………………TECHNI

CALTRAI
NINGI
NSTI
TUTE 1.Pr
ogr
ammabl
eLogi
cCont
rol
ler
s:Pr
ogr
ammi
ngMet
hodsand
ELECTRI
CALANDELECTRONI
CSENGI
NEERI
NGDEPARTMENT Appl
icat
ionsbyJohnR.Hackwor
thandFr
eder
ickD.Hackwor
th,
Jr.
2.Pr
ogr
ammabl
eLogi
cCont
rol
ler
sbyW.Bol
ton4thEdi
ti
on
DI
PLOMAI
NELECTRI
CAL&ELECTRONI
CSENGI
NEERI
NG
(
POWEROPTI
ON)–MODULEII 3.Pr
ogr
ammabl
eCont
rol
l
ers:Theor
yandI
mpl
ement
ati
onbyL.
A.
Br
yanandE.
A.Br
yan.2ndEd.
I
NDUSTRI
ALPROGRAMMABLELOGI
CCONTROLLER
4.I
ndust
ri
alAut
omat
ionbySr
ini
vasMedi
daVol
.6
COURSEOUTLI
NE
5.Pr
act
icalSCADAf
orI
ndust
rybyDav
idBai
l
ey,
Edwi
nWr
ight
1,I
ntr
oductiontoIndustri
alPLC 8hr
s
 Needf orIndust
r i
alPLC 6.I
ndust
ri
alNet
wor
ksf
orCommuni
cat
ionandCont
rolbyS.Dj
i
ev,
 TypesofI ndust
r i
alPLC
2.PLCsystem 15hr
s
 HardwareConf igurat
ion
 LadderLogi cProgramming
 ExternalPeri
pherals
 PLCMai ntenance

3.Super
visoryControlandDataAcqui
sit
ion(
SCADA) 15hr
s
 Defini
ti
on
 HumanMachi neInter
face(HMI
)
 DataAcqui si
ti
on
 SequenceCont rol
 DataSt or
ageandAct i
vity
 Securi
ty(AccessCont r
ol)

4.I
ndustri
alCommuni cat i
onNet work 15hr
s
 Net wor ks-LAN&WAN
 Indust r
ialNetworkTopol ogies
 Indust r
ialNetworkPr otocol
 Net wor kConstructi
on
 Phy sicalNetworkAddr ess
 Net wor kDevice
5.Cali
brati
onSof t
ware 13hr
s
1.Ty pesofCal ibr
ationSof t
war e TOPI
C1:I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOI
NDUSTRI
ALPLC
2.Oper ationofCalibrati
onSof tware
3.Dev iceConnect i
ont oSof t
war e Pr
ocessCont
rol
Books
1
- Process cont rolconsi sts ofmoni tor i
ng t he st ate ofa cr i
ti
cal - Theer r
orsi gnalisthediff
erencebet weent hePVandtheset-poi nt
,
parameter,det ect ingwheni tv ariesf rom desi r
edst ate,andt aking andisthebasi sforcontr
olacti
on.
acti
ont or estorei t.Itinvolv est hepr ocessv ariabl
e,setpoi ntsand - The cont rol
ler ist he devi
ce t hat pr ocesses t
he err
or signal,
manipulatedv ariabl e. deter
minest herequi
redcontrolactionandpr ovi
desacontr
olout put
- Mostbasi cpr ocesscont r
olsy stemsconsi stofacont roll oop.Thi s ManipulatedVar iabl
e(MV)t othepr ocess.Thedev i
cet
hatconv erts
hasfourmai ncomponent swhi char e: thecontroloutputint
ocontrolacti
oni stheact uat
or.
 Ameasur ementoft hest ateorcondi t
ionofapr ocess
 Acont roll
ercal culati
nganact ionbasedont hi
smeasur edv alue Contr
olModes
againstapr e- setordesi redv alue( setpoi nt) - Incont rol ,ther ear econt rolsy stemswhi chcanbedi scr eteoranal og,
 Anout putsi gnal r
esultingf rom t hecont rollercalcul
ationwhi chis manual oraut omat ed, per iodi corcont inuous.
usedt omani pul atethepr ocessact ionthroughsomef orm of - Ther ear ef ivebasi cf ormsofcont rol av ailableinPr ocessCont r
ol:
actuator 1.On- Of fcont rol:Theol destst rategyf orcont rolist ouseaswi t
ch
 Thepr ocessi t selfreactingt ot hissignal, andchangi ngi t
sst ateor givi
ng si mpl e on- of fcont r
ol.Thi si s a di scont inuous f orm of
conditi
on cont rolact ion,andi sal sor ef erredt oast wo- posi ti
oncont rol.A
perfecton- offcont rolleri s' on'whent hemeasur ementi sbel ow
theset -
poi nt( SP)andt hemani pul atedv ar i
able( MV)i sati ts
maxi mum v al ue.Abov et heSP, thecont rol
leri s'of f'andt heMVi s
atami nimum.
2.Modul at ingcont rol:I ft heout putofacont rollercanmov ethr ough
ar angeofv al ues,t hisi smodul atingcont rol .Modul ationCont rol
takespl acewi thinadef inedoper at i
ngr angeonl y .Thati s,itmust
hav eupperandl owerl imi ts.Modul atingcont r
oli sasmoot her
form ofcont rolt hanst epcont rol.Itcanbeusedi nbot hopenl oop
andcl osedl oopcont r
ol sy st
ems.
- Twooft hemosti mpor tantsignalsusedi npr ocesscont rolar
ecalled 3.Openl oopcont rol :Openl oopcont roli sthuscal ledbecauset he
 Pr ocessVar i
ableorPV cont rol act ion( Cont rollerOut putSi gnal )isnotaf unct ionoft hePV
(ProcessVar iabl e)orl oadchanges.Theopenl oopcont roldoes
 Mani pulatedVar i
ableorMV
notsel f-
cor rect ,whent hesePV’ sdr ift.
- Inindustrialprocesscont rol,thePr ocessVar i
able( PV)ismeasur ed
4.Feedf orwar dcont r ol:Feedf orwar dcont r
oli saf orm ofcont rol
byani nst rumenti nthef ieldandact sasani nputt oanaut omat i
c
basedonant i
ci pat ingt hecor rectmani pul
at edv ar i
abl esr equired
control
lerwhi cht akesact ionbasedont hev alueofi t
.
todel ivert her equi redout putv ariabl e.Itisseenasaf orm ofopen
- ThePVi st hepar amet erthatist obecont r
olled.Tobecont r
oll
ed, the
l
oopcont rol ast hePVi snotuseddi rect lyi
nt hecont rol action.
PV mustbe capabl e ofbei ng measur ed and t hatmeasur ement
5.Cl osedl ooporf eedbackcont r
ol:I ft hePV, theobj ect i
v eofcont rol
,
convertedi ntoasi gnal t
hatcanbeact edonbyt hecont r
oll
er.
i
susedt odet er mi net hecont r
olact ioniti scal ledcl osedl oop
- Devicest hatmeasur ePVar et ransducersorsensor s.Inmanycases,
cont rol sy stem.
thePV sensorconsi stsofadi rectmeasur ementdev i
cecal l
edan
elementandasepar atesignal processorcalledat ransmi t
ter
.
- Theset -pointi sthedesi redv alueoft hePV,nor mallypresetintot he
I
ndustr
ialCont
rolSyst
em (
ICS)
controlsy stem byanoper ator,order iv
edasanout putofanot her
- Indust
rialAutomati
onisadisci
pli
net
hati
ncl
udesknowl
edgeand
controlcalculation.
2
 exper ti
sef r
om v ar i
ousbr anchesofengi neer ingi ncl udingel ectrical, thefunct
ional
i
tyofUCOS.Thesubsy st
emsi nclude:anEngi
neeri
ng
elect ronics, chemi cal ,mechani cal, communi cationsandmor er ecent ly Workstat
ionSubsyst
em,anOperatorWorkst
ationSubsyst
em,anda
comput erandsof twar eengi neer ing. Fiel
d Contr
olUnit( FCU)Contr
oll
erSubsystem.The subsystems
- ICSi sat ermt hatencompassessev er alt ypesofcont rolsy stems communicateviaaControl
Net
work.
usedi ni ndust r i
al product i
on.
- Thesei ncl ude:Super visor yCont roland Dat aAcqui sition ( SCADA)
sy stems, Di st ribut edCont rolSy stems( DCS)andot hersmal lercont rol
sy stemsconf igur at i
onsuchasPr ogr ammabl eLogi ccont rollers( PLC) .
- Theappl icat ionf ori ndust r
ialpr ocesscont rolsy st emsar edi verse
rangi ngf rom si mpl et raf fi
ccont rolt ocompl exel ect ri
calgr id,from
env ironment al cont rolsy stem t ooi lrefiner ypr ocesscont rol.
- The i ntelligence of t hese aut omat ed sy stems l ies i n t heir
measur ementandcont r oluni ts.
- SCADA i s a combi nat i
on oft elemet ry and dat a acqui siti
on.I t
encompassest hecol lect ingoft hei nf ormat i
on, transf erringi tbackt o
thecent ralsi te,car ryingoutanynecessar yanal ysisandcont roland
thendi spl ay ingt hati nf or mat iononanumberofoper atorscr eensor
displ ays.TheSCADA i sacent ralizedsy stem andi scomposedof
var i
oussubsy st emsl ikeRemot eTel emet ryUni ts,HumanMachi ne
Interface, Pr ogr ammabl eLogi cCont roller( PLC)andCommuni cations
net wor ks.
- DCSi sapr ocess- ori
ent edsy stem andi tt r
eat st hecont roloft he
processasi tsmai nt ask,andi tpr esent sdat at ooper ator saspar tof
i
t sjob.
- PLC i s an i ndust rialcomput ercont rolsy stem t hatcont i
nuousl y
moni torst hest at eofi nputdev icesandmakesdeci si onbasedupona
cust om pr ogr am, tocont rolt hest ateofdev i
cesconnect edasout put .
Theyar e based on t he Bool ean l ogi c oper ati
ons wher eas some
model suset imer sandsomehav econt inuouscont rol.Thesedev ices
arecomput erbasedandar eusedt ocont r
olv ariouspr ocessand
equi pment swi thinaf aci li
ty.PLCscont rolt hecomponent si nt heDCS
and SCADA sy stems butt hey ar e pr imar y /main component si n
smal lercont rol conf i
gur at i
ons.
- Embedded Cont rol:I nt hiscont r olsy st em,smal lcomponent sar e
attachedt ot hei ndust rialcomput ersy stem wi ththehel pofanet wor k
andcont rol i
sex er cised.
- UserConf igur at ionOpenSy stem ( UCOS)i sacont rolsy st em t hat
empl oy s obj ect -orient ed t echni que atev eryl ev elofi ts sy stem TOPI
C2:PROGRAMMABLELOGI
CCONTROLLER(
PLC)
archi tectur e,andi ncludesanumberofsubsy stemswhi chsegment I
ntr
oduct
ion

3
- PLC isauni tofhar dwar eusedt ocont rolandaut omat ei ndust r
ial tobeused, al
lt hati snecessar yisf oranoper atort okeyi nadi f
ferent
processes.I ti sami cro-comput erbasedcont roll
ert hatusesst ored setofi nst ructions.Ther eisnoneedt orewi re.
i
nstruct i
ons i n pr ogr ammabl e memor y t o i mpl ement l ogic, - Ther esul tisaf lexible,costef f
ective,sy stem whi chcanbeusedwi th
sequenci ng,t i
mi ng,count ingandar it
hmet icf unctionst hroughdi gital control syst emswhi chv aryqui tewi delyi nthei rnatureandcompl exity.
or anal og i nput /
out put modul es,f or cont r
olli
ng machi nes and - PLCsar esi milart ocomput ersbutwher eascomput ersareopt i
mized
processes. forcal culationanddi splayt asks,PLCsar eopt i
mi zedf orcont
roltasks
- Thet erml ogi ci susedbecausepr ogrammi ngi spr imar ilyconcer ned andt hei ndust rial envir
onment .
withimpl ement ingl ogicandswi tchingoper ation. - ThusPLCshav especi f
icf eaturessui t
edf ori ndust r
ialcontrol
:-
- ThePLC i sdesi gnedasr eplacementf ort hehar d-wir edr elayand 1.Rugged and desi gned t o wi thstand v i
brations,t emperatur e,
ti
merl ogict o be f ound i nt radi t
ionalcont rolpanel s,wher e PLC humi dityandnoi se
provi
deseaseandf lexibilit
yofcont rolbasedonpr ogr ammi ngand 2.Modul ar pl ug- i
n const ructi
on,al lowi ng easy r epl
acement or
executingl ogi ci nst r
uct i
ons. addi tionofuni ts(e.g.input /
output );
- APLChast hr eemai naspect s:t hei nputsandout putsandt hecont rol 3.St andar dinput /outputconnect ionsandsi gnal l
evels
program.I nf igur ebel ow, PLChasei ghtinput sandf ourout puts. 4.Hav ei nterfaci ng f or input s and out put s al r
eady inside t he
- The i nputi s any t
hing t hatcan cont rol l
er.
sense t he st atus of t he 5.Easi ly under st ood pr ogr ammi ng l anguage whi ch is pr i
mar il
y
envir
onmentandt henconv ertthat concer nedwi t hlogicandswi t
chi ngoper ations
i
nformat ion i nt o a si gnal .Of ten 6.Easeofpr ogr ammi ngandr eprogr ammi ngi n-plant;
thesignalcansi mpl ybeav oltage 7.Capabl e ofcommuni cati
ng wi th ot herPLCs,comput ers and
that is ei ther on or of f. For intelli
gentdev ices;
exampl e,i nput dev i
ces can be 8.Compet i
ti
v einbot hcostandspaceoccupi edwi t
hr el
ayandsol i
d-
proxi
mi t
y swi tches,phot oel ectric stat elogi csy st ems.
sensor s, t emper ature sensor s,  Thesef eat uresmakepr ogrammabl econt rollershi ghlydesir
ableina
pushbut t
ons, orpr essur esensor s. widev ar i
et yofi ndust ri
al-plantandpr ocess- cont rolsituati
ons.
- Theout put sar econnect edt ot hedev icest hatneedt obecont roll
ed
l
ikemot ors, indi catorl i
ght s,fans, warningsirensorheat ingel ement s. PLCAdvantages
- Controlpr ocesses need dev ices t o moni torev ents ormeasur e  Flexibil
it
y:Onesingl
ePLCcaneasi l
yrunmanymachines.
neededv alues.Thesedev icesar egener i
call
ycal ledi nput st othePLC.  Cor r
ect i
ngError
s:WithPLCcont r
ol,anychangei
ncircui
tdesign
- Thepr ogr am usesasetofl ogicali nstructi
onst hatdr iv
est heout put s orsequenceisassimpl easret
ypi
ngthelogi
c.Cor
rect
ingerr
orsin
basedont hei nput s. PLCi sextr
emelyshortandcostef
fect
ive.

TheNeedf orPLCs  SpaceEf

fi
cient
:Today
'sPLCmemor
yisget
ti
ngbi
ggerandbi
gger
- Har dwired panel
s wer ev eryt i
me consumi ng t
o wir
e,debug and thi
smeanst hatwecangener atemor eandmor econt act
s,coi l
s,
change.The PLCs el imi nates much oft he hard wi
ri
ng thatwas ti
mer s,sequencer
s,count er
sandsoon.I tispossi bl
et ohav e
associ
at edwit
hconv entional r
elaycont r
olcir
cuit
s. thousandsofcontactti
mer sandcount er
sinasinglePLC.
- PLCshav et
hegreatadv ant aget hatthesamebasi ccontr
oll
ercanbe  Low Cos t
:Pr i
ces ofPLC v ar
yf r
om f ew hundr eds t of ew
usedwi t
hawi derangeofcont rol sy
stems. thousands.
- PLCsr equir
eshor t
eri nstall
ationandcommi ssi
oningti
mest hando  Testing:APLCpr ogram canbet est
edandev al
uat edinal ab.The
hard-
wiredsystems.Tomodi fyacont rolsyst
em andtherul
esthatar
e program can be t est
ed,v al
idated and cor
rected sav i
ng v er
y
4
 v
aluabl
eti
me. mainpar tsarei nput/outputmodul es,centr
alpr ocessinguni t,memor y
 Vi
sualobser
vat
ion:When r
unni
ng a PLC pr
ogr
am a v
isual andprogrammi ngt er
mi nal.
operati
oncanbeseenont hescr
een.Hencet
roubl
eshoot
inga a)Pr ocessoruni torcent ralprocessi
ng uni t( CPU)i st he unit
ci
rcuiti
sreal
l
yqui
ck,
easyandsi
mple. contai
ningt hemi croprocessorandthi
si nt
erpr et
st heinputsignals
andcar riesoutt hecont rolacti
ons,accor ding tot hepr ogram
Ty
pi calPLCAppl i
cat i
ons stored i
ni tsmemor y,communi cati
ng thedeci sionsasact ion
 PLCsar eusedt ooper ategr eenhousei rri
gat i
onssy st ems.I tcanbe signal
st otheout puts.
usedt ocont r
olhow of t
enandt heamountofwat erdistributedt o b)Memor yuni tiswher et heprogram i
sstoredt hatist obeusedf or
cer t
ainar eas.Itcancont rolalar geamountofv al
vest ocertainar eas thecontrolactiont obeex erci
sedbyt hemi croprocessoranddat a
andi sf lex i
bleast hegreenhouse’ sneedschange. stored from the i nputf orprocessi
ng and f ort he outputf or
outputt
ing.
 PLCsar eusedf orsor t
ingpackagesonaconv eyorbyoper atinga
diverter.Asensorcandet ectapackaget ypeandaser i
esofdi v
er t
ers
cansor tt hem att heendoft hebel t.Butt hePLCi sf lexi
ble,itcanbe
reprogr ammedi fandwhent hesor tingt askchangesori fenhanced
oper ationi sneeded.
 PLCsar ei mplement edinav arietyofcont roloperationsf r
om l arget o
smal l
.Car washesar eapopul arusef orPLCsbecausei ti nvolves
i
nt ri
cat e use ofsensor s and mot ors,butal so has t he need f or
relativelycompl exl ogi
c.
 Lumbermi ll
susePLCst ocont rolthemai nsawandl oadi
ngofwood
whi l
ev ar i
ous sensor s ensur e safe oper at i
on so t hatpeopl e and
equi pmentar enothar med
 PLCs can wi thstand t he harsh condi ti
on deser tcondi tions whi l
e
cont roll
inganoi lrecoveryprocess.Temper aturescangethi ghert han
120degr eesFahr enheitinthedeser t,yetaPLCcanr eadsensor sand
cont rolthemot orsnecessar yforoi lextraction.

PLCAr chit
ecture c) I
nputandout putmodul es– ar ewher et heprocessorr eceiv
es
Therearetwot ypes: i
nformationfrom ext er
naldevicesandcommuni catesi nf or
mat i
on
1.Open ar chi
tecture design all
owst hesy st
em t o beconnect ed toexternaldev i
ces.TheI /O unitprovidest heinterf
acebet ween
easil
ytodev icesandpr ogramsmadebyot hermanuf actur
ers. thesystem andt heout si
dewor l
d,all
owi ngforconnect ionst obe
2.Cl osedar chitect
ureorpr oprietar
ysy stem isonewhosedesi gn madet hroughI /Ochannelst oinputdev i
cessuchassensor sand
makesi tmor ediffi
culttoconnectdev i
cesandpr ogramsmadeby outputdevicessuchasmot orsandsol enoids.Itisal sot hrough
othermanuf acturers. theI/O unitthatpr ogramsar eenteredf r
om apr ogr am panel .
NOTE:Whenwor ki
ngwi thPLCsy stemst hatar epropri
etaryinnatureyou EveryI/
Opoi nthasauni queaddr esswhi chcanbeused
mustbe sur et hatany gener i
c har dware orsof t
war ey ou use is d)Inputandout put(I/O)devices-iscollectionofphy sicalel ement s
compat i
blewithyourpart i
cul
arPLC. ofthecontrolsystem thateit
herpr ov
ideoruseI /Odat a.
PLCHar dware e) Programmi ngdev ice/t erminalar eusedt oent ert her equir
ed
ThestructureofaPLCcanbedi v
idedsev eralparts/component s.The
5
 program i nt
ot he memor yoft he pr ocessor .The pr ogram is carr
youtt heseoper
ations
developedi nthedev i
ceandt hent r
ansf erredtot hememor yuni
t 2.ControlUnit–Thiscontrolsthemov ementofinst
ructioninandoutof
ofthePLC. theprocessorandalsocont rol
stheoperati
onofALU.I tconsi
stsofa
f) Powersuppl yuni tisneededt oconv ertt hemai nsA. Cvoltageto decoder,control
sl ogic cir
cuitand a clock to ensure ever
ythi
ng
l
ow d. c.volt
agesnecessar yf orthepr ocessorandt hecircuit
sin happensatt hecorr
ectt i
me.I ti
salsoresponsibl
ef orperfor
mingthe
theinputendout putinterfacemodul es. i
nstructi
onexecuti
oncy cl
e.
g)Rack Assembl y:Most medi um t ol arge PLC sy st
ems ar e
assembl edsucht hatthei ndi vidualcomponent s-CPU,I /O,power
supply-ar emodul est hatar ehel dt oget herwi t
hinar ack.In
smal l
erPLCsy stems-al loft hesecomponent smaybecont ai
ned
i
n a si ngle housi ng or" brick"-t hese smal lersy st
ems ar e
somet imesrefer r
edt oas" bricks"or" shoebox"PLCs.
h)Communi cati
oni nt
erfacei susedt or eceiv eandt ransmitdat aon
communi cat
ion net wor kf rom ort o ot herr emot e PLC.I tis
concur r
ed wi th such act ions as dev ice v er if
icati
on, data
acquisiti
on, sy nchronization bet ween user appl icati
ons and
connect i
onmanagement .

PLCCPUar chitecture
- The CPU cont rols and super v i
ses al loper ati
ons wi thint he PLC,
carryingoutpr ogr ammedi nstruct i
onsst oredi nthememor y.
- An i nter nal communi cations hi ghway ,or bus sy stem,car ri
es
informat iont oendf r
om t heCPU, memor yandI /Ouni ts,undercont rol
oft heCPU.
- TheCPUcont r
olsandpr ocessesal ltheoper ati
onwi thint hePLC.I tis
suppliedwi thacl ockwi t
haf requencyofbet ween1and8MHz .Thi s
frequencydet ermi nest heoper ati
ngspeedoft hePLCandpr ov i
des
thet i
mi ngandsy nchr onizationf oral l
element sint hesy stems. 3.Registers– l ocatedwi thint hemi croprocessorandusedt o store
- Thei nfor mat i
onwi thinthePLCi scar ri
edbymeansofdi gital signals. i
nformat ioni nvolvedi npr ogram execut ion.I tisasmal lamountof
- Thei nter nalpat hsal ongdi gi t
alsi gnalf l
owar ecal ledbuses.Abusi s i
nternalmemor yt hati susedf orthequi ckst orageandr et
rievalof
justanumberofconduct orsal ongwhi chel ectri
cal si gnalscanf low. dataandi nstructi
ons.Al lpr ocessorsi ncludesomecommonr egist
ers
- Thei nt ernalst ruct ureoft heCPU dependsont hemi cr oprocessor usedf orspeci f
icf uncti
ons,namel yt hepr ogram counter,instructi
on
concer ned regi
ster,accumul ator,memor yaddr essr egisterandstackpoi nter.
- Thesi mpl i
fiedmodelconsi stoff i
v epar t
sALU,CU,Regi sters,Buses, 4.Bus-Busesar et hepat hsusedf orcommuni cati
onwi t
hint hePLC.
andmemor y . Thei nformat i
oni st ransmi t
tedi nbinaryf ormi .
e.asagr oupofbi t
s
1.Ar i
thmet i
c and Logi c Uni t( ALU)Whi ch i sr esponsi bl ef ordat a withabi tbeingabi narydi gitof0or1.
mani pulat i
onandcar ryi
ngoutar i
thmet icoper ationsofaddi ti
onand  Sy stem busi susedf orcommuni cati
onbet weentheI/Opor tsand
subt r
act ionandl ogi coper ationsofAND,OR,NOTandEXCLUSI VE– I/Ouni t
.Itisacabl ewhi chcarr i
esdat acommuni cat
ionbet ween
OR( X-OR)i treceivescont rolsi gnalsf rom thecont roluni tt ell
ingi tto the maj or component s of t he comput er including t he

6
 mi croprocessor . i
mage t abl
e.The l
ocati
on wi
thint he i
nputand out
putimage
 Cont rolbuscar r
iest hesignal sr elati
ngt ot hecont rolandco- table/
mapareident
if
iedbyaddresses,eachl
ocat
ionhasit
sown
ordinationoft hev ari
ousact ivi
tiesacr osst hecomput erwhi chcan uniqueaddr
ess.
besentf r
om t hecont rolunitwi thintheCPU.I tinformsmemor y
dev i
ceswhet hert heyar etor eceiv edataf rom ani nputorout put Memor yor gani zati
on
dat aandt ocar ryouttimingsignal susedt osy nchroni zeact i
ons. - Thisr ef erst ohow cer t
ai nar easofmemor yi naPLC ar eut ili
zed.
 Dat abuscar riesthedat ausedi nt heprocesscar r
iedoutbyt he Phy sicaladdr essingi stheabi li
tytor eaddat afrom aspeci f
icmodul e
CPU.I tisusedf ortheex changeofdat abet weent hepr ocessor, terminal orwr it
einf ormationt oaspeci fi
cmodul eterminal.
memor yandper i
pherals,andi sbi dir
ecti
onal.Ami cropr ocessor - Dur i
ngt heexecut i
onofuserpr ogram,t hemi cropr ocessorscanst he
termedasbei ng8- bi
thasani nter naldatabuswhi chcanhandl e8- userpr ogr am andi nt
erpr etst heusercommand,wheni nformat i
oni s
bitnumber . readf rom acont actori nput ,itisst oredi nmemor y.Thisportionof
 Addr essbusi susedt ocar rytheaddr essesofmemor ylocati
on.It memor yi st heinputi maget able/ mapwhi chisdesi gnatedt ost ore
cont ai
nst heconnect ionbet weent hemi croprocessorandmemor y thisinputi nformation.Eachi nputt ypicall
yhasatami nimum, asi ngle
thatcar rythesi gnalsr el
ati
ngt ot headdr esseswhi cht heCPUi s bitdesi gnat edtost orei t
si nfor mation
processi ngatt hattime,suchast helocat i
onst hatt heCPU i s - Dat ar esul ti
ngf rom l ogicalanal ysisbyt heCPU i .e.vari
ousout put
reading f r
om orwr it
ing to.Ev erymemor yl ocation i sgi ven a dev i
cest atusgener ated dur ing t heex ecution ofuserpr ogram i s
uniqueaddr ess. storedi nmemor yl abeledast heout putimaget able/map
- From t hispoi nt
,thei nformat ioni st ransferredtoadesi gnat
edout put
5.Memor y:-Ther earesev er almemor yel ement si naPLCsy st em. modul eandt hent oapar ticul
arf iel
ddev ice.
 Execut i
vememor yoroper atingsy stem memor ywhi chi sr ead
onl ymemor y( ROM)t o give per manentst orage f oroper at i
ng BasicPLCOper ation
system andf ixeddat ausedbyt heCPU.I ti st heonet hatact uall
y  A PLC wor ks by cont i
nuousl yr unning a
doest hescanni ngint hePLC. program t hatchecks t he i nput s and then
 Sy stem memor y–i nor derfort heoper atingsy stem t of unct i
on, a updatest heout puts.Thepr ocessoft hePLC
sect i
onoft hememor yisal lottedf orsy st em admi nist rati
on.As runni
ng t hr oughout i t
s pr ogram i s call
ed
theex ecutivepr ogram per formsi tsdut ies,i tof tenr equi r
esa scanning.Scanni ng speed depends on t he
placet ostorei nt
ermedi ateresul tsandi nfor mat ion.Asect ionof program sizeandexecut i
ont ime.
RAM ( Random AccessMemor y)isi nstal l
edf ort hispur pose.  Thet otalti
mef oraPLCt ocheckt hei nputs,
 Dat amemor y–Thi si saRAM wher ei nfor mat ioni sst oredont he runthepr ogr am andupdat et heout putsis
statusofi nputandout putdev icesandt hev al uesoft imer sand call
edt hecy cletime.Ty picalcy cl
et i
mesar e
count ers and ot heri nternaldev ices.Dat a RAM i s somet imes 10mst o100ms.Ev erycy clet hei nputsare
referredt oasdat atabl eorr egist ert able. checkandsav edt omemor y .
 Userpr ogram memor y–Thef i
nalar eaofmemor yi naPLCi s  Thent hepr ogr am isrunusi ngt hestatusoft hesav
edinput
s.Aft
erthe
all
ocat edt ot hest orageoft heuserpr ogr am.I tist hismemor y program isdonet heout putsar eupdat edandthecycl
estar
tsagai
n.
areat hatt heexecut ivepr ogr am i nst ruct st hemi cro- pr ocessort o
exami neor‘ scan’ t
of indt heuseri nst ruct i
ons. Scanni
ngprocesses
 I/O st atus memor yorI /Oi mage t abl e.A por ti
on ofRAM i s  ThePLC’ sCPUmonitorst
hestat
usofalli
nput
s.Ittakesthesev
alues
all
ocat edf ort hest orageofcur rentI / O st atus.Ev er ysi ngleI /O andenergi
zesorde-ener
giz
estheoutputsaccordingtot hel
adder
modul ehasbeenassi gnedt oapar ti
cul arl ocat ionwi thi nt heI /O di
agram /userpr
ogr
am.Thisisref
err
edtoasScanni ng.TheCPUof
7
 thePLCexecut est heuserpr ogr am ov erandov eragai nwheni tisin
ther unmode.
 Ascandoesnotconsi stofaPLCexecut ingl adderdi agr am r ungby
rung, buti nsteadt hePLCper formsanI /Oandpr ogr am scan.TheI /O
scanst r
ansf ersdat at o and f rom t he out putand i nputmodul es
respect ively.
 Thei nf ormat ioni str ansf er redi nt hef orm ofbi t
sandst oredi ni mage
tables( i
magemaps)ar ebl ockofmemor ydesi gnat edt ost oret he
i
nputandout putbi tst at e)
 Thei nputandout puti st hepor tionoft hePLCt hati nter faceswi ththe
outsidewor ld.Theact ualbr idgebet weent hephy sicalwor ld and
i
nter nal worldoft hePLCi st heopt icalisolat ionci rcui t
ry.
 Ther ear ef ourbasi cst epsi nt heoper ationofal lPLCs;i nputscan,
progr am scan,out put scan,and house keepi ng.These st eps
continual lytakepl acei nar epeat ingl oop.
1.I nputscan:Dur i
ngt hei nputscan, thecur rentst atusofev er yinput
modul eisst or
edi nt hei nputi mage( memor y)t able, br i
ngi ngi tup-
to- date.Thusal lt hest atusoft hei nputdev ices( whi chi nt urnis
connect edt ot hei nputmodul e)i supdat edi nt hei nputmemor y
tabl e.
2.Pr ogr am scan:Fol lowi ngt hei nputscan,t heCPUent ersi tsuser
pr ogr am ex ecut ion,orpr ogr am scan.The execut i
on i nv olves PLCinputandout put( I/
O)dev ices
st arti
ngatt hepr ogr am' sf i
rsti nst ruction,t henmov i
ngont ot he - Input/out put( I/O)i sinfor mationr epresent i
ngthedat athatisr ecei v
ed
secondi nst ructionandcar ryingouti t
sex ecut ionsequence.Thi s from sensesel ement s/dev i
cesandt hecommandst hatar esentt o
cont i
nuest ot hel astpr ogr am i nst ruction.Thr oughoutt heuser - actuat i
ng and i ndicati
ng dev ices.TheI /O system i scol l
ect ion of
pr ogr am ex ecut i
on,t heCPU cont inual lykeepsi tsout puti mage phy si
calel ement soft hecont rolsystem t hateitherpr ov i
deoruseI /O
(memor y)t ableup- to- dat e. data.
3.Out put scan: Dur i
ng pr ogr am scan, t he out put modul es - Thet erm sensori susedf orani nputdev icethatpr ov idesausabl e
themsel v esar enotkeptcont i
nual l
yupt odat e.I nstead,t heent i
re outputi nr esponse t o a speci fi
ed phy sicalinput .Forex ampl e,a
out puti maget abl eist ransf er redt ot heout putmodul esdur ingt he thermocoupl ei sasensorwhi chconv ertsat emper at uredi fference
out putscanwhi chcomesaf tert hepr ogr am execut ion.Thust he intoanel ect r
ical output.
out putdev i
cesar eact ivat edaccor dinglydur ingt heout putscan. - Thet ermt ransduceri sgener all
yusedf oradev icet hatconv ertsa
4.Housekeepi ng – t hese st eps i ncludes communi cation wi th signalf rom onef ormt oadi fferentphy sicalfor m.Thussensor sar e
pr ogr ammi ng, i
nt ernal diagnost i
cact i
vitieset c. oftent ransducer s,butal soot herdev icescanbet r
ansducer s,e. g.a
mot orwhi chconv ert
sanel ectricalinputi ntorotation.
- ThenumberofI /Odev icesusedwi thinacont rolsy stem i scal ledi ts
pointcount .Thust het otalnumberofdi gitalandanal ogpoi nti sused
togi v
eani ndicat ionoft hesi zeofacont rol sy
stem.
- PLC hasi nputandout putlinest hroughwhi chi sconnect edt oa

8
 system i tdi rect s.Anyel ect r
icalsignalpr ocessi ngal way srequi resa - Analogout putdev icesrespondt oar angeofout putvaluesfrom t
he
volt
agesuppl y( anactivepar t)andal oad(passi vepar t)orvicev ersa. control
lercommonanal ogout putsignal
sincludemot orspeed,val
ve
- I/
Omodul esconnect" realwor l
d"fielddev i
cest othecont r
oller.They positi
on,airpressur eetc.Ananal ogoutputcar dwil
lconvertadigi
tal
conv ertt heel ectr
icalsignal susedi nthef ielddev i
cesi ntoel ectronic numbersentbyt heCPUt oi t
sr ealworldvoltageorcur r
ent.Anal
og
si
gnal st hatcanbeusedbyt hecont r
olsy st
em,andt ranslater eal devicedatar equiressignif
icantl
ymor emanipulat
ionandpr ocessi
ng
worldv aluest oIOt ablev alues. thendigit
aldev i
cedat a.
- I/
Omodul escommuni catewi thPLCCPUi noneoft hr eeway s:
1.Backpl ane-TheI /Omodul escanbel ocat edi nt hesamer ackor 2.Digit
alinputandout putdev ices
st ati
on.Communi cations t hen takes pl ace wi thinthe r ack or - Inputscomef r
om sensor st hatt ransl
atephy sicalphenomenai nto
acr osst hebackpl ane. digi
talsignal.Thusdigitalinputdev icesmaybeei theronorof f
,they
2.Backpl aneext ension-backpl aneext ensionmodul esal low I/O maynothol danyotherv alue.
modul est obel ocatedi nr acksorst ationswhi char esepar at
ed - Common di gi
talfi
eldi nputdev ices include push buttons,unit
from t hecont roll
er. switchesandphot oey es.
3.Dev i
cenet wor k-modul escancommuni cat
ewi thacont roll
erov er - Digit
alout putdev i
ces ar e devices whi ch giv
e ei t
heron orof f
.
anet wor k.Indust ri
alnet wor ksareusedt ointerconnectf ieldlevel Commont y
pesar erel
ay s,mot orstarter
,solenoi
dv alveset
c.
dev ices wi th cont r
ollers.Common I O net wor ks are Fi eldBus,
Pr ofibus, andDev i
ceNet . Exampl esofi nput sandout put s
- Therear emaj ortypesofI /
O - I nputsforaPLCcomei naf ewbasi cv ar i
eti
est hesi mplestar eACand
 Anal og–cont inuousdev icesthatsenseandr espondt oar ange DCi nputs.Exampl esofi nputdev i
cesar e:
ofv al ues  Pr oxi mi tyswi tches – use i nduct ance,capaci tance orl i
ghtt o
 Di gital–bi narydev iceswhi chmustbei noneofonl yt wost at
es detectanobj ectl ogically
onorof f
.  Swi tches–mechani calmechani smswi l
lopenorcl oseel ectri
cal
cont actsf oral ogi cal si
gnal
1.Analogi nputandout putdev i
ces  Pot entiomet er– measur esangul arposi tioncont i
nuousl yusi ng
- Analogi nputdev icessensescont inuouspar ameterscommonanal og resistance.
i
nput sar epr essur e,temper ature,speedt r
ansducerset c.  LVDT( Linearv ar i
abl edi fferenti
alt ransfor mer)–measur esl i
near
- Ananal ogi nputcar dconv ertsav olt
agebycur rentl egorsi gnalt hat displacementcont inuousl yusingmagnet iccoupling.
canbeany wher ef rom 0t o20mA)i ntodigit
all
yequi v
alentnumber - Out putst oact uator sal l
owaPLCt ocausesomet hi
ngt ohappeni na
thatcanbeunder stoodbyt heCPU. process.Out putsf rom PLCar eof t
enr elays, buttheycanal sobesol i
d
- Toi nputananal ogv ol
tage( intoaPLCoranyot hercomput er)t he stateelectr onicssuchast ransistorsforDCout putorTRI ACsf orAC
continuousv olt
agev aluemustbesampl edandt henconv ertedt oa outputs.Cont i
nuousout putr equiresspeci alout putcardswi t
hdi gital
numer i
calv aluebyanA/ D conv ert
er.Thepr ocessofsampl ingt he toanalogconv erters.
datai snoti nst antaneous,soeachsampl ehasast artandst opt i
me. - Ex ampl esar e
Thet imer equi r
edt oacqui ret hesampl eiscall
edt hesampl ingt i
me.  Sol enoi dv alves– l ogi calout putt hatcanswi t
chahy drauli
cor
A/D conv erterscanonl yacqui r
eal i
mi t
ednumberofsampl esper pneumat i
cf l
ow
second.Thet imebet weensampl esiscalledthesampl i
ngper odT,
i  Li ght s–l ogicalout putt hatcanof tenbe power eddirectlyfrom
andt hei nver seoft hesampl i
ngper iodist hesampl ingf r
equency PLCout putboar ds
(al
socal l
edsampl ingr ate)
.Thesampl i
ngt i
mei sof tenmuchsmal l
er  Mot orst arters– mot or sof t
endr aw al argeamountofcur r
ent
thant hesampl i
ngper i
od whenst arted,sot heyr equi remot orst arterswhi charebasi cally
9
 l
argerel
ays. thecurr
ent(Fi
ga)
 Serv
omot ors–aconti
nuousout
putf
rom t
hePLCcancommand - I
fthecurrentfl
owsfrom t
heoutputmodul
etoanout
putl
oadt
hent
he
avari
abl
espeedorposi
ti
on. outputmoduleisr
eferr
edastosourci
ng(f
igb)

Act
iveandpassi veinputs/output s
- ActiveI /
Oar ethosei nput sorout putswhi chhav ethepowersour ce
Output
andar ereferr
edt oashav i
ngacur r
entsour ceorv olt
agesour ce Module
(sourcing)
- Passi veI/O arethosei nputsorout putswhi chdonothav epower
sourceandact sast hel oadorcur rentsink(sinki
ng)
- Inor derthatanel ectr
icalci r
cuitcanf unctionproperl
y,curr
entmust
flowi nacircui
tev enwhenani nstrumenti susuall
yknownasal oad,
thecur rentisnotconsumedbyi ts ratheritonlyflowsf rom the 2.Sinking-whenactivetheout putallowscur rentt oflow toacommon
currentorv olt
agesour cet hrought heloadandbackt othecurrent ground.Thisisbestsel
ectedwhendi f
fer
entv ol
tagesar esuppli
es.
source. - Wi t
h sinki
ng,using the conv entionalcur rentf l
ow di rect
ion fr
om
positiv
et onegati
ve,ouri nputdev i
cesuppl i
escur rentt otheinput
modul ei.
e.thei
nputmodul eist hesinkfort hecur r
ent( f
iga)
- I
ft hecurrentfl
owstot heoutputmodul efrom anout putloadthenthe
outputmodul ei
sreferr
edtoassi nking(fi
gb)

Output
Module

Sourci
ngandsinki
ng
- Sour ci
ng and si
nki
ng ar
eused t
o descr
ibethewayi nwhichd.c Ty
picalConnect
ionsofPLC
devi
cesareconnect
edtoaPLCandusesd.ccur
rent
sandvol
tages.

1.Sourci
ng–Whenact i
ve,
currentfl
owsf rom supply,t
hrought heusea
si
nglesupplyvol
tage.Withsourcing,usingt heconventionalcurr
ent - .
fl
ow di
rect
ionasf r
om posit
ivetonegat ive,aninputdev icerecei
ves
curr
entfr
om theinputmodul ei.
e.theinputmodul eist hesour ceof

10
 def
ined (No.ofi
nst
ruct
ors)
Small 40/40 1k
Medium 128/128 4k
Lar
ge >128/>128 >4k

1.Smal lPLC–smal landmi niPLCsar edesi gnedasr obust ,compact

unitswhi chcanbemount edonorbesi det heequi pmentt obe
cont r
oll
ed.Theyar emai nlyusedt oreplacehar dwi redl ogicr elay s,
ti
mer s,count er s etct hatcont roli ndividuali tems ofpl antor
machi nery ,butcanal sobeusedt oco- ordinatesev eralmachi nes
wor ki
ngi nconj unction wi theachot her.Pr ogrammi ngi sbywayof
l
ogici nstructionl i
st(mnemoni c)orr elayladderdi agr ams.
2.Medi um- sized PLC: - I n this r ange, modul ar const ruction
predomi nat eswi t
hpl ug- i
nmodul esonr ackmount i
ngsy stem or
Backpl anesy stem.Thi sal l
owst hesi mpleupgr adi
ngorexpansi on
ofthesy st em byf itt
ingaddi ti
onal 1/0car dsi nt
ot her acks
3.LargePLC-wher econt rolisverylargenumber sofi nputandout put
pointsi snecessar yorcompl excont r
olf unct i
onsar er equi red,a
l
argePLC i ssel ected.I tisdesi gned f orusei nl argepl ant sor
machi nesr equiri
ngcont inuouscont rol.Theyar eal soempl oy edas
super vi
sor ycont roll
erstomoni torandcont rolsev eralot herPLCsor
i
ntelli
gentmachi nese. g.CNCt ools.

PLCstylesofconst ructi
on
 Themai nst ylesareunitary,modularandr ackmount ing.
1.UnitaryPLC-i st hesmal lestandl eastex pensive.I tcontainsev ery
featureofabasi csystem i noneboxandi sat tachedt ot hemachi ne
beingcont roll
ed.Theyar enotexpandabl esot heappl i
cati
oni sl i
mited
toon- boar dI/O.
2.Modul ar–Thesear ear angeofmodul esthatsl ottogethert obui l
dup
asy stem.Basi cmodul esar et hepowersuppl y,t hemai nmodul e
Ty
pesofPLCsy st
em containingt heCPU, t
hei nputmoduleandt heout putmodul e.Modul ar
 ThePLCsi z esaregivenint ermsofpr ogr
am memor ysiz
eandt he PLCsar eusedi nappl i
cationswhereahi gherI /Ocounti sneededor
maxi
mum numberofI /
Opoi ntsthesystem cansupport
. whenusi ngspeci alt
ymodul essuchasquadr atureencoder s.They
 Howev erto evaluat
epr operl
yanyPLC,consi derat
ionistakenf or maybedesi gnedt obef ixeddir
ectt oabackpanel .Usual l
yt heyar e
manyaddi
tionalfeat
uressuchasi t
spr ocessor
,cycl
et i
me,language arrangedonar ackorr ailandmount edi nsideal argecabi netfor
f
aci
li
ti
es,f
unctionsexpansioncapabil
ityetc. protect i
onandsecur i
ty.Themai nadv antagei st hatt henumberof
inputandout putterminalscanbeex pandedt ocopewi thchangest o
PLC si
ze MaxI
/Opoi
nt Usermemor
y si
ze thehar dwar esy stem.
11
3.Rack mount ing – are usual
ly more expensi
ve,expandabl
e and
powerfult han modul ar PLC.The r ack provi
des a power and
communi cat i
onbackplanethatgreat
lyincr
easesthecommuni cat
ion
ratebetweent heprocessorandt hemodul esaswel lasallowing
somespeci alt
ymodulestocommuni catewitheachotherwi
thoutthe
processor.Thenumberofav ai
labl
e1/0pointsisalsomuchhigherin
theracksy stems.

i
) Ladderdi agr am (LD)
i
i)Inst r
uctionl ist(
IL)
i
ii
)Funct ionbl ockdi agram (FBD)
i
v)St r
uctur edt ext(ST)
v) Sequent ialfuncti
onchar t(SFC)
PLCProgrammi ng 1.Ladderdi agr am l anguage( LD):Itusesast andardi
zed setof
- Programmi ngdev i
cescanbehand- helddevices,adeskt opconsoleor l
adderpr ogrammi ng sy mbol st oimplementcont rolfunct
ions.
a comput er.Onlywhen t he program has been desi gned on the Ini
tial
lypr ogrammed wi t
h si mple contactsthatsimulated t
he
programmi ngdev i
ceisr eady ,iti
st ransf
erredtot hememor yunitof opening and cl osi
ng ofr elays,ladderl ogi
c,programming has
thePLC extended t oi nclude such f uncti
ons as counters,ti
mers,shift
 Hand- heldpr ogrammi ngdev i
ces–wi l
lnormal l
ycont ainenough regist
ersandmat hemat icaloper ati
ons.
memor ytoallow theuni tt oretainprogramswhi lebeingcarri
ed
from onepl acetoanot her.
 Deskt opconsol es–ar eli
kelytohav eav i
sualdisplayunitwit
ha
2.Inst
ruct
ionli
st– al ow level(assembleli
ke)l
anguagethatis
fullkeyboardandscr eendi spl
ays.
basedonsimil
arinst
ruct
ionsli
stlanguagesf
oundinawiderange
 Per sonal comput er s – ar e wi del
y conf i
gured as pr ogr
am
oftoday
’sPLCs.
development wor k st at
ion.A maj or adv antage of usi ng a
comput eristhatthepr ogram canbest oredont hehanddi skor
CDandcopi eseasilymade.
- PL Cpr ogr ammi ngpr ocessi stopl anact ivi
ti
essuchasdesi gn
andwr it
eapr ogram toper
for
mtherequi
redt
asks.Thepar
ts
thatshouldbetherei
naPLCprogr
am ar
eshown. 3.St
ructur
ed text– A hi gh leveltextlanguaget hatencourages
st
ruct
uredprogrammi ng.Ithasal anguagestruct
ure(syntax)t
hat
- Whileladderlogicist hemostcommonl yusedPLC pr ogrammi ng st
ronglyresembl es PASCAL and suppor t
s a wi de range of
l
anguage, i
tisnottheonlyone. st
andardfuncti
onsandoper at
ions.Forexample
- IEC61131- 3(FormerlyIEC1131-3)i
stheint
ernati
onalstandardfor I
F(Limit_
switch1ANDWor kpi
ece_Pr
esent)THEN
PLC languages.Thef ollowi
ngisalistofprogrammingl anguages Gate1:-Open;
speci
fiedbythisstandard. Gate2:-Close;
12
 ELSE Si
emens57et
c.
Gate1:-Close;
Gate2:-Open; Ladderl
ogi
csy
mbol
s
End_I
F; 1.Thebasi
cladderl
ogi
cinputsy
mbol
sar
e
4.Functi
on bl
ock di agram (FBD)–i s a graphicallanguage that 1. Normal l
y open ( NO)cont act:pass power
al
lowstheusert oprogram el
ements(e.g.,
PLCf uncti
onblocks)in (ON)ifcoil
drivi
ngt hecont actisON( cl
osed)
suchawayt hattheyappeart obewi redt ogetherlikeelect
ri
cal 2. Normal l
yclosed ( NC)cont act:passpower
ci
rcui
ts.Itisv eryusefulforexpressi
ngt heinterconnecti
onof (ON)ifcoil
drivi
ngt hecont actisoff(
open)
contr
olsyst
em algorit
hmsandl ogi
c. 3. Posit
ive t r
ansition sensi ng cont act: if
condi
tionbeforet hei nst
ructionchangef rom
OFFtoON,t hi
si nstructi
onpassespowerf or
onl
yonescan( untilr
ungi sscannedagai n)
4. Negative transiti
on sensi ng cont act:i f
condi
tionbeforet hi
si nstr
uct i
onchangef rom
ONt oOFF,t hi
si nstructi
onpassespowerf or
onl
yonescan( untilr
ungi sscarredagain)
5.Sequenti
alf uncti
onchar
t:A methodofprogrammingcompl
ex
contr
olsystemsatamor ehighl
ystr
uct
urel
evel
.Iti
sanovervi
ew
ofthecontrolsyst
em,i
nwhichthebasi
cbui
ldi
ngblocksar
eent
ir
e 2.Thebasi
cladderl
ogi
ccoi
l (
output)sy mbol s
progr
am fi
les. 1. Outputorcoi l:i fany l eft-
to-ri
ghtpat h of
i
nstructi
on passes power ,t he out put i s
energi
zed.I ftherei sno cont inuousl eft
-t
o-
ri
ghtpat h ofi nstructi
on passespower ,the
outputisde- energized.
Ladderdi agram Language 2. Negatedcoi l
:ifanyl eft-t
o-r
ightpat hofi nputs
- Al adderdi agram i sasy mbol icrepr esent at
ionofanel ectricalci
rcuit
. passespower ,theout putisde- energized.If
Thust hesy mbolsut i
li
zedcl oselyr esembl eschemat icsy mbolsf or thereisnocont i
nuousl ef
tt or ightpat hof
electrical devices. i
nstructi
ons passi ng power t he out put is
- Thisl anguagei sasy mbol icinst r
uct ionsett hatisusedt ocr eatePLC energi
zed
programs.Thel adderi nstructionsy mbol scanbef or
mat tedt oobtain 3. Setcoil:ifanyr ungbat hpassespowerout put
thedesi redcont rollogic,whi chi st henent eredintomemor y.Since i
sener gizedandr emai ns
thist ypeofi nstructi
onsetconsi stsofcont actsymbol s,itisal so energi
zed,ev en when no r ung pat h pass
referredt oascont actsymbol ogy power
- Toi nt roducel adderl ogicpr ogrammi ng,simpl eswitchci rcui
tsar e 4. Resetcoi l:ifanyr ung pat h passes power
conv ert edtor elaylogicandt hent oPLCl adderlogi
c. output i s de- energized and r emai ns de-
- Thei ndust rytrendi stowar dusi ngt heI EC61131- 3standar d,thougha energi
zed,ev en when no r ung pat h passes
volunt ar ystandard; i
ndividual manuf acturesher esomef reedom i nthe power.
i
mpl ement ati
on.
- OtherPLCmanuf acturersar eAl len- Bradley,ControlLogix,Modi con,
13
 (
repr
esent
edbyacoilsy
mbol).Thecontacti
nst
ruct
ionsforarung
mayberefer
redt
oasi
nputcondi
ti
ons,
rungcondi
ti
ons,ort
hecontrol
l
ogic

Ladderdi agram r ul
es
- Al adderdi agram isreadfrom l efttori
ghtandf rom topt obott
om.
- Thev erti
calpowerl inesorr ail
smaybel abeledL1,L2 orX1,X2 when
thev oltagepot enti
alisderi
v edf rom atransformer .
- Dev icesar eshowni nor derofi mpor t
ancewhenev erpossi
ble.St op
buttonshoul dbegi v
enahi gheror derofimpor tance.
- Al lcont ractsassociatedwi thadev i
cechangest atewhent hedev ice
i
sener gized.
- Dev icest hatperform astopf unctionarenor mal l
ypl acedinserieson
arung.
- Dev icest hatperfor
m ast artf uncti
onar enormal l
yplacedinpar all
elor
i
nabr anchconf i
guration.
- Cont actassoci atedwit hr
elay stimers,mot orst arter
salwayshav ethe
samenumberorl ett
erdesignat i
onast hedev i
cet hatcontr
olsthem.

