EAS458 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN 2022/2023

CHAPTER 2 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The fundamental aim of prestressed concrete is to limit tensile stresses, and hence flexural cracking in the
concrete under working conditions. Design is therefore based initially on the requirements of the
serviceability limit state. Subsequently considered are ultimate limit state criteria for bending and shear.
In addition to the concrete stresses under working loads, deflection must be checked, and attention must
also be paid to the construction stage when the prestress force is first applied to the immature concrete.
This stage is known as the transfer condition.

The design sequence of prestressed concrete may therefore be summarised as:

1. Design for serviceability – cracking
2. Check stresses at transfer
3. Check deflections
4. Check ultimate limit state – bending
5. Design shear reinforcement for ultimate limit state

The detail illustration by the flow chart is in Fig. 2.1.

The level of prestress and the layout of tendons in a member are usually determined from the
serviceability requirements for that member. For example, if a water-tight and crack-free slab is required,
tension in the slab must be eliminated or limited to some appropriately low value.

For the serviceability requirements to be satisfied in each region of a member at all times after first
loading, a reasonably accurate estimate of the magnitude of the prestress is needed in design. This
requires reliable procedures for the determination of both the immediate and time-dependent losses of
prestress.

Immediate losses of prestress occur during the stressing and anchoring operation, also include elastic
shortening of concrete, the short-term relaxation of the tendon, friction along a post-tensioned cable and
slip at the anchorages. The time-dependent losses of prestress are caused by creep and shrinkage of the
concrete and relaxation of steel.

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EC2 Section

2.3.1 Calculate moment variation, Mv = MT – ΩM0

↓
Structure usage
5.10.2 Stress limit ← Concrete class
↓
Min. section moduli, 𝑍
↓
Shape, depth, cover,
Trial section ← loss allowances, etc.
↓

Serviceability Limit State

2.3.1 Self-weight + permanent action moment
↓
Total moment
↓
Draw Magnel diagram for the critical section
↓
Select prestress force and eccentricity
↓
Determine tendon profile
↓
5.10.4 – 5.10.9 Calculate losses
↓
Check final stresses & stresses under quasi-
permanent loads
↓
7.4 Check deflections
↓
8.10.3 Design end-block ← Prestress system
↓
6.1, 5.10.8 Ultimate moment of resistance
Ultimate Limit

↓
Untensioned reinforcement ← Ultimate moment
State

↓
6.2 Shear reinforcement design ← Ultimate shear force
↓
8.10.3 Check end-block (unbonded)
↓
FINISH
Figure 2.1 PSC design flow chart

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There are two critical stages in the design of PSC for serviceability. The first stage is known as transfer,
immediately after the prestress is transferred to the concrete, i.e. when the member is subjected to the
maximum prestress and the external load is usually at a minimum. At this stage (at transfer), immediate
losses have taken place but no time-dependent losses have yet occurred. The prestressing force
immediately after transfer is designated in EN 1992-1-1 as Pm0. At transfer, the concrete is usually young
and the concrete strength may be relatively low.

The second critical stage is after time-dependent losses have taken place and the full service load is
applied. This stage is known as service. Service stage is at time t when the prestressing force is at a
minimum and the external service load is at a maximum. The prestressing force at service stage is
designated in EN 1992-1-1 as Pm,t and is often referred to as the effective prestress.

To determine the in-service behavior of a member, it is therefore necessary to establish the extent of
cracking, if any, by checking the magnitude of the elastic tensile stresses. If a member remains uncracked
(i.e. the max. tensile stress at all stages is less than the tensile strength of the concrete), the properties of
the uncracked section may be used in all deflection and camber calculations. If cracking occurs, a cracked
section analysis may be performed to determine the properties of the cracked section and the post-
cracking behavior of the member.

2.2 ANALYSIS OF CONCRETE SECTION UNDER WORKING LOADS

The primary analysis of PSC is based on service conditions and on the assumption that stresses in the
concrete are limited to values that will correspond to elastic behavior. The following assumptions are
made in the analysis of PSC design:
i. Plane sections remain plane.
ii. Stress-strain relationships are linear (obeys Hooke’s law).
iii. Bending occurs about a principal axis.
iv. The prestressing force is the value remaining after all losses have occurred.
v. Changes in tendon stress due to applied loads on the member have a negligible effect on the behavior
of the member.
vi. Section properties are generally based on the gross concrete cross-section.

The stress in the steel is unimportant in the analysis of the concrete section under working conditions.
However, the force provided by the steel is considered in the analysis.

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2.2.1 Section properties, notations, and sign convention

For elastic analysis and design, a prestressed concrete section may be characterized by a number of
variables and geometric parameters. The sign conventions and notations used for the analysis are
indicated in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Sign convention and notation

Referring to Fig. 2.2, the following notations will be used:

𝐴𝑐 : Area of concrete cross-section

𝐴𝑝 : Area of prestressing steel
I : Moment of inertia of the section
e : Eccentricity of prestressing force
𝑦t : Distance of the extreme top fibers from the C.A
𝑦b : Distance of the extreme bottom fibers from the C.A
𝑍t : Section modulus of the concrete top fiber
𝑍b : Section modulus of the concrete bottom fiber
𝜎top,0 : Concrete stress at the top fiber at transfer
𝜎btm,0 : Concrete stress at the bottom fiber at transfer
𝜎top,t : Concrete stress at the top fiber at service
𝜎btm,t : Concrete stress at the bottom fiber at service
𝑓cc,0 : Allowable concrete compressive stress at transfer
𝑓ct,0 : Allowable concrete tensile stress at transfer
𝑓cc,t : Allowable concrete compressive stress at service
𝑓ct,t : Allowable concrete tensile stress at service
Pm0 : The prestressing force immediately after transfer
Pm,t : The prestressing force at service stage (effective prestress)
Ω : 1 – losses (%)

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It should be noted that the PSC section may contain ungrouted duct, reinforcing steel, and unbonded
tendon, as shown in Fig. 2.3. The voids and the presence of different materials (which can be transformed
into equivalent concrete) should be duly accounted for properties calculated on the basis of the gross
concrete area to provide acceptable analysis results.

