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Eaa 206 - Fluid Mechanics
Eaa 206 - Fluid Mechanics
EAA 206/2
1
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
2
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
1.0 OBJECTIVES
1.1 INTRODUCTION
When a fluid flows next to a solid boundary the nature of the flow depends on the
velocity relative to that boundary. At low velocities the layers of fluid move smoothly
over one another and this is termed “laminar” flow. However, as the velocity is increased
small disturbances cause eddies which “mix-up” the layers of fluid and produce a
different pattern of flow which is termed “turbulent”. This change has a marked effect on
the forces acting between the fluid and the solid boundary and an understanding of the
behaviour is of fundamental importance in the study of hydraulics and fluid mechanics.
The nature of flow over an aircraft wing affects the drag and hence determines the power
required to propel the aircraft forwards. Similarly, when fluid flows along a pipe the
nature of the flow determines the pressure loss and hence the power required to pump the
fluid along the pipe.
Before the advent of high speed transport, the most important application of fluid
mechanics was in the study of flow in pipes. Many engineers and scientists investigated
the behaviour of flow in pipes but it was a British physicist named Osborne Reynolds
(1842-1912) who first identified the variables controlling the flow and produced a
3
rational means of predicting the nature of flow. Reynolds showed that the behaviour
depends on the balance between inertia and viscous forces in the fluid. This led to the
definition of a non-dimensional parameter, now called Reynolds Number, which
expresses the ratio of inertia to viscous, forces and can be used to identify the conditions
under which the flow changes from laminar to turbulent. By experiment it was found that
the change always occurred at a similar value of Reynolds Number irrespective of the
fluid and the size of pipe.
The Reynolds Number and Transitional Flow Demonstration Apparatus has been
designed to demonstrated the kind of experiment which was conducted to show the
dependence of flow on Reynolds Number. The apparatus enables the nature of the flow in
a pipe to be studied by observing the behaviour of a filament of dye injected into the
fluid. The flow rate can be varied and the changed or “transition” between laminar and
turbulent flow can be clearly demonstrated. The effect of viscosity on the behaviour can
be demonstrated by varying the temperature using an optional temperature control
module, or by using different fluids.
1.2 THEORY
Consider the case of a fluid moving along a fixed surface such as the wall of a
pipe. At some distance y from the surface the fluid has a velocity u relative to the surface.
The relative movement causes a shear stress τ which tends to slow down the motion so
that the velocity close to the wall is reduced below u. It can be shown that the shear stress
produces a velocity gradient du/dy which is proportional to the applied stress. The
constant of proportionality is the coefficient of viscosity and the equation is usually
written :-
du
τ =µ …………………..(1)
dy
The above equation is derived in most text books and represents a model of a
situation in which layers of fluid move smoothly over one another. This is termed
“viscous” or “laminar” flow. For such conditions experiments show that Equation (1) is
valid and that µ is a constant for a given fluid at a given temperature. It may be noted
that the shear stress and the velocity gradient have a fixed relationship which is
4
determined only by the viscosity of the fluid. However, experiments also show that this
only applies at low viscosities. If the velocity is increased above a certain value, small
disturbances produce eddies in the flows which cause mixing between the high energy
and low energy layers of fluid. This is called turbulent flow and under these conditions it
is found that the relationship between shear stress and velocity gradient varies depending
on many factors in addition to the viscosity of the fluid. The nature of the flow is entirely
different since the interchange of energy between the layers now depends on the strength
of the eddies (and thus on the inertia of the fluid) rather then simply on the viscosity.
Equation (1) still applies but the coefficient µ no longer represents the viscosity of the
fluid. It is now called the ‘Eddy Viscosity” and is no longer constant for a given fluid and
temperature. Its value depends on the upstream conditions in the flow and is much greater
than the coefficient of viscosity for the fluid. It may be noted that this implies an increase
in shear stress for a given velocity and so the losses in the flow are much greater than for
laminar conditions.