Example1
Twoswi tcheslabeledAandBarewiredi
nSERI
EScontr
oll
i
ngal amp.
Implementthi
sf uncti
onasPLCl
adderl
ogi
cwher
ethet
woswi t
chesare
- SincethePLCwasdev el
opedt or epl acer elaylogiccont r
olsy stem,i t separat
einputs.
wasonl ynat uralthatinit
iallanguagecl osel yresembl est hedi agrams
usedtodocumentt her el
aylogic.
- Byusingt hisappr oach,theengi neer sandt echniciansusi ngt heear ly
PLCdi dnotneedr etraini
ngt ounder st andt hepr ogram.
- Theusecombi nationallogicwher et heout putispur elydependentof Sol
uti
on
thecombi nat i
onofi nputsatanyi nst antint i
me.TheyuseAND,OR,
NOT,X- ORt ocr eat eladderlogic.Inal lthel adderl ogic,sy mbolsar e
usedforal li
nput s,outputsandi nternal memor y
.
- Verti
callinesont hel ef
tandr ightar ecal l
edt hepowerr ail
s.The
contactsarear rangedhor izontall
ybet weent hepowerr ails,hencet he
termrung. X=A.B
- The mai nf unct i
ons ofa l adderdi agr am pr ogram ar et o cont rol
outputsandper formf uncti
onaloper at i
onsbasedoni nputcondi ti
ons.
Ladderdiagramsuser ungst oaccompl ishthiscont rol.
- Ingeneral,ar ungconsi st
sofasetofi nputcondi t
ions( representedby - ThePLC l
adderl
ogi
cnotati
onisshor
tened f
rom ther
elaywir
ing
contactinstr
uct i
ons)andanout puti nst ructionatt heendoft her ung di
agr
am t
oshowonlythet
hir
dli
ne,t
herel
aycontact
sandcoi
lofthe

14
 out
putr
elay
.

Example2
Twoswi tcheslabel
edAandBarewir
edinPARALLELcont
rol
l
ingal amps
i
mpl ementt hi
sfuncti
onasPLCl
adderl
ogi
cwherethetwoswitchesare
separat
ei nput
s.

Sol
uti
on
i
v)XORgat
e
X=A+B

Exampl
e3
Drawal
adderdi
agr
am f
ort
heNOT,
NAND,
NORandXORgat
e
i
)NOTgate

i
i
)NANDgat
e

Questi
ons
1.Dev isealadderdiagram forasy
stem wher
et her
ehastobenoout put
whenanyoneoff oursensorsgi
vesanoutput,ot
herwi
sethereistobe
anoutput.
i
i
i)NORgat
e 2.Asi gnallampi srequir
edt obeswit
chedoni fapumpi srunningand
thepressureissati
sfactory
,ori
fthelamptestswit
chisclosed.Draw
aladderdiagram.
3.Consi derav alv
ewhichist obeoperat
edtoli
ftaloadwhenapumpi s

15
 runningandei thert hel if
tswi tchi soper at
edoraswi tchoper ated i
nstructionconsi stsofanoper atorfol
lowedbyoneofmor eoperands,
i
ndicatingt hatt hel oadhasnotal r
eadybeenl iftedandi satt he i
.e.thesubj ectsoft heoper at or
.I ntermsofl adderdiagramsan
bottom ofi tsli
ftchannel .Dev i
seal adderdi agr am. operatormayber egardedasal adderelement .
4.AnAl arm sy st
em i susedi nconj unct ionwi thanaut omat edbot tl
ing  Eachi nstructi
on mayei t
heruseorchanget hev al
uestored ina
system inami l
kbot tl
ingpl ant .Aconv eyerbel tcar riesempt ybot t
les memor yregister.
thatar et obef ill
edwi thmi lk.Theal ar m goesof fi nanyoft he  Therear eal otofi nst
ructi
onsusedt odev elopt hePLCpr ogram.Each
conditi
onsoccur s. i
nstructionhasar especti
vef unct i
on.Fort his,mnemoni ccodesar e
- Mi l
kt anki sempt yandbot tl
esar ei nconv ey orbel t. used,eachcodecor respondingt oanoper ator/
ladderelement.The
- Ther ear enobot tl
esi nt heconv eyerandt her ei smi l
ki nthet ank. codesuseddi ffertosomeext entf r
om manuf acturertomanufacturer
,
- Ther ei smi l
ki nt het ankandbot tl
esont heconv eyorbel tbut thoughast andardI EC1131- 3hasbeenpr oposedandi sbeingwidely
electricpoweri sof f. adopted.
- Ther ei snomi l
ki nt het ank,nobot tl
esont heconv eyorbel tand
electricpoweri sof f. I
nst
ruct
ioncodemnemoni
cs
i) Wr i
tedownaBool eanex pr essionf ort heal arm sy stem.
ii) I
mpl ementt hi
ssy stem usingaPLCl adderdi agram.
5.Drawt hel adderr ungst orepr esent:
a.Twoswi tchesar enor mall
yopenandbot hhav et obecl osed
foramot ortooper ate.
b.Ei theroft wo,nor mal lyopen,swi tcheshav et obecl osedf ora
coiltobeener gizedandoper ateanact uat or .
c. A mot ori s swi t
ched on bypr essing a spr ing-return push
but t
onst artswi t
ch,andt hemot orr emai nsonunt ilanot her
spr i
ng-returnpushbut t
onst opswi t
chi spr essed.
d.Al ampi st obeswi t
chedoni fthereisani nputf r
om sensorA
orsensorB
e. Al i
ghti st ocomeoni fther
ei snoi nputt oasensor .
f. Asol enoi dv al
v eist obeact i
vat edifsensorAgi vesani nput.

I
nst
ructi
onLi st 1.LD-LOADI nstr
ucti
on:Theseinstr
ucti
onsareusetostar
tali
neofthe
 Thisi sa low-levellanguagesi milart othemachi neorassembl y progr
am.Iti
susedi nthefi
rstcontact
sinthenormal
lyopencondi
ti
on
languageusedwi t
hmi croprocessors.Thistypeoflanguagei suseful (NO).TheExecuti
onConditi
onsoft heinst
ruct
ionontheri
ghtwil
lbe
forsmal lappli
cat i
ons,aswel lasappl i
cati
onsthatr equirespeed ONwheni nt
ernalr
elay(I
R)00000isON.
optimizati
onoft heprogram oraspeci fi
crouti
neintheprogr am
 This programmi ng met hod,whi ch can be considered to be the
enteri
ngofal adderprogr am usi
ngtext ,
givesprogr
amswhi chconsist
ofaser i
esofinst r
ucti
ons,eachi nstructi
onbeingonanew l i
ne.An
16
 cont
act
s.TheExecuti
onCondi
ti
onsoftheinst
ruct
ionont
her
ightwi
l
l
beONwheneitherI
R00000orIR00001areON.

2. LDNOT-LOADNOTI
nst
ruct
ion:Thesei
nst
ruct
ionsar
euset
o
star
tali
neofthepr
ogram.I
tisusedinthef i
rstcont
actsi
nthe
normal
l
yclosedcondi
ti
on(NC).TheExecut
ionCondit
ionsoft
he
i
nst
ruct
ionont
her
ightwi
l
lbeONwhenI
R00000i
sOFF.

6.OR NOT-OR NOTI nst

ruct
ion:Theseinst
ruct
ionsareusedi nthe
secondcontactinanormallyclosed(
NC)andi nli
ne( par
all
el)wi
th
previ
ouscontact
s.TheExecuti
onCondit
ionsoftheinst
ruct
iononthe
ri
ghtwil
lbeONwhenei t
herIR00000isONorI R00001i sOFForI R
00000ON, I
R00001OFFsi mult
aneousl
y.
3.AND -AND Inst
ruct
ion:Thesei
nst
ruct
ionsareusedinthesecond
cont
acti
nanor mall
yopen(NO)andaser i
eswit
hprevi
ouscont
acts.
TheExecut
ionConditi
onsofthei
nstr
ucti
onont heri
ghtwil
lbeON
whenIR00000andIR00001areON.

7.OUT-OUTPUTI nst
ruct
ion:Theseinst
ruct
ionsar
eusedf
ort
hecoi
l
out
put
.IR10000wil
lONwhenI R00000isON.

4.ANDNOT-ANDNOTI nst
ructi
on:Theseinstr
ucti
onsareusedinthe
secondcontacti
nanor mallycl
osed(NC)andi nserieswi
thprev
ious
contact
s.TheExecuti
onCondi t
ionsoftheinst
ruct
ionontheri
ghtwil
l
8.END:END i nstr
ucti
onhasnophy si
calcont
actdevice.I
tisthelast
beONwhenI R00000ONandI R00001ar eOFF.
i
nstruct
ionrequir
edforcompl
eti
onofapr ogr
am.IfnoENDi nst
ruct
ion,
theprogram cannotbei
mplemented.ForPLCtypeOMRON-SYSMAC
CQM1H, t
heinstr
ucti
onFUN01ist heENDinstr
uct
ion.

5.OR -OR Inst

ruct
ion:These i
nst
ruct
ions ar
e used int
he second
cont
acti
nanor mall
yopen( NO)andinline(par
all
el)wi
thprevi
ous
17
 11.
ORLD and ANDLD:Whenbot hlogicblockinstr
ucti
onistobeused
inLadderDiagr
am, aprogram mustbewr i
tt
enf r
om thebottom upt o
mergelogicblocks.Forexample,ladderdiagram below:Logicblock
9. ORLD-BLOCKLOGI
CORI
nst
ruct
ion:TheORLDi
nst
ruct
ion ofinst
ructi
onf orthelasttwoblocks( bl
ocksb1andb2bl ocks)are
hasnophysicalcont
actdevi
ce.Onlyaprogrammi ngt
oolfor wri
ttenfir
standt henfoll
owedbyt hef i
rstlogicblockinstruct
ion
sol
vi
ngcompl exORfunct
ionasaseriesofcontact
sLD(orLD (bl
ocka).
NOT),
inpar
allelwi
thaser
iesofot
hercont
acts.

AND LD -BLOCK LOGI

10. C AND I
nst
ruct
ion:TheAND LD no
physi
calcontactdevi
ce.Onl
yaprogr
ammingt
oolforsol
vi
ng
complexfuncti
onssuchasANDconnect
sanumberofOR,OR
NOT,ORLDi ntheseri
es.

Exampl
es
1.Asignallampisrequi
redtobeswitchedonifapumpi srunni
ngand
t
hepressur
eissat
isf
actor
y,ori
fthelamptestswi
tchi
sclosed.

18
 andi
mpl
ement
ati
onofsequencesy
stems.

I
nternalRelay
- I nPLCst herear eelement st hatar eusedt ohol ddata,i.
e.bits,and
2.Forav al
vewhichi st obeoperat
edt ol
iftal oadwhenapumpi s behavel iker elays,beingabl et obeswi tchedonorof fandswi tch
runningandeithert heli
ftswit
chisoperatedoraswi t
choperat
ed otherdev icesonorof f
.Hencet het ermi nternalr
elay.
i
ndicati
ngt hatthel oadhasnotal r
eadybeenl i
ft
edandi satthe - Suchi nternalrelaysdonotexi stasr eal-
wor l
dswi t
chingdevicesbut
bottom ofitsl
iftchannel
,Figur
eshowsthel adderprogram andt
he aremer elybitsi nthestoragememor ythatbehav einthesamewayas
rel
atedinstr
uct
ionlist. rel
ays.
- Forpr ogr ammi ng,theycanbet r
eatedi nthesamewayasanex ternal
rel
ayout putandi nput.Thusi nputst oext ernalswit
chescanbeused
togiveanout putf r
om ani nternal r
elay.
- Thi st hen r esul t
si nt he i nternalr elay contacts being used,i n
conjunctionwi thot herexternali nputswi tchest ogiv
eanout put,e.g.
acti
vateamot or.

3.Forasy st
em wherether
ehast obenoout putwhenanyoneoffour
sensor
sgi vesanoutput
,other
wisethereistobeanoutput,Fi
gure
showstheladderpr
ogram andt
heinst
ructi
onli
st.

- Forthef irstrung:wheni nput1ori nput3i sclosedandi nput2cl osed,

theninter nalrelayIR1i sact ivated.Thi sr esultsint hecont actsIR1
closi
ng.I finput4i sthenact i
vated, ther ei sanout putf r
om out put1.
- Suchat askmi ghtbei nvolvedi nt heaut omaticl i
fti
ngofabar ri
er
whensomeoneappr oachesf rom ei thersi de.Input1andi nput3ar e
Sequenti
al contr
ol i
nput sf rom phot oelectri
c sensor st hatdet ectt he pr esence ofa
- Thi siswher et heout putisdependentnotonl yont heactuali nputs person,appr oachi ngorl eavingf rom ei thersideoft hebar ri
er,i
nput1
butont hesequenceoft heprevi
ousinputsandout put s(memor i
zing beingact ivatedf r
om onesi deofi tandi nput3f r
om t heot her.I
nput2
events). i
sanenabl i
ngswi tcht oenabl et hesy stem t obecl oseddown.
- Sequent i
alproblemshav elongbeensol v
edusi ngconv ent
ionallogic - Thuswheni nput1ori nput3,andi nput2,ar eact ivated,t hereisan
gatesasbui l
dingbl ocks,butusingcert
aintechniquest oexpr essand outputf rom t heinternalr elay1.Thi swi l
lcloset hei nternalrelay
i
dentifythesequencel ogi
cequationst
hatcontrolthesy stem outputs. contacts.I finput4,per hapsal imi tswi tch,detectst hatt hebar ri
eris
- Adv anced PLC i nstructi
ons such as shiftregisters,sequencer s, closedt heni tisactivatedandcl oses.Ther esultist henanout put
mastercont r
olr el
ay s,ti
mersetcar eprovi
dedt osimpl ifythedesi gn from Out1, amot orwhi chliftsthebar r
ier .

19
- Ift
hel i
mi tswit
chdet ectsthatt
hebar ri
erisalreadyopen,theperson
havi
ngpassedt hroughi t
,thenitopensandsoout put1isnol onger
energizedandacount erweightmightthenclosethebarri
er.
- Thei nt
er nalrel
ayhasenabl edt
wopar t
soft heprogram t
obel i
nked,
onepar tbeingt hedet ecti
onoft hepr esenceofaper sonandt he
secondpar tt
hedet ecti
onofwhet hert
hebar ri
erisalr
eadyupordown Ti
mer s
- I nmanycont r
olt askst her ei saneedt ocont roltime.Ti mer sar e
SETandRESET dev icesthatcounti ncr ement soft ime.PLCst hushav et imer sasbui lt
-
- Anot herfuncti
onwhi chisof t
enav ai
lablei
st heabi l
i
tytosetandr eset i
ndev i
ces.Ti mer scountf ract i
onsofsecondsorsecondsusi ngt he
aninter
nalrelay.TheSETi nstructioncausest her el
aytoself-
hold, i
.e. i
nt ernalCPUcl ock.
l
atch.Itthenr emainsi nt hatcondi t
ionunt i
ltheRESETi nst
ructi
oni s - Thewayt het i
mer swor kv ariesf rom onet ypeofPLCt oanot her.A
recei
ved.Thet ermf li
p-fl
opi sof tenused. commonappr oachi st oconsi dert imerst obehav el iker elayswi th
- TheSETcoi lisswi tchedonwhenpoweri ssuppl iedtoitandremai ns coils whi ch when ener giz ed r esultint he cl osur e oropeni ng of
setuntili
tisRESET.TheRESETcoi lisresett otheof fst
atewhen cont actsaf t
ersomepr esett i
me.Thet imeri st hust reatedasan
powerissuppl i
edt oitandr emai nsof funt
ili
tisSET. out putforar ungwi t
hcont rolbei ngexer cisedov erpai rsofcont acts
- SETandRESETi nstructi
onwi llchanget hest at
usofbi toperations elsewher e.
onlywhen t he i mplement ati
on i s ON.I nt he OFF condi ti
on,t he - Thet imercompar esi tscur rentt i
mewi tht hepr esett i
me.Theout put
i
nstruct
ionswi ll
notchanget hebi toperati
onst atus. oft het imeri sal ogic0asl ongast hecur r
entt imei sl esst hant he
presett ime.Whent hecur r entt imei sgreat erthant hepr esett imet he
ti
merout puti sal ogi c1.
- TI MER( TI M)i sthei nst r
uct ionst hatrequirenumber sTI M( N)andt he
setv al
ue( SV) .Ther angeofnumber sTI Mi sf rom 000t o511,whi l
e
ther angeofsetv aluesf ort heTI Mi s0000t o9999
- Thenumber sTI M cannotbeusedt wice.Whenanumberhasbeen
usedasdef iner,suchasnumber000f ori nstruct i
onsonTI M,t he
- Whent hei nputinstructi
onLD00000i sON, SETi nst
ruct
ioncommand numbercannotbeusedagai n.
toONandal way sONr egardl
essofwhet herthei nputinstr
uctionLD - When a number i s def ined as t he
00000i sONorOFF. numberofTI M,i tcanbeusedasof tenas
- Whent heinputsi nstr
uctionLD00001i sON,RESETi nstructi
oni sON requi r
ed asan oper atoroper and i not her
andSETi nst
ructionwi l
lbeof f
. inst ructionsfrom t hecommandTI MER.
Exampl e Exampl e1
Anex ampleoft hebasi celement sofasimplepr ogram forusewi thaf i
re - Ti meri senabl ed/act i
vat edwhent heexecut i
oncondi ti
oni sONand
alar
m sy stem isshown.Fi resensorspr ov
idei nputst o aSET- RESET willber esett osetv alue( SV)whent heexecut ioncondi tioni sOFF.
funct
ionbl ocksot hati foneoft hesensorsisact i
vatedtheal ar
mi sset - Thesetv alue(SV)ofTI MERi st heBCDbet ween#0000t o#9999.For
andr emainssetunt ilitisclearedbybeingreset.Whenseti tsetsoft he exampl eifTIMERbeset0–5seconds, thent hesetv aluei s#0050
alar
m.

20
- Operat
ioncondi
ti
on:Whent heinput(LD 00000)i
sON,theti
mer
cont
actwil
lbeact
ivat
edaf
ter5seconds.Nextt
heout
put(
OUT10000)
wil
lbeON.

Exampl
e2

 When t he input( LD 00000)ON,t he t

imer(TIM 000)willbe
activ
atedaf t
er5seconds.Nex ttheout
put(OUT10000)wil
lbeON.
After3secondst heout put(OUT10000)ON,thetimer(TI
M 001)
wil
lbeact ivat
edt henextout put(OUT10000)wil
lbeOFFandt he
ti
mer( TIM 001)wi llbeOFF.Whent heti
merTM001OFF,cont act
TIM 001( NC)willbeONandt heoutput(OUT10000)isONstat e.
Output(OUT10000)wi llconti
nueONandOFFunt i
lthei
nput(LD
00000)int heOFFst at
e.

Questi
on
- Operat
ingcondit
ion:Whent heinput(LD00000)ON,t het
imer(TIM Twomot ors(M1andM2)ar et obecontroll
edasfoll
ows:
000)wil
lbeacti
vatedaft
er5secondsandt heoutput(
OUT10000)will - Whent herunswi t
chi soperatedbothmot ormustrun
beON.Whi l
etheoutput(OUT10001)wi l
lbeONassoonast hesuppl
y - Af t
er4mi nmot or1mustst op
i
ssuppliedandwillbeOFFaf t
er5seconds.Timerwil
lcont
inuetobe - Mot or2cont i
nuesr unningforanother2mi nandstops
act
iveaslongastheinput00000stat
eisON. - Att hi
spointal ampi sswitchedon
- Af t
eraf ur
ther90sec, thelampgoesof fandthecycl
erestar
ts
Exampl
e3 - Ifast opswi tchi soper atedatanyt ime,thesystem wi
llcont
inuet
o
t
heendoft hecy cl
eandt henstop.Pr oducet
hePLCpr ogram

21
Count ers
- Count ers used i n PLCs ser vet he same f unct i
on as mechani cal
count er s.Count erscompar eanaccumul atedv aluet oapr esetvalue
tocont rolci r
cuitf
unct ions.
- Count erisusedt ocountandst orethenumberofoccur renceofan
i
nputsi gnal .Controlappl icati
onst hatcommonl yusecount ersinclude
thef ollowi ng:
•Countt oapr esetv alueandcauseanev enttooccur
•Causeanev entt ooccurunt i
lthecountr eachesapr esetv al
ue
- Count ersi ncrement /decr ement one count each t i
me t he input Exampl
e2
transitionsf r
om of f(l
ogi c0)toon( l
ogic1) .
- Count er( CNT)i st hei nstruct
ionst hatrequi renumber sTI M/ CNT( N)
andt hesetv alues( SV). Countersett o count5.When t he
- Ther angeofnumber sCNTi sfrom 000t o511,whi l
et herangeofset i
nput( LD00, 000)i sthepul seoff ive,
valuesf ort heCNTi s0000t o9999 acount erwillbeact ivatedandt hus
- Whenanumberi sdef inedast henumberofCNT,i tcanbeusedas theout put( OUT10000)wi l
lbeON.
oftenasr equi r
edasoper atoroper andi not herinstructi
onsf rom the When t he out put( OUT 10000)ON,
commandCOUNTER. TIM 001 wi llbe act ivated after3
- Thecount er sareresetwhenaRESETi nstructionisex ecuted secondsandt hent heout put( OUT10
001)wi llbeON.Bot htheout put(OUT
10000)and( OUT10001)wi l
lalways
beON unt ilreset( LD 00001)i nthe
ON st ate. Reset wi l
lr eturn the
countert oit
sor i
ginalcondi ton.
i

Example1 Questions
Count
ersettocount10.Whentheinput(LD00,
000)isthepul
seoften,
a 1.Component spassal ongachut eandinter
ruptal i
ghtswi
tchwhich
count
erwillbeacti
vat
edandt hustheoutput(OUT10000)wi l
lbeON. goesl ow (off)eachtimei tisint
err
upted.Ever
ytime6component s
Whenreset(LD00,
001)ON,acounterwil
lbei
norigi
nalcondi
ti
on hav ebeencount ed,anej ectoperat
ionisusedt oremovethebatch
andt hethenitallstar
tsagain.
Produceal adderlogicdi
agr am todothisoperat
ion.Thecount
eris
designat
edC460

2.Desi
gnal
adderprogr
am f
oranindust
ri
alcont
rol
system t
hat
:
 Countt
enobject
spassingal
ongaconveyorbel
t;
22
  Closes a def
lecti
ng gate when t
he number has been fastsignalchar act eristi
cs,mustbeabl etoi nt
erfacewi
ththePLC’s
defl
ectedi
ntoacarton sensit
ivemi cropr ocessor .
 All
ows a time of5 seconds between t
he t
enth obj
ect - Therear ethreedi fferentt y
pesofper i
pheral
s:
countedandcl
osingofthedefl
ect
or.  I nput,usedt oi nteractwi th,orsenddat at othecomputer
/PLC
(mouse, key boar det c)
3.A control
l
ed carpar khas4 spacesi nthepacki ng lot.Carsar e  Out put
, whichpr ov i
desout puttotheuserf r
om thePLC/
computer
detect
edandallowedt oenteri
ntothepar
kingspacei favail
abl
e.IfNO (Moni t
ors,pr i
nter s,display
set c)
space a “Ful
l”i ndi
catorlamp shoul
d be li
t,ot herwise i
ndivi
dual  St orage,whi chst oresdat apr ocessed byt hecomputer(Hand
i
ndicatorlampsshoul dlighttoshow theav ai
lablepar ki
ngspace. drives,fl
ashdr i
v eset c)
Design aPLC ladderdi agram ofthecarpar king system;include
comment sonev eryrung. 1)Printers
- In comput i
ng, a pr i
nter i s a per i
pher al whi ch pr oduces a
4.Withtheai
dofaladderpr
ogram andaprocesscontrolf
igure,expl
ain represent ationofanel ectronicdocumentonphy sicalmedi asuchas
how aconver
tercanbeusedi namachinetodirect6pr oductstoa paper .Manypr inter sar el ocalper ipher alsconnect eddi rect l
yt oa
packagi
ngboxand12productstoanot
herboxsi
mul t
aneously. near byper sonalcomput er.Individualpr intersar eof tendesi gnedt o
suppor tbot hl ocalandnet workconnect eduser satt hesamet i
me.
MostMul t
ifunct i
onpr i
nters( MFPs)i ncludepr i
nting,scanni ng,and
copy ingamongt heirmanyf eatures.
- Printerscanbecl assi fi
edbyt hepr intert echnol ogyt heyempl oy,wi th
manyt echni quesbei ngav ail
ableascommer cial product s.
- Thechoi ceofpr intt echnol ogyhasagr eatef fectont hecostoft he
printerand costofoper at i
on,speed,qual ityand per manence of
document sandnoi se.
- A second aspectofpr i
ntert echnol ogyt hati sof t
en f orgotten i s
resistancet oal terat ion:liquidi nk,suchasf rom ani nkjetheador
fabricr i
bbon,becomesabsor bedbyt hepaperf i
bers,sodocument s
printed wi thl iquidi nkar emor edi fficultto al t
ert handocument s
printedwi tht onerorsol i
di nks,whi chdonotpenet ratebel ow t he
papersur face.
PLCExter
nal peripher al
s 2)Net wor kint erfacecont roll
er( NIC)
- Aper i
pherali sadev icethati
sconnectedt oahostPLC,butnotpart - NIC al so known asnet wor ki nterf
acecar d,net wor kadapt ori sa
ofit.I
texpandst hehost ’
scapabil
i
tiesbutdoesnotf or
m partofthe comput erhar dwar ecomponentt hatconnect saPLCt oacomput er
corePLCar chitectur
e. networ k.
- Peri
pheraldev icestot hePLC andi t
sI /
O base(s)canbeany t
hing - Itisanexpansi oncar dthatal lowsPLC/ comput erstocommuni cate
fr
om ahostcomput erandcontrol
sconsol etoamot ordr
iveunitor overacomput ernet wor k
fi
eldunitswi t
ch. - Thenet wor kcont rollerimpl ement st heel ectroni cci r
cuitryrequi redt o
- Pri
nters end i ndustr i
altermi
nals used forprogramming ar
e also communi cat e using a speci fi
c phy sicall ay erend dat al ink l ayer
peri
pheral devices. standar dsuchasEt hernet,WI -
FIort okenr i
ng.
- Theseex ternaloper at i
ngdevi
ces,withtheirsometi
mesharshand/or - This pr ov i
des a base f ora f ullnet wor k pr otocolst ack,al lowi ng
23
 communi cat i
onamongsmal lgr oupsofPLC/ comput ersont hesame achi
evet he desi
red out
put
,and al
so t
hatt
he machi
ne mi
nimi
zes
LAN and l arge – scal e networ kcommuni cation through r outabl
e undesi
redout
putstothehuman.
protocol ssuchasI P.
- TheNI C mayuseoneormor eoft wot echniquest oi ndicatethe Withtheincr
easeduseofpersonalcomput er
sandt her el
ati
vedecl inei
n
av ai
labil
ityofpacket stotransfer. soci
etalawareness ofheavy machinery,the term useri nterface is
 Pol l
i
ng i s wher et he CPU exami nes t he st atus oft he general
l
yassumedt omeant hegraphicaluserinter
face,whil
ei ndustri
al
per i
pheral underprogr am control contr
olpanelandmachinerycont
roldesigndiscussi
onsmor ecommonl y
 I nt err
upt–dr i
venI /
Oi swher etheper i
pheralal ertstheCPU ref
ertohuman-machinei
nterf
aces.
thatitisr eadytot r
ansf erdata.
andmayuseoneormor eoftwot echni
quest ot r
ansferpacketdat a: PLCSystemsandsaf ety
 Progr ammedi nput /out
puti swher etheCPU mov est hedat atoor - An i mpor t
ant st andard i s IEC ( I
nternat
ional Electr
o-t
echnical
from t hedesi gnat edper i
pheral tomemor y. Commi ssion) 61508: f uncti
onal saf ety of el ect
r i
cal
/elect
roni
c
 Directmemor yaccessi swher eani ntel
ligentper ipher alassumes programmabl eelectronicsaf et
y-relat
edsy stems.
contr oloft hesy stem bust oaccessmemor ydi rect
ly.Thi sr emoves - Inordertopr ov
idef unctionalsaf etyofamachi neorplant ,
thesafety-
loadf rom t heCPUbutr equiresmor elogicont hecar d.Inaddi ti
on,a rel
ated protect
iveorcont rolsy stemsmustf unct
ioncor r
ectlyand
packetbuf feront heNI C maynotber equir edandl atencycanbe whenaf ai
lureoccur sitmustoper atesot hattheplantormachi neis
reduced. broughtintoasaf eshut -
downst ate.

3)Progr ammeri nterface Fai

l-safedesi gn
- Thepr ogr ammeri nt erf
acei nthei ndustri
aldesi gnf iel
dofhuman– - Saf etymustbe a pr i
orityi nt he desi gn ofa PLC sy st
em.Thus
machi nei nteraction,i st hespacewher einteract i
onbet weenhuman emer gencyst opbuttonsandsaf etyguar dswi tchesmustbehar d
andmachi neoccur s. wiredandnotdependont hePLCsof twar ef orimpl ement ati
onsot hat
- Thegoaloft hi
si nt eractioni seffectiveoper ationandcont rolofthe i
nt hesi t
uat ionwher ether ei saf ail
ureoft hest opswi tchorPLC,t he
machi neont heuser ’
send,andf eedbackf r
om t hemachi newhi ch system isaut omati
callysaf e.Thesy st em mustbef ail
-safe.
aidst heoper atori nmaki ngoper ationaldecisions. - Fai l-
safedesi gnisamet hodofdesi gningcont rolsy stem sucht hatif
- Ex ampl es oft his br oad conceptofuseri nt erfaces include the acr it
icalcomponenti nt hesy stem f ail
s,t hesy stem i mmedi ately
i
nt eract i
veaspect sofcomput eroper ati
ngsy stems, handt ools,
heavy becomesdi sabled.
machi neryoper atorcont r
ol s,
andpr ocesscont rols. - Hence,f ail-
saf edesigni st hepr ocedur eorpr ogr ammi ngt oensur e
- The user /progr ammeri nterface includes har dwar e( physical
)and safetyoft heoper atorandpr ocesses.
sof t
war e(logical)component s - Fai l
-safedesi gnrul
esoft humbf orsel ect ingNoorNCdev i
cesar eas
- Itprov idesameansof foll
ows:
 I nput ,
allowi ngt heusert omani pulateasy st em  NO–whenwi ringswi tchesorsensor st hatstartactions,use
 Out put,al lowingt hesy stem t oindicat et heef f
ectsoft he nor mallyopen swi t
ches so t herei s a pr oblem wi tht he
user ’
smani pulation. swi tchtheprocesswi llnotst art .
 NC–Whenwi ringswi tchest hatst oppr ocessusenor mal l
y
Generall
y,t
he goalofhuman-machi
ne int
eracti
on engineeri
ng i sto closedswi tchessoi ftheyfail thepr ocesswi llstop.
produceauseri
nter
facewhi
chmakesiteasy,eff
ici
ent
,andenj oy abl
eto - Thef oll
owi ngpr ogram, STARTwi l
lov errideSTOPandRUNwi l
lswi tch
operateamachineinthewaywhichproducesthedesiredr esult.Thi
s onasl ongasSTARTi spr essed.
general
lymeansthattheoper
atorneedstopr ovi
demi nimali nputto
24
 dependon: -
Numberofl ogical i
nputsandout puts
Memor ysi ze
Numberofspeci alI/Omodul es
Unsaf
est
art
/st
oppr
ogr
am Met hod/ techniques ofcommuni cation – ser i
aland net worked
communi cati
onal lowt hePLCt obepr ogrammedandt alktoother
PLC
Av ailabili
ty of pr ogrammi ng softwar e and ot her toolst hat
determi net heprogr ammi nganddebuggi ng
Scant i
me–t heshor tert
hescant imet hehi gherthecost .
- WithaPLC sy stem,ast opsignalcanbepr ov i
dedbyaswi tchas Theprocessofsel ectingaPLCf ol
l
owst hef ol
lowingst eps
abov e
Under standt hepr ocesst obecont rol
led
- Thisarrangementhowev erisunsafeasanemer gencyst opbecauseif
Selectt hev endor /
sel l
erofPLCmodul es
ther
ei sf aul
tandt heswi t
chcannotbeoper ated,t hennost opt he
system. Plant hel adderlogi cforthecontrol
- Whati srequi
redisasy st
em thatwillst
il
lst
opi faf ail
ureoccur sinthe Countt hepr ogram instructi
onsandent erthev al
uesi ntothesheet.
stopswi t
ch.
- Thepr ogram hast heSTOPswi tchast heopencont acts.Howev er
, 3.Phase3–Pr ogr ammi ng:Thi sst agei nv ol
vespr ogrammi ngthePLC,
becauset hehardwiredstopswi tchhasnormal l
ycl osedcont actsthen dependingont hel anguageused.I twi llalsodependont het ypeof
theprogram hast hesignaltoclosetheprogram cont acts. programmerav ailable.
- Pr essing t he st op i) PLC sof twar ef orper sonalcomput ers – Si mi lartot he
switch opens the speci alizedpr ogrammi nguni ts, butsof t
warer unsonamul ti-
program cont acts and use,usersuppl ied comput er.Thi s appr oach i st ypicall
y
stopst hesy st
em. prefer red.
ii
) Handhel duni t
s( orintegr ated)–al low progr ammi ngPLC
using a cal culator t ype i nterface. Of ten done usi ng
mnemoni cs.
ii
i)Speci al i
zed pr ogr ammi ng uni ts – ef fectively a por table
Phases ofcr eati
ng a PLC comput ert hatal l
owsgr aphicaledi tingoft hel adderl ogic,
system andf astupl oads/ downl oads/ moni toringoft hePLC
- Thisinv olvesfivesphases;desi
gn,selecti
onandsuppl y,pr
ogr ammi ng, 4.Phase4–i nst allation
i
nstallation,commi ssi
oning. Thisst agei nv olvesi nstalling and pl acing al lcomponent sofPLC
1.Phase1–Desi gn–Thi sisthedesi gni
ngoft hesy stem i
nst al
lat
ion system har dwar e and sof twarei n compl iance wi tht he desi gn
whichi ncludecommuni cati
onsy stems.Int hi
sst age,itshowsal l document .Itent ailsthef ollowingphase/ steps:
designbasi sdocument s,now thesy stem wi l
lbeconst ructedand i
) Panel /
cabi neti nstal
lation– Thepanel /cabi netinst all
edshoul d
commi ssioningofthesame. allow enoughspacef orai rcirculati
on.Donoti nst allPLCabov e
2.Phase2–Sel ecti
onandSuppl y–Af t
erthepl anningphaseoft he equipmentt hatgener at elargeamountofheat .Donoti nstallthe
design, theequi pmentcanbeor dered.Thefirstdeci
si onisthet y
peof PLCi napanelorcabi netwi thhi ghv olt
ageequi pment .Providea
controllerr ack,mi ni
,mi cr
o orsof tware based.The deci sion will clearpathf oroper ati
onandmai ntenance.
i
i)I nstall
ati
onofCPUuni tandI /O uni t–Thesmal lPLCmustbe
25
 i
nst al
ledi nthehor izont alpositionfort hebi gPLCbef oreinstall
ing;  Checki
ngthatallI/
O devicesareconnect
edt
othecor
rectI
/O
theuni tshav etobecompi ledonebyone.Tobui ldar ackPLC, poi
ntsandgi
vingthecor
rectsignal
s.
prov i
debackpl ane( Backpl anei sasi mpl edev i
cehav ingt wo  Loadi
ngandtesti
ngthesoftware.
functions.Thef ir
sti st opr ovidephy sicalsuppor tforuni tstobe
mount ed t oi t.The second i st o prov ide t he connect ors and Faultfi
nding
electrical pathway snecessar yf orconnect ingt heunitsmount edt o - Wi thanyPLCcont rolledpl ant,t hemaj orf aul
tsar elikelyt obewi th
i
t . sensors, actuatorsandwi r
ingr athert hanwi thi
nthePLCi t
self.
i
i
i)Installingt heexpansi onuni torexpansi onI /O unit–expansi on - Oft hef aultwi t
hint hePLC,mostl i
kelytobei ntheI /Ochannel sor
I/O uni tar eusual lyat tachedwhenamountofI /O dev i
cest obe powersuppl yrathert hani nt heCPU
cont r
ol led increase i ts amountov ert han capabi li
ti
es oft he - Forexampl e,consi derasi ngleout putdevicefail
ingtot urnont hough
existi
ngI /Ouni torat tachedwhenneededt oaspeci alneedl ike theout putLEDi son.I ftest i
ngoft hePLCout putv oltagei ndicates
temper aturesensor .I nsertt heexpansi onI /O unitsconnect i
ng thatitsnor malt hent hef aul tmi ghtbeawi r
ingfaultoradev icef ault
.
cablei ntot he CPU uni t
s orex pansi on I /O unitexpansi on Ifcheckingoft hev ol
tageatt hedev i
ceindicatesthev oltagether eis
connect or. normal thent hef aultisthedev i
ce.
i
v)InstallingI /Odev ices–I /Odev i
cesar eat tachedatt hepl acehas - ManyPLCspr ovidebui l
t-
inf aultanal ysi
spr ocedurewhi chcar r
iesout
been det ermined i nt he wor k plan and wi r
ing diagram.For self
-testinganddi spl ayf aultcodes,wi t
hpossi blyabr i
efmessage,
swi t
ches ar e usual lyat tached att he panelwhi let he sensor , whichcanbet ranslatedbyl ooki ngupt hecodei nal isttogi vet he
solenoi d and mot ori s usual l
y placed att he machi ne t o be sourceoft hef aultandpossi blemet hodsofr ecovery.
cont r
ol led.
v
) Wi ri
ngandconnect ion–Hangi ngduct si susedi fpowercabl es Faultdetecti
ont echnique
carryingmor ethan10A400vor20A220Vmustber unal ongside Thef ol
l
owi ngaresomeoft hecommonf aultdet
ect iontechniquesused.
theI /
Owi ri
ng( thatisi npar allelwithi t);atl east300mm mustbe i
) Ti mingchecks–Thet erm wat chingisusedf orat imingcheckt hatis
l
ef tbet weent hepowercabl esandt heI /Owi ri
ng.Ensur epr oper carri
edoutbyt hePLCt ocheckt hatsomef unct i
onhasbeencar ried
groundi ng ofal lelect ri
cali nstall
ation.Al lelectri
calr ack and outwi t
hinthenor malt ime.Ifthef uncti
onisnotcar ri
edoutwi thi
nt he
machi neel ementshoul dbegr oundedt oacent ralgroundbus. normalt i
me,t henaf aul tisassumedt ohaveoccur r
edandt hewat ch
dogt imertrips,set t
ingof fanal arm andper hapscl osingdownt he
PLC.Aspar toft hei nt ernaldiagnosti
cofPLC,wat chdogt i
mersar e
usedt odetectforf aults.
Timecheckcanal sobebui lti
ntotheladderl ogicprogr am.Thisis
5.Phase5-Commi ssioni ng wher eaddi ti
onall adderr ungsmi ghtincl uded so t hatwhen a
Commi ssioni
ngofaPLCsy stem invol
ves functi
on st art
s,a t imeri s start
ed.I ft he function does not
 Checki ngthatallt hecabl econnect ionbetweent hePLCandt he compl etewhent het i
merf i
nishesaf aul
tissi gnaled.
plantbeing controlled arecompl ete,safeand t otherequired
specifi
cat
ionsandmeet ingstandards.
 Checki ngt hatthei ncomi ngpowersuppl ymat chest hev ol
tage
setti
ngforwhicht hePLCi sset .
 Checki ngthatemer gencyst opbuttonswor k.
 Checki ngthatallprot ect
ivedev i
cesar esettotheirappropr
iatetri
p
setti
ngs.
26
 for esi ghtdur ingt hei rinstallati
onwi l
l ensurepr opersy stem oper ati
on.
- In a car efullyconst ructed l ayout,t hese component s are easyt o
accessandmai nt ain.Nev ertheless,car efuli nst all
ati
onpl anningcan
i
ncr easesy stem pr oduct i
vityanddecr easemai nt enancepr oblems.
- Thebestl ocat ionf orapr ogr ammabl econt r
ol lerisneart hemachi ne
orpr ocesst hati twi llcontrol,asl ongast emper ature,humi di
ty,and
i
i) Lastout putset–Thi stechni queinv olvestheuseofst atuslamps elect ri
cal noisear enotpr obl ems.
toi ndi catet hel astout putt hathasbeensetdur i
ngapr ocess - Placi ngt hecont rollerneart heequi pmentandusi ngr emot eI/Owher e
whi chhascomet oahal t
.Suchl ampsar ebui ltintot heprogr am possi ble wi ll mi nimi ze wi re r uns and si mpl i
fy st art
-up and
sot hataseachout putoccur sal ampcomeson.Thel ampson mai nt enance
thusi ndicat ewhi chout putar eoccur ri
ng.Thepr ogram hast obe - Pr ogr ammabl econt r
oller
sar edesi gnedt obeeasyt omai ntai
n,t o
desi gnedt ot urnof fpr evi
ousst atusl ampsandt ur nonanew ensur et roubl e-free oper ation.St i
ll,sev eralmai ntenance aspect s
statusl ampaseachnewout putist urnedon. shoul dbeconsi der edoncet hesy stem i sinpl aceandoper ati
onal.
i
ii
)Repl icat i
on–r eplicati
onchecki nv olvesdupl i
cat i
oni.e.repli
cat i
on, Cer t ain mai nt enance measur es, i f per for med per i
odicall
y , wil
l
thePLCsy stem.Thi scoul dmeant hatthesy stem r epeatsev ery mi ni mi zet hechanceofsy stem mal funct i
on.
oper at i
ont wi ceandi fitget sthesamer esultiti sassumedt here - Pr ev ent ive mai nt enance of pr ogr ammabl e cont rol
ler sy stems
i
snof aul t
.Thi spr ocedur ecandet ecttransientf ault
. i
ncl udesonl yaf ew basi cpr ocedur es,whi chwi llgreatlyreducet he
Alternat ively,ist ohav edupl icat
ePLCsy st
emsandcompar et he failur er ateofsy stem component s.
resul tsgi venbyt het wosy stems.I nt heabsenceoft hefaultt he - Pr ev ent i
vemai ntenancef ort hePLCsy stem shoul dbeschedul edwi th
twor esul t
sshoul dbet hesame, af aultshowi ngupasadi f
ference. the r egular machi ne or equi pment mai ntenance,so t hat t he
i
v)Expect edv alueschecks– Sof twar eer ror
scanbedet ectedby equi pmentandcont roll
erar edownf orami nimum amountoft i
me.
checki ngwhet heranex pectedv aluei sobt ai
nedwhenaspeci fi
c - Howev er,theschedul ef orPLCpr ev entivemai ntenancedependson
i
nputoccur s.Ift heexpect edv aluei snotobt ainedt henaf aultis thecont r
ol l
er’senv ironment —thehar shertheenv ironment ,themor e
assumedt obeoccur ring. frequentt hemai nt enance.

