Annealing

• Makes a metal as soft as

possible
• Hypoeutectoid steels (less
than 0.83% carbon) are heated
above upper critical temp.,
soaked and cooled slowly.
• Hypereutecoid (above 0.83%)
are heated above lower critical
temp., soaked and allowed to
cool slowly.

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• Process Annealing. Low
carbon steels may harden
through cold working.
They can be heated to
around 100 degrees
below lower critical
temp., soaked and
allowed to cool in air.
• Spheroidising. High
carbon steels may be
annealed just below the
lower critical temp. to
improve machinability.

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• Normalising. Internal stresses caused by
rolling and rolling or forging are removed.
Steels are heated above upper critical temp.,
soaked and cooled in air. The cooling rate is
faster than annealing giving a smaller grain
structure.
• Stress relieving. The component is reheated
and held at temperature for a period of time
and cooled slowly.

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 Hardening
• Medium and High carbon steels (0.4 – 1.2%)
can be heated until red hot and then
quenched in water producing a very hard and
brittle metal. At 723 degrees, the BCC ferrite
changes into Austenite with a FCC structure.

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 Hardening 0.6% carbon steel

• The metal is heated to over 780

degrees, which allows the carbon
to dissolve into the FCC Austenite.
• Quenching the metal quickly in
water prevents the structure from
changing back into BCC.
• A different structure, Body Centre
Tectragonal (BCT) is formed. It is
called Martensite and is extremely
hard and brittle with a needle-like
microstructure.

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 Tempering
• To remove some of the brittleness from
hardened steels, tempering is used. The metal
is heated to the range of 220-300 degrees and
cooled.
• Tempering colours are an indicator of
temperature on polished metals. Colours
range from yellow to brown to violet and blue.

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 Heat Treatments

• A – Normalising
• B – Annealing or
Hardening
• C – Spheroidising or
Process Annealing
• D - Tempering

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 Quenching media
• Brine (water and salt solution)
• Water
• Oil
• Air
• Turn off furnace

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 Case hardening
• Low carbon steels cannot be hardened by
heating due to the small amounts of carbon
present.
• Case hardening seeks to give a hard outer skin
over a softer core on the metal.
• The addition of carbon to the outer skin is
known as carburising.

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 Pack carburising

• The component is packed

surrounded by a carbon-rich
compound and placed in the
furnace at 900 degrees.
• Over a period of time carbon will
diffuse into the surface of the
metal.
• The longer left in the furnace, the
greater the depth of hard carbon
skin. Grain refining is necessary in
order to prevent cracking.

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• Salt bath carburising. A molten salt bath (sodium cyanide,
sodium carbonate and sodium chloride) has the object
immersed at 900 degrees for an hour giving a thin carbon
case when quenched.
• Gas carburising. The object is placed in a sealed furnace
with carbon monoxide allowing for fine control of the
process.
• Nitriding. Nitrides are formed on a metal surface in a
furnace with ammonia gas circulating at 500 degrees over a
long period of time (100 hours). It is used for finished
components.

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 Induction hardening
• Induced eddy currents
heat the surface of the
steel very quickly and is
quickly followed by jets of
water to quench the
component.
• A hard outer layer is
created with a soft core.
The slideways on a lathe
are induction hardened.

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 Flame hardening

• Gas flames raise the

temperature of the outer
surface above the upper
critical temp. The core
will heat by conduction.
• Water jets quench the
component.

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 Age hardening
• Hardening over a period of time
• Also known as precipitation hardening
• Occurs in duraluminium which is an
aluminium alloy that contains 4% copper. This
makes this alloy very useful as it is light yet
reasonably hard and strong, it is used in the
space industry.
• The metal is heated and soaked (solution
treatment) then cooled and left.
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