Figure 2.3

For flexural analysis, the sign conventions used are as follows (Fig. 2.4):
i. A positive moment produces tension in the bottom fibers of the member;
ii. A negative moment produces tension in the top fibers of the member;
iii. Compressive stresses are considered positive;
iv. Tensile stresses are considered negative.

Sagging moment Hogging moment

Figure 2.4

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2.2.2 Basic theory

Prestressing is artificially induced compressive stress in a structure before it is loaded so that any tensile
stress which might be caused by the external loads is automatically cancelled, and failure is eliminated.
The following example will clarify the basic theory of prestressing.

B
9.6 N/mm2

B –
9.6 N/mm2
Cross-section B-B Stress distribution B-B
(mid-span)
Figure 2.5

From the simple beam theory, it is known that the pattern of stress distribution at any section in a
rectangular beam will be compression in the top and tension in the bottom, both of equal value. From Fig.
2.5, compressive and tensile stresses at the mid-span will be 9.6 N/mm2 of equal value.

By having the above condition (Fig. 2.5), we aim to put an initial compression into the beam so that the
tension in the beam will be canceled out by this initial compression. There are two ways that can be
considered as follows:

CASE 1: If the compressive force is applied along the line of CoG (centroidal axial/ concentric
prestress), this will give a uniform compression on the beam section (Fig. 2.6). To cancel out the tension
in the beam (due to external load), at least 9.6 N/mm2 is needed. Hence, the applied compressive force
will be 9.6 × 𝐴 = 960 kN.

On the other hand, the total compressive stress at the top will be 19.2 N/mm2. However, bear in mind that
the total stresses developed at the top and bottom fibers of the concrete must be limited to a specific
value, known as permissible/ allowable stress (determined through EC2).

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w = 10 kN/m

concentric prestress
force, P

9.6 N/mm2 9.6 N/mm2 19.2 N/mm2

+
+ + = +
–
9.6 N/mm2 0
Bending Prestress Final

Figure 2.6 Case I of concentric prestressing force, P

CASE 2: On the other hand, if, instead of a concentric force, an eccentric force, P is applied at a distance
e below the centroidal axis, this is equivalent to applying a concentric force P and a moment Pe.

Let assume 𝑒 = 𝑍⁄𝐴, (Z for the top and bottom beam section is the same); hence, to cancel out the tensile
stress of 9.6 N/mm2 (in Fig. 2.7), a force P of 4.8A = 480 kN needs to be applied at an eccentricity of
Z/A. And the total compressive stress at the top will be 9.6 N/mm2.

When compared to CASE 1, it can be seen that the applied prestressing force is halved in CASE 2, and so
is the compressive stress at the top fiber of the beam. So by introducing an eccentricity, much better use
of the concrete can be made since the stresses at the top and bottom vary over the full range of
permissible stresses for the two extreme loading conditions.

Alternatively, if the prestressing force used in both cases is the same, i.e., 960 kN (if considering the
above example), then the applied load (w) can be doubled (20 kN/m in CASE 2), and the final stress is
the same in both cases. Therefore by introducing the eccentricity, the moment-carrying capacity of a
beam is increasing.

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w = 10 kN/m

P/A N/mm2 Pe /Z N/mm2 9.6 N/mm2 9.6 + (P/A – Pe /Z)

–
+
+ +
+ + =
+
–
Pe /Z N/mm2 9.6 N/mm2 –9.6 + (P/A + Pe /Z) = 0
Prestress Eccentric (moment) Bending Final

Figure 2.7 Case II of eccentric prestressing force

Until this stage, two basic governing equations can be concluded:

At the top fiber:
𝑃 𝑃𝑒 𝑀
𝜎top = − + − − − − − −Eq. 2.1
𝐴 𝑍t 𝑍t
At the bottom fiber:
𝑃 𝑃𝑒 𝑀
𝜎btm = + − − − − − − Eq. 2.2
𝐴 𝑍b 𝑍b

Example 2.1
A rectangular beam 300 mm × 150 mm is simply supported over 4.0 m span and supports a live load of
10 kN/m. If a straight tendon is provided at an eccentricity of 65 mm below the centroid of the beam
section, determine:
(a). the min. presstresing force necessary for no tension under live load at mid-span.
(b). the corresponding stresses under self-weight only at the mid-span and at the ends of the member.
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Tutorial

1. A rectangular concrete beam, 100 mm wide by 250 mm deep, spanning over 8 m is prestressed by a
straight cable carrying an effective prestressing force of 250 kN located at an eccentricity of 40 mm.
The beam supports a live load of 1.2 kN/m.
(a) Calculate the resultant stress distribution for the central cross section of the beam. The density of
concrete is 25 kN/m3.
(b) Find the magnitude of the prestressing force with an eccentricity of 40 mm which can balance the
stresses due to dead and live loads at the bottom fiber of the central section of the beam.
2. A prestressed concrete beam supports a live load of 4 kN/m over a simply supported span of 8 m. The
beam is a rectangular section with an overall depth of 400 mm and a width of 200mm. The beam is to
be prestressed by an effective presstressing force of 235 kN at a suitable eccentricity such that the
resultant stress at the soffit of the beam at the central of the span is zero.
(a) Find the eccentricity required for the force.
(b) If the tendon is concentric, what should be the magnitude of the prestressing force for the
resultant stress to be zero at the bottom fiber of the central span section.
3. A prestressed concrete beam, 200 mm wide and 300 mm deep, is used over an effective span of 6 m
to support an imposed load of 4 kN/m. The density of concrete is 25 kN/m3. At the quarter-span
section of the beam, find the magnitude of:
(a) The concentric prestressing force necessary for zero fiber-stress at the soffit when the beam is
fully loaded;
(b) The eccentric prestressing force located 100 mm from the bottom of the beam which would
nullify the bottom fiber stress due to loading.
4. A concrete beam of rectangular section spanning 8 m has a width of 200 mm and the overall depth of
400 mm. The beam is prestressed by a parabolic cable with an eccentricity of 15 mm at the centre and
zero at the supports with an effective prestressing force of 100 kN. The live load on the beam is
2kN/m. Draw the stress distribution diagram at the central section for:
(a) Prestress + self-weight (density of concrete = 25 kN/m3); and
(b) Prestress + self-weight + live load.