I
nst
allat
ionandMai ntenance
- Thedesi gnofpr ogrammabl econt roll
ersincludesanumberofr ugged - Thef ol
lowingar egui delinesf orprev enti
vemeasur es:
featurest hatal l
ow PLCst o be install
ed i n al
mostanyi ndustri
al  Per iodical
lycl eanorr eplaceanyf il
tersthathavebeeni nstall
edin
env i
ronment . enclosuresataf requencydependentont heamountofdusti nthe
- Sy st
em l ay out ist he conscient i
ous appr oach to placing and area.
inter
connect ingcomponent snotonl yt osat isf
ytheappl i
cat i
on,but  Do not al low di rt and dust t o accumul ate on the PLC’ s
also to ensur ethatt he contr
ollerwi lloper atetroubl
ef ree ini ts component s;t hecent ralpr ocessinguni tandI /Osy st
em ar enot
env i
ronment . designedt obedustpr oof.I fdustbui ldsuponheatsi nksand
- Inaddi t
iont oprogrammabl econt roll
erequi pment,thesystem l ayout electroni
cci rcuitry,i
tcanobst ructheatdi ssi
pation,
causingcircui
t
alsoencompassest heothercomponent st hatformt hetotalsystem. mal functi
on.
Thesecomponent si ncl
udei solation tr
ansf ormers,auxil
i
ar ypower  Per iodical
lycheckt heconnect ionst otheI /Omodul est oensure
suppl i
es,safetycontrolr
elays,
andi ncomi ngl i
nenoisesuppr essors. thatal lplugs,socket s,termi nalst ri
ps,andmodul eshav egood
- Although pr ogrammabl e controll
er s ar
et ough machines,a l itt
le connect i
ons.Al so,checkt hatt hemodul ei ssecurel
yinstal
led.
27
  Ensur et hatheav y,noise-generati
ngequipmentisnotlocat
edt oo 14.Devi
seladderpr ogramswhi chcanbeusedt o:
closet ot hePLC.  Mai ntainanout puton,ev enwhent heinputceasesandwhen
 Make sur et hatunnecessar yi t
ems are keptaway f r
om t he therei sapowerf ail
ure.
equi pmenti nsidet heenclosure.  Switchonanout putf orat i
meofonecy clefoll
owingabr iefinput.
 IfthePLC sy stem encl osureisi nanenv i
ronmentthatexhibit
s  Switchont hepowert oasetofr ungs.
vibration,installav ibrati
ondet ectort
hatcani nt
erf
acewi t
ht he 15.Devi
sel adderprogr amsf orsystemst hatwi l
lcarryoutthef oll
owing
PLC as a pr eventi
v e measur e.This way,the pr
ogrammabl e t
asks:
cont roll
ercanmoni torhighlevelsofvibr
ati
on,whichcanleadt o  Switchonanout put5saf t
err eceivi
ngani nputandkeepi tonfor
thel ooseningofconnect ions thedur ati
onoft hati nput.
 Switchonanout putfort hedur ati
onoft hei nputandt henkeepi t
TopicQuest i
ons onf oraf ur
ther5s.
1.Def i
neapr ogrammabl eLogi cCont r
oller(PLC’ s).  Switchonanout putf or5saf terthest ar
tofani nputsignal
2.St atet hef ourst epsi nt heoper ati
onofpr ogr ammabl el ogiccont roll
er 16.Devi
sel adderprogr amsf orsystemst hatwi l
lcarryoutthef oll
owing
(PLC) . t
asks:
3.Dr aw a l abeled bl ock di agr am oft he inter nalar chitecture ofa  Giveanout putaf t
eraphot ocellsensorhasgi ven10pul seinput
Progr ammabl eLogi cCont roller( PLC)andst at et hefunct ionofeach signalsasar esultofdet ecti
ng10obj ectspassinginfrontofi t.
block.  Giveanout putwhent henumberofpeopl einast or
er eaches100,
4.Def i
nel adderl ogiccont r olsyst em. therecont i
nuallybei ngpeopl eenteringandl eavingthestor e.
5.Wi t
ht heai dofabl ockdi agram, explainhowaPLCpr ocessi nputf rom
thesensor s.
6.Descr ibet hef ol
lowi ngPr ogr ammabl eLogi cCont rol
l
er( PLC)sy stem
styles.
i
.Uni tar y
ii
.Modul ar
i
ii
.RackMount ing
7.Wi t
ht heai dofadi agr am,expl ainhow PLC’ scanbeusedt ocont rol
wat erl evel i
nat ank.
8.Ex pl ainwhyuseri nterfacei snecessar yinPLC’ s. Topic3
9.Ex pl ainhowf aul t-
f i
ndi ngi scar ri
edouti nPLCsy stems. SUPERVI SORYCONTROLANDDATAACQUI SITION( SCADA)
10.Expl aint heoper ationoft hef ollowingi nputdev ices,st ati
ngt hef orm I
ntroduct i
on
oft he si gnalbei ng sensed and t he out put :( a)r eed swi tch,( b) - I nmoder nmanuf acturi
ngandi ndustrialpr
ocesses,mi ningindustri
es,
i
ncr ement alshaf tencoder ,(c)phot oelectr
ict ransmi ssi v
eswi t
ch,( d) publicandpr i
vat
eut il
i
ties,l
eisureandsecur ityi
ndustri
est el
emet ryis
diaphr agm pr essur eswi tch oftenneededt oconnectequi pmentandsy stemssepar atedbyl arge
11.Expl ainhowt heon- offoper at ionanddi r
ectionofad. c.mot orcanbe distances.
cont rolledbyswi tches - Cont r
olsy stem archit
ecturecanr angef r
om si mplelocalcont r
olt o
12.Expl aint hecont inuousupdat ingandt hemassi nput/out putcopy ing highlyredundantdi stri
butedcont rol.TheSCADA sy stem appliest o
met hodsofpr ocessi ngi nput s/ out puts. facil
it
ies thatarel arge enough t hata cent r
alcont rolsystem i s
13.Dev iseat i
mi ngwat chdogpr ogr am t obeusedt oswi t
chof famachi ne necessar y
.
i
ff aultsoccuri nanyoft hesy st emscont rol
lingi tsact i
ons. - SCADAr eferstothecombi nationoft elemetryanddat aacquisiti
on.It
28
 encompassest hecol lecti
ngoft heinformation,t
ransfer ri
ngitbackt o
thecent ralsit
e,carr yi
ngoutanynecessar yanalysisandcont roland 2.Communi cat i
onnet wor k/sy stem –usedt ot r
ansf erdat abet ween
thendi splayi
ngt hatinformat iononanumberofoper atorscr eensor fi
elddat ai nter facedev icesandcont roluni tsandt hecomput ersint he
displays.Ther equiredcont rolactionsar ethenconv ey edbackt othe SCADAhostcomput er( MTU)
process. - Thisi si nt ended t o pr ov i
de the means by whi ch dat a can be
- SCADAi sawi delydi str
ibutedcomput eri
zedsy st
em pr i
mar il
yusedt o transferredbet weent hecent ralhostcomput erser v
erandf iel
dbased
remot elycontrolandmoni tort hecondi ti
onsoff ieldbasedasset s RTU.
from acent ral
izedlocation. - Communi cat i
onnet wor kr ef
erstot heequi pment sneededt ot ransfer
- ThePLC i sstil
loneoft hemostwi del
yusedcont rolsy stemsi n datat oandf rom di f
f erentsites.
i
ndust ry.Asneedt omoni torandcont r
olmor edev icesi nt heplant - Themedi um usedcanei therbecabl e,telephoneorr adio
grew,t he PLCs wer e distributed and the systems became mor e - Thewayt heSCADAsy stem networ k( topology )issetupcanv arywi th
i
nt el
li
gentandsmal l
eri nsi ze.PLCsand DCS ( distributed control each sy st em but t her e must be uni nterrupted, bi dir
ectional
sy st
ems)ar eused communi cat ionbet weent heMTUandt heRTUf oraSCADAordat a
acquisitionsy st em ( DAS)t ofunctionpr oper l
y .
ComponentsofaSCADAsy stem - This can be accompl i
shed i nv ar ious way i .e pr i
v at
e wi r
el i
nes,
- SCADAencompassest het r
ansf
erofdatabetweenaSCADAcent r
al under ground cabl es,t elephone r adi o,moder n,mi crowav e dishes,
hostcomputerandnumberofremotesi
tes(RTU)andthecentr
alhost satell
ite and ot herat mospher i
c means and manyt i
mes,sy stem
andtheoperat
ortermi
nals. empl oymor et hanonemeansofcommuni cat i
ngt ot her emot esite.
- Thefigurebel
ow showsagenericSCADAsy st
em thatemploysdata - Communi cat i
onsy st emsusedf orSCADA ar eof tenspl itintot wo
multi
plexi
ng(MUX)betweenthecent
ral
hostandtheRTU. disti
nctpar t:WANandLAN.
- Thei nter facebet weent het wopar tsi scommonl yachi evedt hrough
somef orm ofmul t
iplexing.
- Mul t
iplexingal lowsdi fferentdatast reamst oshar esi ngledatal i
nk.It
combi nescommuni cationpat hstoandf rom manyRTUsi ntoasi ngle
bitstream, usual lyusi ngTi meDi vi
si onMul tiplexing( TDM) .
- Itmayi tsel fbeaSCADApr ocessi ngdev i
cet hatmanagest hel ocal
networ kandnotonl ycombi nesdat a,butal sor educest heamountof
- SCADAsy stem consi stof: datat hatbei nt erchangedwi t
hinthecent ral host .
1.Remot et ermi naluni t(RTU) :Theyar e pr
imar i
lyused t o conv er
t
electr
onic signal sreceived from fiel
d devices into( orfrom)t he 3.Centralcomput erormast erter
mi naluni t(MTU)
l
anguage( knownast hecommuni cationprotocol)usedt ot ransmit - Iti
sdef i
nedast hemast erorhear tofaSCADAsy st
em andi slocated
thedataov eracommuni cationchannel. attheoper ator’
scent r
al controlf
aci l
i
t y
.
- Itconnect st o sensorsi nt he process,conv erti
ng datat ot he - Mostof teni tisasi ngl
ecomput eroranet workofcomput erser v
ers
supervisorysy st
em. thatprovideaman- machi neoper atorinterfacetotheSCADAsy stem.
- PLC used as f iel
d devices because t hey are mor e economi cal
, - Thecomput er
spr ocesst hei nf
ormat ionr eceivedfr
om orsentt ot he
versati
le,f
lexibleandconf igurablet
hanspecial-purposeRTU’s RTU si t
es and pr esenti tto human oper atorinaf or
m t hatt he
- RTU gat hersdat afrom f i
elddev i
ces( pump,v alvesalarmset c)in operatorscanwor kwith.
memor y,untilt he MTU ( mast erterminaluni t
)i ni
ti
ates a second - Operatorst erminalsareconnect edt ot hecent ralhostcomput erbya
command. comput ernet worksot hatt heviewi ngscr eensendassoci ateddat a

29
 canbedi
splayedfortheoperator
.  Oper atort erminaloper ating sy stem – Sof twareused to
- Someexampl esoft hetypesofdi splayscr eensof f
eredbymost controlthecent ralhostcomput erhar dwareatt heoperat
ors
syst
emsi
nclude: terminal.Itcont ributest ot henet workingoft hecentr
alhost
 System ov ervi
ew pagesdi splayingt heenti
resy stem of
ten andoper ator’
st ermi nal .
summar izingSCADAsi t
est hatmi ghtbefaul
ty  Appl i
cations–Theyar eoft wot ypes;centralhostcomputer
 Sitemimicscr eensforeachi ndividualRTUlocat i
onshowing applicati
on and oper ator t ermi nal applicati
ons. These
upt othemi nutesi
teinf
ormat ion handl est r
ansmi tt
edandr eceptionofdat atoandf rom the
 Alarm summar ypagesdi splayedcur r
entalar
msandot her RTUandcent ralcomput er .Italsopr ovi
dest heGU/whi ch
typesofal ar
msi nwhichhav ebeenacknowl edgedornot offersmi mi cscr eens, alarm pagest rend.
 Trendscr eensenabli
ngtheoper atortodispl
ayt hebehavi
our  Communi cati
onpr ot ocoldr i
ves:-r equi
redt ocontrolthe
ofapar t
icularvari
abl
eov ertime. translati
onandi nter pr etationoft hedat abet weenendsof
thecommuni cationl inksi nt hesy stems.
4.Humanmachi nei nterface( HMI)
- Itistheappar at uswhi chpr esentprocessdatatoahumanoper at
or, HowdoesSCADAWor k
andt hroughwhi cht hehumanoper at
orcontr
olstheprocess. - SCADAi sacomput ersy st
em f orgat heri
ngandanal y zi
ngr ealti
me
- Thisdisplay sthisinformat i
oni naneasilyunder
stoodgraphicalfor
m, data
ar ehivest hedat ar ecei
v ed,transmitalar
msand per mitoperator - The abi l
it
yt o moni tort he entir
e cont rolsy stem inr ealt ime is
controlasr equired. faci
lit
atedbydat aacqui sit
ionincludingmet erreadingandchecki ng
- TheHMIi sessent i
allyaPC sy stem runni
ngpower fulgraphicand status ofsensor st hatar e communi cat ed atst andardi nterv
als
alarm softwarepr ograms. dependingont hesy stem.
- Itisusual lylinkedt otheSCADA sy stem’sdatabaseandsof t
war e - The collected fi
eld datai st ransmitted t hr
ough a communi cat
ion
programs,t o pr ovide trending,diagnosti
c data and informati
on networkt othemast ertermi naluni
twhi cht hedatai sprocessed.
management . - TheMTUmoni torsandcont rol
dataf r
om v ar i
ousf i
elddevices(sensor)
thatareeitheri
ncl osepr oxi
mi t
yorof fsite.
- Thusi n summar y,theSCADA sy st
em per for
m t hef oll
owing four
5.SCADAsof t
war e functi
ons:
- SCADAsof t
war ecanbedi v i
dedi ntotwot ypes: openandpr opr
ietar
y.  Dat aacquisiti
on
- Propriet
arysof tware oft en i s configured f ora specific hardware  Net workeddat acommuni cation
platf
orm and may noti nterface wi t
ht he sof tware orhar dware  Dat apresentati
on
producedbycompet ingv endor s.  Cont r
ol
- Commer ci
alof f-
theshel f( COTS) /opensof t
war earemor eflexi
ble,
andwi ll
int
erfacewi t
hdiffer entt ypesofhar dwar eandsoftware. Dat
aacquisi
ti
on
- The f ocus of pr opri
etar y sof twarei s on pr ocess and cont r
ol - Thisisthepr ocessofsampl i
ng si gnalsthatmeasur er ealworl
d
functi
onali
tywhi l
eCOTSsof twareemphasi zesoncompat i
bil
it
ywi t
ha physi
calcondit
ionsandconv erti
ngt her esul
ti
ngsampl esintodigi
tal
vari
etyofequi pmentandi nstrument ation. numeri
calval
uest hatcanbemani pulatedbyacomput er
.
- Software product st ypi
cal lyused wi t
hin a SCADA sy stem ar e as - Dataacquisi
ti
onwi thinSCADAsy stem isaccomplishedf i
rstbythe
foll
ows:- RTUscanningthef i
elddat
ainterf
acedev i
cesconnectedt ot
heRTU.
 Cent r alhostcomput eroperat i
ngsy stem:-soft
war eusedt o - Theti
met operformt hi
staskiscalledthescanninginternal
.TheMTU
control thecentral hostcomput erhar dware. scansRTUt oaccessdat aint hepr ocessr ef
err
edt oaspol l
ingt
he
30
 RTU. appl
icationsof twarerunningonthecentr
alhostcomputer.
- Somesy st
emsal low theRTUt ot ransmi tfi
eldv al
uesandal armst o - Wher ev ar
iablesinthef i
eldhavebeenchangingovert
ime,theSCADA
thecentralhostwi thoutbeingpr ocessedbyt hecent ralhost
. syst
em usual lyoffer
sat rendi
ngsystem wherethebehav i
ourofa
- Thecomponent sofdat aacqui siti
onsy st
emsi ncl
ude: part
icularv ari
ablecanbepl ot
tedonaGUIscr een(graphi
caluser
 Sensor st hatconv ert
sphy sical parameterstoel ectri
calsi
gnal s i
nterfacescr een).
 Si gnalcondi t
ioningcircuitr
yt oconv er
tsensorsi gnal
sintoaf orm
thatcanbeconv ert
edt odigitalv aluese.
gi mpl i
cat i
on,al
ternati
on TasksinSCADAsy stem
multipl
exing. i
) Input /out putt ask– Thi spr ogr am i st hei nt erf acebet weent he
 Anal ogt odi gitalconverters,whi chconv ertscondi ti
onedsi gnals cont rol andmoni tor ingsy stem andpl antf loor .
todigit
alv al
ues. i
i) Alar mt ask–t hismanagesal lal armsbydet ect i
ngdi gitalal arm
 Dat a acqui si
tion hardwar e act s as the inter
f ace between t he poi ntandcompar ingt hev aluesofanal ogal ar m poi ntst oal arm
comput erandt heoutsidewor ld.I tpri
marilyfunct i
onsasadev ice threshhol d.
thatdigit
izesi ncomingsi gnalsot hatthecomput ercaninterpret NB:SCADAcanbeseenasasy stem wi thmanydat ael ement s
them. cal l
edpoi nts.Eachpoi nti samoni tororsensorandt her epoi nt s
canbeei thersof torhar d. Har ddat apoi nt scanbeonact ual
Typesofdat aacqui sit
ionsy stems( DAS) moni tor;sof tpoi ntcanbeappl icationorsof twar ecal culation.
Thesedependont ypeofcommuni cati
onpr otocolused. Dat a el ement sf r om hand and sof tpoi nts ar e usual lyal way s
i
) Wi r
elessdat aacqui si
tionsystem:consi stofoneormor ewi r
eless recor dedandl oggedt ocr eateat imest amporhi stor y.
tr
ansmi ssi
onsendi ngdat abackt oawi rel
essreceiverconnected i
ii
) Trendt ask:i tcol lect sdat at obemoni toredov ert ime.
toar emot ecomput er. i
v) Repor tt ask – Repor ts ar e pr oduced f rom pl antdat a.These
i
i) Serialcommuni cati
ondat aacquisit
ionsy st
em:ar egoodchoi ces repor tsar eper iodi c, ev entt ri
gger edoract ivat edbyt heoper ator.
whent hemeasur ementneedst obemadeatal ocati
onwhi chis v) Displ ayt ask–managesal ldat at obemoni tor edbyt heoper ator
distancef r
om comput er. andal lcont r
ol act ionsr equest ed.
ii
i
) USBDAS:TheUni v
ersalSerialBus( USB)isanewst andard Appli
cationofSCADAsy st em
forconnect ingP. Ct operipheraldev i
cessuchasmoni tor
, - Inessence, SCADAappl i
cat ionhast woel ement s:-
DAS. i
) The pr ocess/ sy stem/ machi ner y needed t o be moni tored or
cont rolled: -Thi scant aket hef orm ofapowerpl ant, wat ersy stem,
Processi
ngDat afrom t hef iel
d net wor k, traffi
cl i
ghtsy stem.
- Dat acanbeoft hr eemai nty pes: i
i) A net wor k ofi nt elligentdev ices t hati nter faces wi t
ht he f i
rst
i
) Analog data( realnumber s)which wil
lbe t rended ( pl
aced i
n sy stem t hroughsensor sandcont rolout put .Thi snet wor k,whi ch
graphs) i
st heSCADAsy st em,gi vest hecapabi l
ityt omeasur eandcont r ol
i
i) Digit
aldata( ON/ OFF)whi chmayhav ealarmsat tachedt oone speci ficel ement soft hef i
rstsy stem.
stateortheot her - SCADAsy st emscont rol ar eusedi nt hef ollowingi ndust ri
es
i
ii
) Pulsedat a( e.g.count ingr evolut
ionofamet er)isanal ogdata i
) Manuf act uri
ng: SCADA sy stem manages par t
s i nv entor i
es,
normall
yaccumul atedorcount edsuchdataaret reatedwi t
hint
he regul atei ndust ri
alaut omat i
onandr obot s,andmoni t
orpr ocess
SCADAoper at ort erminalsof twaredi
splaysasanal ogdat aand andqual itycont r
ol .
maybet rended. i
i) Traf fi
csi gnal s:SCADAr egulatest rafficlights, cont rolst rafficflow
- Dat af r
om thef ieldar epr ocessest odetectalar
m condi t
ions,andif anddet ect soutofor dersi gnals.
alar
mi spredicted,i twillbedi splayedondedicatedal arml i
stonthe i
ii
)El ect ri
cpowergener ation,t ransmi ssi onanddi st r
ibut i
on:El ect ric

31
 uti
li
tiesuseSCADAsy stem todetectcur rentfl
owandl i
nev ol
tage, effi
cientl
y.
moni tortheoper ati
onofci r
cuitbreaker s,andtot akesect i
onsof (
ii
)Phase2:TheSUPPLYofRTU,communi cat i
on,andHMIequi pment ,
thepowergr i
dout li
neorof fl
ine. whichconsi stsofaPCsy stem andt herequi redpower fulgraphi cand
i
v)Buil
di ng,faci
li
tiesandenv i
ronment :Faci l
i
tymanager suseSCADA alar
m sof t
war epr ograms.
tocont rolHVAC, refri
gerati
onuni t
sl i
ghtingandent rysystems. (
ii
i)Phase3:ThePROGRAMMI NGoft hecommuni cati
onequi pmentand
v
) Wat erandSewage:st ateandmuni cipalwaterutil
iti
esuseSCADA thepower fulHMIgr aphicandal arm softwar epr ograms.
to moni t
orand r egulate wat erfl
ow,r eservoi
rl evels and pipe (
iv)Phase4:TheI NSTALLATI ON oft hecommuni cati
onequi pmentand
pressur e. the PC sy stem.The st age i nvolves i nstalli
ng and pl acing i nto
v
i)Masst ransit
:transi tauthori
tiesuseSCADAt oregulateelectr
icit
y operationtheSCADAsy stem har dwar eandsof twareincompl iance
tosubway s,trainsandt r
oll
eybuses,t oaut omatet raff
icsignals withthedesi gndocument s.
forrailsystem; tot r
ackandl ocatetrainsandbuses; andt ocont r
ol (
v)Phase5:TheCOMMI SSIONI NGoft hesy stem, wherecommuni cation
rai
lroad–cr ossinggat es. andHMIpr ogr ammi ngpr obl emsar esolv ed,andt hesystem ispr oven
tot hecl i
ent,and oper atort raini
ng and sy st em document ation is
Benefit
sofSCADA provided.Commi ssioning i st he formalpr ocess ofv erify
ing and
i
)I mpr ov edoper ationoft heplantorpr ocessr esult
inginsav i
ngsduet o document ing t hatthei nst all
ed SCADA sy stem compl i
eswi thand
opti
mi zat i
onoft hesy stem. performsi n accor dancewi tht hedesi gni nt ent,asdef ined int he
i
i) Reducest heoper atingandmai nt
enancecosthencemax imi zet he designdocument at
ion
profi
ts.
i
ii
)Max imizepr oduct i
v i
ty ,ensurecont inuouspr oductionandi ncreased
product i
vityoft heper sonnel.
i
v)Impr ov ed saf ety oft he system due t o bet t
eri nformat i
on and
i
mpr ov edcont rol
.
v) Protectionoft hepl antequi pment . Designappr oaches/strategi
esf orSCADAsy stem
vi
)Saf eguar dingt heenv ironmentf rom af ai
lureofthesy stem. Localcontr
ol sy st
em
vi
i)Enhancesr eliabil
ityandr obustnessofcr i
ti
calindust
r i
alprocesses. - I tdescr
ibesasy st
em ar chi
tectur
ei nwhi chsensors,cont r
oll
ersand
vi
ii
)I
mpr ov edener gysav ingsduet oopt i
mi zati
onoft heplant. contr
oll
edequi pment sar ewithinclosepr oximit
yandt hescopeof
i
x)Impr ov edandqui ckerr ecei
ptofdat asot hatcl i
entscanbei nv oiced eachcont roll
erisli
mi t
edt oaspecificsystem orsub-system.
mor equi cklyandaccur at
ely. - Localcont roll
ersar et y
picall
ycapabl eofaccept i
ngi nputsfrom a
x) Gover nmentr egul at i
onsf orsafet yandmet er
ingofgas( f
orroy alt
ies& supervi
sor ycontrol
lertoinit
iat
eort erminatelocal
ly.
taxetc) . - Cont rol
ledaut omat i
csequence, ortoadj ustcontr
olsetpoints,butt
he
contr
olact ionit
selfisdeterminedint helocalcont
roll
er.
Creati
ngaf unctionalSCADAsy stem
(i
)Phase 1:The DESI GN oft he sy stem archi
tectureincludes the
communi cationsystem.Alsoi nv
olvedi nthi
sini
tialphasewi l
lbeany
sit
ei nst
rument ati
ont hatisnotcur r
entlyinex i
stence,butwi llbe
requir
edt omoni tordesir
edpar amet ers.Desi
gnst agetranslatethe
design basis documenti nto a sy stem design and documentt he
designclearl
yandcompl etelysot hati tcanbeconst r
uctedpr oper
ly,
commi ssionedcompl etel
y,andoper atedandmai ntai
nedr el
iablyand

32
a)Local b)Cent
ral
i
zed

Central
izedcontrolsystem
- Descr ibes a system i n which al
lsensors,actuat
ors and other
equipmentwi t
hinthef aci
li
tyareconnect
edtoasinglecontr
oll
erora
groupofcont r
oll
erslocatedinacommoncont r
olroom.
- Thi st ypewascommonf orpowerplantsandotherfaci
li
ti
esusi ng
si
ngle-loopcontr
ollers.

Di
str
ibutedcont r
olsy stem
- Itoff
erst hebestf eaturesofbot hlocal controlandcent ral
izedcont rol
.
- InaDCS,cont rollersar epr ov i
dedl ocall
yt osy stemsorgr oupof
equipmentbutnet worked t o one ormor e oper atorst ati
onsi na
centrall
ocat iont hroughadi gitalcommuni cati
onci rcuit.
- Controlact ionf oreachsy stem orsubsy stem t akespl acei nal ocal
controll
erbutt hecent raloper atorst ati
onhascompl etev i
sibil
it
yof
thest atusofal lsy st
emsand t hei nputandout putdat aineach
controll
er,aswel last heabi l
i
tyt oi ntervenei nthecont rollogicoft he
UserConf igurableOpenSy stem ( UCOS)
localcontrolleri
fnecessar y
.
UCOSi sacont r
olsy stem t hatempl oy sobj ect-ori
ent edtechni quesat
- InaDSC,dat aacqui si
tionandcont rolfunct i
onsar eper formedbya
everyl ev elofi ts sy st
em ar chitect ure.I ti ncludes a numberof
numberofdi stri
but edmi cro-processor -
baseduni ts,situatedneart o
subsy stemswhi chsegmentt hef unct ionalityofUCOS.Thi sincl udes
thedev icesbei ngcont roll
edort hei nstrumentf rom whi chdat ais
an Engi neering Wor kstat i
on Subsy st em,an Oper atorWor kst ati
on
beinggat hered.
Subsy stem,andaFi eldCont r
olUni t(FCU)Cont roll
erSubsy stem.The
- Inputandout putwi r
ingr unsar eshor tandl essv ulnerablet ophy si
cal
subsy stemscommuni catev iaaCont rol Networ k.
descript
ionorel ectro-magnet i
ci nterf
er ence.
 Engi neer i
ngWor kst ati
on( EWS)usedf orpr ojectdev el
opment .The
- Thedat ahi ghwayi snor mallycapabl eofhi ghspeed
EWSi sthedev elopmentt oolwher econt r
olschemesar econf igured
thendownl oadedt ot heOWS,FCU,andSDS.Theent irepr ojecti s
configured usi ng a si nglei ntegrat ed t oolbased on gr aphi cal
Windowsst andards.Gr aphi caltechni quesar ealsousedt odef i
ne
thel ogicalr el
ationshi psamong t hedev icesi n a pr ocessar ea.
Projectconf i
gurationbegi nsbydef i
ningt hesy stem ar chitecture:
33
 wor kst at i
ons,f i
el d cont roluni ts( FCUs) ,I /O,net wor king,et c. can'
tdo.
Graphi cal t echni ques ar e al so used t o def i
ne t he l ogi cal
relationshi psamongt hecont rol el ement sf ormul t i
pledev i
ces.
 Oper atorWor kst at ion( OWS)f oroper at ori nter face.Thi si susedt o
moni torandcont r ol thepr ocess.I tusest hepr ojectscr eenscr eat ed
dur i
ngpr ojectdev elopmentandani mat est hem basedonr eal-time
dat ar ecei ved f rom f i
el d cont roluni ts and f ield dat a ser ver s.
Aut hor izedoper at orscanmoni t ordet ailedact i
v i
tiesf ormanyt ypes
of dev ices and send commands usi ng st andar d f acepl ate
commandwi ndowsandgr oupdi splay s.
 Field Cont rolUni t( FCU)f orcont roll ogi cexecut i
on and di rect
scanni ngofI / O.TheFCUpr ov i
desI /Oser v i
cesbymoni t
or ingand
cont rol l
ingI /Oacr ossst andar dnet wor ksanddat ahi ghway s.The
FCUcanpr ov idesi mul t
aneoussuppor tf ormul ti
pl ev endor s’ I
/ Oand
I/O net wor ks.The v arietyofpl atform and f or m- f
act oropt i
ons
suppor t
edbyt heFCUal lowsi ncor por at i
onofdi stri
but ed,di stinct
I/Osubsy st emsi nt ocommoncont r
ol str ategies.
 Cont rolNet wor k.Sy stem suppor tsr edundantandnon- redundant
fi
beropt icandEt her netl ocal net wor ksusi ngt heTCP/ IPnet wor king
protocolf orst andar di zed,adv ancedappl icat i
onconnect i
v ity.The
LAN/ WANcanbeex tendedt oot hersi tesi nsideorout sidet hepl ant
usingsuchr emot ecommuni cat i
onst echnol ogi esassat el
lite, radi o,
mi crowav e, anddi al-upr unni ngsuchst andar dpr ot ocolsasTCP/ IP,
Modbus, OPC, DDE
 I/OSubsy st em suppor ti
ngI /Of rom al lindust ryst andar dsuppl ier s. SCADASECURI TY/ACCESSCONTROL
The same l ogi c can be sol v ed t o mani pul ate di f
ferent I /O - Accesscont r
olist hesel ect i
v erestrict
iont oaccesst oapl ant/place
subsy stemsf rom di fferentmanuf act urer swi thouthav ingt ochange orotherr esour ces.Hencet hesecur i
tyaccesscont roli stheactof
any of t he pr ogr ammi ng or oper ationalpar amet ers of t he ensuring thatanaut henticat ed useraccessesonl ywhatt heyar e
conf igur edsy stem. authorizedt oandnomor e.
 SCADA Dat a Ser ver( SDS)f ori nter faci ng dat af rom i nt elli
gent - SCADAsy stemsar eusedt ocont rolandmoni torphysicalpr ocesses,
dev ices,suchasPLCs,Fi eldbust echnol ogies,RTUs,PLCI / O,and howev er t he secur it
y of t hese sy st em i si mpor tant because
othert hird-par tydev ices compr omi seordest ructionoft hesesy stem mayi mpactmul ti
ple
 Process Hi st oricalAr chi ver ( PHA) f or st or ing and r et ri
ev ing areasofsoci etyorindust ri
es.
histor icaldat acol l
ect edbyt heFCU,SDSoranyot heri nt elli
gent - I ti
simpor tanttobeabl et odet ectpossi bleatt acksandr espondi nan
dev icei nt hesy st em appropr i
atemanneri nordert omi nimizet hei mpact s.
 mi croFCU:i sasmal l,low- power edPLC t hatex ecut essequent i
al  Pr ot ect:Depl oyingspeci ficpr otectionmeasur est opr ev entand
andr egul at or yl ogi canddi rectlyscansonboar dI / O.Itcanr epl ace discour ageel ectronicat tackagai nstt hepr ocesscont rolsystems.
RTUsatasi gni ficantr educt ioni ncostandpowerconsumpt ion–  Det ect:Est abli
shingmechani smsf orr apidlyidentif
y i
ngact ualor
plusi tcanpr ov idel ocali ntelli
gentcont rolofdev ices,whi chRTUs suspect edelectronicat tacks.
34
  Respond: Under
taki
ng appropri
ate acti
on in response to - Di
sabl
eal
lemai
landi
nter
netaccessf
rom pr
ocesscont
rol
syst
ems.
confir
medsecurit
yinci
dent
sagainstt
heprocesscont
rolsy
stems.
Sy
st em hardening
Def
encei nDept h - Under takehar deningofpr ocesscont rolsystemst opr eventnetwor k
- Wher easi ngl
epr otecti
onmeasur ehasbeendepl oy edt opr otecta basedat t
acks.
system, thereisar i
skt hati faweaknessi nt hatmeasur eisident i
fied - Remov e ordi sable unused ser vi
ces and por tsi nt he operati
ng
andex ploit
edt her eisef fect i
vel ynopr otectionpr ov i
ded. systemsandappl i
cationstopr eventunaut horizeduse.
- Nosi nglesecur it
ymeasur ei tselfisf oolproofasv ulnerabi
lit
iesand - Under st andwhatpor tsareopenandwhatser v
icesandpr otocols
weaknessescoul dbei dent i
fiedatanypoi nti nt ime. I nor derto usedbydev ices( especial
lyembeddeddev i
cessuchasPLCsand
reducet heser isks,i mpl ement i
ng mul ti
plepr ot ectionmeasur esin RTUs) .Thiscoul dbeest abli
shedbyapor tscani nat estenvir
onment .
seriesavoidssi ngl epoint soff ai l
ure. All unnecessar y por ts and ser vices shoul d be di sabled (e.g.
- Inor dert osaf eguar dt hepr ocesscont rolsy stem f r
om el ectronic embeddedwebser vers).
attacks( e.
g.hacker s,wor msandv i
ruses) ,itmaybei nsufficientto - Ensur eal li
nbui ltsystem securityfeaturesar eenabled.
rel
yonasi nglefir ewal l,desi gnedt oprotectt hecor por at
eI Tnet work. - Wher epossi bler estri
cttheuseofr emov ablemedi a( e.
g.CDs,floppy
- Amuchmor eef fectivesecur itymodeli st obui ldont hebenefit sof disks,USB memor yst i
ckset c.)and i fpossi bler emovablemedi a
thecor poratefir ewal lwi thanaddi t
ionaldedi cat edpr ocesscont rol shouldnotbeused.Wher ei tisnecessar ytouser emov abl
emedi a
firewalland depl oyot herpr ot ecti
on measur es such as ant i-
vir
us thenpr oceduresshoul dbeinpl acet oensur et hatthesear echecked
softwareandi nt rusiondet ection formal warepr iortouse.

Remot eaccess Backupsandr ecovery

- Mai ntainani nventor
yofal lr
emot eaccessconnect i
onsandtypes(e.
g. - Ensur eeff
ectivebackupandr ecoverypr oceduresar ei
nplace,andare
vir
tualprivat
enet workormodems) . appropr
iatefortheidentifiedel ectronicandphy sicalthr
eats.These
- Ensur et hatav ali
dbusi nessjusti
ficationexi
stsforallr
emoteaccess shouldbereviewedandr egularlytested.
connectionsandkeepr emot econnectionstoami ni
mum. - Testt heintegri
tyofbackupsr egularl
yt hroughaf ullr
estoreprocess.
- I mplement appr opri
ate aut henti
cati
on mechani sms (e.
g.st r
ong Stor
ebackupsatonandof fsitelocations.
authenti
cat i
on)forremot eaccessconnect i
ons. - Medi ashoul d betransportedsecur elyandst oredinappr opri
ately
- I mplementappr opri
atepr oceduresandassur ancemechani smsf or securel
ocat i
ons.
enabli
nganddi sabli
ngremot eaccessconnect i
ons.
- Ensur ethatr emot eaccesscomput ersareappropri
atel
ysecured(
e.g. Phy
sicalsecurity
anti
-vi
rus,anti-spam andper sonalfirewall
s). - Deployphy sicalsecurit
ypr otect
ion measures to prot
ectpr ocess
controlsystemsandassoci atednetworki
ngequipmentf rom physical
Ant
i-
vir
us: attackandl ocalunauthori
zedaccess.
- Protect process cont rol sy
stems with ant
i-
vir
us software on - Acombi nationofpr ot
ectionmeasur esisli
kelytober equi
redwhi ch
workstati
onsandser vers. couldinclude,drivelocks,tamperproofcasing,secureserverrooms,
- Wher e anti
-vi
rus software cannotbe deploy
ed otherpr otect
ion accesscont rolsystemsandCCTV.
measur esshouldbeimpl emented(e.
g.gat
ewayanti
-vi
russcanningor
manual mediachecking) Securi
typatchi
ng
- I mplementprocessesf
ordepl
oymentofsecur
it
ypat
chest
opr
ocess
E-
mai
landI
nter
netaccess control
syst
ems.

35
- Thesepr ocessesshoul dbesuppor tedbydeploy
mentandaudi tt
ools.
- Thepr ocessesshoul d makeal lowancef orvendorcer ti
ficati
on of
patches,t est
ing ofpat ches priorto deploymentand a st aged
deploymentpr ocess to mini
mi ze the ri
sk ofdisrupt
ion fr
om t he
change.
- Wher e securi
ty pat chi
ng is notpossi bl
e orpr acti
cal,alt
ernati
ve
appropri
ateprot ect
ionmeasur esshouldbeconsidered.

Per
sonnelbackgroundchecks
- Ensureallstaf
fwithoperat
ionaloradminist
rat
ionaccesst
opr
ocess
contr
olsystemsareappropri
atel
yscreened.

Passwor dsandaccount s
- I mpl ementandenf orceapasswor dpol icyf oral lpr ocesscont rol
sy st
emst hatcov erst rengthofpasswor dsandex pirati
ont i
mes.
- I tisr ecommendedt hatpasswor dsar echangedf requent ly,butwher e
thisi snotpossi bl
eorpr actical,alter
nat iveappr opr i
atepr otecti
on
shoul dbeconsi dered.
- Regul arl
yr ev i
ewal laccessr ightsanddecommi ssionol daccount s.
- Wher epossi blechangev endorpasswor dsf rom defaultsettings.
- Passwor dsmaynotbedeemednecessar yf orsomef unctions( e.g.
viewonl ymode) .
- Consi derst rongeraut hent i
cat i
onmet hodsf orcrit
icalfunctions.
Documentsecur i
tyframewor k Topi
c4:I
NDUSTRI
ALCOMMUNI
CATI
ONNETWORK
- Documenta f ul
li nvent ory oft he pr ocess cont rolsy stems and
component s. I
ntr
oduct i
on
- Documentt hef r
amewor kt hatpr ovidest hesecur i
tyf orthepr ocess - Industri
alcommuni cati
onr eferst ot hewi der angeofhar dwareand
cont rolsy stemsandr egular l
yr evi
ew andupdat et or eflectcur r
ent software products and pr otocol s used t o communi cat
e between
threat s. standard comput er platf
or ms and dev i
ces used i n industri
al
- Thi s documentshoul di nclude det ai
l
s oft he risk assessment s, automat ion.
assumpt ions made,known v ulnerabil
iti
es and secur it
y pr otecti
on - Althoughacommuni cati
onci rcuitcani nvolveonl ytwo piecesof
measur esdepl oyed. equipmentwi t
haci rcui
tbet weent hem,t het er
m net workt y
pical
ly
- Ensur eal lpr ocesscont rolsy stem document ati
on issecur ed and referstoconnectingmanydev icest ogethertoper mi tshar
ingofdat a
accessl i
mi tedtoaut hor i
zedper sonnel betweendev i
cesov erasingleorr edundantcircuit
.
- Thei ndustri
alaut
omat i
onsy stemsar eoftenimpl ement edasanopen
distr
ibuted ar chitecture wi th communi cation ov er di git
al
communi cati
onnet works.
- Itisnow commonf oruser sconnect edt oal ocalar eanetworkt o
communi catewit
hcomput ersoraut omat i
ondev icesonot herlocal

36
 areanet wor ksv iagat eway sl i
nkedbyawi dear eanet wor k.
- Ast hei ndust rialaut omat ionsy stemsbecomesl argeandt henumber
ofaut omat i
ondev icesi ncr eases,i thasbecomev eryimpor tantf or
i
ndust rialaut omat iont opr ovidest andar dswhi chmakei tpossi blet o
i
nt erconnectmanydi ffer entaut omat iondev i
cesi nast andardway .
- Consi derabl ei nt ernat ionalst andar dizat ionef for tshav ebeenmadei n
thear eaofl ocalar eanet wor ks.TheOpenSy st emsI nterconnect i
on
(OSI ) st andar ds per mi t any pai r of aut omat ion dev ices t o
communi cat er eliabl yr egar dlessoft hemanuf act urer .
- Bydef i
nition,ani ndust rialnet wor kr equi r
esgeogr aphi caldist ributi
on
of t he phy sical measur ement I /O and sensor s or f unct ional
distribut i
onofappl icat ions.Mosti ndust r
ialnet wor kst r
ansf erbi tsof
i
nf ormat ionser i
ally.
- Ser i
aldat at ransf erhast headv ant ageofr equi ringonl yal i
mi ted
numberofwi r est oex changedat abet weendev ices.Wi t
hf ewerwi r
es,
wecansendi nfor mat i
onov ergr eat erdi st ances.Becausei ndust rial
net wor kswor kwi thsev eraldev i
cesont hesamel ine,itiseasi ert o
addanewdev icet oex ist i
ngsy stems.
- Tomakeal lt hi swor k,ournet wor kmustdef ineasetofr ul es–a
communi cat ionpr ot ocol- -todet er mi nehowi nf ormat i
onf l
owsont he
net wor kofdev ices, cont roll
ers, PCs, andsoon.
- Wi thi mpr ovedcommuni cat i
onpr otocol s, itisnowpossi bletor educe
thet i
meneededf ort het ransfer,ensur ebet t
erdat apr otection,and
guar ant eet i
mesy nchr oni zat i
on,andr eal-
timedet ermi nisti
cr esponse
i
nsomeappl icat ions.
- Indust rialnet wor ksal soensur et hatt hesy stem sendsi nfor mat i
on
reli
abl ywi thouter r
or sandsecur elybet weennodesont henet wor k.

Net
wor kl
ev el
s
- Thei ndust r
ialaut omationsystemscanbev erycompl ex,anditis
usuall
y st ructured into severalhi erar
chicallevels.Each of t he
hierar
chicall evelhas an appr opr
iate communi cation level
,which
placesdifferentrequirementsont hecommuni cati
onnet work.
- Industr
ialnet wor ksmaybecl assif
iedi nseveraldiff
erentcategori
es
basedonf unctionali
ty:f
iel
d-l
evelnet works(sensor,actuatorordevi
ce
buses),cont rol-
levelnetworks( controlbuses)andi nformati
on-l
evel
networks

37
 ControlLevel
- Att he controll evel
,t he informat i
on flow mai
nlyconsist
s ofthe
Fi
eldlev el l
oadi ngofprogr ams,par ameter sanddat a.
- Thel owestl ev eloft heaut omat ionhi erar chyi sthef ieldl ev el,whi ch - I nprocesseswi thshortmachi neidleti
mesandr eadj
ustments,
thi
sis
i
ncl udest hef ielddev icessuchasact uat or sandsensor s. donedur i
ngt hepr oduct i
onpr ocess.Insmallcontr
oll
ersitmaybe
- Theel ement aryf ielddev icesar esomet imescl assifi
edast heel ement necessarytol oadsubr outinesdur ingonemanufactur
ingcycl
e.
subl evel .Thet askoft hedev i
cesi nt hef ieldl evelist ot ransf erdat a - Thi sdeterminest hetimingr equi r
ements.Itcanbedi v
idedint
otwo:
bet weent hemanuf act uredpr oductandt het echni cal process. cellandareasubl evels.
- Thedat amaybebot hbi naryandanal ogue.Measur edv al uesmaybe
avai l
abl ef orashor tper iodoft imeorov eral ongper iodoft ime.For i
)Cel lsubl evel :
thef i
eldl ev elcommuni cat ion,par allel,mul ti-wirecabl es,andser ial - Fort hecel ll eveloper ati
ons,machi nesy nchronizat ionsandev ent
i
nt erfacessuchast he20mAcur r
entl oophasbeenwi delyusedf rom handl i
ngsmayr equi reshor tresponset i
mesont hebus.Theser eal
-
thepast . ti
mer equi r
ement sar enotcompat i
blewi tht i
meexcessi vet r
ansf ers
- Theser ialcommuni cat i
onst andar dssuchasRS232C,RS422,and of appl icat i
on pr ograms, t hus maki ng adapt able message
RS485ar emostcommonl yusedpr otocol st oget herwi tht hepar allel segment ationnecessar y .
communi cat ionst andar dIEEE488. - Inordert oachi evet hecommuni cati
onr equirement si nt hislevel,local
- Thosepoi nt -
to-poi ntcommuni cationmet hodshav eev olvedt ot hebus areanet wor kshav ebeenusedast hecommuni cationnet work.Af t
er
communi cat ionnet wor kt ocopewi tht hecabl ingcostandt oachi ev e thei nt roduct ionoft heCI M conceptandt heDCCSconcept ,many
ahi ghqual itycommuni cat i
on. compani esdev elopedt heirpropriet
arynet wor ksf ort hecel llevelof
- Fi eld-lev eli ndust rialnet wor ksar eal ar gecat egory,di stingui shedby anaut omat ionsy stem.
char act erist i
cssuchasmessagesi zeandr esponset i
me. - The Et hernet t ogether wi th TCP/ IP ( transmi ssion cont r
ol
- I n gener al ,t hese net wor ks connect smar t dev i
ces t hat wor k protocol /i
nternetpr otocol)wasaccept edasadef act ost andar df or
cooper at i
v elyinadi stribut ed,t i
me- cr iticalnet wor k.Theyof ferhi gher - thislev el,thoughi tcannotpr ov i
deat ruer eal-t
imecommuni cati
on.
l
ev eldi agnost i
candconf igur ati
oncapabi litiesgener allyatt hecostof - Many ef for ts hav e been made f or the st andar dization of t he
mor ei nt elli
gence, processi ngpower , andpr ice. communi cationnet workfort hecelll
ev el.
- Att hei rmostsophi sticated,f ieldbus net wor ks wor k wi tht rul y - TheI EEEst andar dnet wor ksbasedont heOSIl ay eredar chitecture
distribut ed cont rolamong i ntelli
gent dev i
ces l i
ke FOUNDATI ON wer edev elopedandt heMi ni
-MAPnet wor kwasdev elopedt orealizea
Fieldbus. standar d communi cati
on bet ween v ari
ous dev i
ces f rom di fferent
- Commonnet wor ksi ncl udedi nthedev icebusandf i
eldbuscl asses vendor s.Somef i
eldbusescanal sobeusedf orthislev el.
i
ncl ude CANOpen,Dev iceNet ,FOUNDATI ON Fi eldbus,I nt erbus- S,
LonWor ks, Pr ofibus- DP, andSDS. i
i)Areasublevel:
- Nowaday s,t hef ieldbusi sof tenusedf ori nf or mat i
ont r
ansf eri nt he - Thear ea l
evelconsistsofcel l
scombi ned into groups.Cellsare
fi
eldl ev el.Duet ot imi ng r equi r
ement s,whi ch hav et o best ri
ct ly desi
gnedwi t
hanappl icat
ion-
ori
entedfunct
ionali
ty.
obser vedi nanaut omat i
onpr ocess,t heappl icati
onsi nt hef i
el dlev el - Bythearealev elcont
roll
ersorprocessoperator
s,thecontroll
i
ngand
cont rollersr equi recy clict ranspor tf unct ions,whi cht ransmi tsour ce i
nterveni
ngf uncti
onsar emadesuchast hesetti
ngofpr oduct
ion
i
nf ormat ionatr egul arint ervals. tar
gets,machinestart
upandshut down,andemer gencyactiv
iti
es.
- Thedat ar epresent ationmustbeasshor taspossi blei nor dert o
reducemessaget ransf ertimeont hebus. - Cont
rol
-l
evelnet
wor
ksar
e t
ypi
cal
l
yusedf
orpeer
-t
o-peernet
wor
ks
38
 bet weencont roll
erssuchaspr ogrammabl elogi
ccont r
oll
ers(
PLCs), networ ke.
g.star,ri
nget c.
distributedcont r
olsystems( DCS) ,andcomput ersy stemsusedf or o Protocols–Ther ulesandencodi ngspeci
fi
cat ionsforsendi
ng
human- machinei nt
erface( HMI),historicalarchi
vi
ng,andsuper vi
sory data.Thepr ot
ocolal sodetermineswhethert henetworkuses
cont rol. peert opeerorclient/serv
erarchit
ect
ure.
- Cont rolbuses ar e used t o coor dinate and sy nchroni
ze contr
ol o Medi um/medi a–Dev i
cescanbeconnect edbyt wist
edpain
bet weenpr oductionunitsandmanuf act uri
ngcell
s. wire,coaxialcable,orf i
breopticcables.Somenet worksdo
- Ty picall
y,Control
Net,PROFI BUS- FMSand( f
ormerly
)MAPar eusedas withoutconnectingmedi ainst
eadcommuni catethroughradi
o
thei ndustri
alnetworksf orcontroll
erbuses. wav es.
- Inaddi ti
on,wecanf r
equent lyuseEt hernetwi t
hTCP/ IPasacont r
oll
er
bust oconnectupper -
levelcontroldev i
cesandcomput er
s. 2)Wi deAreaNet wor k( WAN)
- WANi sadat acommuni cat i
onnet workt hatcov ersar el
ativelybr oad
I
nformationl ev el geographicalar eaandof tenusest r
ansmi ssionf acil
it
iesprov i
dedby
- Thei nformat ion leveli sthe t op lev elofa plantoran i ndustri
al commoncar r
ierse. gtelephonecompani es.
automat i
onsy stem. - WAN t echnologi esgener all
yf unct i
onatt hel owerl ayersoft heOSI
- Thepl antl ev elcont r
ollergather sthemanagementi nformat ionfrom refer
encemodel( Opensy stem I nterconnection)t hephy sicall ayer
,
theareal evel s,andmanagest hewhol eautomat i
onsystem. datali
nkl ayerandnet wor klay er
.
- Att hei nformat ionlevelthereexi stl
ar gescalenetworks,e.g.Ethernet - I t
’susedt oconnectLANsandot hert ypesofnet wor kstoget herso
WANsf orf act oryplanningandmanagementi nformat
ionex change. thatuser sandcomput ersi nonel ocationcancommuni cat ewi th
- Et her
netnet wor ksar eusedasagat ewayt oconnectot herindustri
al usersandcomput ersinot herlocat i
on.
networks. - LANsar econnect edt oaWANt hroughadev icer eferr
edtoasar outer
.
- Wi threspectt omanagementI nformat i
onSyst
em Communi cati
oni n InIPnet working, boththeLANandWANaddr essesar emai ntainedby
automat edsy stem, therearethr eetypesofnet worksused: therouter.
o Local AreaNet wor k(LAN) - MostWANs ex istunderdi stri
but ed orcol l
ective owner ship and
o Wi deAr eaNet wor k(
WAN) managementandunl i
ket heLANs,ar enotnecessar i
lyownedbyone
o Met ropol it
anar eanetwor k(MAN) organizati
on.