We have seen that laminar flow is the result of viscous forces and that turbulent
flow is in some way related to inertia forces. This was realized by Reynolds who
postulated that the nature of flow depends on the ratio of inertia to viscous forces. This
led to the derivation of a non-dimensional variable, now called Reynolds Number, Re
which expresses this ratio. On physical grounds we may say that inertia forces are
proportional to mass times velocity change divided by time. Since mass divided by time
is the mass flow rate and this is equal to density ρ times cross – sectional area times
velocity, ν we may write:-
du 2
Viscous forces α µ d
dy
5
u 2
α µ d …………………………………..(3)
d
Dividing the inertia forces by the viscous forces we obtain Reynolds Number as :-
ρd 2u 2 ρdu
Re = = …………………………………….. (4)
µνd µ
ρ
The term is called the kinematic viscosity ν and it is often convenient to write
µ
Equation (4) as :-
ud
Re = …………………………………………..(5)
ν
It may be noted that the above equations can also be derived by dimensional analysis but
in either case it should be remembered that Re represents the ratio of inertia to viscous
forces.
1.3 PROCEDURE
6
7. Adjust the water supply until the level in the constant head tank is just above the
overflow pipe and is maintained at this level by a small flow down the overflow
pipe. This is the condition required for all tests and at different flow rates through
the tube – the supply will need to be adjusted to maintain it. At any given
condition the overflow should only be just sufficient to maintain a constant head
in the tank.
8. Open the adjust dye injector valve to obtain a fine filament of dye in the flow
down the glass tube. If the dye is dispersed in the tube, reduce the water flow rate
by closing the discharge valve and adjusting the supply as necessary to maintain
the constant head. A laminar flow condition should be achieved in which the
filament of dye passes down the complete length of the tube without disturbance.
9. Slowly increase the flow rate by opening the discharge valve until disturbance of
the dye filament. This can be regarded as the starting point of transition of
turbulent flow. Increase the water supply as required maintaining constant head
conditions.
10. Record the temperature of the water using the thermometer, then measure the
flow rate by timing the collection of a known quantity of water from the discharge
pipe.
11. Further increase the flow rate as described above until the disturbances increase
such that the dye filament becomes rapidly diffused. Small eddies will be noted
just above the point where the dye filament completely breaks down. This can be
regarded as the onset of fully turbulent flow. Record the temperature and flow rate
as in step 10.
12. Now decrease the flow rate slowly until the dye just returns to a steady filament
representing laminar flow and again record the temperature and flow rate.
7
Figure 1.1 : Schematic diagram of the Reynolds Number apparatus
8
Figure 1.2 : Typical flow patterns at various flow
conditions
9
Figure 1.3: Variation of some properties of water with temperature
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1.4 RESULT
11
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
2.0 OBJECTIVE
• To determine Cd , Cc and Cv for orifice.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
It often happens that when a fluid passes through a constriction, such as through a
sharp-edged hole or over a weir, the discharge is considerably less than the amount
calculated on the assumption that the energy is conserved and that the flow through the
constriction is uniform and parallel. This reduction in flow is normally due to a
contraction of the stream which takes place through the restriction and continues for
some distance down-stream of it, rather than to a considerable energy loss.
In this experiment, arrangements are made to measure the extent to the reduction in flow,
contraction of the stream and energy loss, as water discharges into the atmosphere from a
sharp-edged orifice in the base of a tank (Figure 2.1).
12
Figure 2.1: Arrangement of apparatus
2.2 THEORY
Figure 2.2 shows the essential features of flow through the orifice. The tank is
assumed to be sufficiently large for the velocity of flow in it to be negligibly small except
close to the orifice. In the vicinity of the orifice, the fluid accelerates towards the centre
of the hole, so that as the jet emerges it suffers a reduction of area due to the curvature of
the streamlines, as typified by the streamline MN indicated on the figure. The reduction
of area due to this local curvature may be taken to be complete at about half the orifice
diameter downstream of the plane of the orifice; the reduced section is usually referred to
as the vena contracta.
The pressure everywhere on the surface of the jet is atmospheric; but within the jet
pressure does not fall to atmospheric until the acceleration is complete, i.e. until the vena
contracta is reached.
13
Consider now the total head of the water at points M and N of a typical stream-line, M
being in the surface and N being in the plane of the vena contracta.