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2.3 DESIGN FOR SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

The design of a prestressed concrete member is based on maintaining the concrete stresses within
specified limit at all stages of the life of the member. Hence, the primary design is based on the SLS, with
the concrete stress limits based on the acceptable degree of flexural cracking, the necessity to prevent
excessive creep, and the need to ensure that excessive compression does not result in longitudinal
cracking and microcracking.

The codes of practice limit the allowable stresses in prestressed concrete. Most of the work of PSC design
involves ensuring that the stresses in the concrete are within the permissible limits. The stresses produced
by the prestress force must be considered in conjunction with the stresses caused by max. and min. values
of applied moment. Hence, for the SLS case, at any section in a member, there are two conditions of
checking required:

At transfer (initial condition)

This is when the concrete first feels the prestress, immediately after the prestress has been applied. The
concrete, at this stage, is usually relatively immature and not at full strength. Hence, a transfer is a critical
stage that should be considered carefully. The stresses are only due to prestress and self-weight (will
consider 𝑀0 ).

At Service
The stresses induced by the SLS loading, in addition to the prestress and self-weight, must be checked
(will consider 𝑀T ). At the service stage, the concrete has its full strength, but losses will have occurred, so
the prestress force is reduced.

The ultimate capacity at ULS of the PSC section must also be checked. If there is insufficient capacity,
the addition of non-prestressed reinforcements is allowed.

2.3.1 Limitation of concrete stresses.

Depending on the serviceability requirements for a particular structure, a designer may set limits on the
tensile and compressive stresses in concrete both at transfer and under the full service loads. The concrete
stress limits specified in EN 1992-1-1 Clause 5.10.2.2 are as follows (see Tab. 2.1 below):

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Table 2.1
Loading stage
Stresses Transfer Service
Symbol Value/Equation Symbol Value/Equation
Compressive 𝑓cc,0 0.6𝑓ck (𝑡) 𝑓cc,t 0.6𝑓ck
Tensile 𝑓ct,0 𝑓ctm (*)
𝑓ct,t 0
Notes:
𝑓ck (𝑡) = The characteristic compressive strength of the concrete at time t when it is subjected to the
prestressing force.
𝑓ck = The characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days (Tab. 3.1 EN 1992-
1-1).
𝑓ctm = Mean value of axial tensile strength of concrete (Tab. 3.1, EN 1992-1-1).
(*)
𝑓ctm may be taken equal to – 1 N/mm2 if the sections are designed not to be in tension in service.

If the tensile stress in the concrete is limited to the value of f ctm, then all stresses can be calculated on the
assumption that the section is uncracked and the gross concrete section is resisting bending. (Similar to
Class 1 of prestressed concrete defined in the British Standard code)

If cracked is allowed for a certain degree, then calculations may have to be based on a cracked section.
Limited cracking is permissible depending on whether the beam is pre- or post-tensioned and the
appropriate exposure class.

Whether to permit cracking to take place or not will depend on several factors, including conditions of
exposure and the nature of loading. If a member consists of precast segments with mortar joints, or if it is
essential that cracking should not occur, then it will be designed to be in compression under all load
conditions.

2.3.2 Governing inequalities

The design of prestressing requirements is based on the manipulation of the four basic expressions
describing the stress distribution across the concrete section. These are used in conjunction with the
permissible stresses appropriate to the type of member and cover the following conditions:
1. Initial transfer of prestressing force with the association loading (often just the beam’s self-weight);
2. At service, after prestressing losses, with minimum and maximum characteristics loading.

For a single span of a simply supported beam, it is usually the minimum moment at transfer and the
maximum moment at service that will govern as shown in Figure 2.8.

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Figure 2.8 Prestress beam at transfer and service

From the figure and Eqs. 2.1 to 2.2, the governing equations for a single-span beam are:

At transfer:
𝑃m0 𝑃m0 𝑒 𝑀0
− + ≥ 𝑓ct,0 − − − top fiber − − − − − Eq. 2.3
𝐴c 𝑍t 𝑍t
𝑃m0 𝑃m0 𝑒 𝑀0
+ − ≤ 𝑓cc,0 − − − bottom fiber − − − Eq. 2.4
𝐴c 𝑍b 𝑍b

At service:
𝑃m,t 𝑃m,t 𝑒 𝑀T
− + ≤ 𝑓cc,t − − − top fiber − − − − − Eq. 2.5
𝐴c 𝑍t 𝑍t
𝑃m,t 𝑃m,t 𝑒 𝑀T
+ − ≥ 𝑓ct,t − − − bottom fiber − − − Eq. 2.6
𝐴c 𝑍b 𝑍b

Please be noted that:

1. M0 is referring to the min. applied moment – depending on the self-weight only;
2. MT is referring to the max. applied moment – depending on both the imposed load and self-weight;
3. Pm,t is a prestressing force after considering losses effects (%) = ΩPm0.

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2.3.3 Minimum section moduli

The 1st step in PSC design is to calculate the minimum section moduli for the expected moments. For that
purpose, the governing inequalities (Eqs. 2.3 – 2.6) will be utilized. By comparing conditions (2.3) and
(2.5), and conditions (2.4) and (2.6), the expression for Zt and Zb are as follows:

𝑀T − Ω𝑀0
𝑍t ≥ − − − −Eq. 2.7
𝑓cc,t − Ω𝑓ct,0
𝑀T − Ω𝑀0
𝑍b ≥ − − − −Eq. 2.8
Ω𝑓cc,0 − 𝑓ct,t

Since we are dealing with single-span simply supported members, it will be assumed that MT and M0
occur at the mid-span. The above equations are the minimum section moduli required for the preliminary
sizing of the sections. Note that in the above equations, MT and M0 are the functions of self-weight of the
section, which is unknown at this point. Hence, a trial section or a reasonable self-weight must be
assumed first, and then checked once the section has been decided upon giving the actual Zt and Zb
values.