1)Local AreaNet wor k( LAN) 3)Metropol

itanAreaNet work(MAN)
- Theset y
pesof  networ ks connectnet workdev i
cesov erar el
ativel
y - Thisi sanet workt hatspansov eraphysi
calareali
keaci t
ythatis
shortdistance. small
erthanaWANbutl ar
gerthanaLAN.
- Qui teof t
en,anet workedof f
icebuil
di ng,homeorschoolcont ainsa - Quite often,such computernet wor
ks 
are owned and operat
ed by
si
ngleLAN al though i tisnor malt o comeacr ossabui lding that si
ngleentit
iessuchasgov ernmentbodi
esorlar
gecorporat
ions
containsaf ewsmal lLANs.
- Onaf ew occasi ons,aLAN mayal sospanov eragr oupofnear by 4)Control
lerAreaNet wor
k(CAN)
bui
ldings.Suchnet works areusuall
yownedbyoneor ganizati
on. - TheCAN pr ot
ocolisapr ior
it
ybasedbusnet workusingacar eer
- I tinterconnects comput ers and filed devices/
peripherals overa sensemul t
ipleAccesswithcoll
isi
onAvoidance(CSMA/ CA)medi um
commonmedi um souser smightshar eaccesst ohostcomput ers, accessscheme.
database, f
il
es, appl i
cationsandper i
pher al
s. - I nthi
sprotocol,anyst
ati
oncanaccessthebuswhenev eritbecomes
- Thef oll
owingchar acteristi
csdiff
erentiateoneLANf r
om anot her i
dle.
o Topol ogy– Thegeomet r
icar rangementofdev icesont he - Thi sisacommuni cat
ionprot
ocolspeci
fi
cationthatdefi
nespar t
sof

39
 theOSIphy si
calanddat alinkl ayer.Itmeet sr eal-
ti
mer equirements mor e net works. I t i s concer ned wi t
h net work-to-net
wor k
encounteredinanyi ndust ri
es.Thenet wor kpr otocolcandet ectand communi cati
on.Thisl ayeri
sr esponsibl
ef oraddr
essing&r outi
ngof
corr
ecttransmissioner ror scausedbyel ectromagnet i
cinterf
erence dataont henet work.
- Iti
ssuitableforindust r
ialappl icat
ionsbecause: - Itisusedt oallowhost stoinsertpacketsintoanynetwor kandhav e
o Lowcost them todel i
verindependentlytothedestinati
on.
o Sui tabil
i
tyf orhar shel ectri
cal env
ironment - Itspecif
iesanof fi
cialpacketformatandpr ot
ocolknownoni nt
ernet
o Goodr eal-t
imecapabi li
ties protocol
. Packetr out i
ng isv eryessentialtaskin ordert o avoid
o Easeofconf i
guration congestion.
- CAN is par ti
cularl
y wel lsui ted to networ king smar tI /
O dev i
ces
sensorsandact uat orseitheri nasi nglemachi neorpl ant. i
ii)Transpor tlayer
- Itprov i
dest hemeansf orthetr
ansportofdat asegment sacrossthe
Inter
net -
lay er.Iti
sconcer nedwithend-to-end communi cation.
Net
worksModel s/Lay ers - Thisl ayersendst hedatat otheinternet -
layerwhent ransmi t
ti
ng&
- Networ kmodeldef i
nesasetofnet workl ayerandhowt heyi nter
act. sendsdat at ot heAppl i
cati
on-l
ayerwhenr eceivi
ng.
There ar e severaldi ff
er entnet work model s dependi ng on what - Itspeci fies 2 end- to-
end protocol
;TCP and UDP ( Tr ansmissi
on
organiz ati
on/indust rywant . Control Prot ocolanduserdat agram protocol )
.
- Themosti mpor t
antar e: o TCPi sar eli
ableconnecti
on–or i
ent edpr ot
ocolthatpermitsa
i) TheTCP/I Pmodel by test ream or igi
nati
ng ononemachi neto bet r
ansport
ed
ii
) OSInet wor kmodel wi thouter roronanymachi neint hei nt
ernet.
1.TheTCP/ IPmodel o UDPi sanunr el
iabl
e,connecti
onl esspr otocolf
orappl i
cati
ons
- TCP/ IP (Transmi ssionCont rolProtocol/Inter
netPr otocol)ist hebasi c thatdonotwantTCPssequenci ngonf lowcontrolandwi shto
communi cati
onl anguageorpr otocoloft heInternet.Itcanal sobe off ertheirown.
usedasacommuni cationspr otocoli napr iv
atenet wor k( eitheran
int
ranetoranex tranet )
. i
v)Applicationl ayer
- TCP/ IPi sthedef actogl obalstandar dfort heInternet(networ k)and - Itprovi
des t he userwi t
ht he i nter
f ace to communi cati
on.Thi s
host–t o–host( transpor t)l ayer implement ati
on of i nternetwor k Appli
cati
onl ay eriswher ewebbr owser ,TELNET,FTP,emai l
,orother
applicationsbecauseoft hepopul ari
tyoft heInternet. cl
ientapplicat i
onr uns.Thi sl
ay ersendst o&r eceivesdataf rom the
- The TCP/ I
P( Transmi ssion Cont rolPr otocol/I nt
ernet)i sa l ayer tr
ansport-l
ay er
protocol wher eitdef ines4l ayers’ o Thev i
rtualt er
mi nalpr otocol( VTP)per mitsauseronone
machi netol ogintoadi stantmachi neandwor kt
her e.
i
)Net wor kaccess/ i
nterf
acelayer o The f i
let ransferpr otocol( FTP)per mi ts a useron one
- Itprovidesaccesst ot hephy
sical-
network.Thepurposeofanet work machi netol ogintoadi st antmachi neandwor kthere.Itoff
ers
i
nt erf
aceistoallowy ourPCtoi nordertoaccessthewirel
essorfiber
- awayt omor edataeffi
ci ent l
yfrom onemachi net oanother.
opt i
cnetwork-i
nfrastr
ucture&senddat atoothercomputersyst
ems. o El ectronicmai l(simpl
emai ltransferprotocol(SMTP)sends
- Itsmai nfunct
ioni stoconnecthostanddev icesusi
ngsomepr otocol emai lstoot hercomput er st hatsuppor ttheTCP/IPpr otocol
.
sot hatdataorIPpacketcant ransmitoverit
.

i
i)I
nter
netl
ayer
- I
nter
netLay
erprov
idesconnect
ionl
esscommuni
cat
ionacr
ossoneor
40
 net
wor kinter
facecar ds,wi r
el essradi
oset car epartofthi
slayer
.
b)Encodi ng and si gnali
ng – How ar et he bits encoded inthe
medium isalsodeci dedbyt hislayer.
c) Datatransmissionandr ecept i
on:thetransf erofeachbitofdata
andassur esthetransmi ssionofeachbi twithahi ghprobabil
i
ty.
d)Topol ogyandnet wor kdesi gn:t hetypeofnet worktopologi
esto
beusedandwhi chpar toft henet workint her out
esgoingt obe
pl
aced, wheretheswi tcheswi llbeusedet c.

i
i
)Datalinkl ay er
- Thisl ayerpr ovidesr eliablet ransmi ssionofapacketbyusi ngt he
servi
cesoft hephy sicall ayerwhi cht ransmi tsbi t
sov erthemedi um in
Advant
agesTCP/ IPmodel : anunr eliablef ashion.
• I tcanbeusedt oestabli
sh/setupconnect ionb/ wdifferentt
ypes - Itmai ntainsar eli
abl econnect i
onbet weenadj acentnodesorst ations
ofcomput ers. overaphy sicalchannel
• I toperates/ worksindependent l
yoft heoper at
ingsy st
em. - Todi stingui shonef r
om anot her,amet hodofnodeaddr essi
ngmust
• I tsupportf oranumberofr outing-pr
ot ocols. bedef ined.
• I tenablest heinternetworki
ngbet weent heor ganizati
ons. - Toensur eonl yonenodehasaccessatanyonet ime,amet hodof
• I thasascal able,cl
ient-
serverarchit
ect ure. medi um accesscont rol (MAC)mustbei mpl ement ed.
Di
sadvantages: - Inf
ormat ionsentov ert hedat al i
nkl ayeriscal ledf r
ames.Thi slayeris
• I ti
scompl ext osetup&manage. concer nedwi th:
• I nter
networ kPacketEx change( I
PX)i sf ast
ert hanTCP/ IPmodel. a)Fr ami ng–br eaki ngi nputdat ai ntof r
amesandcar i
ngaboutt he
• Theshal low/ overheadofTCP/ IPishi gher -
thanI PX. frameboundar iesandt hesi zeofeachf rame( af ewhundr edby tes)
b)Acknowl edgement :sentbyr eceiv i
ngendt oi nf ormt hesour ce
2.OSInet wor kmodel thatt hef r
amewasr eceivedwi thoutanyer ror
.
- Dev eloped by i nter
nati
onal st andar ds or ganizat
ion (ISO) t o c) Sequence number ing – t o acknowl edge whi ch frame was
standar di
z eprot
ocolsusedinversion( TCP/ I
P)layers. recei ved.
- Themodeli sknownast heOSI( opensy stemsi nt
erconnecti
vi
ty) d)Er rordet ecti
on:t hef r
amesmaybedamagedl ostordupl i
cated
referencemodel becauseiti
srelatedwi thconnect i
ngopensy stem i
.e. leadi ngt oer r
ors.Theer r
orcont rol i
sonl inkt oli
nkbasi s.
systemst hatareopenforcommuni cati
onwi thothersy st
em. e) Ret ransmi ssion–Thepacketi sr etr
ansmi tt
edi ft hesourcef ail
s
- I tdescr i
bes seven layer
s as t hey relatet o one hostcomput er tor ecei veacknowl edgment .
communi catingtoanotherhostcomput er. f) Flowcont r
ol–necessar yf oraf asttransmi t
tertokeeppacewi th
asl owr eceiver.
i
)Physicall
ayer
- Thisisthelowestl ay
erwhi chdescri
best hewayactualdataint he i
i
i)Networkl
ayer
for
m ofsy mbol
st hataresentoveramedi um suchascopperwi r
eor - Iti
sconcernedwit
hlogicaladdr
essi
ngprocessofnodesandrout
ing
fi
breopt i
ccabl
ing.I t
em likesi
gnallevelsymbolrepr
esentat
ionand schemes.Thebasicfuncti
onsofthel
ayerarer
outi
ngandcongest
ion
connectorpi
noutaredefinedatt
hislayer.Themainfuncti
onsare contr
ol.
a)Har dware specifi
cati
on – the detail
s ofthe physi
calcables, - Routi
ng deals wit
h det er
mini
ng how packets will be r
outed

41
 (t
ransferr
ed)fr
om sourcetodest i
nat
ion. - Thechoiceofwhichspeci
ficprotocolsendt
heirassociat edfunct
ions
- Congestion contr
oli nvol
ves the contr
olof packets mi
nimizi
ng aretobeusedatt heappl
icat
ionl ev
elisuptotheindividualuser.For
droppingofpackets,
transmit
tingfi
neanddel
ays. examplecommonl yusedprotocolsorHTTP(forwebbr owsing),
FTP
- I
ti srequir
edwhencommuni cati
onmustspanmul ti
plenet
works– (orfi
l
etransf
er)
i
nterconnecti
ng. - HTTP–Hy pertexttr
ansf
erpr ot
ocol–per mit
sappl i
cat ionssuchas
browsertoupl
oadanddownl oadwebpages.
i
v)Transpor tlay er
- Thi slayeri sconcer nedwi tht hev ari
ablet r
ansmissi
onofmessages OperationofOSIl ayer
sentbet weent wohostcomput ers. - Fr om t hef igure,ifanodewant st osentadat apacketf rom t he
- Itisr esponsi bl
ef ort heendt oendcommuni cat
ioncontr
ol.Thisis application,itmustf i
rstcallfort hesendi ngservi
ceofitsappl ication
differ
entf rom t he datal i
nkl ayerwhi ch onl
yconcer ned wit
ht he l
ay erwhi chint urnwi llcallt
hesendi ngf unct
ioninthenextl ay er,and
transmi ssionoff rames. soont i
llthedat aissentatt hephy sicalmedium toothernode.
- A messageusual lyrequiresmany– f r
amest obesentbef or
et he - Thi snodewi l
lrever sethesequencet il
lthereceiv
eddatar eachest he
compl etemessagecanber eceived. application.Lay erofi tsnodet hent otheappl i
cati
onwhi chwi l
luse
- Thi srequi resf ragment ingt hemessagei nt
omanypi ecestober e- thisdat a.
assembl edatt heot herend.Mi ssingf ragmentsmustber e-sent
.The - Anycommuni cati
onsy stem thati sbasedont heOSIsev enl ayerhas
transpor tlay eraddressest hisissue. highf l
ex i
bil
it
yandcompat i
bil
itywi t
hpr oductfrom di
ff
erentv endor s.
- Ot herfunct ionsar e:
- - Howev erOSIsy stem i sof t
ent oocompl exfornetworkar chitect ure
o Mul ti
plexingandde- multiplexing hencehasaconsi derableov erheadi nbot ht hecommuni cat i
onand
o Er rorcont rolmechani sm onendt oendbasi s thepr ocessing.
o Fl owcont rol–r egulateflowofi nfor
mation
o Connect i
onest abli
shment/r elease.

v
)Sessionlayer
- Thel ayerisconcer nedwi t
ht heest abl
i
shmentandt er
minat
ionof
communi cati
onsessi onsbetweenprocessorsi
nhostcomputer
s.
- Italsoensur esthatt hedatat r
ansferstar
tsfrom wher
eitbreaks,
keepingittr
ansparenttotheenduser.

v
i)Present ati
onlay er
- Thepr esentationlay
ertransl
atestheformatofdatabetweensender
andr eceiv er
.
- Itisr esponsi bleforthedatai nt
erpr
etat
ion,whi
challowsforinter
-
operabi li
tyamongdi ffer
entequipments. - Stri
ctl
yspeaki ng,anet workrequi
resonlylayers1,2,and7oft he
protocolmodel tooperate.
v
ii
)Appli
cati
onl ay
er - I
nf act,manydev icebusnetworksuseonl ythesethreelayer
s.The
- Thi slayerpr ov
ides the ser
vices t
hatarer equi
red by speci
fi
c otherlayersareaddedonl yasmor eservi
cesarerequi
red(e.g.
,er
ror
-
appl
icat
ions.Itcontai
nsappli
cationprot
ocol
swi t
hwhi chtheuser fr
eedel i
very,r
outing,sessi
oncontr
ol,dat
aconversi
on,etc.
).
gai
nsaccesst othenetwor
k. - Mostoft oday’slocalareanetworkscontai
nallormostoft heOSI

42
 l
ayer
stoal
l
owconnect
iont
oot
hernet
wor
ksanddev
ices. a)Thedat alinkl ayerisbasedonat okenpassi ngprotocol.
b)TheLi nkAct i
v eSchedul er(LAS)i sacent r
ali
zeddev icet hatacts
Adv
antages: asthear bitratorofthebus.
• Itprov
ideswi devari
etyofchoice. c) TheLASex ecut esaschedul et hatmakespossi bledet ermi ni
sti
c
• Itdoesnotdependorr el
yonaspeci fi
ccomputersy
stem. communi cation.
• Iti
nterpretsthepr
oductf uncti
onal
it
yateach-
stage. d)TheLASdi stributestimet ot henet workt oper mi
tal ldev icesto
• Itencr
y ptsthedataforsecurit
ypurpose. sharethesamesenseoft i
me.
• Iti
seasyt oaddmul tipl
e-networkmodels. - Theuserappl i
cat i
onl ayerdefinesblockst hatrepresentt hefunct i
ons
anddataav ailablei nadev ice.
Disadvantages: - Ratherthani nterfacet oadev i
cet hroughasetofcommandsas
• Manyappl icat i
onsdonotr equi
re/
needt hedat aintegri
ty,whichis commonl y used wi th communi cation pr otocol
s, fieldbus user
providedbyOSI -
model . i
nteract
s wi th dev i
ce through a setofbl ocks thatdef i
ne dev i
ce
• I nordert of astsetupOSIr equir
esagr eementbet weent hree-
part
ies: capabil
it
iesinast andar di
zedway .
users&ser v icepr ovider. - Thedat al i
nkl ay erhasi mpor t
antaspectwhi chismedi um access
• Compl ex. control
.
• Thi smodeli snotadapt edatallt
otelecommuni cat
ionapplicat
ionson
comput er.
3.Fiel
dbusmodel Medium AccessCont rol(MAC)
- Duet ocompl exityoft heOSImodel ,modi ficati
onhasbeendoneon - Inaf i
eldbusori ndust ri
alnet wor k,sev eralstationssharet hesame
theindustrial networ ks,whereonlyt
hreel ayersarelef
t. communi cati
onsmedi ai nor dert osav ewi r
ingcost s.Howev er,since
- Ther esult
ingf i
eldbusi sreferr
edtoasa3–l ay
erarchit
ecture.These the medi um i s shar ed, not al l dev ices can communi cate
layer
sar e:
- simul t
aneously.
o Appl i
cat i
onl ayer - Ther ef
or ether
emustber ul est ogov ernwhogai nsaccesst ot he
o Dat al inklayer medi um andt hoser ulesar ecal l
edmedi um accesscont rol(MAC) .
o Phy si callayer ThusMACaddr essesi dent i
f ynetwor kdev icesi nLANS.
- Thi sprocessofmedi aaccessr equirest hateachnodebeabl etoshut
downi tst r
ansmitterwi thouti nter
feringwi tht henetwork’soperation.
- Thi scanbedonei noneoft hef ol
lowi ngway s:
o wi thamodem t hatcant urnof fi
t scar ri
er
o wi thatransmi tterthatcanbesett oahi ghindependencest ate
o wi thapassi vecur r
ent -l
oopt ransmi tt
er ,wi
redinserieswi t
ht he
othertr
ansmi t
ters,thatshor t
swheni nacti
v e
- Al t
houghmanyaccessmet hodsexi st,themostcommonl yusedones
arepol l
ing,col
li
siondet ect i
on, andt okenpassi ng.

1)Poll
ing
- Theaccessmethodmostoftenusedinmaster
/sl
aveprot
ocolsi
s
- Sever
alcharact
eri
sti
csandf
uncti
onsi
nt hedat
al i
nklayerar
ekeyt
o pol
l
ing.
thedi
str
ibut
edrealti
mecont
rol
capabi
l
iti
esoffi
eldbus. - I
npolli
ng,themast
eri
nter
rogat
es,orpol
l
s,eachstat
ion(sl
ave)i
n
43
 sequencet o seei fithasdat atot r
ansmi t.Themast ersendsa somet i
met otransmi tamessageonaper mi ssi
onbasi s.
messaget oaspeci fi
cslav eandwai tsaf ixedamountoft imef orthe - Thisper mi ssionoccur swhenapar tici
pantr eceiv est heonet okent hat
slavetorespond. ex i
stint henet wor k(tokeni sasmal lf
rame)
- Thesl aveshoul drespondbysendi ngeitherdat aorashor tmessage - Thet okeni spassedf rom onepar t
icipantt oanot heri naci r
cular
say i
ngthatithasnodat at osend.I ft
hesl avedoesnotr espondwi t
hin fashioni nwhati scal l
edl ogicalri
ng.
theal l
ott
edt i
me,t hemast erassumest hatt heslavei sdeadand - Onceapar ti
cipantr eceivest het oken,t hepar t
icipantmusti ni
tiatea
continuespolli
ngt heothersl av es. transmi ssionorpai rthet okent ot henextpar ticipanti nanor der l
y
- Inter
slave communi cation i n a mast er /
slav e confi
gur at
ion is fashion.
i
nef f
ici
ent,sincepolli
ngr equi resthatdataf irstbesentt ot hemaster - Thet okeni susual l
ypassedf rom onepar ti
cipantt oanot herwi tht he
andt hentother eceiv
ingsl av e. highestaddr essr egardlessoft henextpar t
icipant ’
sphy si
callocat i
on.
- Sincemast er/slaveconfigur ati
onsuset hist echnique,poll
ingisoften - Thepar t
icipantwi tht hehi ghestaddr esswi l
lpai rt hetoken t oa
referr
edtoast hemast er/slav eaccessmet hod. participantwi ththel owestaddr ess.
- It
’snotnecessar yt ohav eonemast ertohandoutt het oken.
2)Car r i
erSense, Mul t
ipleAccess( CSMA) - Par t
icipantcoul dbepeert ooneanot herandsi mpl yagr eet hatthey
- Thebasi cmedi aaccessmet hodt hatusesf i
rst-come- fir
stser ved wi l
lnotpossesst het okenf ormor et imet hanpr ev iouslyagreed.
principle. - Token passi ng net works ar e deter ministi
c,whi ch means t hati ts
- Itispr obabi l
i
st i
cmedi aaccesscont rol( MAC)pr otocoli nwhi cha possi blet ocal cul at
et hemax imum t i
met hatwi llpai rbeforeanyend
nodev erif
iest heabsenceot hert raff
icbef oretransmi tti
ngonashar ed stati
onwi llbecapabl eoft r
ansmi tti
ng.
transmi ssionmedi um,suchasanel ect ri
calbusorabandoft he - Tokenr i
ngnet wor ksar eidealforappl i
cation, i
nwhi chdel aysmustbe
electromagnet icspect r
um. predict ableandr obustnet workoper ati
oni simpor tant.
- Itisbasedont hepr i
nciplesensebef oret ransmi tt
ingor‘ li
st enbefore - Factor yaut omat ionenv ir
onmentar eex ampl esofsuchappl ications.
talk’
.
- CSMA/ CD col lision det ection – per formance by t er minati
ng Physi
call
ayer
transmi ssionassoonasacol lisiondet ected,thusshor teningt heti
me Physi
cal l
ayer i
s concer
ned wi
th t
ransmi
tt
ing r
aw bi
ts ov
er a
requiredbef orear et rycanbeat t
empt ed. communicat
ionchannel
.
- Thi s met hod handl es col li
sion as t hey occur ,buti ft he bus i s
const antlybusy ,col l
isi
oncanoccursoof tenthatper formancedr ops Ty
pesofmedi um
drast i
cally
.Thust hismet hodwor kswel lasl ongast henet wor kdoes Medium canbecl assif
iedint
ot wocategor
ies
nothav eanex cessi veamountoft r
affic. a)Gui dedmedi a–meanst hatsi
gnalsisguidedbyt hepresenceof
- CSMA/ CAcol l
isionav oidance–i susedt oi mpr ovet heper f ormance physicalmediai .
e.signalsareundercontrolandr emainsinthe
byat tempt ingt obel ess‘gr eedy ’ont hechannel . physicalwir
ee.g.copperwi r
e
- Ift he channeli s sensed busy bef oret ransmi ssion t hen the b)Ungui dedmedi a–meanst hatthereisnophy si
calpathforthe
transmi ssioni sdi fferedforar andom i nterval. si
gnal topropagate.Thisisdonethroughelect
romagneticwaves.
- Ifthechannel ssensed‘ idle’thent hest ati
oni sper mittedt ot ransmit.
Oncet hechanneli scl earast ationsendsasi gnalt ell
ingal lot
her Communicat
ionlinks
stationsnott ot ransmi t,andt hensendsi tspacket . I
nanetworknodesar econnect
edthr
oughl
inks.
Thecommunicationt
hroughli
nkscanbecl
assif
iedas
3)Tokenpassingprotocol i
) Si
mpl ex–communi cat
ioncant
akepl aceonl
yinonedi
rect
ion
- Wit
hthisapproach,eachpart
ici
pantt
othenet
wor
kisguar
ant
eed e.
g.radio,
T.V

44
 i
i
) Halfdupl ex–communicati
oncant akeplaceinonedir
ect
ion Mult
i- Poi
nt t
o 1Gbps 1000m PLC t
o
atat ime. SupposenodeAandBar econnected,t
henhalf mode poi
nt cont
rol
duplexcommuni cat
ionmeanst hatatat i
medat acanfl
ow f
ibr
e Room and
fr
om At oBorf r
om BtoAbutnotsi mul
taneousl
y. PLCtoPLC
i
i
i) Fullduplex–communicati
oncant akepl
acesimult
aneousl
yin
bothdirecti
onmobil
ephone. I
ngui
dedt
ransmi
ssi
onmedi a,t
wokindofmat
eri
alsused:
I
) Copper–t wi
stedpai
r
Li
nkscanbef ur
thercl
assif
iedas Coaxi
alfi
bre
i
) Pointthepoint–i nt hiscommuni cat
iononlytwonodesar e I
I) Opti
calf
ibre
connectedtoeachot hersideandnonel se.
i
i
) Mul t
ipoi
nt–I tisaki ndofshav i
ngcommuni cat
ioninwhi ch Twi
stedpai r
si
gnal scanber eceived byallnodes. Thisi salso cal
l
ed - Twi st
edpai rcabl i
ngi sat y peofwi ringi nwhi chtwoconduct orsofa
broadcast. singlecircuitar et wistedt oget herf ort hepur posesofcancel i
ngout
electr
omagnet i
ci nter f
erence( EMI)f rom ex ternalsour ces.
- Thewi resar et wi stedt oget heri nahel icalf orm andt hepur poseof
Medi ast andar
d twisti
ng ist or educecr osst al
ki nterferencebet ween nei ghbour i
ng
Industrystandardforcommunicati
onsmedi
adefinebotht
hephysi
cal
and pairs.
elect
rical( oropti
cal)charact
eri
sti
csofbotht heconduct
orsand the - Twi st
edpai ri smuchcheapert hancoaxi alcablebuti tissuscept ible
connect orsusedtomat ethem t
ocommunicat
ionport
s. tonoiseandel ect r
omagnet i
ci nferenceandat tenuat i
oni sl
ar ge.
- Whenel ectri
calcur rentf l
owt hroughawi re, i
tcreat esasmal l,circular
Some common network conduct
or,phy
sical st
andar
ds and t
hen magnet icfieldar oundt hewi re.
char
act
eri
sti
csar
eli
stedbel
ow:
- - Whent wowi resi nanel ectricalcircuitar epl acedcl oset oget her,their
magnet icfieldsar et heexact ,oppositeofeachot her .
Standard Conduct
o Connect
io Tr
ansmissi
o Maximu Typi
cal - Thust het womagnet i
cf i
eldscanceleachot herout .Theyal socancel
designat
io rt
ype n nspeed m appl
icat
ion outanyout sidemagnet icfields.Twi sti
ngt hewi rescanenhancet his
n di
stance cancellati
onef fect .
RS–232 Copper Poi
nt t
o 265kbps 15m Lapt
op - Twi st
edpai rcanbef urthercl assif
iedi ntot wocat egor i
es:
M/ C with poi
nt comp to o Unshi eldedt wistedpai r(UTP)
a pin PLC o Shi eldedTwi stedPai r(STP)
connector
RS–485 Copper Mul
ti
-dr
op 10mbps 1000m PLCtofiel
d
UTP or dev
ices
STD
CAT5 Copper Mul
ti
-dr
op 100mbps Depends PLCt
oPLC
UTP or on i
)Unshiel
dedtwistedpair(UTP)
STD prot
ocol - UTPcabl eisamedi um thatiscomposedofpairsofwiresandusedin
RG6 Copper Mul
ti
-dr
op 5mbps 1000m PLCtoPLC vari
etyofnetworks.
coax vi
deo - Eachoft heeightindiv
idualcopperwiresinUTPcabl eiscoveredby
Singl
e Poi
nt t
o 1Gbps 50km No t y
pical aninsulati
ngmat eri
al.Inaddi t
iont
hewi resineachpairaretwist
ed
mode poi
nt appl
i
cati
on aroundeachot her
.
fi
bre s - UTP cablemustf oll
ow pr eci
sespecifi
cati
ongov er
ninghow many
45
 twistsorbr aidsper mittedpermet erofcabl e 5e 1,
000Mbps Gi
gabi
tEt
her
net
- Itisof teni nstall
edusi ngar egist eredJack45( RJ45)connect or.The
RJ- 45 i s an ei ghtwi re connect or used commonl yt o connect 6 10,
000Mbps Gi
gabi
tEt
her
net
comput ersintoaLANespeci all
yEt hernets.
- Whenusedasanet wor ks,UTPcabl ehasf ourpairsofei ther22–or Connect
ors use ei
ther T568A or T568B pin assignment,alt
hough
24Amer i
canwi r
egauge( AWG)copperwi re. perf
ormanceiscomparableprovi
dedbothendsofacabl earethesame.
- UTPusedasanet wor kingmedi um hasani mpedanceof1000ohms RJ45or8P8C connectori scli
ppedfr
om l ef
ttorightwiththeplasti
c
wher easf ortelephonei s6000. l
atchi
ngtabfaci
ngawayf rom thevi
ewer.(8P8C–ei ghtposi
ti
ons,ei
ght
- Commonl yusedt ypeofUTPcabl ingar easf ol
lows:- conduct
ors)
i
) Cat egor y( CAT 1)used f ort elephone communi cation.I ti snot
suitabl efortransmi t
tingdat a. PI
N T568A T568B T568A T568B
i
i
) Cat egor y2( CAT2)capabl eoft r
ansmi tti
ngdat aatspeedupt o4 PAIR PAIR COLOUR COLOUR
megabi tspersec( mbps) 1 3 2 Whitegreen Whiteorange
i
i
i)Cat egor y3( CAT3)usedi n10BASE–Tnet work.I tcant r
ansmi t 2 3 2 Green Orange
dataatspeedsupt o10mbps, wi thapossi blebandwi dt hof16mhz . 3 2 3 Whiteorange Whitegreen
i
v)Cat egor y4( CAT4)usedi nt okenr ing,10BASE–Tnet works.I t 4 1 1 Bl
ue Bl
ue
cant ransmi tdat aatspeedsupt o16mbpsandper formanceofup 5 1 1 Whitebl
ue Whitebl
ue
to20mhz 6 2 3 Orange Green
v
) Cat egor y5( CAT5) .Thi st ypeofcabl eisusedi nst r
uct uredcabl i
ng 7 4 4 Whitebrown Whitegreen
forcomput ernet wor k such as Et hernet .The cabl e st andard
8 4 4 Brown Brown
prov i
desper formanceofupt o100mhzandsui tablef or10BASE- T,
Thef
oll
owingsummar izesthefeat
uresofUTPcabl e
100BASE–TX( fastEt hernet )and1000BASE- T(Gigabi tEt hernet
)
- Speedandt hr
oughput–10–1000mbps
v
i)Cat egor y5e( CAT 5e)– cat egor y5 enhanced used i nnet wor k
- Averagecostpernode–l eastexpensive
runni ngatspeedsupt o1000mbps( 1Gbps)i ncat egor y6( CAT6)–
- Mediaandconnect orsi
ze–smal l
consi stoff ourpai r
sof24Amer icanwi regauge( AWG)copperwi re.
- Maximum cablelength–100m ( shout)
Itpr ov i
desl owercr osst alk,ahi ghersignalt onoi ser atio,andar e
suitabl efor10GBASE–T( 10-Gi gabitEther net)
i
i
)Shieldedt wi st
edpai rcable(STP)
v
ii
)Cat egor y6( CAT 6)pat chcabl ei snor mal lytermi natedi n8P8C
- Thi scabl ecombi nest hetechniqueofshiel
dingcancel l
ati
onandwi r
e
modul econnect ors( RJ45) .
twisting.
Cat
egor
y Speed Use - Eachpai nofwi r
ei swr appedinamet alfoi
l.Thef oilpai
rsofwiresare
1 1Mbps Voi
ceOnl
y(Tel
ephoneWi
re) thenwr appedi nanov erall
met all
i
cbrai
dorf oil
usual l
y150Rcabl e.
- Asspeci fiedf orusei nEthernetnetworkinstall
at i
on,STP reduces
2 4Mbps Local
Tal
k&Tel
ephone(
Rar
elyused) electricalnoisebot hwi thi
nt hecable(pairtopai rcoupli
ngorcr oss
3 16Mbps 10BaseTEt
her
net talk)andf rom out sidet hecable(EMIorRFI).
- STP usual lyisi nstall
edwi reSTP dat aconnect orwhi chiscreated
4 20Mbps TokenRi
ng(
Rar
elyused) especi all
yf ortheSTPcabl e
100Mbps(
2pai
r) 100BaseTEt
her
net - Howev er
,STPcabl i
ngcanal souset hesameRJconnect orthatUTP
5 cabl euses.
1000Mbps(
4pai
r) Gi
gabi
tEt
her
net - Although STP pr eventsinterfer
ence bett
ert han UTP,i tis mor e
46
 expensiv eanddiff
icul
ttoinst al
l
.
- Inaddition,themet al
li
cshieldingmustbegr oundedatbot hends.If Opt
ical f
ibre
i
t’si
mpr operl
ygrounded, t
heshi el
dactslikeanant ennaeandpicksup - It’
sagl assorpl ast icf ibr edesi gnedt ogui del i
ghtal ongi tslengt h.
unwant edsignals. Theopt icfiberther efor eact sasacondui t( orwav e-
gui de)f orpul ses
- Becauseofi tscostanddi f
ficul
tywithterminati
on,STPi srar
elyused ofl i
ghtgener atedbyal i
ghtsour ce.
i
nEt hernetnet wor
k. - Thel i
ghtsour ceist y pical l
yei therani nject i
onl aserdiode( ILD)orLED
- Thef eatureofSTPcabl eare:- oper ati
ngatwav elengt hsof0. 85,1. 2or1. 5µm ( micromet ers) .The
o Speedandt hroughput–10t o100mbps opt i
cf i
beri scoat ed wi th a pr otect ive col or ed sheat ht o pr ov i
de
o Av er
agecostpernode–moder atelyexpensive stabi l
it
yandal l
oweasyi dent i
fi
cation.
o Medi aandconnectt osite–medi um tolarge - Fibre opt i
cs i s wi del yused i nf ibre opt ic communi cat i
on,whi ch
o Max i
mum cabl elength–100m ( short) per mitstransmi ssionov erl ongerdi st anceandathi gherdat arat es.
- Lighti skepti nthecor eoft heopt icalf ibrebyt otali
nterv alreflect i
on.
2.Coaxi alcabl e(coax) Thi scausest hef ibret oactasawav egui de.
- I tconsi st
sofahol low ot hercyl
indri
calconduct orthatsurrounda - At ransverse mode ofa beam ofel ectromagnet icr adi ati
on i na
singlei nnerwiremadeoft woconduct i
ngel ements. par ti
cular intensity pat ter n of r adiat i
on measur e i n a pl ane
- Oneoft heseel ement s,locatedi
nt hecent r
eoft hecabl ei
sacopper per pendicular( i
.et ransv erse)t ot he pr opagat ion direct i
on oft he
conduct orsurroundingt hecopperisal ayeroffl
ex i
bleinsul
ati
on. beam.
- Ov ert hisinsulatingmat erialisawov encopperbr ai
dormet all
icfoil - Tr ansversemodesoccurbecauseofboundar ycondi ti
oni mposedon
thatact sbothast hesecondwi reintheci rcui
tandasshi eldforthe thewav ebyt hewav egui de.
i
nnerconduct or. - Fiberopt iccabl esof fert hef oll
owi ngadv ant agesov erot hert ypesof
- Thi ssecondl ay erorshi eldcanhel pr educetheamountofout si
de transmi ssionmedi a:
i
nt erference. o Li ghtsignalsar ei mper vioust oi nt erferencef rom EMIorel ect rical
BNCconnect
or crosstalk
- Thecablesupport
s10t o o Li ghtsignalsdonoti nt erferewi thot hersi gnal s
100mbpsandr
elat
ivel
ycheap. o Opt i
calf i
bershav eamuchwi der ,flatterbandwi dtht hancoaxi al
I
tcan becabl
ed overlonger cablesandequal izat i
onoft hesi gnal sisnotr equi
red
distancest hant hetwisted-paircable. o The f i
berhas a much l owerat t
enuat i
on,so si gnal s can be
- Itlowerswi thv ari
etyofsi zes;t helargestdiameter(1cm)i sspecifi
ed transmi t
tedmuchf urt hert hanwi thcoax ialort wist edpai rcabl e
for use as Et hernet backbone cabl e because i t has gr eat
er beforeampl i
fi
cat ioni snecessar y
transmission l ength and noi se rejecti
on characteri
sti
cs. Most ly o Opt i
calf i
bercabl esdonotconductel ect ri
cityandsoel imi nat e
referr
edast hicknetcoax i
alcabl ewi thoutsidediamet erof0.3cm is problemsofgr oundl oops, li
ghtni ngdamageandel ect ri
cal shock
thinnet. o Fi beropt iccabl esar egener al l
ymucht hinnerandl ightert han
- Themostcommonconnect orsusedwi t
ht hi
nnetar eBr i
ti
shNav al coppercabl es
Connect or( BNC)or( BayonetNei l
lConcelman) o Fi beropt i
ccabl eshav egr eaterdat asecur itythancoppercabl es
- Thebasi cBNCi samadet ypemount edateachendofacabl e.
- This connect orhas T cent re Pin connect ed tot he centr
e cable - Fi
breswhichsuppor
tonlyasi
nglemodear ecal
l
edsi
ngl
emodefi
bre
conduct orandamet al t
ubeconnect edtotheout si
decabl eshi
eld. whi
lefibr
eswhi chsuppor
tmanypr opagati
onpat
hsortr
ansv
erse
- Ar otat
ing r i
ng out side the t ube locks the cablet o anyf emale modesarecall
edmulti
modefi
bre.
connect ors.
47
 i
)St
epI ndexMul ti
modef ibr
e
- Ar efractiveindexprofil
echar acter
izedbyauniformrefracti
veindex
withint hecor eorashar pdecr easei nr
efr
acti
veIndexatt hecore–
cladint er
face.
Si
nglemodef i
bre - Inast epi ndexmulti
modef i
bre,ragsofli
ghtaregui
dedalongt hefibre
- I tsuppor t
s one conf i
ned tr
ansver
se mode by which l
i
ghtcan corebyt otali
nter
nalrefl
ecti
on.
propagatealongthefi
bre. - Ray st hatmeett hecor e-cl
addingboundaryatahi ghangl e,greater
- Theyar eusedf ormostcommuni cat
ionl
i
nkslongert
han200metres thanthecr i
ti
calangl
ef ortheseboundar i
esarecomplet
elyrefl
ected.
si
nglemodem f ibrei
susedi nmanyappli
cat
ionswhendatai
ssentat
multi
-fr
equent(WDM –wav edi
visi
onmult
ipl
exing) i
i
)GradedI ndexmul t
imodef i
bre
- Soonl yonecabl eisneeded. - Anopt i
calfi
brewhosecor ehasar efracti
veindexthatdecreaseswi
th
i
ncreasi ngradi
aldistancef r
om t hefi
br eaxi
swhi chcausesl i
ghtr
ays
tofollowsinusoi
dal pathdownt hefi
bre.
- Ther esulti
ngcurvedpat hsr educemul ti
pathdisper
sionbecausehigh
angler ayspassmor ethrought heloweri ndexperipheryofthecore,
rat
hert hanthehigh–i ndexcent re.
Mul
timodef ibre - Thei deaindexprofi
leisv eryclosetoapar aboli
crelat
ionshi
pbetween
- Mul ti
modef ibr
esuppor tsmanypr opagationpathendgener
all
yhavea theindexandt hedistancef rom theaxis.
l
ar gerdiametercore.
- Itisusedf orshortdistancecommuni cationli
nksorforappl
icat
ion Wi
relessmedi a
whenhi ghpowermustbet ransmit
ted. - Wi relessmedi acar ryel ectr omagnet icsignalatradioandmi crowav e
- Aseachmodet ravel
sati tsownpr opagationvel
ocit
y,mul
ti
modef i
bre frequenci est hatr epresentt hebi narydigitsofdatacommuni cati
ons.
suf f
ersf r
om modaldi spersi
onwhi chl i
mi tst
hemaxi mum l
engtha - Wi relessnet wor ksar eusef ul f
orthef ol
lowingsit
uation:
signalcanbet ransmitt
edt hroughit. o Spaceswher ecabl ingwoul dbei mpossibl
eori nconvenient
- Ther earetwot ypes: o Tempor aryinst allations.
i
) StepIndexmul t
imode - Tr ansmi ssion and r ecept ion ar e achi ev
ed usi ng an ant enna
i
i) GradedIndexmul timode transmi ttersendsoutt heEM si gnalintothemedi um.Recei verpi cks
upt hesignal from t hesur roundi ngmedi um.
- Dir ecti
onalTr ansmi ssion – Tr ansmi t
tersendsouta f ocused EM
beam.Tr ansmi tterendr ecei verantennaemustbecar eful
lyaligned.
Itismor esui t
abl eforhi gherf r
equencysi gnal
.
- Omnidi rect i
onalt ransmi ssi on–Tr ansmi t
tedsi
gnalsspr eadouti nall
direct i
ons.I tmayber ecei vedbymanyant ennae
- Ther earesev eralway soft ransmi ssi
on
a)Radi o–Thi si sef fect ivef orshor trangesandi sinexpensiv eand
easyt oi nst all. Dependi ngonf requencyradioof fersdiffer ent
48
 bandwi dt h.Wi relessl ocalar eanet wor ksuseahi gh- frequency - TheI EEEandt elecommuni cat i
oni ndustryst andardf orwirelessdat a
radi ot echnol ogysi mi l
art odi gitalcel lularandal ow- frequency communi cationscov erbot hthedat al i
nkandphy si
callayers.
radi ot echnol ogy .Wi r
elessLANsusespr eadspect r
um t echnol ogy - Forcommondat acommuni cat ionst andardst hatappl ytowi reless
toenabl ecommuni cat i
onbet weenmul ti
pledev i
cesi nal i
mi ted medi aare:-
area.  IEEE 802. 11  defi
nes a common f lav orofopen- standar ds 1.StandardI EEE802. 11-Commonl yr ef
erredt oasWi -Fi,i
sawi reless
wi relessr adio-wav et echnol ogyknownasWi f
i. LAN( WLAN)t echnol ogyt hatusesacont entionornondet ermi nistic
Some of l imi tations ar e: can cr eate i nterference wi th system wi thacar riersensemul tipleaccess/col lisi
onav oidance
communi cationdev i
ces, suscept ibl
et oeav esdr oppi ng. (CSMA/ CA)medi aaccesspr ocess
b)Ter rest rial mi crowav e – t wo ant ennae ar e used f or 2.StandardI EEE802: 15– Wi relessPer sonnelAr eaNet wor k(WPAN)
communi cation.Af ocusedbeam emer gesf rom anant ennaeand standard,commonl yknown as “ Bluetooth’uses a dev i
ce pai ri
ng
i
sr ecei vedbyt heot herant enna,pr ovidedt hatant enna’ sshoul d processtocommuni cat eov erdi stancesf rom 1t o10met res.
bef aci ngeachot herwi thnoobst acleinbet weenduet ocur vatur e 3.StandardI EEE802. 16– Commonl yknownasWi MAX ( Wor ldwi de
ofear tht errest r
ialmi crowav e can be used f rol ong di st ance Inter
operabi l
ityf orMi crowav e Access)uses a j ointt o mul tipoi nt
communi cationwi thhi ghbandwi dth. topologyt opr ovidewi rel
essbr oadbandaccess.
Ter rest rial mi crowav e communi cat ion uses Ear t
h- based 4.GlobalSy stem f orMobi leCommuni cation( GSM)–i ncludesphy sical
transmi t
t ersandr eceiv ersr esembl i
ngsat elli
t edi shes.Ter restr ial l
ay erspeci fi
cat ion thatenabl et he impl ement ati
on oft he lay er2
mi cr owav es ar ei nt he l ow- gigahertzr ange,whi ch l i
mi ts al l generalpacketr adi
oser v i
ce( GPRS)pr otocolt oprovidedat at r
ansf er
communi cations t ol ine-of -sight .Rel ay st at ions ar e spaced overmobi lecel lulartel
ephoni ngnet wor k.
appr oxi mat ely48  km ( 30  mi )apar t.
c) Sat el l
ites–sat elliteact sasaswi t
chi nsky .Onear t
hVSAT( ver y Thephysi
call
ayerspeci
fi
cati
onar eappl
i
edt
oar
east
hati
ncl
ude–
smal laper t
uret ermi nal )ar eusedt ot ransmi tandr eceiv edat a - Datatoradioencodi
ng
from sat ell
ite.Sat el l
it
escommuni catev iami crowav er adi owav es, - Frequencyandpowertransmissi
on
whi char enotdef lectedbyt heEar th'sat mospher e.Thesat el l
i
t es - Signalr
ecepti
onanddecodi ng
are st at i
oned i n space, t y picall
yi n geosy nchr onous or bi t - Antennadesignandconstruct
ion
35, 400  km ( 22,000  mi)abov et heequat or.TheseEar t h-orbi ti
ng
sy stemsar ecapabl eofr ecei vingandr elay ingv oice,dat a,andTV Wi
rel
essLAN
signal s. - A Common wi reless datai mplement ati
on is enabl ing dev i
ces t o
d)Cel lularr adiot echnol ogy :def inedcel lularser vicear easar ounda wir
elessl yconnectv i
aaLAN.
radi ot ransr eceiv erandcomput er i
zedcont rol.Itusessev eralr adi o - Ingener al,awirelessLANr equir
est hef ol
lowi
ngnet wor kdev i
ces: -
communi cations t echnol ogi es.The sy st ems di vi
de t he r egion a)Wi rel essaccesspoi nt( WAP)–concent r
atest hewi r
elesssi gnals
cov er edi nto mul tiplegeogr aphi car eas.Eachar eahasal ow- fr
om user sandconnect susual lyt hr
oughacoppercabl e,tot he
powert r
ansmi tterorr adi orel ayant ennadev i
cet orelaycal lsf r
om existingcopperbasednet worki nf
rastruct
ur esuchasEt hernet.
onear eat othenex tarea. b)Wi rel ess NI C adapt er – pr ovides wi r
eless communi cation
e) Infrar edcommuni cation:  cant ransmi tsi gnal sf orsmal ldist ances, capabi li
tytoeachnet wor khost.
typi callyno mor et han 10 met ers.I n mostcases,  li
ne- of-sight - Therear eanumberofWLANEt hernet-basedstandar dsused:
propagat ion is used,whi ch l i
mi tst he phy sicalposi tioni ng of o I EEE802: 11a-Oper atesinthe5GHZf r
equencybandatspeed
communi catingdev i
ces. ofupt o54mbps.I tcoverssmal l
erareasandl esspenet rating
buildi
ngst ructur
es.
Ty
pesofwi
rel
essnet
wor
k o I EEE802: 11b-oper atesint he2. 4GHZf requencybandat

49
 speedofupt o 11mbps. Ithasl ongerr angeandabl
eto  Speed-Thet
ransmi
ssi
onspeedofwi
rel
essnet
wor
ksi
simpr
ovi
ng;
penetrat
ebuildi
ngstructur
es. however
,fast
eropt
ions(
suchasgi
gabi
tEt
her
net
)ar
eav
ail
abl
evi
a
o IEEE802. 11n–oper atesin2.4GHzf requencybandacdat
a cabl
es.
rates100t o210mbpswi t
hdi
stancerangeof70m.