2
Vm P
From Bernoulli, the total head at M is + m + zm
2g w
2
Vn P
and at N is + n + zm
2g w
so that, if the energy were conserved, ie., if there were no loss of total head:
2 2
Vm P V P
+ m + zm = n + n + zn ………(1)
2g w 2g w
In this equation, Pm and Pn are equal (both being atmospheric) and U m is negligibly
small according to our assumption. Moreover,
zm − zn = H o ………(2)
So that, from Equation (1) and (2), the ideal velocity at N is given by
14
2
Vn
= Ho ………(3)
2g
This result applies to all points in the plane of the vena contracta, so changing the
notation to let Vo be the ideal velocity in the plane of the vena contracta, which would
2
Vo
= Ho ….……(4)
2g
Because of the energy loss, which in fact takes place as the water passes down to the tank
and through the office, the actual velocity Vc in the plane of the vena contracta will be
less than Vo , and may be calculated from the Pilot tube reading by the equation :
2
Vc
=H c ..…….(5)
2g
It is clear that (H o − H c ) represent the energy loss. The ratio of actual velocity Vc and
ideal velocity Vo is often referred to as the coefficient of velocity Cv of the orifice. From
Vc Hc
Cv = = ..…….(6)
Vo Ho
Ac
Cc = ……..(7)
Ao
15
Finally, the coefficient of discharge Cd is defined as the ratio of the actual discharge to
that which would take place if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity without reduction of
area. The actual discharge Q is given y:
Q = Vc Ac ………(8)
and if the jet discharged at the ideal velocity Vo over the orifice area Ao the discharge Qo
would be :
Qo = Vo Ao = Ao 2 gH o ……….(9)
Q Vc Ac
Cd = = .………(10)
Qo Vo Ao
Cd = CvCc ………..(12)
2.3 PROCEDURE
1. The experiment may be divided into two parts, firstly, the measurement of Cd , Cv ,
2. The equipment is set on the bench and leveled so that the base of the tank is
horizontal.
3. The flexible supply pipe from the bench control valve is connected to the inlet
pipe of the apparatus which is positioned to discharge directly back to the weigh
tank and the overflow of the apparatus is directed onto the bench top. To obtain
16
the steadiest readings the vertical position of the inlet pipe should be adjusted to
be just submerged. The diameter of the sharp-edged orifice is noted.
4. In the first part of the experiment, water is admitted to the tank to allow it to fill to
the height of the overflow pipe and the inflow is regulated so that a small steady
discharge is obtained from the overflow. This ensures that the level in the tank
remains constant while the measurements are made.
5. To measure Cd the discharge is obtained by collection of a known weight of
water from the orifice in the weighing tank, and recording the value of head H o
on the orifice.
6. To measure C v , the Pitot tube is inserted into the emerging jet close to the
underside of the tank, and the values of Pitot head, H c and head, H o on the
contracta.
8. This is done by utilizing the sharp-edged blade attached to the head of the Pitot
tube, the plane of the blade being normal to the direction of traverse of the tube.
9. The blade is brought to each edge of the jet in turn, just below the tank, and the
positions of the tube as read on the lead screw and graduated nut read in each
case. The difference of the readings represents the diameter of the jet.
10. In the second part of the experiment the inflow to the tank is reduced to lower the
level in the tank in stages, the discharge from the orifice being measured at each
stage.
11. Care should be taken to allow the level to settle to a steady value after the inflow
to the tank has been changed, and it is advisable to read this level several times
while the discharge is being collected and to record the mean value over the time
interval.
12. About 6-8 different flow rates should be sufficient to establish the relationship
between discharge and head on the orifice.
17
2.4 RESULT
d2
Area of orifice, Ao = π
4
= m2
dc = Diameter of jet
Ac = Area of jet
Cc = Coefficient of contraction
Average Value of Cc =
18
Table 2.2: Data recorded and the estimation of Cv .
Average Value of Cv =
Q Ho Qo = Ao 2 gH o Q Cd
Cd = Cc =
No. x10-4 Cv Qo Cv
(m1/2) x 10-4
(m3/s)
(m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Average
Average Value of Cv =
Average Value of Cd =
Average Value of Cc =
19
2.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
1. Plot graph Q versus H o . The flow rate through the orifice is stated as:
Q=K H where K = Cd A 2 g .
The plotted gradient line will represent K value while Cd can be computed using
the equation below:
Cd = K / A 2 g
20
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
3.0 OBJECTIVE
• To calibrate the rectangular and triangular notch by using the hydraulic bench and
panel
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Weirs are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers and in other open channels.