This min. values of section moduli must be satisfied by the chosen section in order that a prestress force
and eccentricity permit the stress limits to be met. Still, to ensure that practical considerations are met, the
chosen section must have a margin above the min. values calculated. The equations of min. moduli
depend on the differences between max. and min. values of moment.

The following formula of the ratio of acceptable span to depth for a prestressed beam may be used as a
guide. It will generally produce reasonably conservative designs for post-tensioned members.

span
span ≤ 36 h= + 0.1 m
25
span
span > 36 h= m
20

Example 2.2
Select a rectangular section for a post-tensioned beam to carry, in addition to its self-weight, a uniformly
distributed load of 3 kN/m over a simply supported span of 10 m. The member is to be designed with a
concrete strength class C40/50 and is restrained against torsion at the ends and at the mid-span. Assume
20% loss of prestress.

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Example 2.3
The single-span, simply-supported beam shown below carried the loads as shown. Taking the losses to be
25%, determine an appropriate rectangular section for the member by taking the density of prestressed
concrete to be 25 kN/m3.

Tutorial
A post-tensioned prestressed beam of a rectangular section 300 mm wide is to be designed for an imposed
load of 6.6 kN/m uniformly distributed on a span of 15 m. The member is to be designed with a concrete
strength class C40/50.

Taking the density of prestressed concrete to be 25 kN/m3 and the characteristic compressive strength of
the concrete at transfer is 27 MPa, propose a minimum possible depth of the beam if the loses is 15%.

2.3.4 Prestressing force and eccentricity

The inequalities of equations 2.3 to 2.6 may be rearranged to give expressions for the min. required
prestress force for a given eccentricity.

At transfer:
(𝑍𝑡 𝑓ct,0 − 𝑀0 )
𝑃𝑚0 ≥ − −(top) − − − Eq. 2.9 − − − (from Eq. 2.3)
(𝑍𝑡 ⁄𝐴𝑐 − 𝑒)
(𝑍b 𝑓cc,0 + 𝑀0 )
𝑃𝑚0 ≤ − −(bottom) − Eq 2.10 − − − (from Eq. 2.4)
(𝑍b ⁄𝐴𝑐 + 𝑒)

At service:
(𝑍𝑡 𝑓cc,t − 𝑀𝑇 )
𝑃𝑚0 ≤ − −(top) − − − Eq 2.11 − − − (from Eq. 2.5)
Ω(𝑍𝑡 ⁄𝐴𝑐 − 𝑒)
(𝑍b 𝑓ct,t + 𝑀T )
𝑃𝑚0 ≥ − −(bottom) − −Eq 2.12 − − − (from Eq. 2.6)
Ω(𝑍b ⁄𝐴𝑐 + 𝑒)
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Note: In Eq. 2.9 and 2.11, it is possible that the denominator term (𝑍𝑡 ⁄𝐴𝑐 − 𝑒), might be negative if 𝑒 >
𝑍t ⁄𝐴c . In this case, the sense of inequality would have to change as the effect of dividing an inequality by
a negative number is to change its sense.

Those equations give a range within which the prestress force must lie to ensure that the allowable stress
conditions are met at all stages in the life of the member. In this case of a simply supported beam, the
design prestress force will generally be based on the minimum value, which satisfies those equations at
the critical section for bending in the member.

It is necessary to consider the effect of limiting the eccentricity to a maximum practical value for the
section under consideration. Such limits will include consideration of the required minimum cover to the
prestressing tendons, which will depend on the exposure and structural class assumed in the design. The
effect of this limitation will be most severe when considering the maximum moments acting on the
section, that is, the inequalities of equations 2.5 and 2.6.

If the limiting value for maximum eccentricity emax, depends on cover requirements, Eq. 2.5 (service, top)
becomes:
𝑍t
𝑀T ≤ 𝑓cc,t 𝑍t − Ω𝑃m0 ( − 𝑒max ) − − − −Eq. 2.13
𝐴c

And Eq. 2.6 (service, bottom) becomes:

𝑍b
𝑀T ≤ Ω𝑃m0 ( + 𝑒max ) − 𝑓ct,t 𝑍b − − − −Eq. 2.14
𝐴c

This represents linear relationships between MT and Pm0. For the case of a beam subject to sagging
moments, emax will generally be positive in value. Thus, equation 2.14 is of positive slope and represents a
lower limit to Pm0. It can also be shown that for most practical cases [(Zt/Ac) – emax] < 0, thus equation
2.13 is similarly a lower limit of positive, though smaller slope.

Figure 2.9 represents the general form of those expressions, and it can be seen clearly that providing a
prestress force in axcess of Y’ produces only small benefits of additional moment capacity. The value of
Y’ is given by the intersection of Eqns. 2.13 and 2.14.

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MT

Pm0

Figure 2.9 Max. moment and prestress force relationship

Thus,
𝑓cc,t 𝑍t + 𝑓ct,t 𝑍b
𝑃𝑚0 = − − − − − Eq. 2.15
𝑍 +𝑍
Ω ( t 𝐴 b)
c

The value of prestress force Pm0 = Y’ may be conveniently considered as a maximum economic value
beyond which any increase in prestress force would be matched by a diminishing rate of increase in
moment-carrying capacity. If a force larger than this limit is required for a given section, it may be more
economical to increase the size of this section.

2.4 MAGNEL DIAGRAM

2.4.1 The principles behind the Magnel Diagram

Magnel diagram is a graphical method for the analysis of a prestressed concrete beam and for the
determination of safe prestressing force and eccentricity.

The four lines associated with the limits on stress (the governing inequalities) can be used to determine a
range of possible values of prestress force for a given or assumed eccentricity by plotting a graph [1/𝑃 vs.
𝑒].

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The relationship between 1/P and e are linear, and if plotted graphically, they provide a valuable means of
determining appropriate values of P and e.

When these four equations are plotted, a feasible region is found in which points of 1/P and e
simultaneously satisfy all four stress limits. Any such point then satisfies all four equations.

2.4.2 The construction of Magnel Diagram

Equations 2.9 to 2.12 can be used to determine a range of possible values of prestress force for a given or
assumed eccentricity. For different assumed values of eccentricity, further limits on the prestress force
can be determined in an identical manner, although the calculations would be tedious and repetitive. In
addition, it is possible to assume eccentricity values for which there is no solution for the prestress force
as the upper and lower limit could overlap.

