YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices 4 N (2023) ENGLISH-MEDIUM The subject wise compilation + listing PDF released by Study for Civil Services is updated regularly with relevant additions of all the important facts and requisite fine details, the latest pattern, which is guided by trends of examinations conducted by the Civil Services Commissions. SCSGYAN PVT. LTD. 1* Edition: 2020 \Sror paid Group Call or WhatsApp only on 2nd Edition: 2021 —_| 7523864455, 8564880530 or 9696066089. Gyan 3° Edition: 2022 _|Sir WhatsApp - 7838692618 4‘ Edition: 2023YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices 1 peology, Ecosystem 2 Flow Energy, Trophic Levels, Ecological Pyramids, Biogeochemical Cycles 3 Ozone Layer, India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP), Ganga Action Plan 4 Coal Gasification, Sustainable Development, Agenda-21 5 Rio +20 Conference, Atmosphere, GEF Timeline 6. Biodiversity and Conservation 7 Biodiversity - Hotspots, Conservation of Biodiversity & "The Greenhouse Eflec, Climate Change 3. Climate Change Conference and Kyoto Protocol 16, Forest and Types of Forest Ti, Non-renewable Sources of Energy, Renewable Sources of Energy, Solar Energy 2, Green Fuel and Biodiesel, Environmental Pollution 13, Radiation Pollution : Sources and Hazards TA, ‘Acid Rain, Water Resources 15. Global Environmental Issues, Biodiversity 16. Most Important Onliners Facts related to Environment i Sustainable Development Goals + Em Study of Levels of ecological organization - ‘encircle or surround, The environment is a very Broad concept and involves everything that affects an organism during its lifetime. It is the totality ofall social, biological, physical and chemical elements individually as well as collectively that composed nature and human made surrounding It refers to the total of conditions which surround man ata given point in space and Generally, environment can be classified in three categories - Physical Environment, Cultural Environment and Biological Environment. This day declared by the United Nations is celebrated to bring political and social awakening towards the environment globally, It began in 1972 at the World Environment Conference organized by the United Nations General Assembly from 5 June to 16 June. The first World Environment Day was observed on 5 June 1973. The biological components of the environment include everything from microorganisms to insects, insects, animals and plants and all the biological activities and processes associated with them. Whereas the inorganic components of the environment contain inanimate elements and their associated processes, such as: mountains, rocks, river, wind and climate elements ete ‘According to Environment (prevention) act 1986, Environment includes physical/abiotic and biotic components and their interaction with each other. jronment is everything (living and non-living components) that surrounds or effects an organism during its life Lume. example virus to human beings are dependent on other organisms. “Bcology may be defined as the scientific study of the relationship of living organisms with each other and with their environment, The term ecology was first coined in 1869 by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel. [t has been derived from two Greek words, ‘oikos’, meaning home or estate and ‘logos’ meaning study. The emphasis is on relationships between organisms and the components ofthe environment namely abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living). Ecology not only deals with the study of the relationship of individual organisms with their environment, but also with the study of populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and biosphere as a whole Organisms (individual) basic unit of study Population A group of organisms consisting of a number of different populations that live in defind area and interact ‘with each other,YOUU sway ror civil Services SCSGYAN “Biel @studyforcivilservices + Community A group of organisms consisting of a number of different species that live in an area and interact with each other, + Ecosystem A communities of organisms and their physical environment, interacting as an ecological unit. HABITAT AND ORGANISM ‘+ Habitat is the physical environment in which an organism lives. Bach organism has particular requirements for its survival and lives where the environment provides for those needs, The environmental requirement of an elephant ‘would be a forest, You would not expect an elephant in the acean nor would you expect a whale in the forest? A habitat ‘may support many different species having similar requirements. For example, a single ocean habitat may support a whale, a sea-horse, seal, phytoplankton and many other kinds of organisms. The various species sharing a habitat thus have the same ‘address’ Forest, ocean, river etc. are examples of habitat. ‘The features of the habitat can be represented by its structural components namely space , food, water and cover or shelter Earth has four major habitats- 1. Terrestrial 2, Freshwater 3. Estuarine (Where rivers meet the ocean) and 4. Ocean. The human intestine is the habitat of a tapeworm and the rotting log a habitat of a fungus. NICHE AND ORGANISM + te nature, many species occupy the same habitat but they perforin diferent functions, The functional characteristics of a species in its habitat is referred to as “niche” in that common habitat. Habitat of a species is like its ‘address’ (i.e, where it lives) whereas niche can be thought of as its “profession” (i. activities and responses specific to the species). ‘Te term niche means the sum of ll the activities and relationships ofa species by which tues the resources in ts habitat forts survival and reproduction + Anicheisunique fora species while many species share the habitat No two species ina habitat can have the same niche This is because i two species occupy the same niche they will compete with one another until one is displaced, For example, large number of different species of insects may be pests of the same plant but td they can co-exist as they feed on different parts ofthe same plant. Important Onliner Facts ~ + Ecology encompasses study of individual, organisms, population, community, ecosystem, biome and biosphere which form the various levels of ecological organization, + Species is @ group of populations whose individual members are capable of interbreeding with each other to produce a fertile offspring, + Evolution is the change which gives rise to new species, Mutation and recombination are sources of ‘variation’ or differences in the genetic make up oF gene pool of a species. Natural Selection is the mechanism proposed by Darwin and Wallace which interacts with variation to cause greater reproduction of these genes which help in adaptive to the environment. ‘+ Evolution leads to speciation or formation of new species. Isolation isthe factor which supports specimen. Isolation is of two major types (i) geographical isolation (i) reproductive isolation, ‘+ Many species, however, have been lost forever and not single individual belonging to these species which once existed are now present, Extinction may occur due to catastrophic events in nature or due to human activities. + Population is a group of interbreeding individuals found in a specific time in a particular geographical area. The characteristics of a population become evident through the (f) population density (ii) birth rate or natality (ii) death rate or mortality (iv) dispersion (immigration and migration) (v) age distribution (vi) sex ratio. Ecological succession is the successive growth of primary succession occurs in an area where there is no previous community. Secondary succession forms on existing natural vegetation, ‘Biotic interaction refers to the interaction taking place between individuals belonging to the same species (intra specific or different species (interspecific), Examples are (i) competition (ii) predation (iil) parasitism (iv) mutwalism (¥) symbiosis (vi) commensalism (vi) neutralism Pig 48: The cooYouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “Gall @studyforcivilservices ‘+ In nature several communities of organisms live together and interact with each other as well as with their physical environment as an ecological unit, We call itan ecosystem. The term ‘ecosystem’ was coined by A.G. Tansey in 1935, An ecosystem is a functional unit of nature encompassing complex interaction between its biotic (living) and abiotic (non: living) components. A pond is an example of a complete, closed and an independent ecosystem. [tis convenient to study its basic structure and functions. It works on solar energy and maintains its biotic community in equilibrium, + Ecosystem is known as a functional unit of nature. An ecosystem can be as small as a water droplets. It is called ‘micro ecosystem, ‘Karl Mabius called the idea of the ecosystem as Biocoenosis. Forbs called ecosystem as Microcosm, ‘© Ecosystem in nature can be divided into two major categories. They are called terrestrial and aquatic systems. Grasslands, forests and deserts are examples of terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystem includes lakes, rivers and ‘+ About 71 percent ofthe Earth's area is covered by an aquatic ecosystem. This system is spread over the most area of the world. ‘© The ocean is the world’s largest ecosystem. About 97 percent of the existing hydrosphere on Earth is sea water. Sodium chloride isthe most abundant 85% salt in sea water. + Biosphere is a thin layer of soil, rock, water and air, which is the largest ecosystem spread in the form of the Earth's quaternary mantle, with which living organisms are related and this system is the sustenance of organisms. does. Components of an ecosystem Components of ecosystem: They are broadly grouped into: 1. Abiotic and 2. Biotic components Abiotic components (Nonliving): The abiotic component can be grouped into following three categories: Physical facto inan ecosystem, ‘Inorganic substances: Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, water, rock, soil and other minerals, jun light, temperature, rainfall, humidity and pressure, They sustain and limit the growth of organist + Organic compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humie substances. They are the building blocks of living systems and therefore, make a link between the biotic and abiotic components, Light: ‘Solar radiation provides energy that controls the entire system. Penetration of light depends on transparency of water, ved or suspended particles in water and the number of plankton. On the basis of extent of penetration of light a pond can be divided into euphotic, mesophotic and aphotic zones. Plenty of light is avallable to plants and amount of dis animals in euphotic zone, No light is available in the aphotic zone. Inorganic substances: ‘These are water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, caleium and a few other elements like sulphur depending on the location of the pond. The inorganic substances like 02 and CO2 are in dissolved state in water. All plants an anit depend on water for their food and exchange of gases- nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other inorganic salts are held in reserve in bottom sediment and inside the living organisms. A very small fraction may be in the dissolved state.YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices Organic compound: The commonly found organic matter in the pond are amino acids and humic acids and the breakdown products of dead animals and plants. They are partly dissolved in water and partly suspended in water. Biotic components (Living) ‘+ Producers: The green plants manufacture food for the entire ecosystem through the process of photosynthesis, Green plants are