thus in Fig. 2, every strip MNin S, parallel to a line

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NOTES 209

normal

-x

FIGURE 2.

of greatestslope,becomesMNcos 0 MN.n whenprojectedto the plane

Oxy, so Sz = Sn totally.
(i) Our applicationshows how a theoremin R2 can be derivedfrom
considerationsin R3that appearon the surfaceto haveno connectionwith
the resultbeingproved.
Leta givengeneraltriangleABC havesidesof lengtha, b, c. Establishan
originOin R3so thatthethreepositiveaxesOx, Oy,OzpassthroughA, B, C
respectively. Write OA = a, OB = /l, OC = y. Then
a2 =2+y2, b2=y2+c2, c2 = +2+ 2,

so that
2= (-a2 + b2 + 2 = (a2 _ b2 + 2),
2), y2 = (a2 + b2 c2).

Usingbracketsto denotethe magnitudesof the varioustriangularspaces,

(ABC)2 = (OBC)2 + (OCA)2 + (OAB)2
= ?(fl2 y2 + Y2 2 + a2 /2)
= -{(a2 - b + Cc2)(a22 + b2 _ c2) + **
= -{a4 - (b2 - c2)2 + ...}
= [-a4 + a2{(b + c)2 + (b - c)2} - (b + c)2 (b - c)2]

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210 THE MATHEMATICAL
GAZETTE

as a biquadratic in a
= -1[(b + c)2 - a2] [a2 - (b - )2] in quadratic factors
= (a+ b + c)(-a + + c)(a - b + c)(a + b - c)
in linear factors
= (s - a) (s- b) (s- c),
where s = (a + b + c).
(ii) Much of the author's recent research has been to generalise physical
problems in R3 to R", often yielding unexpected results, and certainly
enabling results in R3 to be seen with clearer understanding. The same
applies to the present theorem under discussion.
In R", Oxi form n mutually orthogonal coordinate axes. Consider one
point Pi on each positive axis, thereby forming, together with the origin
0, the n + 1 vertices of the simplest right-angledconvex polyhedron in R".
The n points Pi define the hypotenuse-space of dimension n- 1. This
hypotenuse-space P1P2...P, is bounded by ,Cr spaces of dimension
r - 1 (1 < r < n), a typical space being PlP2.. Pr. Every other constituent
part of the boundary of the polyhedron OPP2 ... Pn contains O and various
lines OPi. Thus there are nCrspaces of dimension r containing O, such as
OPP2....Pr. (If this argument is not immediately clear, the reader may
find it helpful to re-read this paragraph substituting n = 2 (r = 1, 2), n = 3
(r = 1, 2, 3), carefully visualising the spaces involved.)
Now the hypotenuse-space defined by P1, P2, ..., Pn, being linear in the
coordinates, is a vector in Rn",with n components such as (OP P2 ... Pn-),
where we use brackets to denote the magnitude of the volume of the interior
of a space. This can be visualised from the diagram, where the space MN
(of dimension n - 2) is projected onto the space Ox1x2... x,_-, to yield a
projected volume MNcos 0. Thus
-
(P1 P2 ... P)2 = (P1 P2 ... P_1)2, (1)
n

being the analogous theorem relatingthe squareof the volume of the (n - 1)-
dimensional hypotenuse-space expressed in terms of the n squares of the
volumes of all the remainingnon-hypotenuse-spacesof identical dimension,
each containing the origin. In (1), the symbol beneath the summation sign
denotes the number of terms to be summed.
This hypotenuse-space is bounded by ,Cr spaces of r- 1 dimensions,
1 < r < n. We consider the sum of squares of volumes of all such boundary
spaces,
E (P,P2... p,)2. (2)
nCr

Theorem (1) additionally relates to a space of dimension r- 1, and may

be used for each squaredterm in (2). Hence
Z (PP2... P)2 = E (OP1P2... Pr-)2.
r
nCr nCr

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NOTES 211

Totally, there are nCr,1 such quantities (OP1P2...Pr-)2. We rearrange

this double sum so that each occurs only once in the summand, giving

r
(pp p.P
pp 2..
. =nC,r (op P2 ... -l)2
p)2n nCr-l
nCr
nCr ncr-l

= (n-r+1) Z (OP1P2...p,_-)2,
nCr-i

being the general form of Pythagoras's theorem for a right-angled convex

polyhedron in R" with n + 1 vertices. It expresses properties of the hypo-
tenuse-space in terms of the corresponding spaces containing 0.
The obvious case of the theorem is given by r = 2 for linear edges:
(P1 P2)2= (n - 1) : (Opl)2,
.n(n-l) n

reducing in R3 for the right-angled tetrahedron to

(P2P3)2+ (P3 P1)2+ (PI P2)2 = 2{(OP1)2+ (OP2)2+ (OP3)2}.
J. HEADING

UniversityCollege of Wales, AberystwythSY23 3BZ

62.24 An inductiveproof that no permutationis both even and odd

A permutation of{ai, a2,..., aj} is called even or odd accordingas it can be
expressed as the product of an even or odd number of transpositions. It
is well known that no permutation is both even and odd. The proof in
this note is different from that given in most texts, and uses mathematical
induction.
It is sufficientto prove that the identity permutation is not odd. For then,
if some permutation is both even and odd its two expressions can be
combined to give an odd expression of the identity permutation.
We will denote by a switcha transposition of the form (ap,a,p+). It is easily
seen that a transposition (ap, ap+k) can be expressed as the product of
2k - 1 switches. Thus we need only prove that the identity permutation
cannot be expressed as the product of an odd number of switches.
We prove this by induction on n. It is clearly true for n = 2. Now assume
it true for n, and consider the identity permutation of {a,, a2, ..., an+1},
expressed as the product of switches. Since each element ends in its original
position, the number of switches moving the element a,n+ is even.

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