A much more helpful approach to design can be developed if the equations are treated graphically as
follows.

At transfer:
1 (1⁄𝐴𝑐 − 𝑒⁄𝑍𝑡 )
≥ − −(top) − − − Eq. 2.16 − − − (from Eq. 2.9)
𝑃𝑚0 𝑓𝑐𝑡,0 − 𝑀0 ⁄𝑍𝑡
1 (1⁄𝐴𝑐 + 𝑒⁄𝑍𝑏 )
≥ − −(bottom) − Eq. 2.17 − − − (from Eq. 2.10)
𝑃𝑚0 𝑓𝑐𝑐,0 + 𝑀0 ⁄𝑍𝑏

At service:
1 Ω(1⁄𝐴𝑐 − 𝑒⁄𝑍𝑡 )
≥ − −(top) − − − Eq. 2.18 − − − (from Eq. 2.11)
𝑃𝑚0 𝑓𝑐𝑐,𝑡 − 𝑀𝑇 ⁄𝑍𝑡
1 Ω(1⁄𝐴𝑐 + 𝑒⁄𝑍𝑡 )
≤ − −(bottom) − −Eq. 2.19 − − − (from Eq. 2.12)
𝑃𝑚0 𝑓𝑐𝑡,𝑡 + 𝑀𝑇 ⁄𝑍𝑡
The above equations express linear relationships between 1⁄𝑃𝑚0 and e.

Note that in eq. 2.16 the sense of the inequality has been reversed to account for the fact that the
denominator is negative. The relationship can be plotted as shown in Fig. 2.10(a) and (b) and the area of
the graph to one side of each line, as defined by the inequality, can be eliminated, resulting in an area of
graph within which any combination of force and eccentricity will simultaneously satisfy all four
inequalities and hence will provide a satisfactory design. This form of construction is known as a Magnel
Diagram.

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The additional line (A) shown on the diagram corresponds to a possible physical limitation of the max.
eccentricity allowing for the overall depth of section, cover to the prestressing tendons, provision of shear
links, and so on.

Two separate figures are shown as it is possible for line eq. 2.18, derived from eq. 2.11, to have either a
positive or a negative slope depending on whether fcc,t is greater or less than 𝑀𝑇 ⁄𝑍𝑡 .

(a) (b)
Figure 2.10

The Magnel Diagram is a powerful design tool. It covers all possible solutions to the inequality equations
and enables a range of prestressing force and eccentricity values to be investigated.

Values of min. and max. prestressing force can be readily read from the diagram as intermediate values
where the range of possible eccentricities for a chosen force can be easily determined.

The diagram also shows that the min. prestressing force (largest value of 1/Pm0) corresponds to the max.
eccentricity, and as the eccentricity is reduced the prestressing force must be increased to compensate.

Example 2.5
Draw a Magnel diagram for the beam given in Example 2.2 and determine the min. and max. possible
values of prestress force. Assume a max. possible eccentricity of 125 mm allowing for a cover etc. to the
tendons.

Example 2.6
A post-tensioned prestressed beam of a rectangular section 250 mm wide is to be designed for an imposed
load of 12 kN/m uniformly distributed on a span of 12 m. The member is to be designed with a concrete
strength class C40/50. The losses of prestress assumed to be 15%.
(a) Determine the minimum possible depth of beam (Ans: 250 mm × 675 mm);

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(b) For the section provided, determine the minimum prestressing force and corresponding eccentricity at
the mid-span. (Ans: Under service condition: Pm0,min. = 2383 kN and emin. = 30.1 mm; Under transfer
condition: Pm0,min. = 1131 kN and emin. = 194 mm)
(c) Check the results by Magnel’s graphical method.

2.5 DESIGN OF TENDON PROFILE

Having obtained a value of prestressing force that will permit all stress conditions to be satisfied at the
critical section (at the mid-span), it is necessary to determine the eccentricity at which this force must be
provided, not only at the critical section but also throughout the length of the member.

At any section along the member, e is the only unknown term in the four equations 2.3 to 2.6, and these
will yield two upper and lower limits, which must all be simultaneously satisfied. This requirement must
be met at all sections throughout the member and will reflect both variations of the moment, prestress
force, and section properties along the member.

The design expressions can be rewritten as:

At transfer:
𝑍𝑡 𝑓𝑐𝑡,0 𝑍𝑡 𝑀0
𝑒≤[ − ]+ − − − (top) − − − (2.20)
𝐴𝑐 𝑃𝑚𝑜 𝑃𝑚𝑜

𝑍𝑏 𝑓𝑐𝑐,0 𝑍𝑏 𝑀0
𝑒 ≤ [− + ]+ − −(bottom) − −(2.21)
𝐴𝑐 𝑃𝑚0 𝑃𝑚0

At service:
𝑍𝑡 𝑓𝑐𝑐,𝑡 𝑍𝑡 𝑀𝑇
𝑒≥[ − ]+ − − − (top) − − − (2.22)
𝐴𝑐 Ω𝑃𝑚0 Ω𝑃𝑚0

𝑍𝑏 𝑓𝑐𝑡,𝑡 𝑍𝑏 𝑀𝑇
𝑒 ≥ [− + ]+ − −(bottom) − −(2.23)
𝐴 Ω𝑃𝑚0 Ω𝑃𝑚0

Eqs. 2.20 to 2.23 can be evaluated at any section to determine the range of eccentricities within which the
resultant force Pm0 must lie. The moments MT and M0 are those relating to the section being considered.
However, as we wish to limit possible tensile stresses, we only examine Eqs. 2.20 and 2.23 correspond to
tension at the top during transfer stage and at the bottom in service stage.

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For a member of constant cross-section, if minor changes in prestress force along the length are neglected,
the terms in brackets in the above expressions are constant. Therefore the zone within which the centroid
must lie is governed by the shape of the bending moment envelopes, as shown in Fig. 2.11.