called autotrophs, as they absorb water and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and capture solar energy for this process. + Consumers: They are called heterotrophs and they consume food synthesized by the autotrophs. Based on food preferences they can be grouped into three broad categories. Herbivores (eg. cow, deer and rabbit etc) feed directly on plants, carnivores are animals which eat other animals (eg. lon, cat, dog etc. and omnivores organisms feeding upon both plants and animals eg. human, pigs and sparrow, + Decomposers: Also called saprotrophs. These are mostly bacteria and fungi that feed on dead decomposed and the dead organte matter of plants and animals by secreting enzymes outside their body on the decaying matter. They play a very important role n recycling of nutrients. They are also called detrivores or detritus feeders. Producers or autotrophs: synthesize food forall the heterotrophs of the pond. They can be categorized into two groups: ‘Floating microorganisms and plants (b) Rooted plants (a) Floating microorganisms (green) and plants are called phytoplankton. They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes they are so abundant in pond that they make it look green in colour e.g Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox, + Rooted plants: These are arranged in concentrie zones from periphery to the deeper layers. Three distinet zones of aquatic plants can be seen with increasing deapth of water in the following order: 1, Zone of emergent vegetation: eg, Typha, Bulrushes and Sagittaria 2. Tone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves eg, Nymphaea 3. Zone of submergent vegetation: eg. All pond weeds like Hydrilla , musk grass ete + Consumers/Heterotrophs are animals which feed directly or indirectly on autotrophs eg. Tadpole, snails, sunfish, bass ete Pond animals can be classified into the following groups 1. Zooplanktons are floating animals. Cyclops, Cypris 2, Nektons are the animals that can swim and navigate at will Eg, fishes 3. Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers: beetle, mites, mollusks and some crustaceans. Decomposers: They are distributed through out the entire in the whole pond but in the sediment most abundant, There are bacteria and fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium, Curvularia Cladosporium) found atthe bottom ofthe pond, Functions of ecosystem Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform certain functions. These are:- + Energy flow through food chain ‘= Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles) ‘© Ecological succession or ecasystem development ‘+ Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms Ponds, lakes, meadows, marshlands, grasslands, deserts and forests are examples of natural ecosystem, Food Chain ‘© ‘Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with repeated eating and being eaten is called a food chain, eg Grasses -> Grasshopper ~ Frog -> Snake -> Hawk/Eagle ‘© Bach step in the food chain is called trophic level. In the above example grasses are Ist, and eagle represents the Sth trophic level ‘During this process of transfer of energy some energy is lost into the system as heat energy and is not available to the next trophic level. Therefore, the number of steps are limited in a chain to 4 or 5, Following trophic levels can be Identified in a food chain, ‘+ Autotrophs: They are the producers of food forall other organisms of the ecosystem. They are largely green plants and convert inorganic material in the presence of solar energy by the process of photosynthesis into the chemical energy (food). The total rate at which the radiant energy is stored by the process of photosynthesis inthe green plants is called Gross Primary Production (GPP). This is also known as total photosynthesis or total assimilation, From the grossYOUU sway ror civil Services SCSGYAN “Biel @studyforcivilservices primary productivity a part is utilized by the plants for its own metabolism, The remaining amount is stored by the plant as Net Primary Production (NPP) which is available to consumers. + Herbivores: The animals which eat the plants directly are called primary consumers or herbivores eg. Insects, birds, rodents and ruminants, + Carnivores: They are secondary consumers if they Feed on herbivores and tertiary consumers if they use carnivores as ‘heir food. eg. frog, dog, cat and tiger. + Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and animals e.g. pig, bear and man © Decomposers: They take care of the dead remains of organisms at each trophic level and help in recycling of the trients eg bacteria and Fung ‘There are two types of food chains: + Grazing food chains: The grazing food chain starts from green plants passes on to herbivorous primary consumers and ends with carnivorous animals, * —37,° me as coonmycamnmee ) @ + Detritus food chains: start from the dead organic matter to the detrivore organisms which in turn make food for protozoan to carnivores etc. Dates Ded organic Yah Se Second Det Fender ‘Types of ecosystems Ecosystems are classified as follows: {Natural ecosystems 2 Man made ecosystems Natural ecosystems - ‘+ Totally dependent on solar radiation eg. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes, rivers and deserts. They provide food, fuel, fodder and medicines. ‘Ecosystems dependent on solar radiation and energy subsidies (alternative sources) such as wind, rain and tides. eg ‘tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries and coral reefs, Man made ecosystems + Dependent on solar energy-eg, Agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds, ‘+ Dependent on fossil fuel eg urban and industrial ecosystems.YouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN "Gall @studyforcivilservices Food web ‘Trophic levels in an ecosystem are not linear rather they are interconnected and make a food web. Thus food web is a network interconnected food chains existing in an ecosystem, One animal may be a member of several different food chains, Food webs are more realistic models of energy flow through an ecosystem, ‘The flow of energy in an ecosystem i always linear or one way. Ecological pyramid Ecological pyramids are the graphic representations of trophic levels in an ecosystem. They are pyramidal in shape and they are of three types: The producers make the base ofthe pyramid and the subsequent tiers ofthe pyramid represent herbivore, camivore and top carnivore levels, + Pyramid of number: This represents the number of organisms at each trophic level. The pyramids of number of an ecosystem can be upright as well as inverted in shape. For example in a grassland the number of grasses is more than the number of herbivores that feed on them and the number of herbivores is more than the umber of carnivores. In forest ecosystem the pyramid of number may be inverted, ie herbivores are more than primary producers as you may observe that many caterpillars and insects feed on a single tree. Pyramid of number for a parasitic food chain is always Inverted and spindle shaped. + Pyramid of blomass: This represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic level. Standing crap biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given time. Itis expressed as gm/unit area or kilo cal/unit area, In most of the terrestrial ecosystems the pyramid of biomass is upright. However, in case of aquatic ecosystems the pyramid of biomass may be inverted eg, in a pond phytoplankton are the main producers, they have very short life cycles and a rapid tum over rate (ie. they are rapidly replaced by new plants). Therefore, thelr total biomass at any given time is less than the biomass of herbivores supported by them.YouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “Gall @studyforcivilservices © Fenarycommumere He Fite eee — rons eee ————" [Zooplankton — | Phytoplankton ‘+ Pyramid of energy: This pyramid represents the total amount of energy at each trophic level. Energy is expressed in terms of rate such as keal/unit area /unit time or cal/unit area/unit time.eg in a lake autotroph energy is 20810 kcal/m/year. Energy pyramids are never inverted and are always upright. Pyramid ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY Its clear from the trophic structure of an ecosystem that the amount of energy decreases at each subsequent trophic level, ‘This is due to two reasons: 1 At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in metabolism, 2. A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i. when it moves from lower to higer trophic level as heat. It is the ratio between the amount of energy acquired from the lower trophic level and the amount of energy transferred from higher trophic level is called ecological efficiency. Lindman in 1942 defined these ecological efficiencies for the 1st time and proposed 10% rule eg. if autotrophs produce 100 cal, herbivores will be able to store 10 cal_ and carnivores 1cal. However, ‘here may be slight variations in different ecosystems and ecological efficiencies may range from 5 to 3596, Ecological efficiency (also called Lindman’s efficiency), Aquatic Ecosystem Characteristics 1, Fresh water ecosystem: lotic (moving water) or lente (still or stagnant water). + Lotic water system includes freshwater streams, springs ete Lentie water bodies include pools ete + They vary considerably in physical, chemical and biological characteristics. 2, Marine Ecosystem: Nearly 3/4 of earth's surface is covered by Ocean. ‘+ Estuaries: Coastal bays, river mouths and tidal marshes form estuaries. In Estuaries, fresh water from rivers meet ‘ocean water and the two are mixed by action of tides, Estuaries are highly productive as compared to the adjacent riverYouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “Gall @studyforcivilservices + Examples of estuaries are estuary, coastal link, lagoon, delta etc ‘+ Biosphere: part ofthe earth where life can exist. And represents atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, Itis absent atthe poles. Occasionally spores of fung! and bacteria do occur but only in a dormant form, Grassland Ecosystem ‘* The Grassland Ecosystem covers about 10-25 percent of the Earth's surface. Itis found where rainfall is about 15- 75 em per year not enough to support a forest, but more than that of true desert. Typical grasslands are vegetation formations that are generally found in temperate climates. ‘© These are known by different names in different regions of the world lke steppes ‘America, Veldt in South Africa and Downs in Australia, ‘¢ In India, they are found mainly in the high Himalayas. The rest of India’s grasslands are mainly composed of the Steppes and Savanna, Steppe formations occupy large areas of sandy and saline soils. ‘* In India, steppe formations are found to occur in western Rajasthan where the climate is semi-arid with a dry season of 10-11 months, and the average annual rainfall s less than 20 cm, They occupy large areas of sandy and saline soil, The soil here is always exposed, sometimes rocky but often sandy with fixed or mobile sand-dunes, Forage is found only during the brief wet season. The layer of grass is sparse and mainly consists of annual grass species. ‘* A major difference between savannas and steppes is that savanna forage is largely from grasses that not only grow: during the wet season but also from the small amount of regrowth in the dry season whereas in the steppes all the forage is provided only during the brief wet season. ‘© ‘The most important difference between a steppe and a savanna is where itis located. ‘¢ Savannas lie closer to the equator than steppes and, thus, are warmer than steppes. Being closer to the rainforest ‘means that savannas have two major seasons: a hot, wet summer and a marginally cooler, but much drier winter. ‘© Steppes, by contrast, Ile further from the equator and in sheltered areas. This means the precipitation they get is dispersed evenly throughout the year. ‘© Fewer large plants can take root under such dry conditions. Being further from the equator also means colder conditions, and in some northern steppes, snow, rather than rain, is common. 