St
andar
d MaxSpeed Ty
picalRange LOCALAREANETWORKS( LAN)
- LANi nt erconnect scomput eranddev i
cesov eracommonmedi um so
802.
11a 54Mbps 50m usersshar eaccesst ohostcomput er s,dat abases,f iles,appli
cations
andper i
pher al.
802.
11b 11Mbps 100m
- Thef ollowi ngchar act eristi
csdi f
ferentiat eoneLANf rom anot her.
802.
11g 54Mbps 100m o Topol ogy
o Pr otocol
802.
11n 100Mbps 100m +
o Medi a
- Thef ourpr i
mar ydev i
cesusedi nLANar e:
Adv
ant
agesofwi rel
essnet works: o Hubs
 Mobi li
ty -access can be av ai
labl
et hr oughout i
ndustry or o Br idges
organizat i
on.Mor eandmor ebusi nessesar ealsoofferingfree o Swi tches
WiFi access( "Hotspots"
). o Rout er s
 Fas tset up-I fyourcomput erhasawi relessadapter,locati
nga - Ther edev icesoper at esont hefoll
owingl ayer s:
wirelessnet workcanbeassi mpleorwi l
lconnectaut omatical
lyto o OSIl ay er1( phy sical)–Hubs,r epeat er s.Hubsar econsi dered
networ kswi t
hinrange. t obemul t
i-por tr epeaters
 Cos t-Set ti
ngupawi relessnet workcanbemuchmor ecost o OSIl ay er2( dat al i
nk)br i
dgesswi t
ches
effecti
v ethanbuy i
ngandi nstal
l
ingcables. o OSIl ay er3( net wor k)–r outers.
 Expandabi l
it
y-Addi ngnewnodest oawi relessnetworkisaseasy - LANt ransmi tsint hr eemodes
as t urni
ng t he node on ( as long as y ou do notexceed t he i
) Uni cast–asi nglepacketi ssentf rom t hesour cetoadest i
nati
onona
max imum numberofdev ices). networ k.Thesour cenodeaddr essest hepacketbyusi ngthenet work
addr essoft hedest i
nat i
onnode.
Di
sadv
ant agesofwi relessnet works: i
i) Mul ti-cast–Asi ngl epacketi scopi edandf orwar
dedt oaspeci fi
c
 Se curity–suscept iblet osecur i
tybreach.Pr otectsensiti
vedat a subsetofnodesont henet work. Thesour cenodeaddr essest he
withbackups,i solatedpr i
v atenet works,st rongencr ypti
onand packetbyusi ngamul ti
castaddr ess.Thepacketi st hensentt ot he
passwor ds,and moni tornet work access t raff
icto and f r
om networ k, whi chmakescopi esoft hepacketandsendsacopyt oeach
wirelessnet wor k. segmentwi t hanodet hati spar tofthemul ticastaddr ess.
 I nterference-Becausewi relessnet worksuser adi
osi gnalsand i
ii
)Br oadcast .Thi sist het erm usedt odescr i
becommuni cati
onwher ea
similart echniques f ort r
ansmi ssion,t hey ar e susceptiblet o pieceofi nfor mat ioni ssentf rom onej ointt oal lot
herpoi nts.Int hi
s
i
nt erf
er encef r
om l i
ghtsandel ect
ronicdev ices. caset herei sj ustonesender ,butt hei nfor mati
on i ssentt o all
 I nconsi stentconnect ions-Becauseoft hei nterf
erencecausedby connect edr eceiver s.Br oadcastt r
ansmi ssioni ssuppor t
edonmost
electricaldevicesand/ orit
emsbl ockingthepat hoftransmi ssi
on, LANSandmaybeusedt osendt hesamemessaget oal lcomput ers
wirelessconnect ionsar enotnear l
yasst ableast hoset hrougha ont heLAN.
dedicat edcabl e.

50
LANTopologies tothecentralswi
tch
- Anet worktopologyi st hebasicdesignofacomput ernet
wor k. - I
fthehubf ail
stheenti
renetwor
kfai
ls
- Networkingisacol lecti
onofcomput ersorot herhardwaredevices - Broadcast
ingandmul t
icast
ingi
snoteasy
.
thatareconnect edt ogethereit
herphy si
cal
lyorlogical
ly,
usingspecial
hardwareandsof t
war e,toal l
ow them toex changeinformati
onand 2.Bustopol ogy
cooperate. Busconsi stsofasi nglecabl ecal
ledabackbonet hatconnect sall
- Topology whi ch i s a pat tern of int
erconnecti
on among nodes workstati
onont henet workusingasingleli
ne.
inf
luencesanet wor kscostandper for
mance. Alltr
ansmi ssionsmustpasst hr
ougheachoft heconnect eddev i
ces
- Therearesev eral t
opol ogi
esused: tocompl etet hedesi r
edr equest.
o Poi nttopoi ntt opology Eachwor kstat i
onhasi t
sowni ndi
vidualsignalthatident
ifi
esi tand
o Bust opology all
owsf ort her equesteddatat obereturnedtothecorrectori
ginator
o St artopol ogy
o Ri ngtopol ogy
o Mesht opology

1.Startopology
Itisaphysicaltopologyinwhichamulti
plenodesareconnectedt
oa
centr
alcomponentknown as Hub.Si gnals ar
et r
ansmitt
ed and
recei
vedthr ought hehub. Thehubmayact ual
lybeaf il
eserver
,
centr
alcomput erthatcont ai
nsacentr
ali
zedf i
leandcontr
olsyst
em Adv
antages
withal
lit
snodesat tacheddir
ect
lyt
otheserver. - Broadcast
ingandmul t
icastingi
smuchsimpler
- Iti
ssimpleandflexi
ble
- Iti
seasytoextendabust opologybyaddi
ngorremovi
ngnodesf
rom
abus
- Leastexpensiv
esi ncel essamountofcabl i
ngisrequi
redandno
networkswit
chesarerequi r
ed.

Di
sadvantages
- Limit
edi nsi
zeandspeed
- Therecanbeasecur i
typroblem,si nceeverynodemayseeev er
y
Adv
ant ages message–ev ent
hoset hatarenotdest i
nedforit,sni
ffi
ngiseasi
er
- Net workrunsevenifonehostf ail
s - Diagnosis/tr
oubl
eshoot i
ng(fault
-i
solati
on),
canbedi f
fi
cult
,si
ncethe
- Mor esuitabl
eforlargernetwork faul
tcanbeany wherealongthebus.
- Itiseasiertoaddorr emov enodes,andt
omodifythecabl
elay
out - There i s no automat i
c acknowl edgment of messages, si nce
- Net work administ
ration and err
ordetect
ion i
s easi
erbecause i
s messagesgetabsor bedattheendoft hebusanddonotr etur
ntothe
isolatedtocentr
alnode. sender.
- Thebuscabl ecanbeabot t
leneckwhennet wor ktraf
ficgetsheavy.
Di
sadvant
ages Thisisbecausenodescanspendmuchoft heirti
met ryi
ngtoaccess
- Inst
all
ati
oncost
sar
ehi
ghbecauseeachnodeneedst
obeconnect
ed thenetwork.
51
 - Ifonenodef ai
ls,ot
hercont
inuet
owork
3.Ri ngtopology-Al lthenodesinar ingnetworkareconnectedina - Iti
smor esecur e
cl
osedcircleofcablemessagesthataretr
ansmitt
edtr
avelaroundthe Di
sadvantages
ri
nguntiltheyr eachthecomput erthattheyareaddressedt othe - Quiteexpensiv
eduet ocabl
ingandi
nst
all
ati
oncosti
shi
gh.
si
gnalbeingrefr
eshedbyeachnode.
Inar ingt
opology,thenet wor
ksignalispassedt hr
ougheachnet work LANNetworkdevi
ces
car
dofeachdev i
ceandpassedont othenetdev i
ce - Thesedevi
cesinterconnecti
ndivi
dualcomputersandensurethatt
hey
communicateeffi
cientl
y.
- Networkint
erfaces,hubs,bridges,swit
ches,r out
ers and f
ir
ewall
s
worktoget
herinanumberofway stocreat
et hesedif
ferentki
ndsof
net
workroadway s.

Thefuncti
onsofnet workdevicesar e:
- Tor egulat
et hespeedatwhi cht henet
workinfor
mati
ontravel
s
- To managet heflow oft raf
fic,openi
ng,closi
ng ordirect
ing i
tto
speci
fi
cstreetsast heneedarises.
- Tohel pprotectsensiti
veinf
ormat ionwi
thi
nthenetwork.
Adv
antages
- Hasmi ni
mum cabl
erequir
ement i
)Networ kI nterfacecar d( NIC)
- Eachnodecanregener
atethesi
gnal - Thisi sachi psetonPCBt hatpr ov i
dephysicalaccessf r
om t henode
- Broadcast
ingandmulti
casti
ngissimplesinceyouj
ustneedt
o totheLANmedi um.
- It
sr esponsi blef orfragment i
ngt hedat atr
ansmi ssionandf ormatti
ng
sendoutonemessage.
- Themessagecanbeaut omati
cal
lyacknowl
edged. thedat apacket swi t
ht henecessar yheaderandt railer.
- Itfunct i
onatt hel owert wol ayersofOSImodel ,t hati sbot hanOSI
Di
sadvantages l
ay er1 ( physicallay er)and l ay er2 (datal i
nkl ay er)dev i
ce,asi t
- Fail
ureofonenodebr ingst
hewholenetworkdown providesphy sicalaccesst oanet worki
ngmedi um andpr ovidesalow-
l
ev eladdr essingsy stem t hrought heuseof MACaddr esses.Itall
ows
- Diagnosis/
troubl
eshooti
ng(f
aulti
sol
ati
onisdif
fi
cul
t)
userst oconnectt oeachot hereitherbyusingcabl esorwi relessl
y
- Addingorremov i
ngnodesdisrupt
sthenetwork
- Itcont ai
nsami cr
opr ocessort hatcanr el
i
ev etheat tacheddev i
ceof
somer out i
ne.
Mesht opology
Thisisat opology where each node mustnotonl y captur
e and
di
ssemi nateit
sowndat abutalsoser v
easar elayforothernodesi.e.it .
mustcol l
aboratetopropagatethedatainthenetwork.
Ameshnet wor kwhosenodesar eallconnect
edt oeachotherisaf ull
y
connectednetwor k.
Advantages
- Poi nttopoi ntl
i
neconf i
gurat
ionmakesi dent
ifi
cat
ionandisolati
on
offaultseasy.
- Net wor kcanbeeasilyexpanded
52
i
i)Bridges interconnect edhubs)shar et hebandwi dt
h( dat adeli
v erycapaci ty)of
- Abr i
dgei sadev icet hatconnect st woormor elocalar eanet workor thatnet wor k.
twoormor esegment soft hesamenet work. - Theyf or m asi nglecol li
siondomai n–onar eaofanEt hernetnet work
- Br idgeconnect stwonet wor ks(e.g10BASETEt hernetandLocal Tank inwhi chdat asentt oorf rom adev icemaypot enti
all
ycol li
dewi t
ht he
Connect i
on)sot hatt heycanshar ei nformationwi theachot her. dat af rom ot herdev ices.
- I naddi tiont oconnect i
ngnet wor ks,t heyf il
terinf ormationsot hat i
v)Switches
net workt r
af f
ici ntendedf oronepor ti
onoft henet workdoesnot - Likeahub,anEt hernetswi t
chi sadev i
cet hatgat her st hesi gnals
congestt her estofnet wor k. from dev i
cest hatar econnect edt oi t
,andt henr egener atesanew
- Br idges may consi stei therst andal one har dwar e dev i
ces orof copyofeachsi gnal.
sof t
war er unningonacl i
entorser ver. - Swi tchesar emor epower f
ulthanhubsandcansubst ant iall
yi ncrease
- Li keswi tches,br idgesl ear nt heMAC addr essesofal lconnect ed thenet wor kper formance
clients,ser versandper i
pher al
sandassoci ateeachaddr esswi tha - Mostcommonswi t
chesoper atebyl earni
ngt heMACaddr essesofal l
bridgepor t(networ kconnect i
on). connect ed cl i
ents,ser v ers and per ipheraland associ ating each
- Whenabr idge( orswi tch)r eceivesani ncomi ngf rame,i topensand addr esswi thoneofi t
spor ts.
readsi tsdest inationMACaddr ess. - Whenaswi tchr eceivesani ncomi ngsi gnali tcreat esat empor ary
- I ft he por tt hatwi llrecei vet he f rame i s diff
erentf rom t he port circuitbet weent hesenderandr eceiver.
connect edt othesender ,t
hebr idgedr opsthef rame. - Thet empor arycircuitprov idest woi mpor tantbenef i
ts.
- I ft he br i
dge cannotdet ermine whi ch por ti s associated wi t
ha o Theci r
cuital lowst hesenderand r ecei v
ermoment aril
yt o
dest i
nationaddr ess, itpassest hef rameal ongt oall port
s. ex changei nformat ionwi thouti ntr
usionf rom ot herdev i
ceson
thenet wor k.
o Theci r
cuitensur est hei nfor mati
ont ravel
sdi rectlybet ween
thecommuni catingcomput ers.
- Theswi t chi nstall
edshoul dbecompat ibl
ewi thphy sicalnet wor kand
dat alinkpr ot ocols.

i
ii
)Hubs
- Thi sisasmal lboxt hatgathersthesignalfr
om eachi ndi
vidualdev i
ce
opti
onall
yampl if
ieseachsi gnalandt hensendsthesi gnaloutt oal l
otherconnect
eddev ices.
- Ampl i
fi
cati
onhel pst oensuret hatdev i
cesont henet wor kreceive
vari
ableinf
ormation.Hubsar ealsocall
edconcentrat
or sorrepeaters. v
)Routers
- Theycomei nv arioussi zes,12por tor24por tet c.Allt heclient, - Likebri
dges,r
out
ersaredevi
ceswhosepri
marypurposei
stoconnect
server
s and per ipher al
s connected t o a hub (or to a set of two ormor enetworksand tof i
l
ternet
wor
ksi gnal
sso thatonly
desir
edinfor
mati
ontravel
sbetweenthem.
53
- Routersr egul
atenet wor kt raffi
cmor epr eci
selyandar eawar eof - Modem standforModul at
orDemodulat
or,
anditchangessignalt
oan
manypossi blepathsacr osst henet workandcanchooset hebestone anal
oguef r
equencyandsendthi
stoneacrosstheanaloguel
ink.
foreachdat apackettot ravel. - Attheotherend,anothermodem recei
vesthesignalandconvert
sit
- Theyoper atepr i
mar i
l
ybyex aminingincomingdataf orit
snetwork backtodigi
tal
.
routi
ngandt ransportinformat ion.
- Thisinformationincl
udest hesour ceanddest i
nati
onnetworkrouti
ng v
ii
i)Wi rel
essAccessPoi nt(
WAP)
addresses. - WAP i s a devi
ce thatall
ows wi
rel
ess communi cati
on dev ices to
- Routerscanbepr ogrammedt opreventinf
ormationfrom bei
ngsent connectt o a wirel
essnetwor
kusing WI-FI
,blue tooth orr el
ated
toorreceivedf r
om certainnet worksorcomput ersbasedonallorpart standard.
oftheirnetworkrouti
ngaddr esses. - TheWAPusual l
yconnectstoawi r
ednet work,andcanr elaydat a
betweenthewi r
elessdevi
cesandwir
eddevicesorthenetwor k.

i
x)Ampl if
iersandr epeater s
- Electromagnet ic ener gy at tenuates ov era di stance whet hert he
ener gypassest hroughaconduct ororai r.Inaddi ti
ont oat tenuati
ng,
the si gnalaccumul ates noi se as itt ransv erse t he net wor k,the
ampl ifi
erboost st henoi seal ongwi tht hesi gnal .Ther esultingsignal
tonoi ser ati
o( SNR)canpr oduceunaccept abl eresul ts.
- These boost ing uni tsr ecei ve a weakened i ncomi ng si gnaland
transmi tast rongerout goingsi gnal,whi chpr opagat esacr osst he
net work,weakeni ngunt ilitr
eachesot herboost i
nguni t,andsoon.
- Anal ognet wor ksmakeuseofdev i
cesknownasampl ifiers.Digital
net worksempl oyr epeat ers
- Ampl i
fier
sar espacedev ery6km orsoi nat ypicalanal ogv oice.The
ex actspaci ng i s sensi ti
vet o:t r
ansmi ssi on medi um and car ri
er
frequency whi ch af fects bandwi dth, t ransmi ssion speed and
attenuat i
onl ev el.
- Ther epeat eressent iallygener at
est hebi nar yv alue( 10r O)oft he
weak i ncomi ng si gnalbased on i tsr elat ivev ol tage l eveland
regener atesast r
ongsi gnaloft hesamev aluewi thoutnoi se. This
processenhancest hesi gnal quality
.
v
i)Multi
plexers - Repeat ers ar e spaced atappr oxi
mat elyt he same i ntervals as
- Mul t
ipl
exers(mux)actsasbothconcentrator
sandcontenti
ondevi
ces ampl ifi
ers.
thatenablemulti
plerelat
ivel
ylow speedt er
minaldev
icestoshar
ea - Becauser epeat erswor kwi tht heactualphy sicalsi gnal ,anddonot
singl
ehi ghcapacit
ycircui
t(physi
calpat h)betweentwopoint
sina attemptt oi nterpr etthedat abei ngt ransmi tted,t heyoper at eont he
networ k. phy sicall ay er ,thef ir
stlayer
of the OSImodel .
v
ii
)Modems
- Thesear
edevicest
hatall
ow di
git
aldat
asi
gnal
stobet
ransmi
tt
ed
acr
ossananal
oguel
ink.
54
 negat
ivef
it
ter
,rej
ect
inganypackett
hatmeet
scer
tai
ncr
it
eri
a.

x)Firewal l Ty
pesoff i
rewal ls
- Af irewallispar tofacomput ersy stem ornet wor kt hati sdesignedt o 1.Packetf il
ter i
ngf i
rewal l
s
blockunaut hor izedaccesswhi l
eper mi ttingact ual communi cation. - I tappliesasetofr ulest oeachi ncomi ngandout goingI Ppacketand
- I tisalsoadev iceorsetofdev icesconf iguredt oper mit, deny,encr ypt, thenf orwar dsordi scardst hepacket .Itist ypicall
yconf igur edt of i
lter
decr yptorpr oxy al lcomput ert raf fi
c bet ween di fficultsecur ity
. packet sgoi ngi nbot hdi rection(from andt ot heinternal networ k)
Domai nbaseduponasetofr ulesandot hercriter i
a. - I tgener all
yf all
si ntot wosubcat egor i
es; statef ulandst ateless.
- I tcanbei mpl ement edi nbot hhar dwar eorsof twar eoracombi nation - St atefulf irewal lsmai ntaincont extaboutact ivesect i
on,anduset hat
ofbot h. stateinf ormat iont ospeedpacketpr ocessi ng.I fapacketdoesnot
- Fi rewallscanbeanef fectivemeansofpr ot
ect ingal ocalsy stem or wat chonexi stingconnect i
on,i twi llbeev aluatedaccor dingt ot he
net workofsy stemsf r
om net wor kbasedsecur ityt hreat swhi l
eatt he rulesetf ornewconnect i
ons.
same t i
me af fording access t ot he out si
de wor ldv ia wide ar ea - St atelessf irewal lsrequi relessmemor yandcanbef ast erf orsimpl e
net worksandt hei nt ernet . fil
tersthatr equi relesst i
met ofilterthem t ol ookupasessi on.
- Fi rewallpr ovidesanaddi tionall ayerofdef ense, insul atingt heinternal - Themaj oradv antageofpacketf i
lteri
ngf irewal lsisitssimpl icity.Al so,
syst emsf rom ex ter nal net wor ks. packetf ilt
er st ypicallyaret ranspar entt ouserendar ev eryf ast .
.
- Fi rewallhast hef ol l
owi ngcapabi l
ities. - Howev erpacketf il
teringf ir
ewal lhast hef ol l
owi ngweaknesses: -
o Af i
rewal l def inesasi ngl echokepoi ntthatkeepsunaut horized o Mostdonotsuppor tadv anceduseraut henticationschemes
user out of t he pr ot ected net work,pr ohi bits pot entiall
y o I tisv ul
ner ablet oat tacksandexpl oitsthatt akeadv antageof
vul nerabl eser vi
cesf rom ent eringorl eav i
ngt henet workand pr obl emswi thint heTCP/ I
Pspeci ficat i
onandpr otocolst ack
prov idespr ot ect i
onf rom v ariouski ndsofI P Spoot ingand suchasnet wor klayeraddr essspoof ing.
rout i
ngat tacks. o I ti ssuscept ibl
et o secur itybr eachescaused byi mpr oper
o Af ir
ewal lpr ov i
deral ocat ionf ormoni toringsecur it
yr elated conf igur ati
on.
ev ents.Audi tandal ar m canbei mplement edont hef i
rewall o I tdoesnotexami neupperl ay erdat a,hencei tcannotpr event
sy stem. at tackst hatempl oyappl ication
o A f i
rewal li s a conv enientpl atform f or sev er
ali nternet
funct ionst hatar enotsecur i
tyr elated. 2)Applicati
on–l evelfi
rewal l
- Howev erfirewal lshav et heirlimi t
at i
onsi ncluding: - - Al socal l
edappl i
cati
onpr oxy,actsasar elayofappl i
cati
on–l evel
o I tcannotpr ot ectagai nstat tackst hatbypassest hefir
ewal l tr
affic.
o I tmaynotpr otectf ullyagai nsti nternalt hreat ssuchasa - Theusercont actst hegat ewayusi ng TCP/ I
P appli
cati
onand the
disgr unt l
edempl oy ee. gatewayaskst heuserf orthenameoft her emotehottobeaccessed.
o Ani mpr oper l
ysecur edwi rel essLAN maybeaccessedf rom - I twor ks on t he appl i
cation lev
eloft he TCP/ I
P stack and may
out sidet heor gani zation. i
nterceptal l
packet stravel
ingt oorfrom anappl i
cat
ion.
- Af irewallmayactasapacketf il
ter.I tcanoper ateasaposi ti
vef il
ter, - They bl ock ot her packet s ( usual
ly dr oppi
ng t hem wi t
hout
all
owi ng passi ng onl ypacket st hatmeetspeci ficcr i
t er
iaorasa acknowl edgementt ot hesender )
55
- Itfunct i
onsbydet erminingwhet herapr ocessshoul dacceptany
givenconnect ion. I taccomplishest hei
rfuncti
onbyhooki ngi nto
socketcauset of i
l
t ertheconnect i
onbet weentheappl i
cati
onl ayer
andt hel owerlay eroft heOSImodel .
- Itwor kmuchasl ikeapacketf il
terbutappli
cati
onfil
tersappl
yf i
l
tering
rul
es ( allow/block)on a perpr ocess basisinst ead off i
l
tering
connect ionsonaperpor tbasi
s.
- Themaj oradv antagesoft hesefir
ewal l
sare:
o I tismor esecur ethanpacketf i
lt
ers
o I tiseasyt ologandaudi tallincomingtr
aff
icatt heappli
cation
level.
- Howev erthedi sadv antageis:
o Theaddi ti
onal processi
ngov erheadoneachconnect i
on.

3)Proxies
- A pr oxyser vermayactasf irewallbyr espondingt oputpackets
(connect
ionr equests)i
nthemannerofanappl icat
ion,whi
leblocki
ng
otherpackets.
- Iti sagat ewayf rom onenetwor kt oanotherforaspeci fi
cnetwor k
appli
cati
oni nthesenset hatitfunctionsasapr oxyonbehalfofthe
networkuser.
- Pr oxiesmaket amper i
ngwithani nter
nalsystem f r
om theex t
ernal
networkmor edi f
ficul
tandmi suseofonei nter
nalsy st
em wouldnot
necessari
lycause a secur i
tybr each exploi
tablef r
om outsi
de the
fi
rewall
.

56
 o i nterpretationofmessages
- Net
workingst andar dscanbecl assif
iedaspr opri
etary
,openorde
f
acto
o Pr oprietary st andards ar e owned by one par ti
cul
ar
organi zation.
o I ft hator ganization has sufficientmar ketcloutand t he
indust rylacksal ternat
ivet
oi tsst andar
d,itmaybeadopt edthe
whol ei ndust ry
, becomingadef act ost
andard.
o Openst andar dar enotownedbyanyone–t heyarecreatedby
neut ralor ganizationstoensur et hatcompat i
bleproductscan
bedesi gnedanddev el
opedbymanydi ff
erentcompanies.

Ser
ialI
nterfaceSt andar ds
- Manydev i
cesusedi ni ndust ri
alappl icati
onsuseEI Ast andardsRS–
232, RS422orRS485t oconnectt ocomput er
sandt ooneanot her.
- TheEI ARS–XXXst andar dspeci fiesonl ytheelectri
calcharacteri
stics
–nott hesof twar epr otocol
- Thewhol epur poseofaser ialinterfacei stopr ov
ideasi nglepathf or
datat r
ansmi ssionwi r
elesslyoraov eracabl e.
- Seriali
nterfacescanbeusedt opr ovidest andardi
zedlogiclevelsfrom
transmittertor eceiver ,defi
net ransmi ssi
onmedi um andconnect ors
andspeci fytiminganddat ar ates.
- Thedef init
ionofl ogicl evel
s, medi um andconnect orsi
spar toflayer1
ofOSImodel( phy si
call ayer)whi ledat ahandlingispartofMACl ayer
orlayer2( Datalinklay er)
Pr
otocol sandst andar ds
- Prot ocolisaki ndofagr eementaboutt heexchangeofinformationin Ty
peoftransmissionli
nes unbal
anced Dif
fer
ent
ial Dif
fer
ent
ial
adi stri
butedsy stem.I tisasetofr ulesthattwoormor edev i
cesmust Maxnumberofdr iver
s 1 1 32
foll
owi ftheyar et ocommuni cat
ewi t
heachot her
. Maxnumberofr eceiv
ers 1 10 32
- Prot ocolincl
udesev erythingfr
om t hemeani ngofdatatot hevoltage
Maxcablelengt
h( m) 15m 1.
5km 1.
2km
levelsonconnect ionwi res.
Maxdatarate 20kbps 10mbps 10mbps
- Anet workpr otocoldef i
neshow anet workwi l
lhandlethef ol
lowing
probl emsandt asks:
i
)Rs232
o communi cat i
onl ineer
rors
- TheRS- 232i nter
facestandard(offi
cial
lycalledTIA-232)defi
nest
he
o f lowcont rol (
tokeepbuf fer
sf r
om overf
lowing)
elect
ri
cal andmechani caldetail
softhei nterfacebetweenData
o accessbymul tipledevi
ces
TerminalEqui pment(DTE)andDat aCommuni cat
ionsEquipment
o f ailur
edet ection
(DCE),whi chempl oyseri
albinarydatainterchange.
o dat atranslati
on - Thecurrentv ersi
onoft hestandardreferst oDCEasDat aCir
cui
t-
57
 t
ermi
nat
ingEqui
pment
. e) Signalgr ound:-Thisist hecommongr oundconnecti
onf oral
l
signals(pin5)
f) Transmi tdata(TD)–Thi si
sthet ransmitt
edsignalf
rom t
heDTE
(pin3)
g)Dat at erminalready(DTR)–Thi slineisf r
om theDTEtotheDCE
i
ndi cat
ingreadinesstosendorr eceivedata(pi
n4)
h)Cl eart osend( CTS)–Thi sli
nef r
om t heDCEt el
lstheDTEitis
readyt oreceiv
edat a(pi
n8)
- It
susedf ormanypur posessuchasconnect i
ngmouse, printeraswel l i
) Ri ng indicator( R1)– Thi sline was used i n or
dermodem
asindust r
ial i
nst rument at i
on connect i
onbuti tisnotusedanymor e(pin9)
- RS–232i sl imitedt opoi ntt opoi ntconnect ionsbet weenpcser ial
port
sanddev ices.
- TheRS- 232st andar dconsi stsoft hreemaj orpar ts,
whi chdef ine:
•El ect r
ical signal char acteri
sti
cs
•Mechani cal char act eri
sticsoft hei nter f
ace
•Funct ional descr iptionoft hei nterchangeci r
cuits
- Thest andar ddef inesal ogic1andv oltagebet ween- 3vand- 25vand
alogic0asav oltagel evel between+3Vand+25v
- ManyRS232connect i
onsar eone- wayorsi mpl exHowev er, usingthe
specialsi gnal i
ng and cont r
olv oltages av ail
abl e,this wayorhal f
duplexoper ati
oni spossi ble.
- The t wo connect ed dev ices alternat et ransmi tt
ing and r eceiv
ing
operations.
- Thecent ral si
gnal int hei nterfacedef inest hepr otocolfort ransmi tt
ing
andr ecei vingdat a.
- Thesesi gnal stiet het wocommuni cat i
ngdev iceswhent heyar ebusy ,
tr
ansmi tti
ng, readyandr ecei vi
ng.
- Thet ransmi tt
ingdev icei st heDTE( dev icest hatar eei thert hesour ce
ordest inationofdat af r
ames)suchascomput er ,workst ation.
- Ther ecei vingdev icei st heDCE ( dev i
ce t hat r eceive and f orward
fr
amesacr osst henet wor k)–suchaspr inter ,modem, i
nt erfacecar d.
- Thecont rol signal usedont hecommonni ne- pinconnect orar e:-
a)Dat acar ri
erdet ect( DCD)–t heDCEt ell
st heDTEi tisr ecei vi
nga
validi nputsi gnal (Pin1)
b)Dat asetr eady( DSR)–TheDCEt ellst heDTEi tisconnect edand
readyt or ecei ve( pin6)
c) Recei veddat a( RD) :Thi si stheact ualsi gnalr eceivedf rom DTE
(Pin2) .
d)Requestt osend( RTS)–Thi ssi gnalf r om t heDTEt ellst heDCEi t
isr eadyt ot r
ansmi t(pin7)
58
 o LongDi stanceRuns-Upt o1500m i sgeneral
lysupported,and
withrepeaters,evenfurtherdistancescanbeachi eved.
o Mul ti-Dr
op-Usual ly
,upt o32dev icescanbeconnect edper
port,andev enmor eusingr epeaters.
o Noi seResi stant-Sincei tusesasepar ateFLOATI NGt r
ansmi t
andr eceivepair( f
ourwi r
es),i
tof fersbet t
ernoisei mmuni t
y
thanRS- 232.
- Howev erRS422cannoti mplementat rul
ymul t
ipoi
ntcommuni cati
on
networksuchaswi thRS485, butonedr i
vercanbeconnect edtoupt o
Her
ear
esomet
ypi
calwi
ri
ngdi
agr
amsf
oreachi
nter
facet
ype: tenrecei
vers.

(
ii
i)RS485( TIA485)
- I tdef i
nesnotonl yasi ngl edev i
cet odev icei nterfacebutal soa
communi cationbust hatcanbeusedt of orm si mpl enet wor ksof
mul t
ipledev i
ces.
- I tspecifiesdi fferent ialsignal i
ngont wolinesr athert hansi ngleended
withav oltager ef erencedt ogr ound
- Al ogic1i sal ev elgr eatert han- 200mvandal ogic0i sal evelgr eat
er
than+200mv
- Thest andar dt ransmi ssionmedi um istwisted-paircabl eof22or24
AWGsol idwi r
e.Twol i
nesar emi nimum butr eferencewi recanbe
used.
- Fourwi recanbeusedi ffull duplexoperationisdesi red.
- Maxi mum cabl el engt hisdef i
nedas1. 2km atmaxi mum dat ar ateof
Li
mi tat
ionsofRS- 232 100mbps
- Li miteddistance–cablelengt
hli
mi t
edto1. 5meter - Acommonconf igur ationisbusnet workt opologywi thmul ti
pledr ops
- Notmul ti
-drop–itcanonlyconnectonRS–232dev i
ceperpor
t. orconnect ions.
- Suscept ibletonoise–RS232i ssingl
e-ended,whichmeansthat - Thest andar dspeci esamaxi mum of32dr i
vers( t
ransmi t
ters)and32
theyt r
ansmi tand recei
vel i
nes arereferenced t
o a common receivers.
ground. - Li nedr i
v ersar edi sconnect edf rom t heli
newhennott ransmi t
ting.All
receiversar ef ullyconnect edandt hebusl i
nei st ermi nat
edi nal oad
(i
i)RS–422( EIA–422) mat chingr esistance.
- Iti ssimilartoRS232, andcanbepr ogrammedi nthesameway .Thi
s
i
sat echnicalstandardthatspecif
iedel ect
ricalchar
acter
ist
icsofa Applicat
ionsofser i
alinter
face
digitalsi
gnal i
ngcircui
t. - RS232st andardisdepl oyedinawi derangeofl ow dat
ar ateshort
- Di fferenti
alsignali
ngcant r
ansmitdataatr atesashighas10mbps rangeappl i
cati
ons.
alongacabl eof1500m. - I tisparticular
lyeffecti
vei nequipmentusedinnoi syenv ir
onment
- The adv antage offer
ed by thi
s standardi ncludes t
he dif
fer
enti
al suchasf actori
es,processcontrol
andutil
it
iessi
tes.
receiver,adiffer
ential
driv
erandhighdat arates. - Commonequi pmenti ncludelow-speedmodems,i ndustri
alcontrol
59
 equipmentl ikePLC,comput er,numer icalcont rol
led( CNC)machine - Theuseoff i
breEt hernetreducest heproblem ofel ectri
calnoi seand
tools,r obots,embeddedcont r
olcomput ers,medicali nstr
umentand providesel ectri
cal i
solati
ont opreventequipmentdamage.
equipmentandembeddedcont r oll
erdev elopmentsy st
ems. - Some i ndust rial networ ks emphasi s det er
mi nistic del i
very of
- TheRS485–I nt
erfacei
sal sowi del
yusedi nindust r
ialappl
i
cati
ons tr
ansmi tteddat a,wher easEt hernetusedcol l
isiondet ecti
onwhi ch
wher ehi gherspeedsandlongerdi stancesar eneeded. madet ranspor ttimef orindivi
dualdatapacket sdi fficulttoest i
mate
- Itisusedi nt hesamet y
peofequi pmentasdef i
nedf ortheRS232 withincreasi ngnet worktraffi
c.
i
nter faceput sdevi
ceslike poi ntofsal e( pos)t erminal
,meteri
ng - Inaddi t
iont ophy si
calcompat ibil
it
yandl owl eveltranspor tprotocol
s
i
nstr ument s,andlar
gespecialaut omatedmachi nes. a pr acti
cal i ndustri
al Et hernet sy stem must al so pr ovi
de
i
nteroper abili
tyofhi ghlevelsoftheOSImodel .
Et
her net - An indust rialnet work use net work swi t
ches t o segmenta l ar
ge
- Thet ermr eferst ot hef amilyofLAN modul ecov er
edbyt heI EEE system i ntol ogicalsub- networks,divided byaddr ess,pr otocolor
802. 3st andar dt hatdef ineswhati st heCSMA/ CISpr ot
ocol applicati
on.
- TheEt hernetst andar dscompr i
sesev eral wi ri
ngandsi gnalingv ari
ants - Usingnet wor kswi t
chesallowst henetwor ktobebr okenupi ntomany
oftheOSIphy sical l
ay eri ntheusewi thEt her net. smal lcoll
isiondomai ns.
- Thr eedat ar at esar edef i
ned f oroper ation ov eropticalf ibreand - Thisr educest her i
skofaf aultyormi sconfi
gur eddev icegener ati
ng
twisted- paircabl es. excessnet workt raffi
c.
o 10BASE–TEt her net
o FastEt her net( 100BASE–TEt her net ) Benefit
sofi ndust ry -standar dnet wor ks
o Gi gabi tEt hernet1000BASE- TEt her net - Moder n cont rol and busi ness sy stems r equi re open, di gital
- Thepr otocol hast hef ollowingchar acterist i
cs: communi cat i
ons.
o Easyt ounder stand, i
mpl ement ,manageandmai ntain - I ndust
ri
alnet wor ksr epl aceconv ent i
onalpoi nt-t
o- pointRS- 232,RS-
o Al lowsl owcostnet wor kimpl ement ation 485,and4- 20mAwi ringbet weenexi sti
ngmeasur ementdev icesand
o Pr ov ides ex tensi v
e t opol ogies f l
ex i
bili
ty f or net work automationsy st emswi thanal l
-digital,2-waycommuni cationnet wor k.
i
nst al l
ation - I ndust
ri
alnet wor kingt echnol ogyof ferssev eralmaj orimpr ovement s
o Guar antees successf ul,i nterconnect i
on and oper ation of overexi
st ingsy stems.
standar d–compl i
antpr oduct s,regar dlessofmanuf act ure - Wi t
hindust ry -
st andar dnet wor ks,wecansel ectt her i
ghti nstrument
- Twi sted-pai rEt her netst andardsar esucht hatt hemaj orityofcabl es andsystem f ort hej obr egardlessoft hecont rolsy stem manuf act urer.
canbewi red‘ st rai
ghtt hrough’pi n1t opi n1pi n2t opin2andsoon, - Ot herbenef i
tsi ncl ude:
butot hersmayneedt obewi redi nt he‘ crossov er
’form( r
ecei veto o Reducedwi r
ing- -r esultingi nl owerov eral linstall
ati
onand
tr
ansmi tandt ransmi ttor ecei
v e) mai ntenancecost s
o Intel l
igentdev ices - -l eadi ng t o hi gherper formance and
I
ndustr
ialEther
net incr easedf unct ional i
tysuchasadv anceddi agnost i
cs
- Thisr ef
erst ot heuseofst andar dEt hernetprotocolswit
hr ugged o Di stribut ed cont rol- -wi thi ntelli
gentdev i
ces pr ov i
ding t he
connectors and ext ended t emper ature swi t
ches in an industr
ial flex i
bi l
ityt o appl ycont rolei thercent rall
yordi stri
butedf or
environmentf orautomat i
onorpr ocesscont rol
. impr ov edper f
or manceandr el i
abi l
it
y
- Component susedi nplantprocessar easmustbedesi gnedt
owor kin o Si mpl ified wi ring ofa new i nstall
ation,r esul t
ing inf ewer ,
harshenv ir
onmentoft emper atureex tr
emes,humi di
tyandv i
brati
on simpl er dr awi ngs and ov erallr educed cont rol sy stem
thatex ceeds t he ranges f ori nf
ormat i
on t echnol
ogy equipment engi neer ingcost s
int
endedf orinstal
lati
oni ncont r
olledenv i
ronment . o Loweri nst all
at ioncost sf orwi r
ing,mar shal l
ing,andj unct ion
60
boxes

I
/OBUSNETWORKS
- I/Obusnet wor ksal l
ow PLCst ocommuni catewi t
hI /
Odev i
cesi na
mannersi mi l
art o how l ocalar ea net worksl etsupervisoryPLCs
communi catewi thindivi
dual PLCs.
- Thisconf igurationdecent ralizescont rolint hePLCsy st
em,y i
elding
l
argerandf astercontrolsyst ems.
- Thet opology ,orphy si
calar chi t
ecture,ofanI /
Obusnet workf oll
ows
thebusorext endedbus( tree)conf i
gur ati
on,whi chletsfi
elddev ices
(e.
g.,li
mit,phot oelectri
c,andpr oximi t
yswi tches)connectdi rectl
yt o
eit
heraPLCort oalocal ar
eanet wor kbus.
- Remembert hatabusi ssimpl yacol lectionoflinesthattransmi tdata
and/orpower .Figureil
lustratesat y
picalconnect ionbetweenaPLC, a
l
ocal areanet wor k,
andanI /Obusnet work

61
 mayhav eupt o2048ormor econnect eddi scretef i
el ddev ices.
- The f i
el d dev i
ces t hat connect t o I /O bus net wor ks cont ain
i
nt elli
gencei nt hef orm ofmi cropr ocessor sorot herci rcui t
s).These
dev icescommuni catenotonl yt heON/ OFFst ateofi nputandout put
cont rols, butal sodi agnost i
cinf ormat ionaboutt hei roper at ingst at es.
- I/Obusnet wor kscanbesepar at edi nt ot wodi ffer entcat egor ies—one
that deal s wi thl ow- lev eldev ices t hat ar et y picalof di scr ete
manuf act ur i
ngoper ationsandanot hert hathandl eshi gh- lev eldev ices
foundi npr ocessi ndust ries.
- Thesebusnet wor kcat egor iesar e:
•Dev icebusnet wor ks
•Pr ocessbusnet wor ks
- Dev icebusnet wor ksi nt erfacewi thl ow- lev el i
nfor mat iondev i
ces( e. g.,
push but tons,l i
mi tswi tches,et c. ),whi ch pr imar i
lyt ransmi tdat a
relatingt ot hest ateoft hedev i
ce( ON/ OFF)andi t soper at ionalst at us
(e.g.,oper atingOK) .Thesenet wor ksgener allypr ocessonl yaf ewbi ts
tosev er al by tesofdat aatat ime.
- Processbusnet wor ks,ont heot herhand,connectwi thhi gh-lev el
i
nf ormat i
ondev i
ces( e.g. ,smar tpr ocessv alves,f low met ers,et c.),
whi char et y picallyusedi nprocesscont rolappl icat ions.Pr ocessbus
net wor ks handl el ar
ge amount s ofdat a( sev eralhundr ed by tes) ,
consi st ing ofi nformat ion aboutt hepr ocess,aswel last hef ield
dev icest hemsel ves.
- Themaj or i
tyofdev i
cesusedi npr ocessbusnet wor ksar eanal og,
whi l
emostdev icesusedi ndev icebusnet wor ksar edi scr et e.
- The basicf uncti
on ofan I /
O bus net wor kist o communi cate - Howev er ,dev icebusnet wor kssomet i
mesi ncludeanal ogdev ices,
i
nformat i
onwith,aswellassupplypowert o,thefielddev i
cest hatare suchast her mocoupl esandv ariabl espeeddr ivest hatt ransmi tonl ya
connectedtothebus. fewby tesofi nf ormat ion.
- InanI/Obusnet work,t
hePLCdr i
vesthefiel
ddev i
cesdi rectly
,without - Dev icebusnet wor kst hati ncludedi scret edev ices,aswel lassmal l
the use of I/O modul es;therefore,the PLC connect st o and anal ogdev ices,ar ecal ledby te-wi debusnet wor ks.Thesenet wor ks
communi cat
es wi t
h each fi
eldI /
O dev i
ce accor ding tot he bus’s cant ransf erbet ween1and50ormor eby tesofdat aatat ime.
prot
ocol. - Dev icebusnet wor kst hatonl yi nt er facewi thdi scr et edev icesar e
- Inessence,PLCsconnectwi thI/Obusnet worksinamannersi mil
ar calledbi t-wi debusnet wor ks.Bi t-wi denet wor kst ransf erl esst han8
tothewayt heyconnectwi t
hr emot eI/O,exceptt hatPLCsi nanI /O bits ofdat af rom si mpl e di scr et e dev ices ov err elat ively shor t
bususeanI /Obusnet workscanner. distances.
- AnI /O busnetworkscannerr eadsandwr i
testoeachf iel
ddev ice
address,aswellasdecodest heinformati
oncont ainedint henet work
i
nformat i
onpacket.
- Alarge,tr
eetopologybusnetwor k(i
.e.,
anetwor kwi t
hmanybr anches)

62
Pr
otocol Standar ds
- Neitheroft he t wo I /O bus net wor ks has est ablished pr otocol - Although no pr ocl aimed st andar ds exi stf ordev ice bus net wor k
standar ds; howev er, many or gani zati
ons ar e wor king t owar ds appl i
cat ions,sev eraldef acto st andar dsar eemer ging duet ot he
dev elopingbot hdi screteandpr ocessbusnet workspeci f
ications. availabi l
ityofcompanyspeci fi
cpr otocolspeci f
icat ionsf rom dev ice
- Int he pr ocess bus ar ea,t wo mai n or gani
zations,t he Fi el
dbus busnet wor kmanuf actur ers.
Foundat ion( whi chi sther esultofamer gerbet weent heI nteroper able - Thesenet workmanuf act urersorassoci ati
onspr ov ideI /Of ielddev ice
Syst emsPr oj ect,ISP,Foundat ionandt heWor ldFIPNor thAmer ican manuf acturerswi t hspeci ficationsi nor dert odev elopopennet wor k
group)andt hePr ofibus( ProcessFi eldBus)Tr adeOr ganization,ar e archi tecture, (
i.
e.,anet wor kt hatcani nterfacewi t
hmanyt ypesoff ield
wor kingt oest abli
shnet wor kandpr otocol standards. dev i
ces) .
- Otheror ganiz ations,suchast heInst rumentSoci etyofAmer ica( ISA) - Int hi s way ,each manuf act urerhopes t o make i t
s pr otocolt he
andt heEur opeanI nternationalElectronicsCommi tt
ee( IEC),ar eal so i
ndust ryst andard.
involvedi ndev elopingt hesest andards. - Oneoft hesedef actost andar dsf ort heby t
e-wi dedev i
cebusnet wor k
- Thisi sther easonwhysomemanuf acturersspeci f
yt hattheiranal og i
sDev iceNet ,ori
gi nall
yf rom PLCmanuf acturerAl len- Bradleyandnow
product sar ecompat i
blewi thPr of
ibus,Fi eldbus,oranot hert ypeof prov ided byan i ndependentspi n-of fassoci ati
on cal l
ed t he Open
protocol communi cat i
onscheme. Dev iceNetVendorAssoci ation.
- Anot heri sSDS( Smar tDi stributedSy stem)f r
om Honey wel l.Bot hof
thesedev i
cebuspr ot ocolst andar dsar ebasedont hecont rolarea
networ kbus( CANbus) ,dev elopedf ortheaut omobi l
ei ndust ry,which
usest hecommer ciall
yav ailabl eCANchi pi nitspr ot ocol .
- InterBus- Sf rom Phoeni x Cont acti s anot heremer gi
ng de f act o
standar df orbyte-wi dedev icebusnet wor k.
- Thedef actost andar dsf orl ow- end,bi t-
widedev icebusnet wor ks
i
ncl udeSer ipl
ex,dev elopedbySquar eD,andASI( Actuat orSensor
Interface) ,a st andar d dev eloped by a consor tium ofEur opean

63
 compani es. - I
nter
bus–S devi
ces ar
e usual
l
yi mpl
ement
ed wi
th a speci
alASI
C
- Again,thisi
swhyI /Obusnet
workandf i
elddevicemanufactur
erswill (
appli
cat
ionspeci
fi
cint
egrat
edcir
cui
t)
.
specifycompat i
bil
i
tywithaparti
cularprotocol(e.
g.,ASI,Seri
plex,
Inter
Bus-S,SDS,orDev i
ceNet
)ev en though no offi
cialprot
ocol i
i
)CANbusnet works
standardexist
s. - CANbusnet wor ksar eby te-widedev i
cebusnet worksbasedont he
widelyusedCAN el ectronicchi ptechnol ogy ,whichi susedi nside
1.Byt
e-WideDev
iceBusNetworks automobilestocont rolinternal component s, suchasbr akesandot her
- Themostcommonby t
e-widedev
icebusnet
wor
ksar
ebasedont
he systems.
I
nter
BusSnetwor
kandtheCANbusnetwor
k. - A CANbusnet wor ki sanopenpr otocolsy stem featur
ingv ari
able
l
engt h messages ( up t o 8 by tes)
,nondest r
ucti
ve arbi
trati
on,and
i
)InterBus- S advanced er r
ormanagement .A f our-wir
e cabl e plusshi el
d— two
- InterBus- Si sasensor / act uatordev i
cebusnet wor kt hatconnect s wiresf orpower ,two f orsi gnalt ransmissi on,and a“ fif
th”shield
discr et eandanal ogf i
elddev icest oaPLCorcomput er( softPLC)v i
a wire—providesthecommuni cat ionli
nkwi thf i
elddev i
ces.
ar i
ngnet wor kconf i
gur ation. - Thiscommuni cat i
oncanei therbemast er
/ slaveorpeert opeer.The
- TheI nter BusS hasbui l
t-inI /Oi nterfacesi ni ts256possi blenode speedoft henet work( datat ransmi ssionrat e)dependsont helength
component s,whi chal soi ncludet ermi nalbl
ockconnect ionsf oreasy ofthetrunkcabl e.
I/Oi nt erf acing.
- Thi snet wor kcanhandl eupt o4096f i
eldI/Odev ices( dependi ngon
theconf igur ati
on)ataspeedof500kbaudwi t
hcy clicr edundancy
check( CRC)er rordet ect ion.
- APLCorcomput erinanI nterBus-Snet workcommuni cateswi t ht he
busi namast er/slavemet hodv i
aahostcont r
ollerormodul e.
- Thet opol ogyoft henet wor kisar i
ng,wi t
hdat abei ngsequent iall
y
shiftedf rom poi nttopoi ntont heringundert hecont rolofanet wor k
mast er .
- Eachdev i
cei st her ing act sasashi f
tr egister,transmi tt
ing and
recei vingdat asi multaneousl yat500KHz .
- Theact ualser i
aldat at ransmi ssionbet weenst at i
onsconf ormst oRS-
485.
- Interbus–S ( i
nterbus–S r emot e Bus)has al so been ext ended t o
includeasub- protocolcal l
edi nterbus–sensorl oop( ori nterbus–S
local Bus) . - The DeviceNetby t
e-wide network can support64 nodes and a
- Thi ssubpr otocolpr ovidesanal ternatephy sicallay er,wi t
hasi ngle maximum of2048f i
eldI/Odev i
ces.
twist ed pai rcar ryi
ng powerand dat a on the same l i
nes and a - TheSDSnet workcanal sosupport64nodes;howev er,t
hisnumber
reduct ioni nt hemi nimum si zeoft heshi f
tr egisteri neachst ation i
ncreasesto126addr essablelocat
ionswhenmul t
ipor
tI/Oint
erf
aces
from 16t o4bi ts. areusedtomul ti
plexthenodes.
- Eachi nt erbussensorl oopsy stem canactasasi nglest ati
ononan - Usinga4- to-
1mul t
iportI/Ointerf
acemodul e,anSDSnet workcan
interbus- Snet wor k,ont hesensorl oopcanbeconnect eddi r
ectlyt oa connecttoupt o126noni nt
ell
i
gentI /
Odevicesinanycombinati
onof
cont rol lerormast er. i
nputsandout puts.