Figure 2.11

In the case of uniform loading the bending moment envelopes are parabolic, hence the usual practice is to
provide parabolic tendon profiles if a straight profile will not fit within the zone. At the critical section,
the zone is generally narrow and reduces to zero if the value of the prestress force is taken as the min.
value from the Magnel diagram. At sections away from the critical section, the zone becomes increasingly
greater than the min. required.

Example 2.7
Determine the cable zone limits at mid-span and ends of the member designed in Examples 2.2, 2.4 and
2.5 for a constant initial prestress force of 700 kN. Data for this question are given in the said examples.
Sketch the upper and lower eccentricities.

2.6 LOSSES

In prestressed concrete applications, the most important variable is the prestressing force. In the early
days, it was observed that the prestressing force does not stay constant but reduces with time. Even during
prestressing of the tendons and the transfer of prestress to the concrete member, there is a drop of the
prestressing force from the recorded value in the jack gauge. The various reductions of the prestressing
force are termed as the losses in prestress.

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For the serviceability requirements to be satisfied in each region of a member at all times after first
loading, a reasonably accurate estimate of the magnitude of prestress is needed in the design. This
requires reliable procedures for the determination of both the immediate and time-dependent losses of
prestress (Fig. 2.12).

Immediate losses of prestressing occur during the stressing (and anchoring) operation, and these include
elastic shortening of concrete, the short-term relaxation of the tendon, friction along a post-tensioned
cable, and the slip at the anchorages. Meanwhile, the time-dependent losses of prestressing are caused by
creep and shrinkage of the concrete and steel relaxation.

Figure 2.12 Causes of various losses in prestress

2.6.1 Definitions
The losses of prestressing that occur in a tendon are categorized as either immediate losses or time-
dependent losses (as illustrated in Fig. 2.13)

𝑃max 𝑃m0 𝑃m,t

Jacking Prestressing force Final or effective
force immediately after prestressing force
transfer

Figure 2.13 Losses of prestress in the tendons

Immediate losses occur when the prestress is transferred to the concrete at time t0 and may vary
along the length of the tendon. Immediate losses are the difference between the force imposed
on the tendon by the hydraulic prestressing jack Pmax (=Pj) and the force in the tendon
immediately after transfer at a distance x from the active end of the tendon Pm0(x) and can be
expressed as:

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Immediate loss = 𝑃max − 𝑃m0 (𝑥) − − − 2.24

Time-dependent losses are the gradual losses of prestress that occur with time over the life of
the structure. If Pm,t(x) is the force in the prestressing tendon at x from the active end of the
tendon after all losses, then,

Time-dependent loss = 𝑃m0 (𝑥) − 𝑃m,t (𝑥) − − − 2.25

Both immediate and time-dependent losses are made up of several components. Immediate
losses depend on the method and equipment used to prestress the concrete. They include losses
due to elastic shortening of concrete, wedge draw-in at the prestressing anchorage, friction in
the jack and along the tendon, deformation of the forms for precast members, deformation in
the joints between elements of precast structures, temperature changes that may occur during
this period and the relaxation of the tendon in a pretension member between the time of
tensioning the wires before the concrete is cast and the time of transfer (particularly significant
when the concrete is cured at elevated temperatures prior transfer).

Time-dependent losses are the gradual losses of prestress that occur overtime over the
structure’s life. These include losses caused by the gradual shortening of concrete at the steel
level due to creep and shrinkage, relaxation of the tendon after transfer, and time-dependent
deformation that may occur within the joints in segmental construction.

2.6.2 Immediate losses

The magnitude of immediate losses is taken as the sum of the losses caused by each relevant
phenomenon. Where appropriate, the effects of one type of immediate loss on the magnitude of other
immediate losses should be considered. For example, in a pre-tensioned member, the loss caused by
relaxation of the tendon prior to transfer will affect the magnitude of the immediate loss caused by elastic
deformation of concrete.

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Elastic deformation losses

1. Pretensioned member
When the tendons are cut and the prestressing force is transferred to the member, the concrete
undergoes immediate shortening due to prestressing. The tendon also shortens by the same amount,
which leads to the loss of prestress.

The elastic shortening loss is quantified by the drop in prestressing (ΔPel) in a tendon due to the
change in strain in the tendon (Δεp,0). It is assumed that the change in strain in the tendon, Δεp,0 is
equal to the strain in concrete (εcp,0) at the level of the tendon due to the prestressing force. This
assumption is called strain compatibility between concrete and steel.

The strain in concrete at the level of the tendon is calculated from the stress in concrete (σcp,0) at the
same level due to the prestressing force. A linear elastic relationship is used to calculate the strain
from the stress.

The quantification of the losses due to elastic shortening of the concrete is derived mathematically
below:
i). The elastic shortening loss = the loss in prestress force, ∆σp,0
∆σp,0 = ∆εp,0 𝐸p − − − − − −2.26
ii). The change in strain in a tendon (∆εp,0) = the strain in concrete (εcp,0) at the level of the tendon:
∆εp,0 = εcp,0 − − − − − − − −2.27
σcp,0
εcp,0 = − − − − − − − 2.28
𝐸cm,0
σcp,0
∆εp,0 = − − − − − − − 2.29
𝐸cm,0
Substitute into 2.26:
σcp,0
∆σp,0 = 𝐸 = 𝑚σcp,0 − −2.30
𝐸cm,0 p
iii). The elastic shortening loss = The drop in prestressing (ΔPel) = [the change in stress of the tendon]
x [cross sectional area of prestressing steel].
∆𝑃el = ∆σp,0 𝐴p − − − − − − − − − 2.31
𝐸p
∆𝑃el = 𝑚σcp,0 𝐴p (𝑚 = ) − −2.32
𝐸cm,0

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2. Post-tensioned member
If there is only one tendon, or with two or more tendons stressed simultaneously, the elastic
deformation of the concrete occurs during the stressing operation before the tendons are anchored.
Hence, in this case, the elastic shortening losses are zero.