7 Europe and Asia, pampas in South a } PRODUCTIVITY + A constant input of solar energy is the basic requirement for any ecosystem to function and sustain, Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants uring photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g-2 or energy (kcal m-2), The rate of biomass production is called productivity, It is expressed in terms of g-2yr-1 or (Kcal m-2)ye~1 to compare the productivity of different ecosystems. It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary productivity (NPP). Gross primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A considerable amount of GPP is utilised by plants in respiration. Gross primary productivity minus respiration lossesYOUU sway ror civil Services SCSGYAN “ial @studyforcivitservices 49 (R), is the net primary productivity (NPP). GPP-R=NPP + Net primary productivity is the available biomass for the consumption to heterotrophs (herbiviores and decomposes). Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers. ‘Primary productivity depends on the plant species inhabiting a particular area, It also depends on a variety of environmental factors, availability of nutrients and photosynthetic capacity of plants. Therefore, it varies indifferent types of ecosystems, The annual net primary productivity of the whole biosphere is approximately 70 billion tons (ary weight) of organic matter. OF this, despite occupying about 70 per cent of the surface, the productivity of the oceans are only 35 billion tons. Rest of course, is on land, DECOMPOSITION + You may have heatd of the earthworm being referred to as the farmer's ‘friend! This is so because they help in the breakdown of complex organic matter as well asin loosening of the soil. Similarly, decomposers break down complex. organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients and the process is called decomposition. Dead plant remains such as leaves, bark, flowers and dead remains of animals, including fecal matter, constitute detritus, which is the raw material for decomposition. The important steps in the process of decomposition are fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralisation. * Detritivores (e.g, earthworm) break down detritus into smaller particles. This process is called fragmentation. By the process of leaching, watersoluble inorganic nutrients go down into the soil horizon and get precipitated as unavailable salts, Bacterial and fungal enzymes degrade detritus into simpler inorganic substances. This process is called as catabolism, ‘+ Itis important to note that all the above steps in decomposition operate simultaneously on the detritus. Humification and mineralisation occur during decomposition in the soil. Humification leads to accumulation of a dark coloured amorphous substance called humus that is highly resistant to microbial action and undergoes decomposition at an extremely slow rate. Being colloidal in nature it serves as a reservoir of nutrients. The humus is further degraded by ‘some microbes and release of inorganic nutrients occur by the process known as mineralisation + Decomposition is largely an oxygen-requiring process. The rate of decomposition is contvolled by chemical composition of detritus and climatic factors, In a particular climatic condition, decomposition rate is slower if detritus is rich in lignin and chitin, and quicker, if detritus is rich in nitrogen and water-soluble substances like sugars. ‘Temperature and soil moisture are the most important climatic factors that regulate decomposition through their effects on the activities of soll microbes. Warm and moist environment favour decompasition whereas low ‘temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition resulting in build up of organic materials. Arce gros nthe sll Plgere 14.1 Diagrammatic representation of dcomponttioneyele in terestralecoystentYouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices Ecology & Ecosystem Mangrove vegetation is found in almost all the coastal states of India including Andaman and Nicobar Islands, West Bengal, Odisha, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Mangrove vegetation grows more in salt water and can grow in fresh water also. But here its development is less than in salt water. A mixture of salt and fresh water is not necessary for mangrove vegetation. Corals are lime-dominated soft (invertebrate) organisms that li in a hard shell composed of calcium carbonate. Corals are found at low depths because at higher depths there is a lack of sunlight and oxygen, so optical conditions are necessary for the growth of coral reefs. For the development of coral, it is necessary that the water should be free from depression because due to sediments, the mouth of the corals gets closed. In tropical sea water, temperatures of about 20°C to 21°C are favorable for the survival of corals. About 32-40% salinity Large-sized, powerful animals that can swim freely in the aquatic environment and are partially capable of swimming against currents, and most of these animals are vertebrates, such animals come ry for the growth of coral reefs. in the community of swimmers or necton. Plankton: Micro-organisms (protozoa, crustaceans, ete.) and plants (such as algae, diatoms, etc.) found in the upper part of the water (depth about 200 m) in the upper epipelagic zone of the oceanic biome are called plankton. Plants of this category are called phytoplankton and animals are called zooplankton. Plankton have a limited a ry to swim and are largely dependent on the flow of currents. Periphyton: A group of microscopic organisms and plants that cling to the rooted plants in the water surface. Plants absorb the impurities present in water. In this way, they indicate the purity of the aquatic environment. For example- algae, cyanobacteria, hast micro-organisms ete. Benthos: Plants and animals living near the bottom or bottom of the water surface are called benthos. Benthos are found in sea water as well as in fresh water. The Coral Triangle is a marine region that includes Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste, containing at least 500 reef-building corals. It is located in western Pacific Ocean. The Coral Triangle comprises parts of 2 biogeographic regions: the Indonesian-Philippines region and the far southwestern Pacific region. The world's highest coral diversity is found in the Coral Triangle and is home to 76% of the world’s coral speci The epicenter of the diversity of coral species is found in the Birds Head peninsula of Papua, Indonesia (95% of the coral triangle and 72% of the world’s total). More coral reef species have been found in this region than in other regions of the Earth, but not all regions. 6 (not all) of the world's 7 sea turtle species, including the leatherback sea turtle, are found in places such as the northern Birds Head Peninsula/Vaigo region, Papua (Indonesia). As well as the Lee region (Papua New Guinea), New Georgia (Solomon Islands). The main factor in controlling the number and density of plant species in a mangrove area isthe ability of the vegetation of that area to tolerate salt water and the temperature of that area.YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices ‘+ Mangroves are salt-tolerant vegetation. Mangroves develop special respiratory roots through which these plants exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide. These roots are called ‘pneumatophores’. + The extent of mangrove vegetation in India is found in the states of West Bengal (Sundarbans) icobar, Odisha, Maharashtra (eg- Ratnagiri), Tamil (most), Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Andaman Nadu, Goa, Kerala, Karnataka. + Most of the coral reefs in the world are found in tropi 1 ocean waters. More than one-third of the world's coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and the Philippines. Coral reefs support a much larger number of animal associations than tropical rain forests. + Ecotone: The geographic transition zone between two or more diverse communities is called a transition, such as the area between grassland and forest, the area between soft-bottomed animals. and hard-bottomed animals. + Grasses are characteristic of terrestrial climates that trees cannot replace grasses here. The main reason for this is the availability of limited amount of water due to less rai absence of water, trees are found scattered here in very limited quantities. The frequency of fires in these grasslands is also high, As a result of which the trees grown in li fall in this biome. In the red quantity are destroyed by burning and thus the ecological succession starts again. + The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) is a comprehensive assessment of the impacts of human activities on the environment. This introduced the term ‘ecosystem services’, which is used to refer to the benefits accruing to humans from the ecology. + The concept was introduced by former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan in 2000, starting in 2001. + Ferns are shade plants that grow in the shade of large trees. Acacia system, Hyacinth is able to float on the surface of the water due to the inflated foliage. Chorology is found in some species of mangroves. In this, the seed germinates while it is on the tree, which does not affect the salinity at the time of germination. Those plants come under the category of red a desert plant with a deep root mangroves, which have the ability to tolerate very high salt water and grow near the sea. + Laminaria and Fucus are two such seaweeds that are used as animal feed. Agar is a type of algae used in pharmaceutical industry, photography, metal coating, ete. * Green, blue, red and brown algae are usually found in the sea. + Due to the high nutrient content of seaweeds, they can be used as manure. + Human beings benefit from the environment in different ways. These benefits are collectively called ecological services. There are four categories of ecological services- 1. Support Services 2. Provisioning Services 3. Regulatory Services 4. Cultural Services + Examples are — 1. Pollination in crops 2. Provision of clean water and air 3. Mitigation of environmental hazards 4. Carbon sequestration 5, Pest and disease control + The Marine National Park of Gujarat preserves shallows, islands, coral reefs and extensive tidal wetlands in the sea, There are two sanctuaries to protect the coastal ecosystem: Chilka Lake (Odisha) and Point Calimar (Tamil Nadu). + Corals are invertebrates that belong to a large group of colorful organisms called Cnii They are generally classified as ‘hard corals’ or ‘soft corals’. +The coral reefs of the Red Sea are located from the northernmost region of the Indian Ocean. About 300 hardy species of coral have been recorded in the Red SeYouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices + The Great Barrier Reef is facing a threat due to extreme surface temperatures resulting from El Nio. El Nio causes irregularly cold or warm ocean temperatures around the world. Which could threaten the diverse nature of the Great Barrier Reef. + Coral reefs are found throughout the ocean, from deep, cold waters to shallow, tropical waters. Both El Nino and Hurricane are extreme atmospheric phenomena that are completely dependent on the climatic conditions, which are naturally responsible for coral bleaching. Marine pollution and coastal development are among the human factors of coral bleaching. + Swamps are also called wetland forests. These can be