64
- Thismultiporti
nterf
acet ononintel
l
igentfi
elddevicescontainsaslave i
nf ormat i
on from t he net wor ki nto 16 or 32 bi ts of ON/ OFF
CAN chipi nsi
de the interf
ace,which provi
des status infor
mat i
on i
nf ormat i
on.
aboutthenodesconnect edtotheinter
face. - An exampl eoft hist ypeofi ntel
ligentdev icei sa sol enoi
dv alv
e
- InaDev iceNetnet work,t hePLCconnect stot hef i
elddev i
cesina mani fold.
tr
unkli
ne conf i
gurati
on,wi t
h ei
thersingle dr
ops of fthe t r
unk or - This ki nd ofmani fold can hav e up t o 16 connect i
ons,thereby
brancheddr opsthr
oughmul ti
porti
nter
facesatthedev i
celocations. receiving16bi t
s(twoby tes)ofdat af rom thenet workandcont r
olli
ng
thest atusof16v alveoutput s.
- Howev er,thisdev i
ceusesonl yoneaddr essoft he126 possi bl
e
addr esses.Thus,int hisconf iguration,theSDSnet workcanact ually
connectt omor ethanj ust126addr essabl edev ices.
- TheCANbusdev icebusnet workusest hreeoft heI SO l
ayersand
def i
nes bot hthe medi a access cont r
olmet hod and t he physical
signalingoft henet work,whi l
epr ovi
dingcy cli
cr edundancycheck
(CRC)er r
ordetecti
on.
- Themedi aaccesscont rolfunct i
ondet ermineswheneachdev i
ceon
thebuswi ll
beenabl ed.

2.Bit
-widedev i
cebusnet works
- Bi t
-widedev icebusnet wor ksar eusedf ordiscret
eappl i
cati
onswith
si
mpl eON/ OFFdev ices(e.g.,sensorsandactuat or
s).
- TheseI /O busnet workscanonl yt ransmit4 bi t
s( onenibble)of
i
nformationatat i
me,whi chi ssuffici
enttotransmi tdatafr
om these
devices
- Thesmal lestdi scretesensor sandact uat
orsr equi
reonl yonebitof
datatooper ate.
- Bymi ni
mi zi
ngt heirdatat r
ansmi ssioncapabili
ti
es,bit-
widedevicebus
networkspr ov i
deopt i
mum per formanceateconomi calcosts.The
mostcommonbi t-widedev i
cebusnet worksar eASI,Int
erBusLoop,
andSer i
plex

i
)ASIBit-WideDev i
ceBusNet wor k.
- ASI( Actuatorsensori nter
face)wa sdevelopedf orlow-cost
,flexi
ble
met hodf orconnect i
ngsensorandact uatorsatthel owestlevel
sof
industri
alcontr
ol system.
- The ASInet work pr ot
ocoli s used in simple,discrete network
applicat
ionsrequiri
ngnomor ethan124I/Of i
elddevi
ces.
- BecauseanSDSnetworkcantransmitmanybyt
esofi nf
ormationin - These124i nputsandout putdev i
cescanbeconnect edt oupt o31
theform ofvari
abl
elengt
h messages,itcan al
so supportmany nodesi neitherat r
ee,st ar
,orr i
ngtopology.TheI/Odev i
cesconnect
i
ntel
li
gentdev
ices t
hatcan t
ranslat
e one,t
wo,ormor e byt
es of tothePLCorper sonalcomput erviat
hebust hroughahostcont r
oll
er
65
 i
nt erface. act uat ordev ices.
- Itpr ovi
des a t wo-wire,non- t
wi sted cabl ef orint erconnect ion of - TheI nter BusLoopusesapowerandcommuni cati
onst echnol ogy
dev ices.Dev i
cesmaydr aw cur rentf r
om t hetwowi resf orpower ing calledPower Com t osendt heI nterBus-Spr otocolsignalt hrought he
ci
r cuitry
,and dat a communi cationsar e modulated on t op oft he powersuppl ywi r
es( i.
e.,t
hepr ot ocolismodul atedont ot hepower
nomi nald.clevelatabi trateof167KHZ, undercont roloft hemast er
. suppl yl i
nes) .
Onesi nglepar i
tybitperst ationisusedf orerrordetect ion. - Thi sr educest henumberofcabl esr equiredbyt henet wor kt oonl y
- Themax imum cabl el engthi s100met ers(330f t)from t hemast er two conduct ors,whi ch carr
ybot ht he powerand communi cation
cont roll
er. signal st ot hef i
elddev i
ces.
- TheASInet wor kpr otocoli sbasedont heASIpr ot ocolchi p,t
hust he - Since t he I nterBus-S and InterBus Loop net wor ks use t he same
I/
Odev i
cesconnect edt othist ypeofnet workmustcont ai
nt hi
schip. prot ocol ,theycancommuni catewi t
heachot herv i
aanI nter BusLoop
- Typi calASI -compat i
ble dev i
ces incl ude proximity swi tches,limit termi nal modul e.
swi tches,phot oel
ect r
ic sensor s,and st andard of f-the-shelff i
eld - TheI nt erBusLoopconnect stot hebust erminalmodul e,locat edint he
dev ices. Inter Bus- Snet work,whichat t
achest othefielddev i
cesv i
at wowi res.
- Howev er,i
nanappl i
cationusi nganof f
-the-
shelfdev ice,t heASIchi p - AnI nt erBusLoopnet wor kcanal soi nt
er f
acewi thnon- i
ntelli
gent ,off-
i
sl ocat edint henode( i
.e.,ani ntel
ligentnodewi thasl aveASIchi p)
, the- shel fdev i
ces by means ofmodul ei nterfaces cont aini
ng an
i
nst eadofi nt hedev ice. i
nt elligentsl avenet workchip.
- Figur ebelowi ll
ustratesanI /Obusnet workthatusesbot ht heASIbi t
-
widenet workandt heby t
e-wideCANbusnet wor k.Not ethatt heASI i
ii
)Ser iplexBi t-
Wi deDev i
ceBusNet wor k.
net wor k connect st ot he by te-wide CANbus net wor kt hr
ough a - TheSer iplexdev icebusnet wor kcanconnectupt o510f ielddev i
ces
gat eway . toaPLCi nei t
heramast er/slaveorpeer -
to-peerconfi
gurat i
on.
- TheSer iplexnet wor ki sbasedont heappl i
cati
onspeci ficintegr at ed
circuit,orASI Cchi p,whi chmustbepr esentinallI/
Of i
elddev i
cest hat
connectt othenet work.
- I /
Odev icest hatdonothav et heASI Cchipembeddedi nt heircircui tr
y
(i
.e.,of f-the-shel fdev ices)canconnectt ot henetworkv iaaSer iplex
I/
Omodul einterfacet hatcont ainsasl aveASI Cchip.
- TheASI CI /Oi nterfacecont ains32bui lt
-inBooleanl ogi cf unct ion
used t o cr eat e l ogic t hat wi l
l prov i
de t he communi cation,
addr essabi l
ity
,andi ntell
igencenecessar ytocont r
olthef iel
ddev i
ces
connect edt ot henet wor kbus.
- ASer iplexnet wor kcanspandi stancesofupt o5, 000f eeti nast ar,
l
oop, tree, ormul tidr
opconf iguration.
- Thi sbi t-widebusnet wor kcanal sooper atewi t
houtahostcont roller.
Unl i
ket heASInet work,t heSer iplexdev i
cebusnet workcani nterface
withanal ogI/Odev i
ces; howev er,thedigiti
zedanalogsignali sr eador
writtenonebi tatat imei neachscancy cle
i
i)I
nter
BusLoopBit
-WideDev
iceBusNet work Pr
ocessBusNet wor k
- TheI nt
erBusLoop f
rom Phoeni
xCont actI
nc.isanotherbi
t-
wide - Apr ocessbusnet wor ki sahi gh-level
,open,di gi
talcommuni cat ion
dev
icebusnet
workusedtointer
faceaPLCwi t
hsimplesensorand net wor kusedt oconnectanal ogf ielddev i
cestoacont rolsy stem.

66
- Iti sused i npr ocessappl ications,wher et heanal og input /output connectsf i
eldequi pment ,suchasi nt
ell
igentsensorsandact uators,
sensor sandact uat orsr espondsl owert hant hosei ndi scr etebus wit
hcont roll
ers,suchasPLCs.
appl icat ions( dev icebusnet wor ks) . - Thisprocessbusnet workof f
er sthedesi rabl
ef eatur
esinherentin
- Thesi z eoft hei nf or mat ionpacket sdel i
v ered t o and f r
om t hese 4–20mAanal ogsy stems, suchas:
anal ogf ielddev icesi sl ar ge,duet ot henat ureoft hei nf ormat ion •ast andardphy sical wir
inginterf
ace
beingcol lect edatt hepr ocessl ev el . •bus- powereddev i
cesonasi nglepairofwi r
es
- Thet womostcommonl yusedpr ocessbusnet wor kprot ocol sar e •intr
insicsafetyopt ions
FieldbusandPr of ibus. - Howev er,the Fi el
dbus net wor kt echnology off er
st he fol
lowing
- Althought hesenet wor kpr otocol scant ransmi tdat aataspeedof1t o addit
ionaladv antages:
2megabi t s/sec,t hei rr esponset imei sconsi deredsl ow t omedi um •reducedwi r
ingduet omul ti
dropdev i
ces
becauseoft hel argeamountofi nf ormat iont hati st ransferred. •Compat i
bili
tyamongFi eldbusequi pment
- Nev er thel ess,t his speed i s adequat ef or pr ocess appl i
cat i
ons, •reducedcont r
ol room spacer equirements
because anal og pr ocesses do notr espond i nst antaneousl y,as •Digitalcommuni cationreli
abili
ty
discr etecont rolsdo.
- Process bus net wor ks can t ransmi t enor mous amount s of Fi
eldbusPr otocol
i
nf or mat i
ont oaPLCsy stem,t husgr eatlyenhanci ngt heoper at i
onof - TheFi eldbusnet workpr otocoli sbasedont hr
eelayersoft heI SO’s
apl antorpr ocess. sev en-lay ermodel .Theset hreel ayersar elayer1(phy si
calinter
face),
- Forexampl e,asmar t,pr ocessbus–compat iblemot orst ar t
ercan l
ay er2( datal i
nk),andl ayer7( appl i
cation).
prov idei nf or mat ionaboutt heamountofcur rentbei ngpul ledbyt he - I thasopt imizedtheOSIar chitectureforpr ocesscontrolbyr emov i
ng
mot or,so t hat ,i fcur rentr equi rement si ncr easeoral ocked- rotor themi ddl el ayer
st hatar egener all
yassoci atedwithnon- ti
mecr iti
cal
cur rentsi tuat i
onoccur s, thesy stem canal ertt heoper atorandav oida appl i
cat ionssuchasf i
let r
ansf er.
pot ent ial mot orf ailur ei nacr it
ical pr oduct i
onl i
ne. - Thesect ioncompr i
singl ayers2and7oft hemodelar ereferr
edt oas
- Impl ement at i
onoft hist ypeofsy st em wi thoutapr ocessbusnet wor k theFi eldbuscommuni cat i
onst ack.
woul dbet oocost l
yandcumber somebecauseoft heamountofwi re - I naddi tiont otheISO’ smodel ,Fieldbusaddsanext r
al ayeront opof
runsnecessar ytot ransmi tt hist ypeofpr ocessdat a. theappl icationlayercalledt heuserl ay
er.
- Processbusnet wor kswi llev ent ual l
yr eplacet hecommonl yused - Thi suserl ayerpr ovidessev eralkeyf unctions,whichar ef uncti
on
anal og net wor ks,whi char ebased on t he4–20 mA st andar df or blocks, dev icedescr i
pt i
onser vices, andsy stem management .
anal ogdev ices.
- Thi s wi llpr ov i
de gr eat eraccur acy and r epeat abi l
it
yi n pr ocess Phy
sicalLay er( Layer1)
appl icat ions, aswel lasaddbi direct i
onalcommuni cationbet weent he - Thephy sicallay eroftheFi eldbusprocessbusnet wor kconformswi th
fi
eld dev ices and t he cont roll
er( e.g.
,PLC) .A PLC orcomput er theISASP50andI EC1152- 2standards.
communi cat eswi t
hapr ocessbusnet wor kt hroughahostcont roll
er - Thesest andar dsspeci fythet ypeofwi r
et hatcanbeusedi nthistype
i
nt erfacemodul eusi ngei therFi eldbusorPr of ibuspr otocol format . ofnet wor k,aswel lashowf astdatacanmov ethroughthenetwor k.
- Blockt ransf eri nst ruct ionsr elayi nf ormat ionbet weent hePLCandt he - Mor eov er,thesest andardsdef i
nethenumberoff iel
ddevicesthatcan
process bus pr ocessor .The pr ocess bus pr ocessori s gener all
y beont hebusatdi ff
erentnet workspeeds,wi thorwi thoutbei ng
i
nser tedi nsi det her ackencl osur eoft hePLC. power edf rom t hebuswi thintri
nsicsafety(IS)
.
i
)Fi
eldbusPr ocessBusNet wor k - Intr
insicallysaf eequi pmentandwi ri
ngdoesnotemi tenought hermal
- TheFi eldbuspr ocessbusnet wor kf rom t heFi eldbusFoundat ion( FF) orelect ri
cal ener gytoignitemat er
ial
sint hesurroundingatmospher e.
i
sadi gital ,ser ial,mul tipor t,two- waycommuni cat i
on sy st em t hat - Thus,i ntrinsicallysaf edev i
cesar esui tabl
ef oruse in haz ardous

67
 envir
onment s(e.g.
,thosecont aini
nghydrogenoracet yl
ene)
. - TheFMSi sbasedont heProfi
busprocessbusstandar
d.Layer7al
so
- TheFieldbushast wospeeds—al owspeedof31. 25kbaud, r
efer
redto contai
nsanobjectdicti
onary
,whichallowsFiel
dbusnetwor
kdatato
asH1,andahi ghspeedof1Mbaudor2. 5Mbaud( dependi
ngont he beretr
iev
edbyeithertagnameorindexr ecor
d
mode—ACcur rentorDCv olt
agemode) ,call
edH2.
- Ataspeedof31. 25kbaud,t hephy si
callayeroftheFiel
dbusprocess UserLay er( Lay er8)
networkcansuppor texist
ing4–20mAwi ri
ng. - Theuserl ayeri mpl ement st heFi eldbusnet wor k’ sdi str i
but edcont rol
- Thisi ncreases cost -eff
ectiveness when upgr ading a plant or strategy .
process’
snet wor kcommuni cati
onscheme.Att hi
sH1speed,t he - I tcont ainst hreekeyel ement s,whi char ef unct ionbl ocks,dev i
ce
Fiel
dbus net wor k can al so suppor ti ntri
nsi
call
y safe network descr iptionser vices, andsy st em management .
segment swithbus- powereddev i
ces. - Theuserl ay er,av italsegmentoft heFi el dbusnet work,al sodef ines
thesof twar emodel foruseri nteract i
onwi t
ht henet wor ksy stem.
- Funct i
onBl ocks:ar eencapsul atedcont rolf unct ionst hatal l
ow t he
per f
or mance ofi nput /
out putoper ations,such as anal og i nput s,
anal ogout put s,PI Dcont rol ,discret ei nput s/out put s,si gnalsel ector s,
manuall oader s,bi as/ gainst ati
ons,andr atiost ations.Thef unct ion
block capabi li
ties ofFi eldbus net wor ks al low Fi el
dbus- compat i
bl e
dev ices t o be pr ogr ammed wi th bl ocks cont aining any oft he
i
nst ructionsav ailabl ei nthesy stem.Thr ought hesef unct ionbl ocks,
user scanconf i
gur econt rolal gor i
thmsandi mpl ementt hem di r
ect ly
throughf i
elddev ices.
- Dev iceDescr iptionSer vices.Dev icedescr ipt i
ons( DD)ar eFi eldbus
sof t
war emechani smst hatl etahostobt ainmessagei nformat ion,
such as v endorname,av ailablef unct ion bl ocks,and di agnost ic
capabi liti
es, f rom f ielddev ices.Dev icedescr iptionscanbet houghtof
as“ dr i
ver s”f orf ielddev i
cesconnect edt ot henet wor k,meani ngt hat
theyal lowt hedev icet ocommuni cat ewi tht hehostandt henet wor k.
Alldev icesconnect edt oaFi eldbuspr ocessnet wor kmusthav ea
Communi cati
onSt ack( Layers2and7) dev icedescr ipt i
on.Whenanewf ielddev i
cei saddedt ot henet wor k,
- The communi cati
on st ack por ti
on oft he Fieldbus process bus thehostmustbesuppl i
edwi thitsdev icedescr ipt ion.
networ kconsi stsofl ayer2( t
hedat al i
nklayer)andl ayer7( the - Sy st em Manager .Thesy stem managementpor tionoft heuserl ay er
appli
cationl ayer). schedul es t he ex ecut i
on off unct ion bl ocks atpr eci sel y def i
ned
- Thedat al inkl ayercont rolsthet ransmissionofmessagesont othe i
nt ervals.I tal so cont r
olst he communi cat ion ofal lt he Fi eldbus
Fiel
dbust hr ought hephy sicall
ay er. net wor k par amet ers used by t he f unct ion bl ocks.Mor eover ,t he
- Itmanagesaccesst othebust hroughal inkactiv
eschedul er,whi
chis syst em manageraut omat icallyassi gnsf ielddev iceaddr esses.
adet erminist i
c,central
izedbust r
ansmi ssionregulatorbasedonI EC
andISAst andar ds.
- Theappl icat i
onl ayercont ainstheFi eldbusmessagi ngspecifi
cat
ion Pr
ofi
busPr ocessBusNetwork
(FMS)st andar d,whi chencodesanddecodescommandsf rom the - Profi
bus (PROcess FIel
d BUS)is a di
git
alprocess bus net
work
userlayer,Fi el
dbus’saddi ti
onal 8thlayer. capableofcommuni cati
nginf
ormat
ionbetweenamast ercont
rol
l
er
68
 (orhost )andani nt el l
igent , slavepr ocessf iel ddev i
ce, aswel lasf rom
onehostt oanot her .
- Profibusact ual l
yconsi st soft hreei nt er-compat i
bl enet wor kswi th
diff
erent pr otocol s desi gned t o ser ve di stinct i
v e appl icat ion
requirement s.Thet hreet ypesofPr ofibusnet wor ksar e: Prof ibus- FMS,
Profibus- DPandPr of ibus- PA
- Profibus- FMSnet wor ki st heuni versalsol uti
onf orcommuni cat ing
betweent heupperl ev el, t
hecel llev el
, andt hef ielddev i
cel ev eloft he
Profibushi er archy .
- Celllev elcont roloccur sati ndividual( orcel l)ar eas,whi chex erci se
theact ualcont roldur ingpr oduct i
on.Thecont roll
er satt hecel ll ev el
mustcommuni cat ewi thot hersuper visor ysy stems.
- ThePr of i
bus- FMSut i
lizest heFi eldbusmessagespeci fi
cat ion( FMS)
toex ecut ei tsext ensi vecommuni cationt asksbet weenhi erarchi cal
l
ev el
s.
- Thiscommuni cat ioni sper formedt hroughcy cli
coracy clicmessages
atmedi um t ransmi ssi onspeeds.
- Profibus- DP( Decent ralizedPer ipheral s)net wor ki saper for mance-
optimiz edv ersionoft hePr ofi
busnet wor k.I ti sdesi gnedt ohandl e
ti
me- cr i
ticalcommuni cat i
onsbet weendev icesi nf act oryaut omat ion
systems. - Inbr oadcastcommuni cat ion,anact i
vest ati
onsendsanunconf i
rmed
- ThePr of i
bus- DPi sasui tabl erepl acementf or24- Vpar alleland4–20 messaget oallotherst ations.
mAwi ringi nter faces. - Anyoft hesest ati
ons( i
ncl udingbot hmast ersandsl av es)cant ake
- Profibus- PA ( Pr ocess Aut omat i
on) net wor k i s t he pr ocess thisinformat i
on.I nmul t
icastcommuni cat i
on,anact i
vest ati
onsends
automat ionv er sionoft hePr ofi
busnet wor k.I tpr ov idesbus- power ed anunconf i
rmedmessaget oapar t
iculargroupofmast erorsl ave
stati
ons and i nt rinsic saf ety accor ding t o t he t r ansmi ssi on stati
ons.
specificat ionsoft heI EC1158- 2st andar d.ThePr of i
bus- PAnet wor k - Thephy si callayerorl ay er1,oft heI SOmodeldef i
nest henetwor k’
s
hasdev i
cedescr iptionandf unct ionbl ockcapabi l
ities, alongwi thf ield transmi ssi onmedi um andt hephy sicalbusi nt
er f
ace.
dev i
cei nt eroper abi li
t y. - ThePr ofibusnet wor kadher est ot heEIARS- 485st andard,whichuses
- Profibus- PAi sdesi gnedf orusei nanex plosi on/hazar dousar eas. at wo-conduct or,twisted-pai rwirebuswi thoptionalshi
elding.
Thephy sical lay er( cabl e)al lowspowert obedel iver edov ert hebust o - Themaxi mum numberofst ati
onsordev i
cenodespersegmenti s32
fi
eldi nst rument s,whi l
el imi t
ing cur rentf lows so t hatexpl osi ve wi t
houtr epeat ersand127wi t
hr epeaters.
condi t
ionsar enotcr eat ed, ev eni famal funct i
onoccur s. - Thenet wor ktransmi ssionspeedi sselectablefrom 9.6kbaudt o12
- Profibus net wor ks suppor t bot h peer -to-peer and mul tipeer Mbaud,dependi ngont hedi st
anceandcabl etype.Wi t
houtr epeaters,
communi cat ioni nei therbr oadcastormul ticastconf igur ations. themaxi mum busl engt his100m at12Mbaud.
- Thet ypeofconnect orusedi sa9- pin,D-subconnect or.
ModbusNet wor k
- Itisaser ialcommuni cat i
onpr otocolpubl i
shedbyModi consforuse
wi t
hi t
sPLCs.

69
- Simpl e and r obust ,ithas si nce become a de f act o st andard receiv er).Ther ef or e,thissy stem al lowsf oronl yt wost ations.
communi cat i
onpr otocol ,andi ti snowcommonl yav ailablemeansof - At ypicalcur rentl oopsy stem assi gnsasensi ngr ange( e. g.,0t o
connect ingel ect r
oni cdev ices. 100° C)t ot hecur rentr angebet ween4and20mA.
- Themai nr easonsf ortheuseofModbusi nt hei ndust rialenv ironment - Al oopexi sts(i.e., twowi r
es)bet weent het ransmi tterandr ecei ver.
are: - Thet ransmi t
tercani mpr essacer taincur r
enti nt hel oop( usi nga
- Dev elopedwi thi ndust r i
al appl i
cationinmi nd cont rolled cur r
entsour ce)so t hatt he r ecei vercan measur et he
- Openl ypubl i
shedandr oy altyf r
ee currenti nt hel oop( e.g.,bypl acingasmal lresi stori nser i
eswi tht he
- Easyt odepl oyandmai ntain l
oopandmeasur ingt hev oltagedr opacr osst her esi stor ).
- Mov esr awbi tsorwor dswi thoutpl acingmanyi nst ructions. - Af t
ermeasur i
ng t hecur r
ent ,ther ecei v ercan t hen det ermi net he
- Ital l
owsf orcommuni cat ion bet ween many( appr ox240)dev i
ces presentl ev eloft hesensedsi gnal wi thint hedefinedsensi ngr ange.
connect edt ot hesamenet wor k. - Thismet hodusescur rentsi gnaling,i nsteadofv olt agesi gnal i
ng,and
- Itisusedt oconnectasuper visor ycomput erwi t
har emot et ermi nal theref orei srelat ivelyunaf fectedbypot ent i
aldi f
fer encesbet weent he
unit( RTU)i nSCADAsy st ems. transmi tterandt her ecei v
er .
- AModbuscommandcont ainst heModbusaddr essoft hedev iceitis - Thisi ssi mi l
art ot hebenefitofdi fferent i
al( v oltage)si gnali
ng,whi ch
int
endedf or .Al lModbuscommandscont ai nchecki ngi nf ormat ion, alsor equi restwowi r
es.
ensur ingt hatacommandar ri
vesundamaged. - Anot herchar act er ist
icoft hi smet hodi st hati ti snotpr i
mar ilydi gital
- Thebasi cModbuscommandcani nstructanRTUt ochangeav aluein i
nnat ur e, asmanyot hersensorcommuni cat i
onsy stemsar e.
oneofi tsr egi st
ers,cont r olorr eadan1/ 0por taswel lascommand - Themeasur edv aluecanv arycont inuousl yi nt her angeof4- 20mA,
thedev icet osendbackoneormor ev aluescont ai
nedi ni tsregi sters. andt her ef orecaneasi l
yr epresentananal ogsensi ngr ange,r ather
- ModbusMessagi ng pr ot ocoli san Appl i
cat ion l ayer( OSIl ayer7) thanasetofdi gi talsi gnals.Al so,t hesi gnali scont inuousl yv ar i
able
protocolt hatpr ov i
descl ient /ser vercommuni cat i
onbet weendev i
ces andav ail
abl e.
connect edt odi f
ferentt y pesofbusesornet wor ks. - Anot herchar act er ist
icoft hi smet hodi st hatt hei nt egr it
yoft hel oop
- TheModbusMessagi ngpr otocoli sonl yapr otocolanddoesnot canbev er i
fied.
impl y any speci fic har dwar ei mplement ation.Al so not et hatt he - Asl ongast hel oopi sunbr okenandt het ransmi tteri singoodwor king
ModbusMessagi ngpr ot ocolusedwi thModbusSer i
ali st hesame order ,thecur renti nthel oopshoul dnev erf allbel ow4mA.
oneusedwi thModbusPl usandModbusTCP. - Ifthecur rentappr oaches0mA, thent her ecei v ercandet erminet hata
- Modbusmessagi ngi sbasedonacl ient/ser vermodelandempl oys faultex i
st s—per hapsabr okencabl e.
thef ollowi ngmessages: - Thesesy stemsar ewi delyusedi nv ar i
ouspr ocesscont rolindust ri
es
- Modbusr equest s,i.e.t hemessagessentont henet wor kbyt he (e.g.
,oi lr efining)f orconnect ingsensor s( transmi tter s)wi thcont rol
clientst oi ni
tiatet ransact ions.Theseser veasi ndicat i
onsoft he comput er s.
request edser vicesont heser verside - Becauseonest at ioni sal way st het ransmi tterandonest ationi s
- Modbus r esponses,i .
e.t he r esponse messages sentbyt he alway s t he r ecei ver,t his i s a uni directional , hal f dupl ex
ser vers.Theseser veasconf irmat i
onsont hecl ientsi de. communi cat i
onsy stem.
- Modbus( ort obemor eexact ;t
heModbusMessagi ngpr otocol )isjust
apr otocol ,ModbusPl usi sacompl etesy stem wi thapr edefined
medi um andPhy sical l
ay er( OSIl ayer1)i mpl ement at ion.
4t
o20mACur rentLoop HART(
HighwayAddressableRemoteTransducer
)
- The4t o20mAcur r
entl oopi sawi delyusedmet hodf ort ransf erri
ng - The HART syst
em ( and it
s associ
ated prot
ocol)was or i
ginal
ly
inf
or mat i
onf rom onest at ion( thet r
ansmi t
ter )toanot herst at ion(the dev
eloped byRosemountand i sregarded as an open st
andard,

70
 availabl et oal lmanuf act urer s. digit
alcommuni cati
ons.
- I
tsmai nadv ant agei st hati tenabl est her etentionoft heex isting4- - Because t he av erage v al
ue of t he 1200/ 2400Hz si ne wav e
20mAi nst rument ati
oncabl i
ngwhi l
stusi ng,si mul t
aneousl y,thesame superimposed on t he4- 20mA si gnal( FSK signal)isalway szer o,
wirest ocar rydi gitalinfor mat ionsuper imposedont heanal ogsi gnal . hence,the4-20mAanal ogi nformat i
oni snotaff
ect ed.
- HARTi sahy br i
danal oganddi gitalsy stem,asopposedt omostf iel
d - TheHARTFSKsi gnal i
ngenabl est wo-
waydi git
alcommuni cat
ionand
bussy stems, thatar epur elydi gital. makesi tpossiblef oraddi ti
onali nfor
mat i
onbey ondjustthenor mal
- HART pr oduct s gener allyf al linto one oft hree cat egor i
es:f iel
d process vari
ablet o be communi cated to orf rom a smar tf i
eld
devices, hostsy stems, andcommuni cati
onsuppor thar dwar e. i
nst r
ument .
 Fi elddev icesi ncludet r ansmi tt
er s,valv es,andcont r
ol l
er s.Ther e - TheHARTpr ot
ocolcommuni catesat1200bi tspersecondwi thout
are HART t ransmi tter s f or al most any st andar d pr ocess i
nt er
rupti
ngthe4- 20mAsi gnalandal l
owsahostappl icat
ion(mast er)
measur ementi ncludi ng pr essur e,temper at ure,l evel ,f low,and togettwoormor edi gi
talupdat espersecondf r
om af iel
ddev i
ce.
anal ytical (pH, ORP, densi ty). - Ami nimum loopimpedanceof230W i srequir
edf orcommuni cat
ion.
 Hostsy st emsr angef rom smal lhandhel dcommuni cat or st oPC
based mai ntenance management sof twar e t o l ar ge scal e
distribut edcont rolsy st ems.
 Communi cat i
on suppor thar dwar ei ncl udessi mpl esi ngl el oop
modemsaswel lasanassor t
mentofmul ti
plex erst hatal l
ow a
hostsy st em t ocommuni cat ewi thal ar genumberoff ielddev ices.
- I
tusesaFr equencyShi ftKey i
ng( FSK)t echni quebasedont heBel l
202st andar d.
- HARTcanbeusedi nei theroneoft het wonet wor kconf igur ation:
 Poi nt-to- poi ntmode
 Mul ti-dropmode
- TheHARTpr ot ocol hast wof or mat sf ordi gitaltransmi ssionofdat a:
 Pol l
/responsemode
 Bur st( br oadcast )mode
- HART f ollows t he basi c Open Sy stems I nterconnect ion ( OSI )
ref
er encemodel .TheOSImodel descr ibest hest r
uct ureandel ement s
ofacommuni cationsy st em.TheHARTpr ot ocolusesar educedOSI
model ,impl ement i
ngonl yl ay ers1, 2and7

Fr
equencyShi ftKeyi
ng( FSK)
- The HART communi cati
on protocoli s based on t he Bell202
tel
ephonecommuni cat i
onstandardandoper atesusingthefr
equency
shif
tkeying(FSK)principle.
HARTNetworks
- Thedi git
alsignali
smadeupoft wof r
equencies—1, 200Hzand2,200
- HART dev ices can oper at
e in one of t
wo net
wor
k
Hzrepresenti
ngbits1and0, r
especti
vely.
conf
igur
ations—point
-t
o-poi
ntormul
ti
drop.
- Si newavesoft heset wof r
equenciesaresuper i
mposedont hedirect
- Theconnectioncanbeinform of
:
curr
ent(dc)analogsi gnalcablestopr ov
idesimul t
aneousanalogand
71
 - I
nconj uncti
onwi t
ht he4-20mAcur r
entsi
gnalinpoint
-t
o- t
ransducer
;henceforamul
ti
-dr
opconf
igur
ati
ont
hesmartdev
icesets
pointmode, i
tsanalogout
puttoaconst
ant4mAandcommunicat
esonl
ydigi
tal
ly
.
- i
nconj uncti
onwithotherf
ielddev
icesinmul
ti
-dropmode
- i
n poi nt-t
o-poi
nt mode wi t
h only one field devi
ce
broadcasti
ngi nburstmode

i
)Poi
nt-To- Point
:
- Inpoi nt-t
o-pointmode,t hetraditi
onal4–20mA si gnalisusedt o
communi cateonepr ocessv ari
able,whileaddit
ionalprocessv ar
iabl
es,
configuration paramet ers,and ot herdev i
ce data ar etransferr
ed
digi
tall
yusi ngtheHARTpr otocol.
- The4–20mAanal ogsi gnalisnotaf fect
edbyt heHARTsi gnaland
canbeusedf orcontrolint henormal way .
- TheHARTcommuni cati
ondi gitalsignalgivesaccesst osecondary
vari
ables and ot her dat a that can be used f or oper ati
ons,
commi ssioni
ng,mai ntenance, anddiagnosticpurposes

CommunicationModes
- TheHARTpr ot
ocolcanbeusedi nv ar
iousmodesforcommunicat
ing
inf
ormationt o/fr
om smartfiel
di nstr
umentsandcent r
alcont
rolor
monitor
ingequi pment
- Theseprot ocol
sar e:
Pol
l
/responsemodeandBur st(br
oadcast
)mode.

i
)Poll
/ResponseMode( Mast er/SlaveMode)
- HARTi samast er-
slavecommuni cati
onpr otocol,whichmeanst hat
duringnor maloper aton,eachsl
i av e(fi
elddev ice)communi cationi s
ini
ti
atedbyamast ercommuni cationdev ice.
- Themast erpol l
seachoft hesmar tdev i
cesont hehighwayand
i
i)Mul t
idrop: requeststherelevantinfor mat ion.
- Themul ti
dropmodeofoper ationrequir
esonl yasinglepai
rofwires - Twomast erscanconnectt oeachHARTl oop.Thepr i
marymast eris
and,i fapplicable,safetybar r
iersandanauxi li
arypowersupplyf
orup gener al
lya distri
buted cont rolsy stem ( DCS) ,pr ogrammabl el ogic
to15f iel
ddev i
ces. cont r
oll
er(PLC),oraper sonalcomput er( PC) .Thesecondar ymast er
- Al lprocessv al
uesar etr ansmitteddigi
tall
y.I
nmul t
idropmode,al
lfi
eld canbeahandhel dtermi nal oranot herPC.
devicepol l
ingaddr essesar e>0,andt hecurrentt
hrougheachdevice - Slavedev icesincludet ransmi t
ters,act uators,and cont rol
lerst hat
i
sf i
x edt oami nimum v alue(typical
l
y4mA) . respondt ocommandsf rom t hepr imaryorsecondar ymast er
.
- Thus,set ti
ngt hesmar tdev i
cepol li
ngaddr esstoanumbergr eater - Thismode,al l
owsdi gitali nformat ionf rom t hesl avedev i
cet obe
thanz eroimpliesamul ti
-droploop. updat edtwicepersecondi nt hemast er.The4- 20mAanal ogsignal s
- Obv i
ousl yt he4- 20mAconceptonl yappl i
est oal oopwithasingle arecont i
nuousandcanst ill
car rythepr i
mar yvar i
ableforcontrol
.

72
 i
)Universal
- Alldev icesusi ngtheHARTpr ot
ocolmustr ecognizeandsuppor tthe
universal commands.
- Universalcommandspr ovi
deaccesst oinfor
mat i
onusef ulinnormal
operations( e.g.,
readpr
imaryvari
ableanduni ts).
i
i
)CommonPr actice
- Common pr acti
ce commands pr ovide functi
ons implement ed by
many , butnotnecessaril
yall
,HARTcommuni cati
ondevices.
i
i
i)Devi
ceSpeci fic
- Device- specifi
ccommandsr epresentf uncti
onst hatareuni quet o
eachf ielddev i
ce.
- Thesecommandsaccessset upandcal i
brati
oninformation,aswell
asinf or mati
onaboutt heconstructi
onoft hedev i
ce.Inf
or mati
onon
device-specificcommandsi savail
ablefrom devicemanuf actur
ers.
i
i)BurstMode( Broadcastmode)
- Thi smodei sanopt i
onal communi cati
onmode.
- I nburstmode,t hemast erinstructstheslavedev icetocont inuously
broadcastast andardHART r eplymessage( e.g.,thev al
ueoft he
processvari
able).
- Themast erreceivesthemessageatt hehigherr ateunti
litinstructs
theslavetostopbursti
ng.
- Thi smodef reesthemast erfr
om hav ingtosendr epeat
edcommand
requeststogetupdatedpr ocessv ar
iablei
nformation
- Dat aupdat eratesof3- 4persecondar etypicalwi th“burst”mode
communi cati
onandwi l
lv ar
ywi ththechosencommand.Bur stmode
shouldbeusedonl yinsingleslavedev i
cenetworks.

Benefit
sofHARTCommuni cati
on
HARTCommands - TheHARTpr otocolisapower fulcommuni cat
iontechnologyusedto
- The HART command set pr ov i
des uniform and consist
ent exploi
ttheful
l potent
ial
ofdigit
alfi
elddev i
ces.
communicati
onforallf
iel
ddev i
ces. - Pr eservi
ngthet radi
ti
onal4–20mAsi gnal,t
heHARTpr otocolext
ends
- Layer7,theAppl i
cati
onlay er
,consistsoft hr
eeclassesofHART system capabili
tiesfortwo-waydi git
alcommuni cati
onwi thsmart
commands: Uni
versal
,CommonPr act
ice,andDeviceSpeci
fi
c fi
eldinst
rument s.
- Hostappli
cati
onsmayi mplementanyoft henecessarycommands - TheHARTpr otocoloffer
st hebestsol uti
onf orsmartf i
elddevi
ce
forapar
ti
cularappli
cat
ion.
73
 communi cat i
onsandhast hewi destbaseofsuppor tofanyf i
eld
dev i
cepr otocol wor ldwi de.
- Mor ei nstrument sar eav ailablewi tht heHARTpr ot ocolt hananyot her
digitalcommuni cat ionst echnol ogy .
- Almostanypr ocessappl i
cation can beaddr essed byoneoft he
product sof f
eredbyHARTi nstrumentsuppl iers.
- Unlikeot herdi gitalcommuni cat iont echnol ogies,t heHARTpr otocol
prov i
des a uni que communi cat i
on sol ution t hat i s backwar d
compat iblewi tht hei nstalledbaseofi nst rument ati
oni nuset oday .
- This backwar d compat i
bi l
it
yensur es t hati nv est ment si n existing
cablingandcur r
entcont rolstrat egieswi l
lr emai nsecur ewel lintot he
future.
- Otherbenef i
tsincl ude:
- I mpr ov edpl antoper at ions:HART- communi cat i
ngdev icespr ovide
accur atei nfor mat iont hathel psi mpr ov et heef fi
ciencyofpl ant
oper ati
ons.Dur i
ng nor maloper at ion,dev iceoper ati
onalv alues
canbeeasi lymoni t
oredormodi fi
edr emot ely .
- Oper ationalf lexibili
ty:TheHART pr ot ocolal lowst wo mast ers
(primar yandsecondar y)tocommuni cat ewi t
hsl av edev i
cesand
prov i
deaddi tionaloper ati
onalf l
ex i
bi li
ty .Aper manent l
yconnect ed
hostsy stem can be used si mul taneousl y,whi l
e a handhel d
termi nalorPCcont rolleriscommuni cat ingwi thaf ielddev ice
- I nstrument ationi nvest mentpr otect ion: .HARTf ieldi nstr
ument s
protectt hei nv est ment( existingpl ant sandpr ocessese. g.wi ring,
analog cont rollers, smar t i nst r
ument at i
on) by pr oviding
compat ibl
e pr oduct s wi t
h enhanced di gitalcapabi l
it
ies.These
enhancedcapabi l
iti
escanbeusedi ncr ement ally.
- Di gitalcommuni cat i
on:Adi gitaldev icepr ov i
desadv antagessuch
asi mpr ov edaccur acyandst abi l
ity.TheHARTpr otocolenhances
thecapabi li
tiesofdi gitalinst rument sbypr ov i
dingcommuni cation
accessandnet wor ki
ng.