In a member containing more than one tendon and where the tendons are stressed sequentially,
stressing of a tendon causes an elastic shortening loss in all previously stresses and anchored tendons.
Consequently, the 1st tendon to be stressed suffers the largest elastic shortening loss, and the last
tendon to be stressed suffers no elastic shortening loss at all. Elastic shortening losses in the tendons
stressed early in the prestressing sequence can be reduced by re-stressing the tendons (prior to
grouting of the prestressing ducts).

It is relatively simple to calculate the elastic shortening losses in an individual tendon of a post-
tensioned member, provided the stressing sequence is known. For most cases, it is sufficient to
determine the average loss of stress as follows:

n − 1𝑃
∆σp = m ; n = no. of tendons − − − 2.33
2n 𝐴

In post-tensioned members, the tendons are not bonded to the concrete until grouting of the duct
occurs after the stressing sequence is completed. It is the shortening of the member between the
anchorage plates that leads to elastic shortening, not the strain at the steel level, as in the case for pre-
tensioned members.

For simplicity, the loss in all the tendons can be calculated based on the stress in concrete at the
centroid level of prestressing steel. This simplification cannot be used when tendons are stretched
sequentially in a post-tensioned member.

3. The simplified formula

If the transfer force is Pm0, and the force after elastic shortening loss is P’ (the remaining force), then:
𝑃′ = 𝑃𝑚0 − loss in force − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −2.34
𝑃′ 𝑃′𝑒 × 𝑒 𝑃′ 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐
Loss in force = σcp,0 = + = (1 + ) − − − − − − − 2.35
𝐴𝑐 𝐼 𝐴𝑐 𝐼

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From 2.32:
𝑃′ 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐 𝐸p
∆𝑃el = 𝑚 (1 + ) 𝐴p ; (𝑚 = )
𝐴𝑐 𝐼 𝐸cm,0

Substitute into 2.34:

′
𝑃′ 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚0 − 𝑚 (1 + ) 𝐴p
𝐴𝑐 𝐼
𝑃𝑚0
𝑃′ = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2.36
𝐴p 𝑒2𝐴
1 + 𝑚 𝐴 (1 + 𝐼 𝑐 )
𝑐

**Note that Eq. 2.36 can only be applied to the pre-tensioned member.

For post-tensioned member, it is normally adequate to assume 50% of the above (Eq. 2.36) losses. In
this case, the remaining prestress force is:
𝑃𝑚0
𝑃′ = − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − 2.37
𝐴p 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐
1 + 0.5𝑚 (1 + )
𝐴𝑐 𝐼

Example 2.8
A prestressed concrete sleeper produced by pretensioning method has a rectangular cross section of 300
mm wide and 250 mm deep. It is prestressed with 9 nos. of straight 7 mm diameter wires at 80% of the
ultimate strength of 1570 N/mm2 as shown in Fig. E.g. 2.8. Estimate the percentage loss of stress due to
elastic shortening of concrete. Given Ep = 195,000 MPa and Ecm,0 = 30 GPa.

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Figure E.g. 2.8

Solution using Eq. 2.32:
𝐸p
∆𝑃el = 𝑚σcp,0 𝐴p (𝑚 = )
𝐸cm,0
The calculation of losses will be performed separately for top and bottom wires.
𝐸p 195,000 MPa
𝑚= = = 6.5
𝐸cm,0 30 GPa
𝑃𝑚0 𝑃𝑚0 𝑒𝑦top,cp
σcp,0,top = −
𝐴𝑐 𝐼
𝑃𝑚0 𝑃𝑚0 𝑒𝑦btm,cp
σcp,0,btm = +
𝐴𝑐 𝐼

Beam’s properties:
𝐴𝑐 = 250 × 300 = 75,000mm2
𝑏ℎ3 300 × 2503
𝐼= = = 390 × 106 mm4
12 12

Parameters due to prestresing force:

5 × 40 + 4 × 210
𝑦̅ = = 115.6mm
9
𝑒 = 125 − 115.6 = 9.4mm
𝑦top,cp = 125 − 40 = 85mm
𝑦btm,cp = 125 − 40 = 85mm

Pretressing force:
𝑃m0 = 0.8 × σult,p × 𝐴p
𝐴p = 9 × π⁄4 × 72 = 346.36 mm2
𝑃m0 = 0.8 × 1570 × 346.36 = 435 kN

Stresses due to prestressing force:

435 435 × 9.4 × 85
σcp,0,top = − = 4.91 N⁄mm2
75,000 390 × 106
435 435 × 9.4 × 85
σcp,0,btm = + = 5.8 N⁄mm2
75,000 390 × 106

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Elastic shortening (the drop in prestress):

∆𝑃el,top = 6.5 × 4.91 × 4 × π⁄4 × 72 = 4.91kN
∆𝑃el,btm = 6.5 × 5.8 × 5 × π⁄4 × 72 = 7.254kN
∆𝑃el = 4.91 + 7.254 = 12.164kN

Loss in percentage:
12.164
× 100 = 2.8%
435

Solution using Eq. 2.36:

𝑃𝑚0 435
𝑃′ = = = 422.114kN
𝐴p 2
𝑒 𝐴 346.36 9.42 × 75000
1 + 𝑚 (1 + ) 1 + 6.5 75,000 (1 + )
𝐴𝑐 𝐼 390 × 106
Losses in prestressing (%):
𝑃𝑚0 − 𝑃′ 435 − 422.114
× 100 = × 100 = 2.96%
𝑃𝑚0 422.114

Conclusion:
The results are not too much different.

Friction in ducts (friction along the tendon)

The friction generated at the interface of concrete and steel during the stretching of a curved tendon in a
post-tensioned member leads to a drop in the prestress throughout the member from the stretching end.
The loss due to friction does not occur in pre-tensioned members because there is no concrete during the
stretching of the tendons.

The friction is generated due to the curvature of the tendon and the vertical component of the prestressing
force. In addition to friction, the stretching has to overcome the wobble of the tendon. The wobble refers
to the change in position of the tendon along the duct. The losses due to friction and wobble are grouped
together under friction.