on the banks of rivers or lakes. Kutch is related to relatively stagnant water and in which the roots of the trees are under water and the leaves and stems are outside the water. In both the types of land (Anup and Kutch), the photosynthesis process takes place at a rapid pace. + Blue-green algae are a relatively simple, algae are used as a source of dietary protein, 8 vitamins and iron. It is also used for weight loss, diabetes, stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression and premenstrual syndrome and other female health problems. Blue-green algae produce many toxins but two types of toxins are particularly notable: life form closely related to bacteria. Blue-green Microcystin and anatoxin-A. Ecrocysteine is the most toxic substance responsible for human and animal toxicity. Anatoxin-A is a potent neurotoxin that can cause lethargy, muscle pain, confusion, memory loss, and death. It provides much more nitrogen than urea. + A biome is a large ecosystem, where plants, animals, insects and humans live in a particular type of ate. Deciduous forests are found mainly and the Western Ghats of peninsular India. Angled forests are found in the central Himalayas. Alpine biome is found in the upper Himalayas. Grasslands are found in the Terai-Duar region in the lower part of the Himalayas and in many other areas. The leaves of insectivorous plants are modified to form special structures, with the help of which they capture insects and small animals. By digesting these insects, it obtain nitrogen from them. Nepenthes, Drosera and Utricularia are examples of insectivorous plants. + Kelp Forests are the most productive, beautiful and abundant species-rich ecosystems on Earth. They are found in the shallow and coastal waters of the cold and temperate oceans of the world. These forests are limited only where the temperature is below 20 ° C and they are spread over both the Arctic and Antarctic circles. + Watershed and Watershed Development Program — The Watershed Development Program was launched in 1995, The basic concept of watershed is the holding and absorption of water at one place. ‘Tree vegetation helps in absorbing water while stream-blocking and dam-barrier help in stopping the flow of water. Therefore, not only does the water supply to the reservoirs, but there is continuous water supply throughout the year. Watershed development helps to increase groundwater. It also helps in prevention of serious problems like floods. + The term Ecology Niket or Niche was first used by Greenells. He had represented the local distribution system of different types of castes and sub-castes through t + Examples of estuarine ecosystems in India - Diamond Harbor (West Bengal), Pennar estuary (Andhra Pradesh) + Eutrophication refers to the development of industrial wastes that increase the level of nutrients needed for the growth of algae in the water, and when these algae die, the bacteria consume more oxygen to feed them. Eutrophication is the naturally occurring periodic decay of a lake that occurs asYouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices a result of eutrophication of its waters. Over time, the streams that fall into the lake introduce nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus into it, which encourages the growth of aquatic organisms. + Canada has the largest area of wetlands listed in the world. Ramsar city is located in Iran. The United ugdom has the most wetland site * Since fungi do not have chloroplasts, they are heterotrophs. Algae are autotrophs which prepare their own food with the help of green chlorophyll pigment. Some algae have pigments like red, yellow, blue the world according to the Ramsar’ etc, Fungi do not have green pigments. + Desert ecosystems are divided into warm desert and cold desert. + Blue carbon is the carbon stored in coastal and marine ecosystems. Coastal ecosystems of mangroves, tidal marshes and seagrass meadows have large deposits of carbon deposited by vegetation and various natural processes over centuries. These ecosystems sequester and store more carbon per unit, area than terrestrial forests, often referred to as ‘blue carbon’. + Plankton refers to a group of organisms that float in the surface waters of rivers, lakes and oceans. Phytoplankton are microscopic plant organisms that live in both clean and saline aquatic environments. + Kol Wetlands - Located in Thrissur and Malappuram districts of Kerala, this area is part of the Vembanad-Kol wetlands. It is the largest saline, humid tropical wetland ecosystem on the southwest. coast of India, fed by 10 rivers. + Itis similar to the great estuary systems of the west coast. + Committee ~ Related Areas ‘Madhav Gadgil Committee - Conservation of the Western Ghats Injeti Srinivas Committee - National Sports Code Kasturirangan Committee - Conservation of the Western Ghats + The world's first 'Salt Tolerant Plant Garden’ has been inaugurated in Tamil Nadu. The park has been established by the MS Swar scientist MS Swaminathan, who is known as the father of the Indian Green Revolution. ‘athan Research Foundation established by the eminent agricultural + Coral bleaching is not only a result of high temperatures but also a result of extremely low temperatures (2010 saw coral bleaching due to cold water near Florida). Coral bleaching results in coral turning white in color. But they do not end. + Ozone depleting substances covered under the Montreal Protocol are ~ CFCs, halons, carbon tetra chloride, methyl chloroform, HCFCs, BFC-2182, HBFCs, bromocarbons. + A phytotron is a chamber in which plants can be grown under controlled conditions. The minimum level of environmentally sustainable river flow of various rivers is determined through e-flow. It describes the quantity, timing and quality of water flow required to maintain pure water and estuary ecosystems. Ecosystem Functions + The carbon and energy requirements of autotrophic organisms are met by photosynthesi + Probi = Probiotics are living microorganisms (bacteria) that are naturally found in our intestines. Also, as a food supplement, probi: milk and some plants. Consuming them is very beneficial for health. ic bacteria are found in dairy products such as yogurt,YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices By consuming probiotic foods, the functioning of the intestine can be strengthened, infection can be prevented. ‘The ocean acts as a storehouse for carbon dioxide as it absorbs carbon dioxide daily. Hence it is also called carbon sink. Oceans participate in the carbon cycle as a carbon sink. Halophytes are plants that grow in highly saline waters. Halophytes require more sunlight for their development. Biomagnification refers to the tendency of pollutants to increase their concentration as they move from one trophic level to another. Thus, In Biomagnification, the concentration of pollutants increases from one link in the food chain to the next. For Biomagnification, it is necessary to have four elements in the pollutants, long stability, mobility, solubility and activity in different types of fats. Bioaccumulation refers to how pollutants enter the food chain. Bioaccumulation refers to the increase in the concentration of a pollutant from the environment to the first organism in the food chain. It is the process in which a chemical substance is absorbed into an organism by all the means of contact present in the natural environment i.e. food and the wider environmental source. Bio-concentration is a type of bioaccumulation but it occurs only when the substance has been absorbed from the water. Many dioecious plants store proline (an amino acid) in their cells to maintain water and osmolarity. In areas of low temperature, cold-resistant proteins such as chaperonins are produced by many animals. Antinutrients or naturally toxic agents are secondary metabolic factors synthesized by plants. They are used as a defense mechanism to protect against attack by herbivorous animals, insects and other pathogens and to survive even under adverse growth conditi ns. Examples of abundant antibodies used in human food are: in the ligume 3. Oxalic acid and oxalate 4. Phytic acid and phytate 5. Sapo 8, Glycoalkaloids All the above mentioned animals of Detritus food chain show 'Shamal Bhojita’. All these animals are |. Tannin 2. Protein antagonists such as trypsin inhibitors and lectins found 6. Mimosin 7. cyanogen detritus consumers. These invertebrates are a group of small animals that feed on the ‘degradation’ of vascular plants. Parasitism is a condition in which the parasite damages its host by obtaining nourishment, but usually does not kill it. Example- Amarvel, lice ete. ‘Movement of substances in an Ecosystem The contribution of carbon dioxide in the carbon cycle is through the following processes- Respiration, t The carbon cycle was initially discovered by Joseph Priestley and Lavoisier and further propounded by decay of organic matter, voleani ity, combustion of fossil fuels, petroleum ref Humphrey Davy. A lotic ecosystem is an ecosystem of flowing water and a lentic ecosystem is an ecosystem of still water. Carbo sic components of the ecosystem.YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices ao The role of the atmosphere in the phosphorus cycle is negligible as there is no exchange of phosphorus between organisms and the environment. The input of phosphorus into the atmosphere by precipitation in the phosphorus cycle is much less than in the carbon cycle. Nitrogen fixation in waterlogged paddy fields by Nostoc and Allosira cyanobacteria. The nitrogen cycle involves various steps; First nitrogen is converted into ammonia, then ammonia to e, then nitrite into nitrate and finally nitrogen is obtained by plants in the form of nitrate. iving organisms cannot take up atmospheric nitrogen directly. This requires nitrogen fixation. There are 3 means of nitrogen fixation on Earth: 1. Micro-organisms (bacteria and blue-green algae). 2. By industrial process (fertilizer factory). 3. Atmospheric phenomena, such as thunder and lightning. Except for the deep sea hydro-thermal ecosystem, sun is the only source of energy for all ecosystems on Earth. Of the incident solar radiation less than 50_per cent of itis photosyntheticaly active radiation (PAR), Plants and photosynthetic bacteria (autotrophs), fix suns’ radiant energy to make food from simple inorganic materials. Plants capture only 2-10 per cent of the PAR and this small amount of energy sustains the entre living world. So, itis very important to know how the solar energy captured by plants lows through different organisms of an ecosystem. All organisms are dependent for thelr food on producers, either directly or indirectly. So you find unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers and then to consumers Further, ecosystems are not exempt from the Second Law of thermodynamics. They need a constant supply af energy to synthesise the molecules they require, to counteract the universal tendency toward increasing disorderliness. The green plant in the ecosystem-terminology are called producers. Ina terrestrial ecosystem, major producers are herbaceous and woody plants. Likewise, primary producers in an aquatic ecosystem are various species like phytoplankton, algae and higher plants, You have read about the food chains and webs that exist in nature. Starting from the plants (or producers) food chains or rather webs are formed such that an animal feeds on a plant or on another animal and in turn is food for another. The chain or web is formed because of this interdependency. No energy that is trapped into an organism remains in it for ever. The energy trapped by the producer, hence, is either passed on to a consumer or the organism dies. Death of organism isthe beginning of the detritus food chain/web. All animals depend on plants (directly or indirectly) for their food needs. They are hence called consumers and also heterotrophs. Ithey feed on the producers, the plants, they are called primary consumers, and ifthe animals eat other animals which in turn eat the plants (or their produce) they are called secondary consumers. Likewise, you could have tertiary consumers too. Obviously the primary consumers will be herbivores. Some common herbivores are insects, birds and mammals in terrestrial ecosystem and molluses in aquatic ecosystem. The consumers that feed on these herbivores are carnivores, or more correctly primary carnivores (though secondary consumers). Those animals that depend on the primary carnivores for food are labelled secondary carnivores. A simple grazing food chain (GFC) is depicted below: Grasses (Producer) ~ Goat (Primary Consumer) ~ Man (Secondary Consumer) The detritus food chain (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of decomposers which are heterotrophic organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria. They meet their energy and nutrient requirements by degrading dead organic matter or detritus. These are also known as saprotrophs (sapro: to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials into simple, inorganie materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them, Im an aquatic ecosystem, GFC is the major condult for energy flow. As against this, ina terrestrial ecosystem, a much larger fraction of energy flows through the detritus food chain than through the GFC. Detritus food chain may be connected with the grazing food chain at some levels: some of the organisms of DFC are prey to the GRC animals, and in a natural ecosystem, some animals like cockroaches, crows, etc, are omnivores. These natural interconnection of food chains make ita food web,YouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “Gall @studyforcivilservices eng lw hgh dierent tape el Ea Organisms occupy a place in the natural surroundings or in a community according to their feeding relationship with other organisms. Based on the source of their nutrition or food, organisms occupy a specific place in the food chain that is known as their trophic evel. Producers belong to the first trophic level, herbivores (primary consumer) to the second and carnivores (secondary consumer) to the third. ‘+ The important point to note is that the amount of energy decreases at successive trophic levels. When any organism dies itis converted to detritus or dead biomass that serves as an energy source for decomposers, Organisms at each ‘trophic level depend on those at the lower trophic level for their energy demands. ‘Each trophic level has a certain mass of living material ata particular time called as the standing crop. The standing crop is measured as the mass of living organisms (biomass) or the number in a unit area. ‘The biomass of a species is expressed in terms of fresh or dry weight. The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is restricted as the transfer of energy follows 10 per cent law ~ only 10 per cent of the energy is transferred to ceach trophic level from the lower trophic level. In nature, itis possible to have so many levels - producer, herbivore, primary carnivore, secondary carnivore inthe grazing food chain. “Tena Fourth Trophic level Man, ton consumer ‘op Camivore) ‘Secondary ‘The trope irs fies Consumer ‘eve ‘wolf 1 (carnivore eam Seon woe Zooplanion, shopper ; erivore Prsmary First Trophiclevel_ Phytoplankton grass. tees Producer hans)YouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “Gall @studyforcivilservices LO Aa ‘= The base ofa pyramid is broad and it narrows down at the apex. One gets.a similar shape, whether you express the food cr energy relationship between organisms at different trophic level. Thus, relationship is expressed in terms of ‘number, biomass or energy. The base of each pyramid represents the producers or the first trophic level while the apex represents tertiary or top level consumer. The three ecological pyramids that are usually studied are (a) pyramid of ‘number; (b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of energy. ‘© Any calculations of energy content, biomass, or numbers has to include all organisms at that trophic level. No ‘generalisations we make will be true if we take only a few individuals at any trophic level into account. Also a given organism may occupy more than one trophic level simultaneously, One must remember that the trophic level represents a functional level, not a species as such. A given species may occupy more than one trophic level in the same ecosystem at the same time; for example, a sparrow is a primary consumer when it eats seeds, fruits, peas, and a ‘secondary consumer when iteats insects and worms. + In most ecosystems, all the pyramids, of number, of energy and biomass are upright, ie, producers are more in number and biomass than the herbivores, and herbivores are more in number and biomass than the earnivores. Also energy at lower trophic level is always more than at a higher level Eee Water-Cycle + The Water cycle is the continuous elrculation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system which is driven by solar energy. ‘Water on our planet is stored in major reservoirs like atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, sols, glaciers, snowfields, and ‘groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir to another by the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation, advection, precipitation, deposition, runoff, infiltration, and groundwater flow: + ‘The Earth is a watery planet of the solar system, about 2/3rd of earth surface is covered with water. However a very small fraction ofthis is available to animals and plants, ‘+ Water is not evenly distributed throughout the surface of the earth. Almost 95 % of the total water on the earth is chemically bound to rocks and does not cycle. Out of the remaining 5%, nearly 97.3% is in the oceans and 2.1% exists as polar ice caps. Thus only 0.6% is present as fresh water in the form of atmospheric water vapours, ground and soil water. * The driving forces for water cycle are solar radiation and gravity . Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in water cycle, These two processes alternate with each other, + On an average 84% of the water is lost from the surface of the through aceans by evaporation, While 77% ts gained by It from precipitation. Water run off from lands through rivers to oceans makes up 7% which balances the evaporation deficit ofthe ocean. On land, evaporation is 16% and precipitation is 23%, CondensationYOUU sway ror civil Services SCSGYAN “fief @studyforciviiservices The whole process in which water evaporates and falls on the land as rain and later flows back into the sea via rivers is known as the water-cycle, As water flows through or over rocks containing soluble minerals, some of them get dissolved in the water.Thus rivers carry many nutrients from the land to the sea, and these are used by the marine organisms Solar radiation plays the most important role in the water cycle, Solar radiation initiates water cycle and evaporating water. Humidity is the measure of the moisture content in the air. The device used for measuring of humidity is hygrometer or psychrometer The water cycle is driven primarily by the energy from the sun. The solar radiation drives the cycle by evaporating water from the oceans, lakes, rivers and even the soll, It forms water droplets and clouds, where water droplets eventually gain enough mass to fall back to earth Nitrogen cycle Nitrogen gas makes up 78% of our atmosphere and nitrogen is also a part of many molecules essential to life like proteins, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and some vitamins, During lightning, the high temperatures and pressures created in the alr convert nitrogen into oxides of nitrogen, These oxides dissolve in water to give nitric and nitrous acids and fall on land along with rain, Plants generally take up nitrates and nitrites and convert them into amino acids which are used to make proteins. ogen is an essential component of protein and required by all living organisms including human beings. Broadly like corbondioxide, nitrogen also cycles from gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous phase through the activity of a wide variety of organisms. Cycling of nitrogen is vitally important for all living organisms. There are five ‘main processes which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below ~ Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by the following three methods:- + Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic activity help in the fixation of nitrogen, + Industrial fixation: Ax high temperature (400°C) and high pressure (200 atm.), molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen which then combines with hydrogen to form ammonia. ‘+ Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria- (i) Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the root nodules of leguminous plants, (il) Freeliving or symbiotic eg, 1. Nostoc 2. Azobacter 3. Cyanobacteria can combine atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonia Nitrification: [tis a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by Nitrosomonas and Nitrococeus bacteria respectively, Another soil bacteria Nitrobacter can covert nitrate into nitrite, ‘Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA te. These molecules make the plant and animal tissue, Ammonification : Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as urea and uric acid. These waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are converted back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This process {s called ammonification, Ammonifying bacteria help inthis process Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called denitrification, Denitrfying bacteria live deep in soil near the water table as they like to live in oxygen free medium. Denitrification is reverse of nitrogenYouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN "Gall @studyforcivilservices Carhon-Cycle ‘The source of all carbon is carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. It is highly soluble in water; therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide. ‘The global carbon cycle consists of following steps- Photosynthesis - Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize COs in the process of photosynthesis and convert the inorganic carbon into organic matter (food) and release oxygen, Annually 4.9 x10" kg of CO2 is fixed by green plants of ‘the entire biosphere, Forests acts as reservoirs of CO2 as carbon fixed by the trees remain stored in them for long due to their long lfe cycles. A very large amount of C02 is released through forest fires. Respiration - Respiration is carried out by all living organisms. It is a metabolic process where food is oxidized to liberate energy, CO2 and water. The energy released from respiration is used for carrying out life processes by living organism (plants, animals, decomposers etc). Thus CO? is released into of the atmosphere through this process. Decomposition - All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by plant is not metabolized by them completely. A ‘major partis retained by them as thelr own biomass which becomes avallable to decomposers on their death, The dead organic matter is decomposed by microorganisms and C02 is released into the atmosphere by decomposers. Combustion - Burning of biomass releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, Impact of human activities - The global carbon cycle has been increasingly disturbed by human activities particularly ‘since the beginning of industrial era. Large scale deforestation and ever growing consumption of fossil fuels