TOPIC5:CALI BRATIONSYSTEM
Cal
ibration
- Cal ibrati
oni stheactorr esultofquant
itati
vecompar i
sonbet
weena
knownst andardandt heoutputofthemeasur i
ngsystem.
- I ftheout put-
inputresponseoft hesy stem i
sl i
near,t
henasi ngl
e-
pointcalibrati
onissuffi
cient
.
- Howev er
,i fthe system response is non-li
near,then a setof

74
 knownst andar di nput st ot hemeasur i
ngsy stem ar eempl oyedf or - These st andar ds ar e mai nt
ained by the Inter
nati
onalBur eau of
cali
br at i
ngt hecor r
espondi ngout putsoft hesy stem. Wei ghts and Measur es at Sev res, France. For exampl e, t
he
- Calibrat i
onr ef erst ot heactofev al
uat ingandadj ust i
ngt hepr ecision Internati
onalPr ototypeki l
ogram, wavel
engthofKr 86orange-redlamp
andaccur acyofmeasur ementequi pment . andcesi um clockar etheinternati
onalst
andar dsformass,lengthand
- Instrumentcal ibrationi si nt endedt oel imi nat eorr educebi asi nan time, r
especti
v ely.
i
nst rument 'sr eadingsov erar angef oral l cont i
nuousv alues. - Howev er
,thesest andar dsar enotav ai
labletoanor dinar
yuserf or
 Pr ecisioni st hedegr eet owhi chr epeat edmeasur ement sunder pur posesofday -
to-daycompar i
sonsandcal i
brati
ons.
unchangedcondi t
ionsshowt hesamer esult
 Ac cur acy i st he degr ee ofcl oseness ofmeasur ement s ofa Pr
imar ystandar ds
quant i
tyt oi tsact ual truev alue. - Primar y st andards ar e dev ices mai ntained by st andar ds
- Ingener aluse,cal ibrationi sof tenr egar dedasi ncl udi ngt hepr ocess organi zat ions/nat ionall aboratoriesindifferentpar tsofthewor ld.
ofadj ust ingt heout putori ndicat iononameasur ementi nst r
umentt o - Thesedev icesr epresentt hef undament alandder i
vedquant it
iesand
agreewi thv alueoft heappl iedst andar d, wi thinaspeci fiedaccur acy. arecal ibr atedi ndependent lybyabsol utemeasur ement s.
- Ther ear et hr eemai nr easonsf orhav i
ngi nst rument scal ibrated: - Thesear et hemostpr eciseandaccur atephy sicalstandards,whi ch
1.Toensur er eadingsf rom ani nst r
umentar econsi st entwi t
hot her areder iv edf rom inter nationalstandards.
measur ement s. - Theyspeci fythemostst ri
ngentcondi tionsandar eusedonl yatr are
2.Todet er mi net heaccur acyoft hei nst rumentr eadi ngs. intervalsf orcompar isonwi thsecondar ystandar ds.
3.Toest abl i
sht her eli
abi li
tyoft hei nst rumenti .e.t hati tcanbe - Oneoft hemai nf unct ionsofmai ntaini
ngpr imar ystandardsi st o
trusted. calibrate/checkandcer tif
ysecondar yr eferencest andards.
- Calibrat i
oni scar r
iedoutbyagenci esoft hemet rologi calser vi
ce, - Like int er nationalst andar ds,these st andards al so are noteasi l
y
usingr eferencest andar dsandbasest andar ds. avai l
ablet o an or di nary userof i nstrument sf orv eri
ficati
on /
- Gov er nment alcal ibrationi sobl igatoryf ormeasur ingdev icesusedi n calibrationofwor kingst andards.Thesest andardsar enotpor table.
repor ting mat eri
al v alue, f or gov ernment t est s and exper t
exami nat i
ons,and f orr ecor ding nat i
onaland i nter nat i
onalspor ts Secondaryst andards
recor ds, andal sof orcal ibrat i
onoft heor i
gi nalbasest andar ds. - Secondar yst andar ds ar e basi cr ef
erence st andards empl oyed by
- Allot her measur ing dev ices ar e cal ibrated by t he appr opr i
ate i
ndust r
ialmeasur ementl abor atori
es.
depar tment s. - Thesear eder ivedf rom pr imar ystandards.Theyar epor t
ableandar e
oftenusedasnat ional st
andar ds.
Cal
ibr
ationStandards - Theyar elesspr eciset hanpr i
mar ystandardsbutar estil
lver
ypr ecise.
- Calibrat
ionStandardsofmeasurement
scanbecl
assi
fi
edaccor
ding - Theyar e used atr arei nterval
st o cali
bratet erti
aryand wor king
totheirfunct
ionandtypeofappl
i
cati
onas: standards.Thesear emai ntainedbyt heconcer nedlaboratory
.
- Oneoft he impor tantf unct ionsofan i ndust ri
allaboratoryi st he
I
nternati
onal standar ds mai nt
enanceandper iodi
ccal i
brati
onofsecondar ystandardsagai nst
- I nter
nationalst andardsar edev i
cesdesignedandconstruct
edtothe primaryst andardsoft henat ionalstandardsl aboratory/organization.
specifi
cationsofani nter
nationalfor
um. - I naddition,secondar yst andar dsar ef r
eelyav ail
ablet otheor dinary
- They r epr esentt he unit
s ofmeasur ement s ofvari
ous phy
sical userofinst rumentsf orchecki ngandcal ibrati
onofwor ki
ngst andar ds.
quantit
iest ot hehighestpossi bl
eaccur
acyt hatisattai
nabl
e bythe
use of adv anced t echniques of production andmeasurement Wor
kingst
andar
ds
technology . - Thesearehi
gh-
accur
acydev
icest
hatar
ecommer
cial
l
yav
ail
abl
eand

75
 are dul y checked and cer t
if
ied against either t
he pr i
mary or - Therear et wo f undament aloper ationsi nv olved i n calibrating any
secondar ystandar ds. i
nst r
ument :
- Forex ample,ast andardcel landast andardr esist
orarethewor ki
ng  Test ingt hei nst rumentt odet ermi nei tsper formance,
standar dsofv olt
ageandr esist
ance,respect
ively.  Adj ustingt hei nst rumentt oper for m wi t hi
nspeci fi
cation.
- Wor king st andar ds arev ery widel
y used f orcal i
brat
ing general - Testingt hei nstr umentr equi rescol l
ect ingsuf f
icientdat at ocal culate
l
abor at or
yinst ruments,forcar ryi
ngoutcompar i
sonmeasur ementsor theinst rument '
soper atinger rors.
forchecki ngt hequal i
ty(rangeofaccur acy)ofindustri
alpr
oducts. - Thisi st ypicallyaccompl ishedbyper for mi ngamul ti
plepoi ntt est
procedur ethati ncl udest hef ollowingst eps.
Cal
ibrati
onPr ocedur e  Usi ngapr ocessv ariabl esi mul at ort hatmat chest hei nputt ype
- Thepr ocessof cal ibrationi nvol vestheest imat ion of uncer tai
nty oft hei nstr ument ,setaknowni nputt ot hei nstrument .
bet weent hev aluesi ndicat edbyt hemeasur ingi nstrumentandt he  Usi nganaccur atecal ibrat or,readt heact ual (orreference)v alue
truev alueoft hei nput . oft hisi nput .
- Cal i
brationmaybecal l
edf or:  Readt hei nst rument 'si nterpret ationoft hev aluebyusi ngan
 ane winst rument accur at ecal i
br atort omeasur et hei nst rumentout put.
 a f
terani nstrumenthasbeenr epair
edormodi f
ied - Byr epeat i
ngt hispr ocessf oraser iesofdi fferenti nputv alues,y ou
 whe naspeci fiedt i
meper i
odhasel apsed cancol lectsuf fi
ci entdat atodet ermi net hei nst r
ument '
saccur acy .
 whe naspeci fiedusage( oper ati
nghour s)hasel apsed - Dependi ng upon t he i ntended cal ibr ation goal s and t he er ror
 be f
or eand/ oraf teracr i
ti
cal measur ement calculationsdesi red,t het estpr ocedur emayr equi refrom 5t o21
 a f
teranev ent ,forex ampl e i
nputpoi nts.
o a ft
erani nst rumenthashadashock, v i
bration, orhasbeen - The f irstt estt hati s conduct ed on an i nstrumentbef ore any
ex posedt oanadv er secondi ti
onwhi chpot entiall
ymay adjustment sar emadei scal ledt heAs- Foundt est.
hav eputi toutofcal i
br ati
onordamagei t - Iftheaccur acycal cul ationsf rom t heAs- Founddat aar enotwi thint he
o s uddenchangesi nweat her specificat i
onsf ort hei nst r
ument ,
theni tmustbeadj usted.
 whe nev er obser vations appear quest ionabl e or i nst r
ument - Adjust ment i st he pr ocess of mani pul at i
ng some par tof t he
indicationsdonotmat cht heout putofsurr ogat einst rument s i
nst r
ument so t hat i tsi nput t o out put r elati
onshi p i s wi thin
 As s peci fi
ed by a r equir
ement ,e. g.
,cust omerspeci fi
cati
on, specificat i
on.Forconv entionali nst rument s,t hismaybezer o and
instrumentmanuf act urerrecommendat ion. spanscr ews.
- Ther ear ef ourt y pesofcal ibrati
on: - For HART i nst rument s,t his nor mal lyr equires t he use of a
 Pr imar ycal ibr ation,whi chisper formedwhenameasur ingdev ice communi cat or( handhel dorPC)t oconv eyspeci ficinformat iont ot he
isputi nt oci rcul ationf rom pr oduct i
onorr et urnedf rom r epai r
; i
nst r
ument .
 Per i
odi ccal ibr at i
on, whi chi sconduct eddur inguseorst or ageofa - Afteradj ust i
ngt hei nst rument , asecondmul t i
plepoi nttesti sr equi red
dev i
ce; tochar act erizet hei nst rumentandv erifyt hati tiswi thinspeci fi
cat ion
 Speci alcal i
br at ion,whi chr esultsfrom t heneedf orimmedi ate overthedef inedoper atingr ange.Thi si scal l
edt heAs- Lefttest .
verifi
cat ionoft hegoodcondi ti
onofadev ice; and
 I nspect ion cal i
br ation,whi ch i sperformed dur ing met rologi
cal Er
rorCalculati
ons
inspect ions of ent erprises,suppl y cent er s,war ehouses,and - Er r
orcal cul
ati
onsar et hepri
ncipalanal
ysi
sper formedont heAs-
commer cial or gani zat i
ons. FoundandAs- Lefttestdata.
- Ther earesev eraldi
fferentty
pesofer r
orcalcul
ations,mostofwhich
Cal
ibr
ati
onConcept
s aredefi
nedint hepublicati
on"ProcessI
nstr
ument ati
onTerminology
".
76
- Theyar eusual lyex pr essedi nt er msoft heper centofi dealspan - Thisisamobi le/portabledevicewhi chisasmal l,handheldcomput i
ng
whi chi sdef inedas: device,t ypicall
yhav ingadi splayscr eenwi thtouchi nputand/ ora
%span=( r
eadi ng-l owr ange)/( highr ange-l owr ange)x100 miniaturekey boar dandwei ghinglesst han0.91kg.
- Thef irstst epi nt hedat aanal ysisi st oconv ertt heengi neer i
nguni t - Ahandhel dcomput ingdev i
cehasan  operat
ingsy stem (OS),andcan
valuesf ori nputandout puti nt oper centofspan.Thenf oreachpoi nt
, runv ar
ioust ypesof  
applicati
onsof tware.
calcul atet heer ror ,whi chi st hedev iationoft heact ual outputf rom t he - Mosthandhel ddev icescanal sobeequi ppedwi t
h Wi-Fi
, 
Bluetooth,
expect edout put . andGPS  capabi l
iti
est hatcanal low connect i
onst ot he I
nternet 
and
 TheMaxi mum er rori st hemostcommonv alueusedt oev al uat ean other Bl uetoot h-capable dev i
ces,such as an aut omobi l
e or a
i
nst rument '
sper for mance.I facomput erpr ogr am i snotusedt o microphoneheadset .
anal yzet het estdat a,i tisof tent heonl yer rorconsi der edandi s - Itdeliversmessagesandper for
mancedat at ot heoper atorandi s
takent obet hel ar gestdev i
at ionf rom t hei deal out put . usedt osuppor tinstall
ati
on,conf igurati
on,provisi
oning,calibrati
on
Byi tsel f
, themaxi mum er rordoesnotgi veacompl etei ndi cat ionof andmai ntenanceandnet workper formance.
an i nst r
ument 's per formance.Wi tht he av ai l
abi lityofcomput er
sof twar et of aci li
t atecal cul ations,ot herer rorv al uesar egai ning Advant
agesofhandhel dcalibration
popul ar i
tyi ncl udi ng z ero er ror ,span er ror ,linear i
ty er ror,and  Noprocessi nt
errupti
on
hy st eresiser ror . o Themai nadvantageofhandhel dcal ibr
at i
onoverot hertr
aditi
onal
 Zer oer rori sdef i
nedast heer rorofadev icewhent heinputi satt he met hodsist hatitallowsmet erv erif
icati
onst obecar ri
edout
l
owerr angev alue. directl
yintheprocesswi thoutaddi tionalcostsforr emov alofthe
 Spaner rori sdef inedast hedi f ferencebet weent heact ual spanand instrumentorprocessint erruptions.
thei deal span, ex pr essedasaper cent ageoft hei deal span. o Asar esul
t,downtimei smi nimizedandcr i
ti
calprocessescanbe
 Li near ityer rori sameasur eofhowcl oset heer roroft hei nst rument verifi
edandopt i
mizedef ficiently.
ov eri tsoper at ingr angeappr oachesast raightl ine.Unf or tunat ely
, o Bysuppor ti
ngandf acil
itatingr egularon- si
teveri
fi
cat i
on,handheld
ther ear et hreedi fferentmet hodsusedt ocal cul at et his, resul t
ingi n equipmenthel psuser st oqui cklydi agnoseanyf ail
uresandt o
an i ndependentl i
near ity,a t ermi nalbased l i
near i
ty,and a zer o swi f
tlyr
emedyt hesit
uat ion. 
basedl i
near i
ty .I npr act i
ce,i ti sbestt ochooseonemet hodand
appl yi tconsi st ent ly.Not et hatt hecal culat i
onofl i
near ityer rori s  Timeandcostsavi ngs
alsogr eat l
yf aci li
tat edbyacur vef i
toft heer rordat a. o Dev i
ce v erifi
cation usi ng handhel d equipment r equir
es a
 Hy st er esiser rori sameasur eoft hedependenceoft heout putata maxi mum of15- 30mi nut
esperi nstr
ument .
giv eni nputv alueupont hepr i
orhi st oryoft hei nput .Thisi st hemost o Thedev i
cedoesnotneedt obesentawayt othecalibrati
oncentre
difficul ter rort o measur e si nce i tr equi res gr eatcar ei nt he andpr oduct i
oncan,t heref ore,resumef ast
erthanwi thanyot her
col lect i
onofdat a,andi tty pical lyr equi resatl east9dat apoi ntst o met hod.
dev elopr easonabl ecur vesf ort hecal culat i
ons.Thusat echni cian o Afterthepr ocesshasbeencompl et
ed,t
hedi r
ectuploadi ngofthe
mustcol l
ectatl eastf ivedat apoi ntt r
av er singi nonedi rect i
on, devicepar ameter savoidst i
me- consumingconfigurati
on.
followedbyatl eastf ourmor ei nt heopposi tedi r
ect i
on,sot hat o This met hod hel ps achi eve opt i
mum av ail
abil
it
y of pl ant
eachl eghasf ivepoi nts, i
ncl udi ngt hei nf l
ect ionpoi nt. equipment .
Ifanyoft heseer ror si sgr eatert hanorequalt ot hedesi redaccur acy o The pr oduction does notneed t o be suspended r esul
ti
ng in
forat est ,thent hei nst rumenthasf ailedandmustbeadj ust ed. considerablesav ings.
o What ’
s mor e,f r
equentt estf uncti
ons allow costly cali
brat
ion
Hand-
Hel
dDev
ice cyclestobeext ended.
77
 - Thenormalcal
i
brationadjust
menti
nvol
vessett
ingonl
ythezer
ovalue
 Complet
eon-si
teveri
fi
cat
ion andthespanv alue,sincether
eiseffect
ivel
yonlyoneadjust
able
o Handheldelectr
onicver
ifi
cati
onnotonl
ycheckstheaccuracyof oper
ati
onbetweentheinputandout
putasil
lust
rat
edbelow.
thedevi
ceundertest
,butalsoper
for
msacompl etecheckofthe
enti
remeasur
ementchain.

 Simul
ati
onoft hepr ocess
o As saf ety during oper ati
on i s considered a ‘must ’forplant
operat ors,testi
ngt hesaf etyandf unct
ionalit
yofequi pmentint he
processi softenindi spensabl e.
o Simul ation of t he measur ing signals dur i
ng cal ibr
ati
on or
veri
ficat i
onpr ocessescanachi evethat
.
o Handhel d cal i
brator s can si mulate process st ates,i nf l
ow
applicat i
onsf orex ampl e,evenwi t
houtreal fl
ow. - Thisprocedureisof t
enreferr
edtoasaZer oandSpanCal i
brati
on.I
f
o Handhel dv eri
fi
cat i
ondev icescansi mulat
edi ff
erentf l
owr atesin therel
ationshipbetweentheinputandout putrangeoftheinstr
ument
thepr ocess;hi ghandl ow l imitv al
ues,r ecei
vi
ngsi gnalchains i
snotl i
near,theny oumustknowt hetransferfunct
ionbeforeyoucan
(operat i
onofv alvesorcont rolloops)anddi f
fer
entflowbehav i
our calcul
ateexpectedoutputsforeachinputvalue.
inpiping, forexampl e,suchasf lowcurvesi nbottl
i
ngmachi nes. - Withoutknowi ngtheexpectedoutputval
ues, youcannotcal
culat
ethe
perfor
manceer r
ors.
Cal
ibrati
onMet hodsusi ngHandhel dEqui pment
- Cal i
brat i
on is an impor t
antaspectofan i nstrument’sl i
fe cycle. Cal
ibr
at i
ngaHar tInst rument
Howev er,i
tcanbedi ffi
cul tt
ochooset hecor rectcali
brati
onmet hod - Itisi mpor tantt onot et hatinmostcases,pr opercal ibrationofa
tosui ty ourrequir
ement sandspeci fi
cat i
on. HARTi nst rumentr equi restheuseofacommuni cat or(handhel dorPC)
- Handhel ddev i
cesar et y
pi cal
lyusedt ocal ibrateparamet ersincl
uding thatiscapabl eofi ssui ngdev i
cespeci ficcommands( i
nlay er7) .
flow, pressure,temper at
ur eandconduct ivi
ty. - Accor dingt oi nternat ionalst andards, cal
ibrati
on  i
sacompar i
sonof
- Takenasawhol e,thebenef i
tsoft hesesy stemsar enumer ousand thedev iceundert estagai nstat raceabl erefer encei nstrument( a
obv iousi ntermsoft ime, costandconv enience. calibrator)anddocument at
ionofthiscompar i
son.
- Handhel dequi pmental lowsel ectronicv erif
icati
onandcal ibrat
ionin - Inor dert odoacal ibr ationofaHARTdev ice,at raceabl emet rological
situationswher einl
inecal ibr
ati
oni sessent i
albutmobi lerigsmaybe referencedev i
cei sneeded, whichcanbeahandhel dcal i
br ator
impr act i
cal. - Conf igurat i
on meansusi ngthedigitalcommuni cat i
onpr otocolasa
- Internalpr oceduresorof fici
alrequirement sandconf ormi t
yr easons wayt ochangeset tingsi nsi
det hefi
elddev icefrom t hedev i
ceorf rom
mi ghtal sost i
pulatethatcer taininstrument smustbecheckedmor e aremot el ocation.
frequent lythanot herstov er
ifythatt heyar ewor kingcor r
ectlyinthe - Conf igurat i
oncanbedonewi thaPCandconf igur ationsof twar eora
pr ocess. handhel dcommuni cat or .
- Itisi mpor tantt or emembert hatal thoughacommuni cat orcanbe
Cal
ibr
ati
ngaConv ent
ionalI
nstrument usedf orconf i
gurat ionandchecki ngdi agnostici nformat ion,itcannot
- Foraconv enti
onal4-20mA i nst
rument,amul t
ipl
epointtestthat beusedf ormet r
ologi calcal i
brati
ont ocheckt hemeasur ement( PV)
sti
mul ates t
he inputand measur es t
he outputis suf
fi
cientt o accur acyofaf i
elddev ice.
characteri
zetheoveral
laccuracyofthetr
ansmit
ter. - Conf iguringpar amet ersofaHARTt ransmi t
terwi thacommuni cator

78
 i
snotmet r
ologi cal cal ibrati
onanddoesnotassur eaccur acy.
- Forar ealmet r
ol ogi calcal ibration,at raceabl ereferencest andar dis
alway sneeded.
- Cal ibrationpr ocedur ef oraHARTi nstrumenti ssi gni
ficant l
ydi f
ferent
than f or a conv ent ional i nstrument . The speci fi
c cal i
bration
requi rement sdependupont heappl icat i
on.
- Ift he appl ication uses t he di gitalr epr esentati
on oft he process
var i
abl ef ormoni tor ingorcont rol,thent hesensori nputsect i
onmust
beex pli
citl
yt estedandadj ust ed.
- Not et hatt hisr eadi ng i scompl etelyi ndependentoft hemi ll
iamp
out put ,andhasnot hi ngt odowi t
ht hez eroorspanset tings.
- ThePVasr eadv iaHARTcommuni cat i
oncont i
nuest obeaccur ate
ev enwheni tisout sidet heassi gnedout putr ange.
- Ifthecur rentl oopout puti snotused( thati sthetransmi tterisusedas
adi gitalonl ydev ice) ,t hent hei nputsect ioncalibrati
oni sallthati s
requi red.
- Ift heappl icationusest hemi lli
ampout put,thent heout putsect ion
mustbeexpl i
citlytest edandcal i
brat ed.
- Not et hatt hiscal i
br at i
oni sindependentoft hei nputsect i
on,and
agai n, hasnot hingt odowi ththez eroandspanset ti
ngs.
- Ift her ei sadesi ret ov alidatet heov erallperformanceofaHART
transmi tter,r un a Zer o and Span t estj ustl ike a conv entional
i
nst r ument .
- Howev er,passi ng t hi st estdoesnotnecessar il
yi ndicat et hatt he
transmi tterisoper at i
ngcor rect l
y.

Pastpaper
s

KENYANATI
ONALEXAMI NATI
ONCOUNCI
L
PASTPAPERS

2521/
202 I NDUSTRI
ALCONTROLSYSTEMS
June/
Jul
y2013

6.a)i
) Statethef
ourst
epsi
ntheoper
ati
onofpr
ogr
ammabl
e
l
ogi
ccont
roll
er(
PLC)
79
 Therear efourbasicstepsi nt heoper ati
onofal lPLCs; InputScan,
Program Scan,Out putScan,and Housekeepi ng.These st eps
continuallytakeplaceinar epeat i
ngloop. (
ii
i)Inst
ruct
ionLi
st(I
L) :Alowlev
el“assemblerl
ike”l
anguagethatis
(i
)I nputScan:Det ectst hest ateofal linputdev icest hatar e basedonsimil
arinstr
ucti
onsl
istl
anguagesfoundinawi derange
connect edtothePLC oftoday
’sPLCs.
(i
i)Pr ogr am Scan:Execut est heusercr eatedpr ogram l ogic
(i
ii
)Out putScan:Ener gizesorde- energizeallout putdev icest hat LD R1
ar econnect edtothePLC. MPC RESET
(i
v)Housekeepi ng:Oper ationalcommands t o t he cont r
olled LD PRESS_1
dev ices. Thi s st ep i ncludes communi cations wi th  
ST MAX_ PRESS
pr ogrammi ngtermi nals,internaldi
agnost ics,etc..
.
RESET: LD  
 
 0
ST A_X43
i
i)Expl
ainwi
thaidofexampl esthefol
lowi
ngPLCpr
ogr
ammi
ng
l
anguages
I
) Functi
onalblockdiagr
ams (
iv)StructuredText(ST)–Ahighleveltextl
anguagethatencourages
st
ructuredprogramming.I
thasal anguagestruct
ure(syntax)t
hat
I
I) I nst
ruct
ionl
ists
st
ronglyr esembles PASCAL and suppor t
s a wi de range of
st
andar dfunct
ionsandoperat
ors.Forexample;
(
i)Functi
on Bl ock Diagr
am ( FBD) -A gr aphicall anguage for
depi
cti
ngsi gnalanddataf l
owst hr
oughre-usabl
ef uncti
onblocks. I
fSpeed1>100. 0then
FBDisv eryusef ulf
orex pressi
ngt hei
nterconnecti
onofcont rol   
 Flow_ Rat
e:=50.
0+
syst
em algorit
hmsandl ogic Offset_A1;
Else
  
 Flow_ Rat
e:=100.
0;St
eam:
=
ON
End_ I
f;
Sequential
FunctionChar t(SFC):Amet hodofpr ogrammi ngcomplexcontr
ol
(
ii
)Ladder Di agr
am ( LD) :Tr adit
ionalladder logi
ci s graphi
cal
syst
emsatamor ehi ghl
yst ructur
edl evel.ASFCpr ogram i
san
progr
ammi nglanguage.Init
ial
lyprogrammedwi thsi
mplecontacts
over
v iewoft hecontrolsystem,inwhi cht hebasicbui
ldi
ngblocks
thatsimul
atedt heopeni ngandcl osi
ngofrelays,LadderLogic
areent i
reprogram fi
les.Eachpr ogram fi
lei scr
eatedusi
ngoneof
progr
ammi nghasbeenexpandedt oincl
udesuchf uncti
onsas
theot hertypesofpr ogrammi ngl anguages.TheSFC appr oach
counter
s,t
imers,shi
ftregist
ers,andmat hoperati
ons
coordinateslarge,compl i
catedpr ogrammi ngt asksi
ntosmal l
er,
moremanageabl etasks.

80
 (
ii
)A human–machi ne i nterface  orHMIi st he appar atus or
dev i
cewhi chpr esent spr ocesseddat at oahumanoper ator,
andt hrought his,thehumanoper atormoni torsandcont r
ol s
thepr ocess.TheHMIofaSCADAsy st em iswher edat ai s
processedandpr esent edt obev iewedandmoni t
or edbya
human oper ator .Thi si nt erface usual lyi ncludes cont rol
b)Wri
teani
nst
ruct
ionl
istf
ort
hel
adderdi
agr
am pr
ovi
dedi
nfi
g wher et hei ndi vidual cani nter facewi t
ht heSCADAsy stem
below (
ii
i)
A super v i
sor y( comput er)sy stem/Mast erTer mi nalUni t
(MTU) :
-gat her ing ( acqui r
ing)dat a on t he pr ocess and
sendi ng commands( cont rol)t ot hepr ocess.Thi si st he
server sandsof twar er esponsi bl ef orcommuni cati
ngwi th
thef ieldequi pment( RTUs,PLCs,et c),andt hent ot heHMI
softwar er unni ngonwor kst ationsi nt hecont r
olr oom,or
elsewher e.
(
iv)
Progr ammabl el ogiccont roller  
(PLCs)usedasf ielddev i
ces
becauset heyar emor eeconomi cal,v er satil
e,f l
exible,and
conf i
gur abl et hanspeci al-pur poseRTUs.
(
v)Communi cat ion Net wor k: Communi cat i
on i nfrastructure
c)Desi
gnal adderprogram foranindustrialcont
rolsystem t
hat: connect i
ngt hesuper v i
sor ysy st em t ot her emot et erminal
-countstenobjectspassingalongaconvey erbelt; units.Thecommuni cat ionequi pmentneededt otransf erthe
-closesa def lecti
ng gate when t hatnumberhas been datat oandf rom di f ferentsi test ot hecent ralstati
on.The
defl
ectedintoacar t
on; medi um usedcanei therbecabl eort elephone.Remot esar e
-Allowsat imeof5 secondsbet weent het enthobject usual lynotAccessi blebyt elephonel i
nes.Theuseofr adio
countedandt heclosingofthedeflector. offersaneconomi calsol ution.Modemsar eusedt oconnect
ther emot esi test othehost .
(
vi)
Field I nst rument ation:r ef erst o t he dev i
ces t hat ar e
7.a)Descri
bet hef ol
lowi ngcomponent susedi naSCADAsy st
em connect edt ot heequi pmentormachi nesbei ngcont rol
led
i)Remot eTer mi naluni t(RTU) andmoni tor edbyt heSCADAsy stem . Thesear esensor sfor
ii
)HumanMachi neI nterface( HMI) moni t ori
ngcer tainpar amet ers;andact uat orsf orcont roll
ing
ASCADAsy stem usual lyconsi st
softhef ol
lowingcomponents: certainmodul esoft hesy stem.
(
i)Remot eTer mi nalUni t( RTU) :
-RTUi sadev i
ceinst
all
edata
remot el ocat i
ont hatcol l
ectsdat a,codest hedataintoa b)Explai
nt he fol
lowing str
ategi
es used t
o develop SCADA
formatt hati stransmi ttableandt ransmitsthedatabacktoa securi
ty
centralstat i
on, ormast er( superv
isorysystem).AnRTUal so i)Borderr
outerFir
ewalls
coll
ectsi nformat ionf r
om t hemast erdeviceandimplements ii
)Proxyserver
processest hatar edirect edbyt hemast er (
i)Borderrouteri
sar out
erthati
susuall
ydeployedinfrontof
81
 theor ganizat i
on'smai nf i
rewal l
sandper formssomebasi c (
vi)Phase1:TheDESI GNoft hesy stem architect urei ncludest he
checks on net workact iv
ity
,such as i ngress and egr ess communi cati
onsy stem.Al soinvolvedint hi si nitialphasewi l
l
fil
ter
ingt hatmaybehel pfulinst oppingsomeI nt
ernet-based beanysi teinstrument at i
ont hatisnotcur r ent lyi nexi stence,
wor msf rom r eachi
ngt heor ganization'sf i
rewall
.Al though butwi llber equiredt omoni t
ordesi r
edpar amet ers.Desi gn
stage translatet he desi gn basi s documenti nto a sy stem
the firewallshoul d also block such wor ms,hav ing the
designanddocumentt hedesi gncl earl
yandcompl et elyso
Inter
netbor derr outersdosocant akesomel oadof fthe thatitcanbeconst ructedpr operly,
commi ssi onedcompl etely
,
fir
ewall.Dur ingamaj orwor mi ncident,organizationsmi ght andoper atedandmai nt ainedr eli
ablyandef ficient ly.
needt or econf igur
esomeoft heirInternetborderr outersto (
vii) Phase2:TheSUPPLYofRTU,communi cat ion,andHMI
blocki ncomi ngwor m act i
vit
ysot hatt hef ir
ewal l
sdonot equipment ,whi chconsi stsofaPCsy stem andt her equi red
becomeov erloaded. power f
ul graphicandal ar m sof t
warepr ograms.
(
viii
) Phase 3:The PROGRAMMI NG oft he communi cation
(
ii
)Pr oxy ser ver is a ser ver ( a comput er sy stem or an equipmentandt hepower fulHMIgr aphicandal arm sof t
war e
appl ication)thatact sasani ntermedi aryf orr equestsf rom programs.
client s seeking r esources f rom ot herser v
ers.A cl ient (
ix)Phase 4: The I NSTALLATI ON of t he communi cation
connect st othepr oxyserver,r equest i
ngsomeser vi
ce,such equipmentandt hePCsy stem.Thest agei nv olvesi nst all
ing
andpl acingi ntooper ationt heSCADAsy st em har dwar eand
asaf il
e,connect ion,webpage,orot herr esourceav ailable
softwarei ncompl iancewi tht hedesigndocument s.
from adi ffer
entser verandt hepr oxyser v erev al
uatest he (
x )Phase 5: The COMMI SSI ONI NG of t he sy stem,wher e
requestasawayt osimplif
yandcont roli tscompl exity.A communi cati
onandHMIpr ogrammi ngpr obl emsar esol ved,
proxyser verisassoci at
edwi thorpar tofagat ewayser ver andt hesy st
em i spr ov ent othecl i
ent,andoper atort raining
thatsepar ates the enterprise net wor kf rom t he out side andsy stem document at ioni spr ovi
ded.Commi ssi oningi st he
net wor kandaf irewallser v
ert hatpr otect st heent erprise formalpr ocessofv erifyinganddocument i
ngt hatt hei nstalled
net wor kf r
om out sideint
rusion.Pr oxyser vershav etwomai n SCADA sy stem compl ieswi thandper for msi naccor dance
pur poses: withthedesi gni ntent ,asdef inedinthedesi gndocument ation
- I mpr ov ePerformance:Pr oxyser versimpr ove
per f
or mancef orgroupsofuser s.Thisi sbecausei t 8 a) Stateanyt wodi sadvant agesofusi ngnet wor kbri
dgesi n
sav est heresultsofallrequest sf oracer tai
namountof ext
endingnetwor ks
ti
me. (i) Br i
dgingdoesnotacqui reanyaddr essplacementr elat
ed
- Fi lt
erRequest s:Proxyser verscanal sobeusedt of i
l
t er tothephy sicaladdressoft heconnect edt erminal
s.Thus
request s.Forexampl e,acompanymi ghtuseapr oxy adat apacketissentt oev eryaddress.
serv ertopreventi t
sempl oy eesf rom accessi nga (ii
) Al lbri
dgesar eunabl etor eadspeci fi
cI Paddr ess;t
hey
speci fi
csetofWebsi t
es. aremor econcer nedwi tht heMACaddr esses.
(ii
i
) Br i
dgescannothel ptobui ldacommuni cat i
onnetwor k
c) Amanuf act
uri
ngcompanywantst odevel
opasupervisor
y betweent henet worksofdi ff
erentarchitectures.
control and data acqui
sit
ion (SCADA) syst
em in i t
s (iv
) Br i
dgest ransferall
t ypesofbr oadcastmessages, t
hus
establi
shment.Descri
be the fi
ve phases of cr
eat
ing a bri
dgesar eunabl etol i
mitt hescopeoft hesemessages.
functi
onalSCADAsystem. (v) Ext remelylargenetwor kscannotr elyonbr i
dges;
82
 ther
eforethel
argenet
worksasWANwhi chareIP slav
edev i
ceto continuouslybroadcastast andardHART
addressspeci
fi
ccannotmakeuseofit
. repl
ymessage( e.g.,thevalueofthepr ocessvari
abl
e).The
(
vi) Iti
sunabletohandl
emor ecompl
exandv ar
iabl
edat
a mast errecei
ves the message att he higherrate unt
ili
t
l
oadsuchasoccur r
ingfr
om WAN. i
nstructsthe sl
avet o stop bursti
ng.Use ofbur stmode
  enablesmor ethanonepassi veHART dev i
cetol i
stento
b)Descri
bethefoll
owi
ngHARTcommuni
cat
ionmodes: communi cati
onsont heHARTl oop.
i
)Mast ersl
avemode
i
i)Burstmode c)CargohandlingCompanyLi mit
edi slocatedinindust
rialarea
ofNai robi.Int heirnei ghbourhood are othercompani es
deali
ng wi th motorr ewi ndi
ng and l athe machini
ng.The
companyi ntendstoi mplementanet workintheiroff
icesand
youhavebeenconsul tedt oadvi cethem ont hemer i
tsof
eachoft hef ol
lowingt ypesofcabl esi nordertohel pthem
makei nformeddeci si
onont herightcablesel
ect i
onfrom the
fol
lowing:
i
)UTP
i
i)STP
i
ii
)Fibre
Whatadvicewoul dyouof f
er?

(
i) UTP
PRO:Mostf lexi
ble;cheapestcabl e(butrequir
es expensiv
e
supportcomponent s)
;easytoinstal
l;
easytoaddusers;maybe
abl
et ouseex i
sti
ngphonecablei fdatagr
ade
(
i)Mast er Slave Mode: Thi s means t hat dur i
ng nor mal CON:Shor testusablecablel ength;suscept
ibl
et o el
ectr
ical
operat on,each sl
i ave( field dev i
ce) communi cati
on is i
nterf
erence;unsecure;generall
ynotgood f oruse between
ini
ti
atedbyamast ercommuni cati
ondev i
ce.Twomast ers buil
dings
can connectt o each HART l oop.Thepr imar ymast eris (
i)Shi
i el
dedtwistedpair(STP)issi
milartoUTPexcepti tcontai
nsa
generallyadistr
ibutedcont rolsystem (DCS) ,programmabl e copperbr
aidjackett
o‘shi
eld’
thewir
esf r
om elect
ri
cali
nter
fer
ence.I
t
logi
ccont r
oll
er( PLC),oraper sonalcomput er(PC).The cansupportt
ransmissi
onsovergr
eaterdi
stancesthanUTP.
(
ii
i)Fiber
-Opt
ic
secondar ymastercanbeahandhel dt erminaloranot herPC.
Slavedev i
cesincludetransmi t
ters,actuators,andcont rol
l
ers PRO:Fastesttransmissi
onr ate;notsuscept
ibletoel
ect
ri
cal
thatrespondt ocommandsf rom thepr imar yorsecondar y i
nter
fer
ence;secure;goodforusebetweenbuil
dings
mast er. CON:Mostexpensi v
e;rel
ati
velydif
fi
cul
ttoworkwi t
h
(
iv)Coaxi
alCabl
e
(
ii
)BurstMode:I tenabl es fastercommuni cation (3–4 data
PRO:Flex
ibl
eandeasyt oinst
all
;rel
ati
vel
ygoodr
esist
anceto
updat espersecond) .I
nburstmode, themast erinstr
uctsthe
el
ect
ronicint
erf
erence;el
ectr
onic suppor
tcomponents ar
e
83
 rel
ati
vel
yinexpensi
ve t
hatmayar
isei
nshar
ed-
li
nkar
chi
tect
ures.
CON:Shor tcablel
ength;moreexpensi
vethanUTP;unsecure; Di
sadv
ant
ages
hardtochangeconfigur
ati
on;
thi
nnetgener
all
ynotgoodforuse - Themor eextensiv
et henetwor k,i
nt ermsofscopeorof
betweenbuil
dings physi
calarea,thegreatertheinvestmentnecessarytobuild
i
twi l
lbe,due,amongot herconsiderat
ions,totheamountof
d)Wit
hai dofadi agr am,descr i
bet hemesht opologyusedi n cabli
ngandt henumberofhar dwareportsitwillr
equi
re.For
i
ndust
rialnet worksandst ateitsadvant age. thi
sreason,suchnet worksareuncommon.
I
n a mesh net wor k,devices are connect ed - Becauseev erydev i
cemustbeconnect edto everyother
wi t
h many r edundant i nter
connect ions devi
ce,inst
all
ationandreconnectionarediff
icul
t.
between net work nodes.I nat rue mesh
topologyev erynodehasaconnect i
ont oev ery
othernode i nt he networ k.Ther e ar et wo
typesofmesht opologi
es:
(i
) Ful lmesht opology  
occur swhen
ev erynodehasaci rcuitconnect ingittoev eryot hernodei n
anet work.Ful lmeshi sv er
y  
expensivet oi mpl ementbut
yieldst hegreat estamountofr edundancy ,soi nt heev ent
thatoneoft hosenodesf ails,networktraffi
ccanbedi rected
toanyoft heot hernodes.Ful lmeshi susuallyr eservedf or
backbonenet wor ks.
(i
i
) Par ti
almesht opol ogy isl essexpensi vet oimpl ementand
yieldslessredundancyt hanf ullmesht opology.Wi t
hpar ti
al
mesh,somenodesar eor ganizedi nafullmeshschemebut
other sareonl yconnect edt ooneort woi nt henet wor k.
Par ti
almesh t opol ogy is commonl yf ound in per i
pher al
net worksconnect edtoaf ullmeshedbackbone.
Adv
ant
ages
- Point-
to-pointl ine configurat i
on makes identif
icati
on and
i
solati
onoff aultseasy .
- Messagest r
av elthroughadedi cat
edline,directl
yt ot he
i
ntendedr ecipient;pri
v acyandsecur i
tyar
et husenhanced.
- Should a f ault occur i n a gi ven link, only those
communi cati
ons bet ween t hatspecifi
c pai rofdev ices 2521/202 I
NDUSTRIALCONTROLSYSTEMS
shari
ngt hel i
nkwi llbeaf fected. Oct/Nov2012
- Dedicatedl i
nksensur et hateachconnect ioncarriesit
sown 6a)Dr awalabel
edbl
ockdi
agram ofthei
nter
nalarchit
ectur
eofa
dataload,t her ebypr event i
ngt hesortoft raf
fi
cpr oblems Progr
ammableLogi
cContr
oll
er(PLC)andstat
et hefunct
ionof
84
 eachbl
ock (
i)Unitary:TheUni taryPLC i st ypicallyt hesmal lestand l east
expensi ve.I twoul d be used i n a smal lmachi ne orf ixed
applicationsuchasov erheaddoorcont rolsorast and- alone
partsi nspect ion sy stem.They ar e notex pandabl e so t he
applicationi sl imi t
edt oon- boar dI /O.Ther ear e,howev er,some
verypower fuluni t
sav ail
abl ewi thbui l
ti nGSM,col orscr eens,
andwebser v ers.Mosthav e1or2anal ogI /Ochannel saswel l
asahi ghspeedi nputandpul set rainout putf orsi mpl emot i
on
control.
(
ii
)Modul ar :TheModul arPLCsst artwi thapr ocessorwi thaf ewor
no on- boar dI /O.They t ypical l
y mountt o a DI N r ailand
somet imesr equi reasepar at epowersuppl y
.Addi tionalI /Oas
wellasspeci altymodul esal sosnapont ot heDI Nr ailandpl ug
intothepr ocessororadj acentmodul e.Modul arPLCsar eused
inappl icat i
onswher eahi gherI / O counti sneededorwhen
using speci alty modul es such as quadr ature encoder s,
thermocoupl ei nput s,et c.They ar e al so usef uli n smal l
applicationst hathav eopt ionsor“ upgr ades”av ail
abl et ot heend
user.Sy st emscanbeex panded( withincer tainl imi ts)wi thout
addingaddi tional r
ackspace.
(
ii
i)
RackMount ingPLCsar eusual l
ymor eexpensi v e,ex pandabl e,
andpower fult hanuni tar yormodul arPLCs.Ther ackpr ov i
desa
powerandcommuni cat i
onbackpl anet hatgr eat lyincr easest he
communi cationr atebet weent hepr ocessorandt hemodul esas
wellasal lowi ngsomespeci altymodul est ocommuni cat ewi t
h
each ot herwi thoutt hepr ocessor .In somebr ands,mul tipl
e
processor scanbei nt hesamer ackandshar et hei nput s.Racks
alsoallowf orr edundantpr ocessor sforcr iti
cal systemssuchas
wast e wat erpumps orf i
re cont rolsy stems.The t ypes of
modul esav ailabl ef orr acksy stemsar ef armor eex tensi vet han
modul arsy stems.Thenumberofav ai l
abl eI /O poi ntsi sal so
b)Descri
bet hefol
lowingPr
ogr
ammabl
eLogi
cCont
rol
ler(
PLC) much hi gheri nt he r ack sy stems.Ar ound 1000 f orsome
sy
stem st
yles modul arPLCsv ersusov er100, 000f ort hesamebr andofr ack
i
)Unitar
y system
i
i)Modular
i
ii
)RackMount ing c)St
ateanyt
wopr
ogr
ammi
ngl
anguagesusedi
nPLC
85
 Part3ofIEC61131deal swithprogrammi ngl anguagesand
defi
nestwogr aphical andtwot extualPLCpr ogrammi ng Program scan:Fol l
owingt heinputscan,t heCPUent ersits
l
anguagest andards: userpr ogr
am execut i
on,orpr ogram scan.The ex ecution
(i
) Ladderdi agr am (LD),gr
aphical i
nvolvesstar
tingatthepr ogram'
sf ir
stinstr
ucti
on,thenmov ing
(i
i
) Funct i
onblockdi agr
am (FBD) ,
graphical ont othesecondi nstruct
ionandcar ry
ingouti t
sex ecution
(i
i
i) St ructuredtext( ST),t
extual sequence.Thi s conti
nues t othe lastpr ogr
am i nst
ructi
on.
(i
v) I nstr
uctionlist(IL),t
extual Throughouttheuser -progr
am ex ecuti
on,theCPUcont inuall
y
(v
) Sequent ial
f uncti
onchar t(SFC),haselement sto keepsitsoutputimage( memor y)tableup-t
o-date.
organizepr ogramsf orsequent i
alandpar all
elcont
rol
processing. Outputscan:Dur i
ng program scan,the out putmodul es
themselvesar enotkeptcont
inual
lyuptodate.
7a)Wi t htheaidofabl ockdiagram,expl ainhow aPLCpr ocess Inst
ead,t heent i
reoutputimaget abl
eist ransfer
redt othe
i
nputf r
om t hesensors outputmodul esduringtheoutputscanwhi
chcomesaf t
erthe
nputscan:Dur
I i
ngt hei
nputscan,t hecurrentstatusofevery program execut i
on.Thust he outputdevi
cesar e act
ivat
ed
i
nputmodul ei sst oredinthei nputi mage( memor y)table, accordi
ngl yduri
ngtheoutputscan.
bringingitup-
to-date.Thusal lthest atusoftheinputdev i
ces
(whichi ntur
nisconnect edtot hei nputmodul e)isupdatedin b)i
)Def i
neaSCADAsy st
em
thei nputmemoryt able. SCADA r efer
st ot he combinati
on oft el
emet r
yand dat a
acquisi
ti
on.SCADA encompasses t he col lect
ing oft he
i
nformat i
on,transferr
ingitbacktot hecent ralsit
e,carry
ing
outanynecessar yanalysi
sandcont r
olandt hendisplay
ing
thati
nformationonanumberofoper atorscreensordi spl
ays.
Ther equi
redcont rolacti
onsar ethenconv ey edbackt othe
process.

i
i)Stateanyt hr
eeadvant agesofusi ng PLC i n aSCADA
sy
stem
Theadv antagesofthePLC/DCSSCADAsy stem are:
Costef fecti
veforcont r
oll
ingcompl exsy stems.
Flexibleand can ber eapplied t
o cont rolot hersy st
ems
quicklyandeasi l
y.
Comput ati
onalabil
i
tiesallowmor esophi sticatedcontrol
.
Troubl e shooti
ng ai ds make pr ogr ammi ng easierand
reducedownt i
me.
Reliablecomponent smaket heseli
kelyt ooper ateforyears
befor efai
lure.
86
 Thecomput ercanrecordandst oreaverylar
geamountof (
ii
)Dev iceNet  isanet wor ksy st em usedi nt heaut omat i
oni ndust ry
data. to i nterconnect cont r ol dev i
ces f or dat a exchange. I t
Thedatacanbedi spl
ayedinanywayt heuserrequi
res. uses  Cont rollerAr eaNet wor k ast hebackbonet echnol ogyand
Thousandsofsensorsoverawi deareacanbeconnected defi
nesanappl icationl ay ert ocov erar angeofdev i
cepr ofiles.
tothesyst
em. Typical appl icat i
ons i ncl ude i nf or mat ion ex change,saf et y
Theoperat
orcanincorporat
er ealdat
asimulati
onsi
ntothe devices, andl ar geI /Ocont r
ol networ ks. 
system. (
ii
i)PROFI BUS  (Pr ocess Field Bus) i s a standar d
Manyt y
pesofdatacanbecol lectedf
rom theRTUs. for
 fieldbus  communi cat ion whi ch i s a wi del y accept ed
Thedatacanbev i
ewedf rom anywhere,
notjustonsit
e. i
nternat i
onalnet wor kingst andar d,commonl yf oundi npr ocess
controlandi nl argeassembl yandmat erialhandl i
ngmachi nes
Thedisadv antagesare: i
n aut omat i
ont echnol ogy .
- I tsuppor tssi ngle-cabl ewi ri
ngofmul ti-i
nputsensorbl ocks,
Thesy stem ismor ecomplicatedthanthesensort
opanel
pneumat icv alves, compl exi ntel l
igentdev ices, smal lersub-
ty
pe.
net wor ks( suchasASi ), andoper at orint er faces.
Dif
ferentoper at
ingskil
l
sar erequired,
suchassystem
- I tisanopen, vendori ndependentst andar d.I tadher est ot he
analy
st sandpr ogrammer .
OSImodel ,ensur i
ngt hatdev icesf rom av ar i
et yofdi f
ferent
Withthousandsofsensor sthereissti
llal
otofwir
etodeal vendor scancommuni cat eeasi l
yandef fect ively.
wit
h. - The bus i nterfacing har dwar ei si mpl ement ed on ASI C
Theoper atorcanseeonl yasf arasthePLC. (Appl icationSpeci fi
cI nt egr atedCi rcui t)chi pspr oducedby
mul t
iplev endor s,andar ebasedonRS- 485aswel last he
c)Descr ibet hef ollowingcommuni cati
onsy stemsusedi na Eur opeanEN50170El ect ri
cal speci fi
cat ion.
SCADAsy stem. - Pr ofi
Bus uses 9- Pi n D- type connect or s ( impedance
i)Et hernet ter minat ed)or12mm r ound ( M12- st yle)qui ck-disconnect
ii)DeviceNet connect or s.Thenumberofnodesi sl i
mi tedt o127.
iii
)Pr ofibus - Thedi stancesuppor tedi supt o24km ( wi thr epeat ersand
(i
)Et her networ ksont heprinci
pleofmedi aaccesscont roll
edbya fiberopt ict ransmi ssion) ,wi thspeedsv ary ingf rom 9600bps
coll
isiondet ecti
onmechani sm.Eachst ati
oni si denti
fi
edbya to12Mbps.Themessagesi z ecanbeupt o244by tesof
uniquekey ,orMACaddr ess,toensuret hatev erycomput eron dat apernodepermessage( 12by tesofov erheadf ora
anEt hernetnet wor khasadi ff
erentaddr ess.Thi stechnology maxi mum messagel engt hof256by tes) ,whi let hemedi um
knownasCar ri
erSenseMul t
ipl
eAccesswi thColli
sionDet ection accesscont rolmechani smsar epol l
ingandt okenpassi ng.
(CSMA/ CD)ensur es thatonl y one station can t ransmita - Pr ofi
Bus suppor t
st wo mai nt ypes ofdev ices,namel y,
message on t he medi um ata t ime.Successi v
e Et hernet mast ersandsl aves.
upgr adeshav egivenr i
set otheIEEE802. 3st andardwhi chonl y  Mast erdev icescont rolt hebusandwhent heyhav et he
definest hechar acteri
sti
csoft hephy sicallayers;thewayt he rightt o access t he bus,t hey may t ransf ermessages
dataaccessest henet workandt hedataf ramemustbedef i
ned wi t
houtanyr emot er equest . Thesear er efer r
ed t o as
byf urtherlayers. activ est at i
ons
87
  Slav e dev ices ar e t ypically per i
pher al dev ices i .
e. school,comput erlabor atory,orof f
icebui ldingusi ngnet work
transmi t
ters/sensor s and act uators. They may onl y medi a.
acknowl edger eceivedmessagesor ,att her equestofa (
ii
) I
nternet i
s a gl obal sy stem of i nterconnect ed computer
mast er ,tr
ansmi tmessagest othatmast er.Thesear eal so networ ks t
hatuset hest andar d Internetpr otocolsui t
e (TCP/IP)
referredt oaspassi vest ations. toser vesev eralbil
lionuser swor l
dwi de.I tisa net wor kof
Therearet wov ar i
ationsofPROFI BUSi nuse: networ ks t
hatconsi stsofmi lli
onsofpr i
vat e,public,academi c,
o PROFI BUSDP  (Decent r
alizedPer i
pher als)isusedt ooper at e business,andgov ernmentnet wor ks,ofl ocalt ogl obalscope,
sensor s and act uatorsv i
a a cent rali
zed cont rol
ler i n thatar el i
nkedbyabr oadar rayofel ect roni
c,wi r
elessand
product ion( factor y)automat ionappl i
cat i
ons. opticalnet wor ki
ng t echnol ogies.The I nter
netcar ries an
o PROFI BUS PA  (Process Aut omat i
on)i s used t o moni tor extensiver angeofi nformat ionr esourcesandser vi
ces,such
measur ing equi pmentv i
a a pr ocess cont rolsy stem i n as t he inter-l
i
nked hy per t
ext  
document s oft he Wor ld Wide
processaut omat ionappl ications.Thi sv arianti sdesi gned Web  (WWW) ,t
he i
nfrast ructure tosuppor temai l,and  peer
-t
o-
forusei nexpl osion/hazar dousar eas( Ex-zone  0and1) .The peernet wor ks.
Phy sicalLay er( i
.e.the cabl e)conf ormst oI EC 61158- 2,
whi chal l
owspowert obedel iver edov ert hebust of ield b) Usi ng OSI refer
ence modeldi agr
am i ndi
cate di
ff
erent
instrument s,whi lel i
mi t
ingcur rentf lowssot hatexpl osi ve encapsul
ati
onpr ocessatever
ypeer -t
opeercommuni cation
condi ti
onsar enotcr eated, eveni famal funct ionoccur s.The l
ay eroftwoRemot eTermi
nalUnit(RTU)ofaSCADAsy st
em
numberofdev i
cesat tachedt oaPAsegmenti slimitedby start
ingwit
hthetopmostdownt othelowestlay
ers.
thisf eature.PAhasadat at ransmi ssi
onr at eof31. 25kbps.

d)Differ
entiatebet weencent rali
zedanddistr
ibut
iveappr oaches
usedindesigni ngaSCADAsy stem.
Therehav ebeent womai nappr oachestofol
l
owi ndesigningthe
SCADAsy stem:
Centrali
zed,wher easi ngl
ecomput erormainframeper for
ms
al
l pl
antmoni t
ori
ngandal lplantdatai
sstor
edononedat abase
whichresidesont hiscomput er.
Distr
ibuted,wher etheSCADAsy stem i
ssharedacrosssev eral
smallcomput er
s(usuall
yPCs) .