The purpose is often to maintain water depth for some purpose such as navigation, but a
weir may also be used to measure the flow rate.
In many cases, the rate of flow over the weir depends solely on the water level
just upstream of the weir (the relationship between flow rate and water level being
sometimes known as the “rating curve”). However, the water level downstream of the
weir may rise sufficiently as to affect the conditions of flow, so that the flow rate now
becomes a function not only of the upstream water level but also of the water level
downstream. The weir is then referred to as being “suppressed” or “drowned”.
21
level is not uniform along the whole of the length. For instance, just part of the whole
length may used to carry normal flow, the reminder of the weir having a higher crest, so
that it comes into use only at higher flow rates.
c) Sharp edged
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3.2 THEORY
L
Peak level
! !"
Q = ! 𝐶! 2𝑔 𝐿 − !" 𝐻!/! ………………. (1)
!
Q = ! 𝐶! 2𝑔 𝐿𝐻!/! ………………………….. (2)
or
Equation (2) and (3) shows that the value of Q and H3/2 should be plotted in a graph as a
straight line. The gradient of the graph will represent ‘k1’ value. 𝐶! can be obtained
using the equation below :
23
!!!
𝐶! = …………………………… (4)
! !! !
Q = k1 2 g LH 3 / 2 …………………………….(5)
⎛ H ⎞
k1 = 0.4 + 0.05⎜ ⎟
⎝ P ⎠
⎛ 3 ⎞ ⎡ ⎛ H ⎞⎤
Cd = ⎜ ⎟ * ⎢0.4 + 0.05⎜ ⎟⎥ …………….……………(6)
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ P ⎠⎦
Where :
P is the height of the weir crest above from the base of the tank. Equation 6 is only valid
for H/P values up to 10 as long as the weir is well ventilated.
θ
Peak level
Figure 3.3 : Front and side view of triangular notch (V-Notch) panel
24
⎛ 8 ⎞ ⎛ θ ⎞
Q = ⎜ ⎟Cd tan ⎜ ⎟ 2 g H 5 / 2 ………………………(7)
⎝ 15 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
or
Q = k2 H 5 / 2 ……………………….(8)
The above equations shows that the value of Q and H5/2 should be plotted in a graph as a
straight line. The gradient of the graph will represent ‘k2’ value. 𝐶! can be obtained
using the equation below :
!"!!
𝐶! = ! …………………………. (9)
! !! !"#
!
3.3 PROCEDURE
25
3.4 RESULT
RECTANGULAR NOTCH
Table 3.1: Data recorded and the calculation of the flow rate, Q
Serial Time taken Volume recorded
Number Initial End Time Start End Volume Q =V/t
(s) (s) (s) (m3) (m 3)
(m3) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 3.2 : Reading of point gauge for water level and calculation for Cd
Serial Discharge Reading of point gauge Discharge coefficient
Number Q (m) H3/2 (L- ‘Cd’
(m3/s) Crest Level Head, 0.2H) Eq. Eq. Eq.
H (m) (1) (4) (6)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
26
TRIANGULAR NOTCH
Table 3.3 : Data recorded and the calculation of the flow rate, Q
Serial Time taken Volume recorded
Number Initial End Time Start End Volume Q =V/t
(s) (s) (s) (m3) (m 3)
(m3) (m3/s)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 3.4: Reading of point gauge for water level and calculation for Cd
Serial Discharge Reading of point gauge Discharge coefficient ‘Cd’
Number Q (m) H5/2
(m3/s) Crest Level Head, Eq.(7) Eq.(9)
H
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
27
3.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
1. From Table 3.2, plot graph Q versus H3/2 for rectangular notch. The plotted
gradient line will represent k1 value. Cd can be computed using Equation (1),
2. From Table 3.4, plot graph Q versus H5/2 for triangular notch. The plotted
gradient line will represent k2 value. Cd can be computed using Equation (7) and
Equation (9).
28
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
4.0 OBJECTIVE
• To calibrate the Bourdon Pressure Gauge
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The pressure gauge fitted to the tester is of a type known as the Bourdon Gauge,
which is used to a very great extent in engineering practice.