by growing, numbers of industries, power plants and automobiles are primarily responsible for increasing emission of carbon dioxide, Carbon dioxide has been continuously increasing in the atmosphere due to human activities such as industrialization, urbanization and increasing use and number of automobiles. This is leading to increase concentration of CO: in the atmosphere, which is a mafor cause of global warmingstudy For Civil Services SCSGYAN, ‘Giall @studytorcivitservices 94 o Carbon Cycle fuscia ‘© Oxygen is a very abundant element on our Barth. It is found in the elemental form in the atmosphere to the extent of 21%, It also occurs extensively in the combined form in the Earth's crust as well as also in the air in the form of carbon. dioxide, In the erust, it is found as the oxides of most metals and silicon, and also as carbonate, sulphate, nitrate and other minerals. [Lis also an essential component of most biological molecules like carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and fats (or lipids) ‘© But when we talk of the oxygen-cycle, we are mainly referring to the cycle that maintains the levels of oxygen in the atmosphere, Oxygen from the atmosphere is used up in three processes, namely combustion, respiration and in the formation of oxides of nitrogen, Oxygen is returned to the atmosphere in only one major process, that is, photosynthesis,YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN, ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices ‘© Elemental oxygen is normally found in the form of a diatomic molecule, However, in the upper reaches of the atmosphere, a molecule containing three atoms of oxygen is found. This would mean a formula of Os and this is called ozone, Unlike the normal diatomic molecule of oxygen, ozone is poisonous and we are lucky that itis not stable nearer to the Earth's surface, But it performs an essential function where it is found. It absorbs harmful radiations from the Sun, This prevents those harmful radiations from reaching the surface of the Earth where they may damage many forms oflife ‘* Recently it was discovered that this ozone layer was getting depleted. Various man-made compounds like CFCs (carbon compounds having both fluorine and chlorine which are very stable and not degraded by any biological process) were found to persist in the atmosphere, Once they reached the ozone layer, they would react wita the ozone molecules, This resulted in a reduction of the ozone layer and recently they have discovered a hole in the ozone layer above the Antartica, It is dificult to imagine the consequences for life on Earth if the ozone layer dwindles further, but many people think that it would be better not to take chances. These people advocate working towards stopping all further damage to the ozone layer, ‘© Ozone (composed of three atoms of oxygen) is found both in the Earth's upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and at ‘ground level (troposphere). Itcan be good or bad, depending on where itis found. © Good Ozone: © Ozone occurs naturally in the Earth's upper atmosphere (Stratosphere) where it forms a protective layer ‘that shields us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet rays ‘© Ozone-depleting gases like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs, halons, destroy this protective shield and causes the hole in the ozone. ‘* India had adopted the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol (aims to phase-down hydrofluorocarbons). ‘© Bad Ozone: © Inthe Earth's lower atmosphere (troposphere) near ground level, ozone is formed when pollutants emitted by cars, power plants, industrial boilers, refineries, chemical plants, and other sources react chemically in the presence of sunlight ‘© Surface level Ozone is a harmful air pollutant. Formation and Breakdown of Ozone + The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amount of ozone (03), which protects us from the harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiations (A 255 nm) coming from the sun, These radiations cause skin cancer (melanoma) in humans, Therefore, itis important to maintain the ozone shield + Ozone in the stratosphere is a product of UV radiations acting on dioxygen (02) molecules. The UV radiations split apart molecular oxygen into free oxygen (0) atoms. These oxygen atoms combine with the molecular oxygen to form ‘Ozone is thermodynamically unstable and decomposes to molecular oxygen. The main reason of azone layer depletion is believed to be the release of chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs), also known as freons, These compounds are nonreactive, non flammable, non toxic organic molecules and therefore used in refrigerators, air conditioners, in the production of plastic foam and by the electronic industry for cleaning computer parts etcYouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN, ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices ‘The Ozone Hole + In 1980s atmospheric scientists working in Antarctica reported about depletion of ozone layer commonly known as ozone hole over the South Pole. It was found that a unique set of conditions was responsible for the ozone hole. Ia ‘summer season, nitrogen dioxide and methane react with chlorine monoxide and chlorine atoms forming chlorine sinks, preventing much ozone depletion, whereas in winter, special type of clouds called polar stratospheric clouds are formed over Antarctica. These polar stratospheric clouds provide surface on which chlorine nitrate formed gets hydrolysed to form hypochlorous acid, Effects of Depletion of the Ozone Layer ‘+ With the depletion of ozone layer, more UV radiation filters into troposphere. UV radiations lead to ageing of skin, cataract, sunburn, skin cancer, killing of many phytoplanktons, damage to fish productivity ete. It has also been reported that plant proteins get easily affected by UV radiations which leads to the harmful mutation of cells. It also increases evaporation of surface water through the stomata of the leaves and decreases the moisture content of the soll Increase in UV radiations damage paints and fibres, causing them to fade faster. CPEs sein orn '* ‘The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has developed and launched the India Cooling Action Plan (ICAP) during 2019, which is in line with the theme of the World Ozone Day 2021. The ICAP aims to provide an Integrated vision towards cooling across sectors including space cooling in buildings and cold chain encompassing inter alia reducing colling demand, refrigerant transition, enhancing energy efficiency and better technology options with a 20-year time horizon, ‘* The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) on eve of World Ozone Day (16th September) released draft india Cooling Action Plan (ICAP). ‘¢ Itmakes India the first country in the world to develop such a document. ‘¢ ICAPis along term vision to address the cooling requirement across sectors. Reducing cooling demand by 20-25% and, refrigeration demand by 25-30% by the year 2037 are the goals ofthis plan. ‘© The draft prepared by Ozone Cell of MoEFC, aims to provide sustainable cooling while keeping in mind the need to protect the ozone layer from substances that can deplete it It provides a 20- year perspective, with projections for cooling needs in 2037-38. ICAP addresses cooling requirements across sectors and lists out actions which can help reduce cooling demand, Its thrust is to look for synergies in actions for securing both environmental and socio-economic benefits. ICAP's overarching goal isto provide sustainable cooling and thermal comfort forall while securing environmental and socio-economic benefits for the society, ‘© Ganga Action Plan: It was the first River Action Plan that was taken up by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 1985, to improve the water quality by the interception, diversion, and treatment of domestic sewage. ‘¢ The National River Conservation Plan is an extension to the Ganga Action Plan. It aims at cleaning the Ganga riverYouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “Gall @studyforcivilservices under Ganga Action Plan phase-2 ‘© National River Ganga Basin Authority (NRGBA): It was formed by the Government of India in the year 2009 under Section-+ ofthe Environment Protection Act, 1986. ‘* +The ‘Cleanliness Campaign’ was launched by the government in the year 2010 to ensure that by the year 2020, no untreated municipal sewage or industrial runoff enters the river. ‘¢ Itdeclared the Ganga as the ‘National River’ of India. ‘© Clean Ganga Fund: In 2014, it was formed for cleaning up of the Ganga, setting up of waste treatment plants, and conservation of biotic diversity ofthe river. ‘© Bhuvan-Ganga Web App: Itensures involvement ofthe public in monitoring of pollution entering into the river Ganga. ‘© Inthe year 2014, the 'Namami Gange Programme’ was launched as an integrated conservation mission to fulfil the twin objectives of conservation and rejuvenation of the national river ‘Ganga’ and effective abatement of pollution, ‘© National Ganga Council: The National Ganga Council was established in the year 2016. has replaced the National River Ganga Basin Authority. Itis also known as the National Implementation Council for Rejuvenation, Conservation, and Management of River Ganga. Its presided over by the Prime Minister ‘© The process of Goal Gasification chemically transforms the fossil fuel into Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG), instead of burning fossil fue, ‘# It produces Syngas which is a mixture consisting primarily of methane (Cli), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (Hs), carbon dioxide (CO,) and water vapour (H20). ‘© Syngas can be used to produce a wide range of fertilizers, fuels, solvent and synthetic materials. 4 Itis primarily used for electricity generation, for the production of chemical feedstocks. ‘© ‘The hydrogen obtained from coal gasification can be used for various purposes such as making ammonia, powering a hydrogen fuel based economy. ‘© In-situ gasification of coal - or Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) - is the technique of converting coal into gas while its stil inthe seam and then extracting it through wells. Background ‘© Currently, the production of urea inthe country is done by using pooled natural gas which comprises domestic Natural Gas and imported Liquified Natural Gas (LNG). ‘¢ Import of LNG is costly and leads to spending valuable foreign exchange, ‘* Hence tis preferred that an indigenous raw material is used for the production of urea and other fertilizers in the county. Production of Urea with Coal Gasification ‘© The project will improve India's self-sufficiency in Urea, promote agriculture growth in India ‘© Iwill promote the use of abundantly available domestic coal in an environment-friendly manner, '# Also, the success ofthis technology shall also propel the usage of coal for the production of other products like syngas, diesel, methanol, petrochemicals, ete ‘© Coal and petroleum were formed from the degradation of bio-mass millions of years ago and hence these are resources that will be exhausted in the future no matter how carefully we use them, ‘+ When combustion takes place in insufficient air (oxygen), then carbon monoxide is formed instead of carbon dioxide. ‘© Ofthese products, the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and carbon monoxide are poisonous at high concentrations and carbon dioxide is a green-house gas, coal and petroleum are huge reservoirs of carbon and Ill ofthis carbon is converted to carbon dioxide, then the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is going to increase leading to intense global warming,YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices Su Doe Sustainable development is a case of intergenerational sensibility in respect of the use of natural resources. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ‘©. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a new, universal set of goals targets and indicators that UN member states will be expected to use to frame their agendas and political policies over the next 15 years (ending by 2030). ‘* The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) follow and expand on the millennium development goals (MDGs), which expired at the end of 2015. ‘© The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), are offically known as Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. ‘© ‘There are 17 Sustainable Development Goals, associated 169 targets and 304 indicators. This included the following goals: 1. To End poverty inal its forms everywhere To End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture To Ensure healthy lives and promote well being for all at all stages To Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promot To Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls, - To Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, To Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all To Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent ‘work for all 9. To Built resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialisation and foster innovation 10. To Reduce inequalities within and among count 11. ToMake cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustalnable 12, To Ensure sustainable consumption and production pattern 13. To Take urgent actions to combat climate change and its impact 14, To Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources 15, To Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably managed forests, combat desertification and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss 16. To Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice forall and bulld effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels 17. To Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalise the global partnership for sustainable development. lifelong learning opportunities for all cri ro ‘© Itisalso called Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, Rio Summit, Rio Conference, and Earth Summit ‘* Held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. ‘© Rio+20 also held in Rio de faneiro in 2012 ‘Summit resulted in following documents ; © Agenda 21 ‘© Rio Declaration on Environment and Development ‘© Forest PrinciplesYouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices Following legally binding agreements were opened for signature in this summit: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNECC) UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) Environment and Development Conference was held in the year 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, capital of Brazil It is also called Earth Summit, The conference was organized to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Stockholm Conference, The countries involved adopted an action plan for sustainable development known as Agenda 21 ‘¢ Agenda 21 is a non-binding action plan of the United Nations regarding sustainable development. Its aim isto conserve World's environment in 21st Century, ‘© This plan was prepared in Rio de Janeiro Brazil in the year 1992 during an event on UNCED (United Nations Conference oon Environment and Development). There are 300 pages document in which there are 40 chapters being categorized into four groups. 1. Survey of biological diversity and protection of endangered species 2. Poverty eradication and population control in developing countries 3. Stress on generous capital. transfer « Food, clean water and social security to everyone EARTHSUMMIT The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio de Janeiro Barth Summit, the Rio Summit, the Rio Conference, and the Earth Summit (Portuguese: ECO92), was a major United Nations conference held in Rio de Janeiro from June 3 to June 14, 1992. Earth Summit was created as a response for member states to cooperate together internationally on development issues after the Cold War. Due to issues relating to sustainability being too big for Individual member states to handle, 1th Summit was held asa platform for other member states to collaborate. ‘The Earth Summit resulted in the following documents: ‘Rio Declaration on Environment and Development + Agenda 21 Forest Principles Moreover, important legally binding agreements (Rio Convention) were opened for signature: + Convention on Biological Diversity + Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) * United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, often shortened to Rio Declaration, was a short document produced at the 1992 United Nations "Conference on Environment and Development” (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Surnmit, The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future Sustainable development. It was signed by over 175 countries, The Rio Conference, which adopted the Declaration, took place from 3 to 14 June 1992. Subsequently, the international community has met twice to assess the progress made in implementing the principles of the document; first in New York City in 1997 during a General Assembly Session ofthe UN, and then in Johannesburg in 2002 ‘Agenda 21 is a non binding action plan of the United Nations with regard to sustainable development. It isa product of the Earth Summit (UN Conference on Environment and Development) held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in 1992. Its an action agenda for the UN, other multilateral organizations, and individual governments around the world that can be executed at local, national, and global levels, One major objective of the Agenda 21 initiative is that every local government should draw its own local Agenda 21. Its aim initially was to achieve global sustainable development by 2000, with the "21" in Agenda 21 referring to the original target of the 21st century, ‘Agenda 21 is grouped into 4 sections: Section ‘I: Social and Economic Dimensions Section ‘+ Il: Conservation and Management of Resources for Development Section «Ill Strengthening the Role of Major Groups Section + IV: Means af implementation * ‘The Forest Principles (also Rio Forest Principles, formally the Non-Legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests) is a 1992 document produced at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the “Earth Summit")YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘"Giall @studytorcivilservices 97 © It is a non-legally binding document that makes several recommendations for conservation and sustainable development forestry. + The Montréal Process, also known as the Working Group on Criteria and Indicators for the Conservation and Sustainable Management of Temperate and Boreal Forests, was started in 1994 as a result ofthe Forest Principles The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, isa LEGALLY BINDING multilateral treaty, ‘= ‘The convention has three main goals: the conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity); the sustainable use of its components; and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. * Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on § June 1982 and entered into force on 29 December 1993, + Ithas two supplementary agreements, the Cartagena Protocol and Nagoya Protocol ‘© The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity is an international treaty governing the movements of living modified organisms (L.MOs) resulting from modern biotechnology from one country to another. + [twas adopted on 29 January 2000 as a supplementary agreement to the CRD and entered into force on 11 September 2003, ‘© The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization (ABS) to the Convention on Biological Diversity is another supplementary agreement to the CBD. ‘© The objective of the Nagoya Protocol isto set an international, legally binding framework to promote a transparent and effective implementation ofthe ABS concept at the regional, national and local level in the future, ‘© The Nagoya Protocol was adopted on 29 October 2010 in Nagoya, Japan, and entered into force on 12 October 2014. ‘+ 2010 was also the International Year of Biodiversity, and the Secretariat of the CBD was its focal point, Following 2 recommendation of CBD signatories at Nagoya, the UN declared 2011 to 2020 as the United Nations Decade on Biodiversity in December 2010. The convention's Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011- 2020, created in 2010, include ‘he Aichi Biodiversity Targets. (Res ‘Background + Sustainable development as a concept and strategy of socio-economic advancement entered the global discourse around the 1980's. The first UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) was organized in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Summit level meeting, inter alia, adopted the Agenda 21 which became the global template for promoting sustainable development in subsequent years. The UNCED, or ‘Rio Earth Summit’ as it popularly came to be known, was followed by the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg in 2002 with the aim give further impetus to the sustainable development paradigm, The Summit came up with a Johannesburg Declaration and a Johannesburg Pian of Implementation (JP). + Agenda 21 recommended the establishment of an institutional mechanism for effective follow-up to the Rio Conference a well as to enhance international cooperation and rationalize the intergovernmental decision-making capacity for the Integration of environment and development issues and to examine the progress inthe implementation of Agenda 21 at the national, regional and international levels. Accordingly, the UN General Assembly in 1992, created the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) as a functional commission of the UN Economic and Social Couneil (ECOSOC) with the mandate to review progress in the implementation of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. ‘+ The UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) will be held on June 20-22, june 2012 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Conference is being held 20 years after the Earth Summit in 1992, Rio de Janeiro, and is therefore, also called Rio+20. Rio¥20 is being seen as an important occasion for the global community to reaffirm its commitment to sustainable development and look for innovative templates to spur global action on sustainability ‘© The objectives of the UNCSD 2012 are Securing renewed Political commitment for sustainable development Assessing the Progress made since Rio Conference and the remaining gaps in implementation ofthe outcomes Addressing new and emerging challenges +The themes for the UNCSD 2012 are: Green Economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication; and Institutional Framework for sustainable developmentYouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN "Gall @studyforcivilservices + Asseries of interactive meetings involving different stakeholders have taken place since 2010. The UNCSD Secretariat has organized two Preparatory Committee Meetings so far. During the last few months, various countries have hosted high level meetings on specific thematic areas, in order to facilitate greater understanding and promote consensus building on the key issues involved in the two themes. India has been actively involved in this process and the Delhi Ministerial Dialogue held in October, 2011, which focused on the theme ‘Green Economy and Inclusive Growth’ had the participation of 41 countries and 9 multilateral organizations, In addition, Regional Preparatory Meetings for 5 ‘geographical Regions around