The magnitude of the friction loss depends on the tendon length, x, and the total angular change of the
tendon over that length, as well as the size and type of the duct containing the tendon. An estimation of
the loss of force in the tendon due to friction at any distance x from the jacking end may be made using:

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∆𝑃𝜇 (𝑥) = 𝑃max (1 − 𝑒 −𝜇(𝜃+𝓀𝑥) ) − − − − − − − −2.38

where:
θ : The sum in rad. of the absolute values of successive angular deviations of the tendon over the
length x.

𝜇 : The coefficient of friction between the tendon and its duct and depends on the surface
characteristics of the tendon and the duct, the presence of rust on the surface of the tendon and the
elongation of the tendon.

Table 5.1 Cl. 5.10.5.2 EN1992-1-1 (0.19 for strand; 0.17 for cold drawn wire)

𝓀 : The estimate of the unintentional angular deviation (in rad./m) due to wobble effects in the straight
or curved parts of internal tendons and depends on rigidity of sheaths, the spacing and fixing of
their supports, the care taken in placing the prestressing tendons, the clearance of tendons in the
duct, the stiffness of the tendons and the precautions taken during concreting.

Typical value is between 0.005 to 0.01 rad./m

Example 2.9
A post-tensioned beam shown in Fig. E.g. 2.9 is stressed by two tendons with a parabolic profile and
having a total cross-sectional area 𝐴𝑝 = 7500mm2. The total initial prestressing force, Pm0 = 10,500 kN
and the total characteristics strength is 14,000 kN. Given the parabolic curve is y = 2.844x10-6x2. Evaluate
the prestress loss at mid-span due to elastic shortening of the concrete and friction. Use the following
data: 𝜇 = 0.19, 𝓀 = 0.01 𝑟𝑎𝑑./m, Ecm(transfer) = 32 kN/mm2, Es = 205 kN/mm2. Take the average
eccentricity for the parabolic tendon as 2/3ec.
1800 mm

e=0
c.a
ɵ
ec = 640

1200 mm
30 m
Cross-sectional area A = 1.05 m2 Cross-section
Second moment of area I = 0.36 m4 at mid-span

Figure E.g. 2.9

Solution:
Loss due to elastic shortening:
From Eq. 2.37:

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𝑃𝑚0
𝑃′ =
𝐴p 𝑒2𝐴
1 + 0.5𝑚 𝐴 (1 + 𝐼 𝑐 )
𝑐

205kN/mm2
𝑚= = 6.4
32kN/mm2
𝑒 = 2⁄3 𝑒𝑐 = 2⁄3 640 = 427mm
10500
𝑃′ = = 10,145kN
7500 4272 × 1.05 × 106
1 + 0.5(6.4) 6 (1 + )
1.05 × 10 0.36 × 1012

𝑃𝑚0 − 𝑃′ 10500 − 10145

% Loss due to elastic shortening = × 100 = × 100 = 3.38%
𝑃𝑚0 10500

Loss due to friction:

From Eq. 2.38:
∆𝑃𝜇 (𝑥) = 𝑃max (1 − 𝑒 −𝜇(𝜃+𝓀𝑥) )
𝑑𝑦
𝜃= = 5.688 × 10−6 𝑥 = 0.08532 rad.
𝑑𝑥
∆𝑃𝜇 (𝑥) = 10500(1 − 𝑒 −0.19(0.08532+0.01×15) ) = 459kN
∆𝑃𝜇 (𝑥) 459
Loss due to friction = × 100 = × 100 = 4.71%
𝑃𝑚0 10500

Creep of concrete
The sustained compressive stress on the concrete will cause a long-term shortening due to creep, which
will similarly reduce the prestress force. As in the previous elastic shortening, the stress in the concrete at
the level of the steel is important. Hence;
𝑃′ 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐
σcp,t = (1 + ) − − − − − − − − − 2.39
𝐴𝑐 𝐼
And,
Loss of steel stress = 𝐸𝑠 σcp,t × specific creep strain
Therefore,
𝑃′ 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐
Loss of prestress force = 𝐸𝑠 (1 + ) × 𝐴𝑝 × specific creep strain − − − 2.40
𝐴𝑐 𝐼
𝜑(∞, 𝑡0 ) N
Specific creep strain = ( )⁄
1.05𝐸cm mm2

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𝐴𝑝 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐 𝜑(∞, 𝑡0 )
Loss of prestress force = 𝐸𝑠 𝑃′ (1 + )( ) − − − 2.41
𝐴𝑐 𝐼 1.05𝐸cm

Note that P’ is the prestressing force after considering all short-term losses

Shrinkage of concrete
This is based on empirical figures for shrinkage/unit length of concrete (ε cs) for particular curing
conditions and transfer maturity. Typical values range from 230 × 10−6 (outdoor exposure) to 550 ×
10−6 (indoor exposure).
The loss in steel stress = εcs 𝐸𝑠 , hence,
The loss in prestress force = εcs 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑝 − − − − − − − 2.42

Example 2.10
Use info. in Example 2.9, estimate the losses due to creep and shrinkage. Given: creep coefficient
𝜑(∞, 𝑡0 ) = 1.6 and shrinkage strain, 𝜀𝑐𝑠 = 330 × 10−6.

Solution:
Loss due to creep:
From Eq. 2.41:
𝐴𝑝 𝑒 2 𝐴𝑐 𝜑(∞, 𝑡0 )
Loss of prestress force = 𝐸𝑠 𝑃′ (1 + )( )
𝐴𝑐 𝐼 1.05𝐸cm
P’ is the prestressing force after considering all short-term losses:
Short-term loss due to elastic shortening =10500 − 10145 = 355kN
Short-term loss due to friction = 459 kN
Total short-term loss = 814 kN
7500 4272 × 1.05 × 106 1.6
Loss of prestress force = 205 × (10500 − 814) 6 (1 + 12 )( )
1.05 × 10 0.36 × 10 1.05 × 32
Loss of prestress force = 1035kN
1035
% Loss of prestress force = 100 = 9.9%
10500
Loss due to shrinkage:
From Eq. 2.42:
The loss in prestress force = εcs 𝐸𝑠 𝐴𝑝 = 330 × 10−6 × 205 × 7500 = 507kN
507
% The loss in prestress force = 100 = 4.8%
10500
Prepared by: Dr. Noorhazlinda Abd Rahman 30