The mechanism of the gauge may be seen through the transparent dial of the
instrument (Figure 4.1). A tube having a thin wall of oval cross-section is bent to a
circular encompassing about 270 degrees. It is rigidly held at one end where the pressure
29
is admitted to the tube and is free to move at the other end, which is sealed. When
pressured is admitted, the tube tends to straighten, and the movement at the free end
operates a mechanical system which moves a pointer round the graduated scale, the
movement of the pointer being proportional to the pressure applied. The sensitivity of
the gauge depends on the material and dimensions of the Bourdon tube; gauges with a
very wide selection of pressure ranges are commercially available.
When it is desired to check the accuracy of a Bourdon gauge, the usual procedure
is to load it with known pressures by a dead weight tester using oil to transmit the
pressure. The present experiment, however, works satisfactorily with water instead of
oil.
Remove the piston from the unit. The piston is delivered lightly oiled and should
be wiped only when the unit is to be used. Fill the cylinder with water, and remove air
trapped in the transparent tube by tilting and gently tapping the unit. A small amount of
air left in the system will not affect the experiment. Top up with water and insert piston
into cylinder, allowing air and excess water to escape through the top hole in the side of
the cylinder. Allow the piston to settle.
30
4.4 RESULTS
The actual hydrostatic pressure (P) in the system due to mass of M kg (including the
piston mass) applied to the given by :-
31
4.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
1. Present the results obtained based on Table 4.1 in a graph suitable to compare the
obtained results. Discuss.
32
SCHOOL OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA
ENGINEERING CAMPUS
5.0 OBJECTIVES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The Venturi tube is a device which has been used over many years for measuring
the flow rate along a pipe. As seen from Figure 5.1, it consists of a tapering contraction
section, along which the fluid accelerates towards a short cylindrical throat, followed by a
section which diverges gently back to the original diameter. (The slowly diverging
section is frequently referred to as a diffuser). As the velocity increases from the inlet
section to the throat, there is a fall in pressure, the magnitude of which depends on the
flow rate. The flow rate may therefore be inferred from the difference in pressure,
measured by piezometers placed upstream and at the throat. Such a unit is referred to as a
Venturi flow meter.
Another way of metering the flow would be to insert a sharp edged orifice into the
pipe; whereby the differential pressure produced by flow through the orifice may
similarly be used to infer the flow rate. An orifice meter has the advantages of simplicity
and cheapness. In comparison with the Venturi meter however, an orifice causes a bigger
head loss than a corresponding venturi tube. This is because in the venture tube, much of
the head loss is recovered as the fluid decelerates in the diffuser. The differential
piezometric head from inlet to the throat can be several times greater than the total head
loss across the whole device.
33
Although piezometer tappings are needed only at the upstream section and at the
throat to infer the flow rate, it is instructive in a laboratory experiment to insert numerous
further tappings to show the distribution of piezometer head along the whole length of the
Venturi tube. Therefore, it is possible to calculate the distribution of pressure along the
tube. Comparison with measurements will then show where the losses occur in the unit.
5.2 THEORY
34
Consider flow of an incompressible, inviscid fluid through the convergent-divergent
Venturi tube shown in Figure 5.2. The cross sectional area at the upstream section 1 is
A1, at the throat section 2 is A2, and at any other arbitrary section n is An. Piezometer
tubes at these sections register h1, h2 and hn above the arbitrary datum shown. Note that,
although the tube may have any inclination, it is necessary for the datum to always be
horizontal. So, the elevation head, z = z1=z2=z3=………zn. Pressure can be expressed in
piezometer head form: h1 , h2 , …… hn where it can replace P1/ γ, P2 /γ ……..Pn / γ
2 2
v1 v
+ h1 = 2 + h2 ….. ………..(3)
2g 2g
The continuity equation is:
v1 A1 = v2 A2 = v3 A3 = .......................vn An
or
⎛ A ⎞
v1 = v2 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟
⎝ A1 ⎠
35
Substituting in Equation (3), gives :
2 g (h1 − h2 )
v2 =
1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2
or
2 g (h1 − h2 )
Q = A2 …………...(4)
1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2
This is the ideal flow rate, obtained by assuming inviscid, one-dimensional flow. In
practice, there is some loss of head between sections 1 and 2. Also, the velocity is not
absolutely constant across either of these sections. As a result, the actual values of Q fall
a little smaller of those given by Equation (5).