8.a)Descr i
bet hefol
lowi
ngnet
wor
kconnecti
ongivi
ngexamples
i
neachcase.
i)LAN
ii
)Internet
(i
)Local Ar ea Networ
k LAN –is a 
comput
er net
work 
that
i
nterconnectscomputer
sinali
mit
edareasuchasahome,
88
c) AnAl arm sy st em isusedi nconjunctionwi thanaut omated
bot
tli
ngsy stem i nami l
kbot t
li
ngplant.Aconvey erbeltcarri
es
emptybot tlest hataret obef i
ll
edwi t
hmi l
k.Theal arm goesoff
i
nanyoft hecondi t
ionsoccur s.
- Mi l
kt anki sempt yandbot tl
esarei nconvey orbelt. 2601/201 CONTROLSYSTEMSANDPROGRAMMABLE
- Ther ear enobot tlesi ntheconvey erandt herei smi l
kinthe LOGICCONTROLLERS
tank. Oct/
Nov2012
- Ther ei smi l
ki nthet ankandbot tl
esont heconvey orbel
t
butel ectricpoweri sof f. 5a)Definethet erm‘ProgrammableLogi
cCont r
oll
er’
- Ther eisnomi lkint het ank,nobot t
lesont heconvey orbel
t A Pr ogrammabl e Logi
c Contr
oll
er(PLC)i s an i
ndust
rial
andel ect ri
cpoweri soff. comput ercont r
olsy st
em thatconti
nuousl
ymoni tor
st he
iii
) Wr it
e down a Bool ean expr essi
on f ort he alar
m stat
eofi nputdevicesandmakesdeci si
onsbasedupona
sy st
em. custom pr ogr
am,t ocontr
olthestat
eofdev i
cesconnected
iv) I mpl ementt hissy st
em usingaPLCl adderdi agram. asout puts.

Tankwi
thno–0,Bott
lesi
nconveyer–1 A.
B = b)St
atetwoadvant agesofPr ogr
ammabl eLogicCont roll
er
X (i)Costef f
ecti
vef orcontrol
l
ingcomplexsy stems.
Tankwi
thmil
k–1,Nobottl
einconveyer–0 A.
B=X (ii
)Flexibl
eandcanber eappli
edtocontrolothersy st
ems
Tankwi
thMil
k–1,Bot
tl
esinconvey
er–1, Powerof
f–0 A. B.C quicklyandeasi l
y.
=X (ii
i)
Comput ati
onal abil
i
tiesal
lowmor esophisticat
edcont r
ol.
Tankwi
thMil
k–0,NoBott
lesi
nconv eyer–0,
Poweroff–0 (iv)
Troubleshootingaidsmakepr ogrammi ngeasi erand
A.B.
C=X reducedownt i
me.
(v)Reliabl
ecomponent smaket heselikelyt o operat
ef or
A.
B+A.
B+A.
B.C+A.
B.C =X yearsbeforefailur
e.

89
 c)Wit
htheai dofabl
ockdiagr am,descri
betheconstr
ucti
onofa therelevantI
/Ocards.
Pr
ogrammabl eLogi
cControl
ler Programmi ngdev i
ce:ACPUcar dcanbeconnectedwi t
ha
Inthefi
gure,t
hehear
toft he“PLC”isinthecent
er,
i.
e.,
the programmi ngdev i
cet hroughacommuni cati
onl i
nkv i
aa
ProcessororCPU(Centr
al Processi
ngUnit)
. programmi ngportontheCPU.
Operat i
ngstati
on:Anoper ati
ngst at
ioni
scommonl yused
to providean "Operating Wi ndow"t ot
hepr ocess.Itis
usuallyaseparatedevice( general
lyaPC),l
oadedwi t
hHMI
(HumanMachi neSoftwar e).

6.a)Defi
netheterm‘ Comput ernetworking’
Computer net working is t he inter
connect
ion,as ov er
communi cati
onl i
nes,ofcomput ersy st
ems.Thisi nvol
ves
connecti
ng comput er
s and per ipher
als usi
ng pieces of
equipment;switchesandr outer
set ctoenablethedev i
ces
thatareconnect edt oy ournetwor ktocommuni catewith
eachother,aswel l
aswi t
hot hernetworks.

TheCPU r egulat
est hePLC pr ogram,datast orage,and b)Descr i
bet hef ollowi ngt ypesofcomput ernet works
dataexchangewi thI //Omodules. i) LAN
Inputandout putmodul esarethemediafordat aexchange ii
)WAN
between fi
eld dev ices and CPU.I ttel
ls CPU t he exact ii
i)MAN
statusoffielddev icesandal soact sasat oolt ocont r
ol (
i) LocalAr ea Net wor k LAN – These t ypes of  comput er
them. net works  connectnet wor kdev i
cesov era r elati
velyshor t
A pr ogrammi ng dev ice i
s a comput er loaded wi th distance.Qui teof ten,anet workedof fi
cebui l
ding,homeor
programming sof twar e,which all
ows a usert o cr eat
e, schoolcont ai
nsasi ngleLANal t
houghi ti
snor malt ocome
transf
erandmakechangesi nthePLCsof tware. acr ossabui l
dingt hatcont ainsaf ewsmal lLANs.Onaf ew
Memor yprov i
dest hest or
agemedi afort
hePLCpr ogram occasi ons,aLAN mayal sospanov eragr oupofnear by
aswel lasfordiff
erentdat a. buildings.Such comput ernet wor ks 
ar eusual lyowned by
OR oneor gani zati
on.
CPUorpr ocessor:Themainpr ocessor(CentralProcessi ng (
ii
) Wi deAr eaNet wor kWAN–Ast henamesuggest s,aWAN
UnitorCPU)i s a microprocessor-
based sy stem t hat spansov eral argephy sical distance.Itmayber egardedasa
executesthecont r
olprogram afterreadi
ngt hestat usof collectionofLANsdi sper sedov erageogr aphicalar ea.The
fi
eldinput
sandt hensendscommandst ofiel
doutput s. interneti sav er
y good exampl e ofa WAN.LANs ar e
I/
O sect i
on: I/O modulesactas“ RealDat aI nterface” connect edt oaWANt hroughadev i
cer eferredtoasar out
er.
betweenf i
eldandPLCCPU.ThePLCknowst herealst atus InI P net wor king,bot ht heLAN and WAN addr essesar e
offiel
ddev i
ces,andcontr
olsthef i
elddevicesbymeansof mai ntainedbyt her outer.MostWANsex i
stunderdi str
ibut
ed
90
 orcol l
ecti
ve owner ship and managementand unl i
ke the Di
sadv
ant
agesofaBusTopol
ogy
LANs, ar
enotnecessar il
yownedbyoneor gani
zat
ion.  Ent
ir
enet
wor
kshut
sdowni
fther
eisabr
eaki
nthemai
n
(
ii
i) Wirel
ess Local Ar ea Net work WLAN – These t ypes cable.
of 
comput ernet
wor ks 
ref ert
oLANst hatarebasedonWi -Fi  Terminator
sarerequir
edatbothendsofthebackbonecable.
wir
elessnetworkt echnol ogy.  Dif
fi
culttoident
ifytheprobl
em iftheenti
renetworkshuts
(
iv) Metropoli
tanAr eaNet wor kMAN –Thi sisanet workthat down.
spansov eraphy sicalar eali
keaci tythatissmal l
erthana  Notmeantt obeusedasast and-
alonesol
uti
oni nalarge
WAN butl ar
gert han a LAN.Qui t
eof t
en,such computer buil
ding.
networks 
areownedandoper atedbysi ngl
eentit
iessuchas
governmentbodi esorl argecorporat
ions StarTopol ogy
Ast artopologyisdesignedwitheachnode( fi
leser
ver,wor kst
ati
ons,and
peri
pher al
s)connect ed di
rectl
yt o a centr
alnetwor k hub,switch,or
c)Wit
htheaidofdi
agr
am,
expl
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngt
opol
ogi
es:
concentrator.
i
)Bus Dataonast arnetworkpassest hr
ought hehub,switch,orconcentrator
i
i)Star beforecont inui
ngt oi t
sdestinati
on.Thehub,swi tch,orconcent rator
BusTopology managesandcont r
olsallfuncti
onsoft henetwork.I talsoactsasa
Abustopol
ogyconsi
stsofamainrunofcablewithaterminat
orateach repeaterforthedataflow.Thisconfi
gurati
oniscommonwi t
htwistedpair
end.Al
lnodes(f
il
eserver
,wor
kst
ations,andper
ipher
als)areconnect
ed cable;howev er,
itcanalsobeusedwi t
hcoaxialcabl
eorf iberopti
ccable.
tothel
i
nearcabl
e. Adv antagesofaSt arTopology
 Easyt
oinst
allandwi
re.
 No di
srupt
ions tothe net
wor
k when connect
ing or
r
emovingdevi
ces.
 Easyt
odetectf
aul
tsandt
oremov
epar
ts.
Di
sadv
ant
agesofaSt
arTopol
ogy
 Requi
resmor
ecablelengt
hthanali
neartopol
ogy.
 I
fthehub,swi
tch,orconcent
rat
orfai
ls,nodesatt
ached
aredisabl
ed.
 Mo r
eexpensivethanlinearbust
opol
ogi
esbecauseof
thecostofthehubs,
etc.

Ring Networ k Topology: A l

ocal-ar
ea net
wor k
(LAN) 
whose topology i
sar i
ng.Thatis,alloft he 
nodesar e
connectedinacl osedl oop.Messagest r
avelaroundt hering,
witheachnode reading 
thosemessagesaddr essedtoit.Oneof
Adv
ant
agesofaBusTopol
ogy theadvantagesofr i
ngnet worksisthattheycanspanl arger
 Easyt
oconnectacomputerorper
ipher
altoal
inearbus. dist
ancesthanot hertypesof  
networ
ks,suchasbusnet works,
 Requi
resl
esscabl
elengt
hthanastartopol
ogy
. because each node r egener
ates messages as t hey pass
91
 t
hroughi
t. i
)Remot eTer minaluni t
Meshnet wor kTopology : The meshnet wor k 
topologyempl oyseither i
i)Super visor
yst ation
oftwoschemes,cal ledf ullmeshandpar tialmesh.I nthef ul
lmesh (
i)Remot eTermi nalUni t(RTU):-RTUi sadev i
ceinst all
edat
topol
ogy ,
eachwor kstationi sconnecteddirectl
ytoeachoft heothers. aremot el
ocat iont hatcoll
ectsdata,codest hedat aintoa
Inthepartialmesht opology ,somewor kst
at i
onsar econnectedt oall formatt hatist ransmi tt
ableandt ransmi tsthedat aback
theothers,andsomear econnect edonlyt othoseot hernodeswi th
toacent ralstat i
on,ormast er(supervisorysy stem) .An
whichtheyex changet hemostdat a.
TreeNet work Topol
ogy :The  t
reenet work 
topologyusest woormor e
RTU al socol lectsi nformationf r
om t hemast erdev i
ce
starnetworksconnect edt ogether.Thecent ralcomput ersofthest ar and i mplement s processes t hatar e directed by t he
networksar econnectedt oamai nbus.Thus,at reenet workisabus mast er
networkofst arnet
wor ks. (
ii)Asuper vi
sory( comput er
)sy st
em/Mast erTer minalUni t
(MTU) :-gather ing( acquir
ing)dat aont hepr ocessand
7a)Descr
ibe‘SCADA’system sendingcommands( control
)tot hepr ocess.Thi si sthe
A SCADA ( orsuper vi
sory contr
oland dat a acquisi
tion) servers and sof twarer esponsiblef orcommuni cati
ng
syst
em meansasy stem consist
ingofanumberofr emot e witht hefieldequi pment( RTUs,PLCs,et c),andt hento
ter
minalunit
s(orRTUs)collecti
ngfielddat aconnectedback theHMIsof t
war erunningonwor kstat
ionsi nt hecont rol
to a masterstat
ion via a communi cati
ons system.The room, orelsewher e.
masterstati
ondisplaystheacqui r
eddat aandal soallows
theoper
atortoperf
or mremot econtroltasks. d)Wi t
ht heai dofal adderpr ogr am andapr ocesscont rolf igure,
explainhow aconver tercanbeusedi namachi netodi r
ect6
b)Defi
net hef oll
owi ngt ermsi nreferencet oSCADA product stoapackagi ngboxand12pr oduct stoanot herbox
i
)Humanmachi neI nterface si
mul taneously.
i
i)Progr ammabl eLogi cCont roller  Thecont rolofamachi newhi chisr equir
edt odi rect6
(
i)A  human–machi nei nterface  orHMIi stheappar atusor pr oductsalongonepat hf orpackagi ngi naboxandt hen
device whi ch pr esent s processed dat at o a human 12pr oductsalonganot herpat ht hepackagi nginanot her
operat or,andt hrought hi
s,t hehumanoper at
ormoni t
ors box .
andcont rol
st hepr ocess.TheHMIofaSCADAsy st
em is  Adef l
ectorplat
emi ghtbecont roll
edbyaphot ocellsensor
wher edat aispr ocessedandpr esentedtobev iewedand whi chgivesanout putev erytimeapr oductpassesi t
.Thus
moni toredbyahumanoper ator.Thisinterfaceusual ly thenumbr odpul sef r
om t hesensorhast obecount edand
i
ncludescont rolwher ethei ndivi
dualcani nterfacewi t
h usedt ocontrolthedef lect or
.
theSCADAsy stem  On r ung 1,each t i
me t he phot o sensori strigger ed it
(
ii)Progr ammabl el ogic cont rol l
er 
(PLCs) used as f iel
d causesC1’ scountt oincr ease.WhenC1,t hesixpr oduct
devicesbecause t heyar e mor e economi cal,v er
satil
e, count er,r
eachessi xitcausest hedef l
ectort
oact i
v ate.
fl
exible,andconf igurablet hanspeci al
-pur
poseRTUs.  On r ung 3,whi l
et he def l
ectoris activat
ed C2,t he 12
pr oductscount er ,andst ar
tscount i
ngt hepr oduct s.On
c)Expl
aint
he f
unct
ions oft
he f
oll
owi
ng par
ts ofa SCADA rung4,af ter12pr oduct sar ecount edt hecount ersar e
syst
em: resetandt hepr ocessst artsagai n.
92
  Theprocesscanal
sober
esetatany
timeusi
ngt
hest
art asy stemati
cpr ocedur e.
but
ton.  ManyPLCspr ov idebui lt
-i
nf aultanaly
sispr ocedureswhich
carryoutself
-testinganddi splayfaultcodes, withpossi
blya
bri
efmessage,whi chcanbet ranslat
edbyl ookingupt he
codei nal i
stt ogi vet hesour ceoft hef aultandpossi bl
e
met hods ofr ecov ery.Forex ample,t he faultcode may
i
ndicat et
hatthesour ceoft hefaultisinapar ticul
armodule
wit
ht hemet hodofr ecoverygivenasr eplacet hatmoduleor
perhapsswitcht hepowerof fandt henon.

8)a)Explainhowf ault-
fi
ndi ngiscar ri
edouti nPLCsy stems
 WithanyPLCcont r
olledpl ant
,byf arthegr eaterpercentage
oft hef aultsarel ikelyt obewi thsensor s,actuatorsand
wiri
ngr atherthanwi t
hint hePLCi t
self.
 Oft hef aultswi t
hint hePLC,mostar el ikelyt obei nt he
i
nput /out putchannel sorpowersuppl yrat herthani nt he
CPU.
 Theact ualfaultfindingst artsoncet heact ualstatushas
beenest abli
shedandcompar edwi tht her equiredst atus.
Thiscompar isonf requent lyleadst ot hedi scoveryoft he
err
orsour ce,i
fthef aultisvisi
ble(e.g.mechani caldamaget o b)Descri
bethefol
lowi
ngf
aul
tdet
ect
iont
echni
quesi
nref
erence
a si gnalgener ator),audi ble( e.g.leakage on a v alve), t
oPLCs:
detectabl ebysmel l( e.g.cablebur ntout )
.I fthisisnott he i)ti
mechecks
case, thef aultcanonl ybef oundandel i
mi nat edbymeansof ii
)Repli
cati
on
93
 Faul tDet ect ionTechni ques theresultsgivenbyt hetwosy st
ems.I ntheabsenceofa
(
i)Timi ngchecks:Thet er m wat chdog i susedf orat i
mi ng faul
tthet woresult
sshouldbet hesame,af aul
tshowi
ngup
checkt hati scar riedoutbyt hePLC t ocheckt hatsome asadifference.
funct ionhasbeencar riedoutwi t
hint henor malt ime.I fthe (
iv)
Expectedvaluechecks:Sof t
wareer r
orscanbedetect
edby
funct ioni snotcar r
iedoutwi thi nt henor malt i
met henaf ault checki
ng whet heranex pected val
uei sobtai
ned when a
isassumedt ohav eoccur redandt hewat chdogt imert rips, speci
ficinputoccurs.Iftheexpectedvalueisnotobtai
ned
set ti
ngof fanal arm andper hapscl osi ngdownt hePLC.As thenaf aul
tisassumedt obeoccurri
ng.
par toft hei nter naldi agnost icsofPLCs, wat chdogt imer sare
usedt odet ectf orf aults.Thewat chdogt imeri spr esett oa c)i
)Def inet het erm calibrationwithreferencet oPLCs.
timesl ight lyl ongert hant hescant i
mewoul dnor mal l
ybe. Calibrationi sthepr ocessofchecki ngPLC/ fielddev i
cesand
Theyar et hensetatt hebegi nni ngofeachpr ogram scanand maki ngsur et hatv al
uesusedi nmeasur ement sr emainat
ifthecy clet i
mei sasnor malt heydonott i
meoutandar e standar dpoi nts.Itist heprocessofv erif
yingt hePLCandI /O
resetatt heendofacy cl er eadyf ort henextcy cle.Howev er, dev i
ceswor kandper formancewi t
hinasetofspeci fi
cati
ons.
ift hecy clet imei sl ongert hani twoul dnor mal l
ybe,t he Calibrationi sdef inesasdet erminationoft heex peri
ment al
wat chdogt i
mert i
mesoutandi ndi cat et hatt hesy st em hasa rel
at i
onshi pbet weent hequantitybei ngmeasur edandt he
fault. outputoft hedev icewhi chmeasur esi t
;wher ethequant ity
Timecheckscanal sobebui ltint ot hel adderl ogi cpr ogr am. measur ed i s obtained t hr
ough a r ecogni zed st andard of
Thi si swher eaddi ti
onall adderr ungsmi ghtbei ncl udesso measur ement . Ther e ar e two f undament al oper at
ions
thatwhenaf unct ionst artsat imeri sst arted.Ift hef unct i
on i
nv olvedi ncalibratinganyi nstr
ument :
doesnotcompl etewhent het imerf inishesaf aultissi gnaled. - Test ingt heinstrumentt odetermineitsper f
ormance,
(
ii
)Lastout putset :Thi st echni quei nv olvest heuseofst atus - Adj ustingthei nst r
umentt oper f
orm wi thinspeci fi
cati
on.
lampst oi ndi cat et hel astout putt hathasbeensetdur i
nga
processwhi chhascomet oahal t.Suchl ampsar ebui l
tinto i
i)Describet hef oll
owingchar acter
isticsofcal ibrati
on:
thepr ogr am sot hataseachout putoccur sal ampcomeson. I) Tolerance
Thel ampsont husi ndicat ewhi chout put sar eoccur ring.The II
) Accur acy
progr am hast o bedesi gned t ot urn of fpr eviousst atus Tolerance: Per missibl
edev i
ati
onf r
om aspeci f
iedvalue;
may
lampsandt ur nonanewst at usl ampaseachnewout putis beex pressedi nmeasur ementuni t
s, percentofspan, or
turnedon. percentofr eadi ng.
(
ii
i)
Repl ication:Wher et herei sconcer nr egar dingsaf etyi nt he Accur acy:Ther ati
ooftheer r
ortot hef ullscaleoutputorthe
caseofaf aul tdev eloping, checksmaybeconst ant lyusedt o rat
iooft heer r
ortot heoutput,expressedi nper centspanor
det ectf aul t
s.Onet echni quei sr epl i
cat ion checks whi ch percentr eading, r
espectiv
ely.
involv esdupl i
cat i
ng,i .e.r epl icat i
ng,t hePLC sy st em.Thi s
coul dmeant hatt hesy stem r epeat sev eryoper ationt wice d)Expl
ainhow zer
oandspaner rorsarecor
rect
edinmeasur i
ng
andi fi tget st hesamer esul ti ti sassumedt her eisnof ault. i
nstr
uments
Thi spr ocedur ecandet ectt ransi entf aul ts.Amor eexpensi ve Zeroandspanerror
sarecorr
ectedbyperf
ormingacali
brat
ion.
alternat i
v ei st ohav edupl icat ePLCsy stemsandcompar e Mostinstr
umentsareprov
idedwi t
hameansofadj ust
ingt he
94
zer
oandspanoft hei nstrument,alongwi t
hi nstructionsf or
per
for
mi ngt hisadjustment . 2601/201 CONTROLSYSTEMSANDPROGRAMMABLE
- Thezer oadjustmenti susedt oproduceapar allelshif
tof LOGICCONTROLLERS
theinput -
outputcur ve. Oct/
Nov2011
- Thespanadj ustmenti susedt ochangethesl opeoft he
i
nput -outputcurve. 5.a)i
)Defineapr ogr ammabl eLogicCont roll
er(PLC’ s)
- Li nearizati
oner r
ormaybecor r
ectedift
hei nstrumenthas Apr ogrammabl elogi
ccont rol
l
er( PLC)i sami cr
ocomput er-
al inear i
zat
ion adj ustment.I fthe magni tude oft he based cont roll
er t hat uses st or
ed i nst r
ucti
ons i n
nonlinearerrorisunaccept ableanditcannotbeadj usted, programmabl e memor yt oi mplementl ogic,sequenci ng,
theinst r
umentmustber eplaced. ti
ming,count ing,andar i
thmeticfunct i
onst hroughdi gi
talor
analogue input /
outputmodul es,f orcont r
olling machines
andpr ocesses.PLCsar eusedinal argev ari
et yofscenarios,
bothinpr ocessindustri
esanddi scretemanuf acturi
ng.

i
i) Di st
ingui sh bet ween super vi sory cont rol and dat a
acqui
siti
onanddi str
ibut edcont rolsy stem
A DCS i s a pr ocess- ori
ent ed sy stem and i tt reat st he
controloft he pr ocess,( the chemi calpl ant ,ref i
ner yor
what ever)as i t
s mai nt ask,and i tpr esents dat at o
operator saspar tofi tsjob.
ASCADAsy stem i sdat agat heringor iented; andt hecont rol
centerandoper ator sar ei tsf ocus.Howev er,ther emot e
equipmenti smer elyt heret ocol l
ectt hedat a-t houghi t
mayal sodosomev erycompl expr ocesscont rol
.
A DCS oper atorst at i
oni si ntimat elyconnect edwi t
hi ts
i
nput /out put si gnal s ( I
/ O) t hrough l ocal wi r
ing,
communi cationbuses( e.g.FieldBus,net wor ks)et c.When
theDCSoper atorwant st oseei nformat ionhe/ sheusual l
y
makes a r equestdi r
ect l
yt ot he f iel
dI /O and get sa
response.Fi eldev entscandi r
ect lyinterruptt hesy st em and
adv i
set heoper ator.
A SCADA sy stem mustcont inuet o oper ate when f ield
communi cationshav ef ai
led.The‘ qual i
ty’ofdat ashownt o
the oper atori s an i mpor tantf acetofSCADA sy stem
operation.SCADA sy stemsof ten pr ovidespeci al‘ event ’
processi ngmechani smst ohandl econdi t
ionst hatoccur
95
 betweendataacqui si
tionper i
ods. theusers'manipulati
on
Therearemanyot herdif
ferences,butt heyt endt oinv ol
veal otof 6)i
)Defineladderlogiccontrolsystem
detai
l
.Theunder l
yingpointsar e: Itisacont rolsystem whi shusesl adderlogi
ctomanage,
ASCADAsy stem needst ot r
ansf ersecur edat aandcont rol command, di
rectsorregulatesthebehaviorofot
herdev
ice(
s)
si
gnalsoverapot enti
all
yslow,unr el
iablecommuni cati
ons orsystem(s).
 
medium,andneedst omai ntainadat abaseof‘ l
astknown
good val
ues’f orpr omptoper atordi splay.I tfrequently i
i)Wit
haidofal abel
edblockdi
agr
am,expl
aint
hehar
dwar
e
needstodoev entpr ocessinganddat aqual i
tyvali
dation. ar
chi
tect
ureofaSCADAsyst
em
Redundancyisusual l
yhandl edinadi st ri
butedmanner .
ADCSi sal waysconnect edt oitsdat asour ce,soi tdoes
notneed t o mai ntain a dat abase of‘ currentv al
ues’.
Redundancyisusual lyhandl edbypar all
elequi pment,not
bydif
fusi
onofi nformat i
onar oundadi stri
buteddat abase.

b)Withtheaidofadi
agram,expl
ainhowPLC’
scanbeusedt
o
cont
rolwaterl
eveli
nat
ank

c)Explainwhyuseri nter
faceisnecessaryi
nPLC’ s
A user i nterface i s t he system by whi ch peopl e
(users) 
i
nteract witha machine.Theuseri nterf
acei ncludes
hardware( physical)andsof t
ware(logi
cal
)component s.User
int
erfacesexistf orvari
ous sy
stems,andprov i
deameansof :
 Input,allowingtheuserstomanipulateasy st
em
 Out put,allowi
ngt hesyst
em toindicatet heeffectsof
96
 Control Net wor k.
 Basi
clay
ersi
na  sy
SCADA  st
em canbecl
assi
fi
edi
ntwopar
ts  Engi neer i
ngWor kstat ion( EWS)usedf orpr ojectdev elopment .
generall
y:the“cli
entl ayer”whi chcat ersf orthemanmachi ne TheEWSi st hedev elopmentt oolwher econt rolschemesar e
i
nteracti
onandt he“ dataserv erl
ayer”whi chhandl esmostofthe conf i
gur edt hendownl oadedt ot heOWS,FCU,andSDS.The
processdat acontrolact i
vit
ies.Thedat aser verscommunicate entire pr ojecti sconf igur ed usi ng a si ngl ei ntegrat
ed t ool
withdevicesint
hef ieldthroughpr ocesscont roll
ers. basedongr aphicalWi ndowsst andar ds.Gr aphi caltechniques
 Processcontrol
ler
s, e.g.
 PLCs, areconnect edt othedataserv
ers areal sousedt odef inet hel ogi calr elationshi psamongt he
ei
therdi r
ectl
yorv ianet worksorf i
eldbuses.Dat aser
versare dev i
cesi napr ocessar ea. Pr ojectconf igurat i
onbegi nsby
connected to each ot her and t o cl ient stati
ons vi
a an definingt hesy st em ar chi tectur e:wor kstat i
ons,f i
eldcont rol
Ethernet
 LAN. units( FCUs) ,I/O,net wor king,et c.Gr aphi calt echniquesar e
 The  RTU  connect st ophy sicalequi pment .Ty pically,anRTU  conv erts also used t o def i
ne t he l ogi calr elati
onshi ps among t he
theel ect ricalsignal sf r
om t heequi pmentt odi gitalv al
uessuchast he cont rol element sf ormul tipledev ices.
open/ closedst atusf rom aswi tchorav al
ve, ormeasur ement ssuchas  Oper at orWor kst ati
on( OWS)f oroper atori nter f
ace.Thi si s
pressur e,f l
ow,v oltageorcur rent .Byconv ertingandsendi ngt hese usedt omoni t
orandcont rolthepr ocess.I tusest hepr oject
electricalsi gnalsoutt oequi pmentt he 
RTU  cancont rolequi pment ,
screenscr eated dur ing pr ojectdev elopmentand ani mat es
suchasopeni ngorcl osingaswi tchorav alv e, orset t
ingt hespeedof
apump. them basedonr eal-t
imedat ar ecei vedf rom f ieldcont rolunit s
 Super vi
sor y Station;The t er m “ Super vi
sor y St ation”r ef erst ot he and f i
elddat aser vers. Aut hor i
zed oper atorscanmoni tor
server sandsof t war eresponsi blef orcommuni catingwi tht hef i
eld detailed act i
viti
es f ormany t ypes ofdev ices and send
equipment( RTUs,  PLCs, etc),andt hent ot he HMI  
sof t
war er unningon commandsusi ngst andar df acepl atecommandwi ndowsand
wor kst ationsi nt hecont rolroom, orel sewher e. groupdi spl ays.
I nsmal l
erSCADA  systems,t hemast erstat i
onmaybecomposedofa  FieldCont rolUni t(FCU)f orcont roll ogicexecut i
onanddi rect
singlePC.I nlarger  
SCADAsy st ems,t hemast erst ationmayi nclude scanni ngofI /O.TheFCUpr ov i
desI /Oser v i
cesbymoni toring
mul tiple ser vers,di str
ibuted sof twar e appl ications,and di saster and cont rol
li
ng I /O acr oss st andar d net wor ks and dat a
recov er ysi t
es. highway s.The FCU can pr ov ide si mul taneoussuppor tf or
 Toi ncr easet hei nt egri
tyoft hesy st em themul t
ipleser ver swi l
lof t
en mul tiplev endor s’I /O and I /O net wor ks.The v ari
ety of
beconf iguredi nadual -r
edundantorhot -standbyf or mat ionpr ovidi
ng platfor m andf orm- f
act oropt ionssuppor t
edbyt heFCUal lows
cont i
nuouscont rol andmoni toringi nt heev entofaser v erf ail
ure.
i
ncor por ation ofdi stribut ed,di st i
nctI /O subsy st
ems i nto
commoncont r
ol str
at egi es.
bi)Stateandexpl ainf ouruserconf igurabl
eopensy stem (UCOS)
component s
UCOS i s a cont rol system t hat employs object-
or i
ented
techni
quesatev er yl ev
elofi t
ssystem archi
tect
ure.I
tincludesa
numberofsubsy stemswhi chsegmentt hefunct
ional
ityofUCOS.
Thisi ncludes an Engi neering Wor kst
ati
on Subsy stem,an
OperatorWor kst
at i
onSubsy stem,andaFi el
dCont r
olUni t(FCU)
Control
lerSubsy stem.The subsy st
ems communi catev iaa
97
 withoutt heowner 'sknowl edgeorconsent ,i tcould also
i
ncludeot hert hingsl ikest eal i
ngpasswor ds,creati
ngabot
net,orprettymuchanyactt hat  breachessomeone' sprivacy
,
withouttheirknowl edge, orconsent .
Hacking isanyt echni calef forttomani pulatethenor mal
behaviorofnet wor kconnect ionsandconnect edsy stems
Crackingi swher eedi tapr ogr am'ssour cecode, oryoucoul d
createapr ogr am,l i
keakeygener ator( mor ecommonl y
 Cont rolNet wor k.Sy stem suppor t
sr edundant and non- knownasa' key gen'),pat ch, orsomesor tofappl i
cationthat
redundantf iberopt icandEt hernetl ocalnet wor ksusi ngt he tr
icksanappl icationi nt ot hi nki
ngt hatapar t
icul
arpr ocess
TCP/ IP net wor king pr ot ocolf or st andar di zed,adv anced hasoccur red.
appl icat i
onconnect i
vity
.TheLAN/ WAN canbeext endedt o
othersi tesi nsi deorout sidet hepl antusi ng suchr emot e 7a)i
)Definet heterm comput ernet wor k
communi cationst echnol ogi esassat elli
te,r adio,mi crowav e, A 
comput er net wor k 
or data net wor k i
s
and di al-up r unni ng such st andar d pr otocol s as TCP/ IP, a telecommuni cati
onsnet wor k t
hatallows comput erst o
Modbus, OPC, DDE ex change data. I n comput er net works, net wor ked
I /O Subsy stem suppor ting I /Of r
om al li ndust r
yst andar d comput i
ngdev ices( networ knodes)passdat at oeach
suppl i
er s.The same l ogi c can be sol ved t o mani pulate otheral ongdat aconnect ions.Theconnect i
ons( net wor k
different I / O subsy stems f rom di ff
er ent manuf acturers li
nks)bet weennodesar eest abli
shedusi ngei t
her  cable
withouthav ing t o change any oft he pr ogr ammi ng or medi a 
or 
wireless medi a. The best -known comput er
oper at ional par amet ersoft heconf i
gur edsy st em. net workisthe Internet.
 SCADADat aSer ver( SDS)f ori nterfacingdat af rom intell
igent Acomput ernet wor kisagr oupofcomput ersy st
emsand
dev ices,suchasPLCs,Fi eldbust echnol ogies,RTUs,PLCI /O, other comput i
ng har dwar e dev i
ces t hat arel i
nked
andot hert hird-par tydev ices toget herthroughcommuni cati
onchannel st of acili
tate
 ProcessHi storicalAr chiv er( PHA)f orst or i
ngandr etri
eving communi cation and r esour ce-shar
ing among a wi de
histor icaldat a col lected by t he FCU,SDS orany ot her range ofuser s.Net wor ks ar e commonl y categor ized
i
nt elli
gentdev i
cei nt hesy stem basedont heirchar acteri
st i
cs.
 mi croFCU: i s a smal l,l ow- power ed PLC t hat execut es
sequent ialandr egul atoryl ogicanddi rectlyscansonboar dI/O. i
i)Di
sti
nguishbet weeni nter
netandEthernet
Itcanr eplaceRTUsatasi gnificantr educt i
oni ncostand  Ethernet isal ocalar ea network used t o connect
powerconsumpt i
on – pl usi tcan pr ovidel ocali ntell
igent comput ers nearone anot her.Etherneti saf amilyof
cont rol ofdev i
ces, whi chRTUscan' tdo. fr
ame- basedcomput ernetworki
ngtechnol ogi
esforlocal
area networ ks (
LANs) .The name comes f rom t he
physicalconceptoft he ether
.Et herneti s a setof
i
i)Di
sti
ngui
shbetweendat
ahackingandcracki
ng standardsforphy sical
lyconnect
ingcomput er
sinal ocal
Hacking,i
st heactofsteali
ng per
sonalorpr
ivat
e dat
a, areanet work.Int ermsofOSInet workl ayer
s,Ethernet
98
 prov i
desonl yt hephy si
call ay erandt hedat al i
nklayer.It shiel ded,unshielded.STPi scommonl yusedi nToken
definesanumberofwi ringandsi gnali
ngst andardsf or Ringnet wor ksandUTPi nEt her netnet wor kswher ei t
thePhy sicalLay eroft heOSInet wor ki
ngmodel ,through i
sr eferredt oas" 10baseTandabov e." Transmi ssion
meansofnet wor kaccessatt heMedi aAccessCont rol ratesv arybetween10- 1000Mbps.  
(MAC)/ Dat a Link Lay er ,and a common addr essing Fi
ber-opt iccabl e consistsofa t hin cyli
nderofgl ass
format .Et her
neti sstandar di zedasI EEE802. 3. surr oundedbygl asscladdi ng,encasedi npr otective
 Interneti sagl obalnet wor kofi nter
connect edcomput ers, outersheat h. Fiber-
opticcabl ei sv eryfast( 100- 1000
enabl i
ng user st o shar ei nf
ormat i
on al ong mul t
iple Mbps) . Itcant ransmitov erl ongdi stances( 2km +)
channel s.Ty picall
y,a comput erthatconnect st ot he buti sexpensi ve.
Int
er netcan accessi nformat i
on from av astar r
ayof Coaxialcabl ehasasi nglecopperconduct orati tscenter.
avai l
able ser v ers and ot her comput er
s by mov i
ng Apl asticlayerprov i
desi nsulationbet weent hecent er
i
nfor mat ionf rom them t ot hecomput er'
slocalmemor y. conduct orandabr ai
dedmet al shield.Themet alshield
The same connect i
on al lows t hatcomput ert o send helpst obl ockanyout sidei nterference.Coax i
alcabl e
i
nfor mat iontoser v er
sont henet work;thatinformat i
oni s comesi nt wov ersi
ons:Thi nnetandThi cknet.Thinnet
i
nt urnaccessedandpot ent ial
l
ymodi f
iedbyav ari
etyof i
sabout1/ 4inchi ndiamet erandi sv er yflexibl
eand
otheri nterconnect edcomput ers easyt owor kwi t
h.Incont r
ast ,Thi ckneti sabout1/ 2
i
nchi ndiamet erandnotv eryf lexible.Coaxt r
ansmi ts
i
ii
)Descr
ibethefoll
owingcabl
esusedi
nnet
wor
king at10Mbps.  
I
) Coaxialcabl
e
I
I) Fi br
eopt i
ccabl
e b)Wi t
ht he ai
d ofdi
agr
am,descr
ibe t
he f
oll
owi
ng t
ypes of
topol
ogies
Networkingcabl esareusedt oconnectonenet wor kdev ice i)Star
to othernet wor k devices ort o connectt wo ormor e ii
)Bus
comput erst oshar eresour ces.Di fferentt ypesofnet wor k
cableslikeCoaxi alcable,Opt i
calf i
bercabl e,Twi stedPai r
cables ar e used dependi ng on t he net wor k'st opology,
prot
ocolandsi ze.Thedev icescanbesepar at edbyaf ew
meters( e.g.viaEt her
net)ornear lyunl imiteddi st ances( e.g.
vi
at heinterconnect i
onsoft heI nternet )
.
Twistedpai rcabl i
ngi saf or
m ofwi ri
ngi nwhi chpai rsof
wi r
es( thef orwardandr eturnconduct or sofasi ngle Startopology:ThisistheEthernettopology,t
hemostcommonat
circuit)ar et wisted t ogetherf ort he pur poses of managementandshopf l
oorlevel
s.Ithast headvantageofbeing
cancel i
ngoutel ectr
omagnet ici nterf
er ence( EMI )from veryfl
exibletorunandr epai
r.Theendst ati
onsar el
inkedtoget
her
otherwi repai rsandf rom ext ernalsour ces.Thi st ype vi
aani ntermediatedevice(repeat
er,swi t
ch).Fail
ureofanode
ofcabl ei sused f orhome and cor por ate Et hernet doesnotpr eventthenetworkasawhol efrom worki
ng, t
houghthe
net works.Ther ear et wot ypesoft wist edpai rcables: i
ntermediate dev i
ce l
inking t
he nodes t ogetheris a pointof
99
 weakness. which is shared among allthe obj
ect
s,in cont
rast
to 
switches,whi
chprov
ideaconnect
ionbet
weeni
ndivi
dual
Bust opol ogy :Thisisoneoft hesimplestlayouts;alltheelement
s nodes.Itworkson 
OSIl
ayer1.
arewi redt ogetheralongt hesamet ransmissionl i
ne.Thewor d
bus r efer s t o the phy sical l
ine. This t opology is easily b)i
)St
atet hreefact orswhi chnecessi t
atecal ibrati
on
i
mpl ement ed and t he f
ailure ofa node orel ementdoes not Cali
br ati
oni sdef inedas“ at estdur i
ngwhi chknownv alues
preventt heot herdev i
cesfrom wor ki
ng.Machi neandsensorl evel of measur and ar e appl i
ed t o t he t r
ansducer and
networ ks,ot herwiseknownasf i
eldbuses,uset hi
ssy stem.The corr
espondi ngout putr eadingsar er ecordedunderspeci fied
bust opologyi si
mpl ementedbyl i
nkingdev i
cestoget heri
nachain conditions.”Thedef initi
oni ncludest hecapabi li
tyt oadjust
ortot hemai ncabl evi
aaconnect ionbox( TAP) theinst r
umentt ozer oandt osett hedesi redspan.Therear e
thr
eemai nr easonsf orhav inginstrument scali
brated:
8a)Definet hef oll
owi ngnet wor kcomponent s: Toensur er eadingsf rom ani nstrumentar econsi stent
i
)Repeat er wi thothermeasur ement s.
i
i)Swi tch Todet ermi net heaccuracyoft heinst r
umentr eadings.
i
ii)Br idge Toest abl i
sht her eli
abilit
yoft hei nstrumenti .
e.thatit
 Repeat er:adev i
cewhi champl ifi
esorr egener atesdi gital canbet rusted.
signal sr ecei ved whi l
esendi ng t hem f rom onepar tofa
networ kint oanot her.Itwor kson  OSIlay er1.
 Swi tch:a dev icet hatal locatest r
affi
cf rom onenet wor k
segmentt o cer tainl i
nes ( i
nt ended dest inati
on( s)
)whi ch
connectt hesegmentt oanot hernet wor ksegment .Unl ike i
i)Describethefollowingcommuni cati
ondevi ces:
a hub,aswi tchspl itst henet wor ktrafficandsendsi tt o I
) RS232
differentdest i
nat ions rat hert han t o al lsy stems on t he I
I) HART
networ k.Itwor kson  OSIl ayer2. RS-232 is a st andar d communi cati
on pr otocolf orl i
nking
 Br idge: a dev i
ce t hat connect s mul ti
ple 
networ k comput erand i ts per i
pheraldev i
ces t o allow ser i
aldat a
segment s alongt he datal i
nkl ayer.Itsepar atest woormor e exchange.Itisani nter
facebet weenDat at erminalequipment
networ ksegment swi thinonel ogicalnet work( e.g.asi ngle (DTE)andDat acommuni cati
onequi pment( DCE).I tdefines
IP-subnet ).I
twor kson  OSIl ayer2. thev ol
tagefort hepat husedf ordataexchangebet weent he
 Hub:adev icet hatconnect smul ti
pleEt hernetsegment s, devices. I
t speci fies common v ol
tage and si gnall evel,
maki ngt hem actasasi nglesegment .Whenusi ngahub, common pi n wi re conf i
gurati
on and mi nimum,amountof
ever y at tached dev i
ce shar es t he same  br
oadcast controlsi
gnals. 
domai n and t he same  colli
sion domai n.Ther efore,onl y HART( Hi
ghwayAddr essabl
eRemot eTr ansducer)isamast er
one  comput er connect edt ot hehubi sabl etot ransmitata -sl
ave communi cat i
on protocol,which means t hatdur ing
ti
me.Dependi ngont henet workt opology ,thehubpr ovidesa normaloper aton,eachsl
i ave( f
iel
ddev i
ce)communi cati
oni s
basi cl ev el1  OSImodel  
connect ion among t he networ k i
niti
atedbyamast ercommuni cati
ondev ice.Twomast erscan
object s( wor kst ations,ser vers,et c.)
.Itpr ovidesbandwi dth connecttoeachHARTl oop.Thepr imarymast eri
sgener allya
100
 di
stri
buted cont r
ol system ( DCS), programmable logic can st
art
contr
oll
er(PLC),oraper sonalcomputer(PC).Thesecondary tr
ansmi
tt
ing butneveratthe same t
ime.Thi
s probl
em i s
mastercanbeahandhel dt er
minaloranotherPC.Sl
avedevice over
comebyaprior
it
ysyst
em.
i
ncludetransmit
ters,
actuator
s,andcontrol
ler
sthatr
espondt o
commandsf r
om thepri
mar yorsecondar
ymast er
.

c)Withaidofadi agram explai

nt hei mport
anceofcal i
brat
ionof
equi
pmentandpr oducts.
 Toensurereadingsfrom aninstr
umentar econsistentwith
othermeasurements.
 Todeterminetheaccuracyoft heinst
rumentreadings.
 Toestabl
ishthereli
abil
i
tyoft heinstr
umenti.
e.thatitcanbe
tr
usted.

d)ExplainhowCANwor ks
 CAN ( Cont roll
erAr ea Net wor k)i s a serialbus based on a
publisher /subscr iber modeli n whi ch a publ isher sends a
messaget osubscr ibers.CAN wasdev elopedwi thbr oadcast
architectur e.
 Thesender( publisher )sendst hemessagewi thani dent i
f i
er.The
reci
pi ents( subscr ibers)fil
termessagesf rom thebusbasedon
theirsendcr it
eriasoi famessagei sint
endedf orthem, t
heyr ead
andpr ocessi t.Ther ecipientthenbecomesasender .
 The di agr am shows t he push ( send) mode of t he
publisher /subscr ibermodel .CAN al sosuppor titspul l(receive)
mode.
 Acl ientcansendamessagebasedonar emot et ransmi ssi on
request( RTR) , whi chisaCANf ramewi thRTRf l
ags( st atusbi ts)
.
Whent hepr oducerr eceivessuchar equest,itt ransmi t
st he
rel
at edanswer .
I nabr oadcastar chit
ecture,thenet worknodescant ransmi tat
thesamet ime.CANhav e2mechani smst odealwi tht his:first,a
sendersur v eyst hecommuni cat i
onar t
eryt ochecki fanot her
nodei salreadyt ransmi tti
ng.
I fthear teryi sf ree,t henodest art
st otransmit.Sev eralnodes

101