2 g (h1 − h2
Q = C d A2 ..……….(5)
1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2
In which Cd known as the coefficient of flow rate in venturi meter. Its value, which
The above equation shows that when the graph Q versus h1− h2 is plotted, it will form
a straight line which represent the gradient of the graph, K. Cd can be computed by the
equation below :
K 1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2
Cd = ……………(7)
A2 2 g
36
2 2
hn − h1 v1 − v n
= ……………...(8)
v 22 / 2 g v 22
2 2
hn − h1 ⎛ A2 ⎞ ⎛ A2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ − ⎜ ⎟ ………….(9)
v22 / 2 g ⎜⎝ A1 ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ An ⎟⎠
hn − h1
Equation (9) gives the value of 2
for inviscid fluid.
v2 / 2 g
For the existing apparatus, the ideal values are tabulated in Table 5.1. The values will be
plotted against the distance from the inlet. The results are compared with the value of
hn − h1
2
which is calculated from the observation.
v2 / 2 g
v22
By expressing piezometric changes hn − h1 as a fraction of the velocity head at the
2g
throat, results at different discharges become directly comparable, and it is seen that the
experimental values follow the ideal curve quite well up to the throat, after which a
steadily increasing loss of energy becomes apparent. The dimensions of the meter and the
position of the piezometer tappings are shown in Figure 5.3.
37
(1) (2)
Diameter
(mm)
Distance from
entrance (mm)
5.3 PROCEDURES
1. The apparatus is first levelled. This is done by opening both the bench supply
valve and the control valve downstream of the meter, so as to allow water to flow
for a few seconds to clear air pockets from the supply hose.
2. The control valve is then gradually closed, subjecting the venture tube to a
gradual increase in pressure, which causes water to rise up the tubes of the
manometer, thereby compressing the air contained in the manifold.
38
3. When the water levels have risen to a convenient height, the bench valve is also
closed gradually, so that when both valves are finally shut off, the meter is left
containing static water at moderate pressure, and the water level in the manometer
tubes stands at a convenient height. The adjusting screws are then operated to give
identical readings for all of the tubes across the whole width of the manometer
board. The board should also be reasonably vertical when viewed from the end.
4. To establish the meter coefficient, measurements are made of a set of differential
heads (h2-h1) and flow rates Q. The first reading should be taken with the
maximum possible value of (h2-h1), i.e with h1 close to the top of the scale and h2
near to the bottom. This condition is obtained by gradually opening both the
bench valve and the control valve in turn.
5. Note all piezometer reading (from A to L) in Table 5.3. The rate of flow is found
by timing the collection of a known amount of water in the weighing tank (Table
5.2), whilst values of h1 and h2 are noted from the manometer scale.
6. Readings are then taken over a series of reducing values of (h2-h1), equally spread
over the available range from 250 mm to zero (Table 5.5). About 7-8 readings
should be sufficient.
39
5.4 RESULT
Table 5.1 : The distribution of ideal pressure as a fraction of velocity head at throat
Piezometer Diameter d2 / dn ( A2 / An ) 2 ( A2 / A1 ) 2 − ( A2 / An ) 2
tube dn
No. ‘n’ (mm)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
A (1)
B
C
D(2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
Data required
Flow rate (Q) = m3/s
Velocity at throat section v2 = Q / A2 = m/s
40
Table 5.3 : Pressure along the venturi meter.
Serial Piezometer hn ( hn − h1 ) / 1000 (hn − h1 ) / 1000
Number (mm) (m) 2
v2 / 2 g
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1 A (1)
2 B
3 C
4 D (2)
5 E
6 F
7 G
8 H
9 J
10 K
11 L
* Notes : n change from A to L
( A2 / A1 ) 2 − ( A2 / An ) 2 (hn − h1 ) / 1000
2
v2 / 2 g
41
Experiment 2 : To calibrate venturi meter and determine Cd value
42
5.5 PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
1. Present the results in a graph comparing the measured and ideal pressure
distribution along a venturi meter.
2. Based on Table 5.5, plot a graph of discharge versus (h1-h2)1/2. The plotted
gradient line will represent K value. Cd can be computed using Equation 7.
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