the globe have also been held under the aegis of ECOSOC, Inputs from these meetings are fed into the preparation of the Zero Draft of the ‘Outcome Document’ which is to be adopted at Rio+20. India’s National Inputs have been finalized and communicated after an extensive process of inter- ministerial consultations, research by select technical organizations and engagement with stakeholders and can be accessed below. After the initial discussions on the Zero draft on January 25-27, 2012, three rounds of ‘informal- informal’ negotiations have been held so far at the UN headquarters, the latest one having culminated on June 02, 2012. ‘The third meeting of the Preparatory Committee will be held in Rio on June 13-15, 2012 where the decument will be further negotiated, before the Summit on June 20-22, 2012. In the run up to RIO+20, the theme of "Green Economy" has attracted wide attention, Developing countries are of the view that Sustainable Development as defined by the Rio principles along with its three pillars viz, economic, social and environmental must continue to define global development path. In their understanding, green economy is subsumed in this broader framework and action on green growth can only be achieved if an enabling mechanism consisting of finance, technology and capacity building support is provided to developing countries. They further believe that “Green Economy" as a template will succeed only if it enhances their ability to address poverty eradication, provides adequate policy space for national circumstances and priorities, and ensures that structural changes as a result of it do not lead to green protectionism and conditionalities India's position on "Green Economy” is essentially one which directly relates the green economy to the overriding priorities of poverty eradication, food security, access to modern energy services and employment generation, India believes that "Green Economy" is a dynamic concept intended to infuse every activity towards poverty eradication with sustainability, thereby greening the economy as we develop economically, socially and environmentally. India believes that any understanding on “Green Economy" must take into account the principles of Equity and Common But Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR). It also sees RIO+20 as an opportunity to bring back Sustainable Development to the centre ofthe global development ager RIO+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 20-22 June 2012 Aichi Targets - 20 TARGETS, 5 Strategie Goals ‘+ The ‘Aichi Targets’ were adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at its Nagoya conference (2010 J. Itis a short term plan provides a set of 20 ambitious yet achievable targets, collectively known as the Aichi Targets. + They can be divided into: ¥ Strategic Goal A: Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society. Strategic Goal B: Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use. ¥ Strategic Goal C: To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity. ¥ Strategic Goal D: Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services.YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices Strategic Goal E: Enhance implementation through participatory planning, knowledge management and capacity building ‘The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established an international environmental treaty to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system", in part by stabilizing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere. It was signed by 154 states at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro from 3 to 14 June 1992. It established a Secretariat headquartered in Bonn and entered into force on 21 March 1994, + The treaty called for ongoing scientific research and regular meetings, negotiations, and future policy agreements designed to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food praduction is not threatened and ‘to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner. ‘The Kyoto Protocol, which was signed in 1997 and ran from 2005 to 2020, was the first implementation of measures under the UNFCCC. The Kyoto Protocol was superseded by the Paris Agreement, which entered into force in 2016, ‘+ As of 2020, the UNFCCC has 197 signatory partes. Its supreme decision-making body, the Conference of the Parties (COP), meets annually to assess progress in dealing with climate change, So Composition of the Atmoshphere +The atmosphere is composed of gases, water vapour and dust particles. The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km, Similarly, carbon dioxide and water vapour are found only up to 90 km from the surface ofthe earth, Permanent Gases of the Atmosphere Constituent Formula Percentage by Volume: Nitrogen NZ 708 ‘Oxygen 02 20.95 ‘Argon AE 0.93 Carbon dioxide coz 0.036; Neon Ne 0.002, Heli He 0.0005 Krypto Ke 0.001 Xenon Xe ‘0.00005 Hydrogen Hz To.o000s STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE + The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature. Density Is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases oo ‘with increasing altitude. ‘The column of atmosphere is divided into five Exosphere different layers depending upon the temperature condition. They are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere i = Motes ar aa9 Si Mesosphere ‘The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18, oh km at the equator, Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents. This layer contains dust particles and water vapour. All changes in climate and ‘weather take place inthis layer. The temperature inthis layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165m of height. This is the most important layer for all biological activity + The zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the inp -s0 oo io 20 0 2 twopopause. The air temperature atthe tropopause is about minus 80°C over Temperate £6 ‘the equator and about minus 45° C over the poles. The temperature here is _Figwe8.1:Stmetare nearly constant, and hence, itis called the tropopause,YouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “Gall @studyforcivilservices ‘© ‘The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km. One important feature of the stratosphere is that it contains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and shields lfe on the earth from intense, harmful form of energy. + The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km. In this layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up to -100°C at the height of 80 km. The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause. ‘© ‘The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400 km above the mesopause. It contains electrically charged particles known as ions, and hence, iis known as ionosphere, Radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this layer, Temperature here starts increasing with height, + The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere is known as the exosphere. This is the highest layer but very little is known about it Whatever contents are there, these are extremely rarefied in this layer, and it gradually merges with the outer space. Although all layers of the atmosphere must be exercising influence on us, geographers are concerned with the first two layers ofthe atmosphere. cl mom mm arent fava) rc Fenian ‘aha ne Weis wae Conese cello caiieadte must Spent mnie mw Rewind ™ ‘sa Global Environment Facility (GEE) ‘* An independently operating financial organization, the GEF provides grants for projects related to biodiversity, climate change, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants. ‘© GEF was established during the Rio Earth Summit of 1992, ‘tis based in Washington DC. United States ‘*. The GEF is jointly managed by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), ‘© The Global Environment Facility (GEF) unites 183 countries in partnership with international institutions, civil society organizations (CSOs), and the private sector to address global environmental issues while supporting national ‘sustainable development initiatives. ‘The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following conventions: Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) ‘Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Minamata Convention on Mercury ‘The GEF, although not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP), ‘supports implementation of the Protocol in countries with economies in transition, ‘The GEF works with18 agencies. Notable ones among them are: ‘© United Nations Development ProgrammeYouUD stuay For civil services SCSGYAN “"fiall @studyforcivitservices 94 United Nations Environment World Bank Food and Agriculture Organization Asian Development Bank International Fund for Agricultural Development World Wildlife Fund - US Conservation International ‘© International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) ‘Areas of work ‘© Biodiversity, Climate change, International waters, Land degradation, Sustainable forest management / REDD* and. Ozone depletion + It isa financial mechanism for five major international conventions: ‘L The Minamata convention on Mercury, 2. The Stockholm convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 3.'The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 4. The United Nations Convention to combat Desertification and, 5. The United nations Framework convention on Climate Change. ‘+ Environment Protection Act, 1986 is also known as umbrella legislation. In wake of the Bhopal Tragedy, the Government of India enacted the Environment Protection Act of 1986 under Article 253 of the Constitutions, The act is an “umbrella” legislation designed to provide a framework for Central Government coordination of the activities of various Central and State authorities established under previous laws, such as the Water Act and the Air Act. ‘The Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committeeis constituted underthe Environment (Protection) Act1986, On 22n4July, 2010Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee wasrenamedas GeneticEngineering Appraisal Committee Itisthe Apex bodyconstitutedin the Ministry ofEnvironmentandForestregulating manufacture use, import, exportandstorageof hazardous microorganism/genetically engineered organism or cells 1989" under the EnvironmentProtection Act 1986. ‘National Geographic conducted its inaugural Greendex survey in January 2008, That first Greendex survey of 14 countries around the world ranked average consumers in those countries according to the environmental sustainability of their behaviour. ‘© Mixed cropping, organic manure, nitrogen fixing plants and pest resistant crop varieties are the best strategy for environment-iendly sustainabledevelopmentin ndianagriculture. ‘© Masanobu Fukuoka was Japanese farmer and philosopher famous for his natural farming and revegetation of desertified lands, ‘# Thegreen Army isasixmonth program for17-24yearsold youths in Australiatotrainandworkfor the environment. Green Army projects include restoring native vegetation, heritage restoration, protecting animal habitats and regenerating ‘wetlandsinurban,ruralandremoteareas.ThegreenArmyprogramwill closeon30 June 2018, iON + Biodiversity isa system in constant evolution, from a view point of species, as well as from view point of an individual organism, The average hall-life ofa species Is estimated at between one and four million years, and 99 per cent of the ‘species that have ever lived on the earth are today extinct. ‘+ Biodiversity is not found evenly on the earth, It is consistently richer in the tropics, As one approaches the polar rogions, one finds larger and larger populations of fewer and fewer species. Biodiversity itself is 2 combination of two words, Bio (Life) and diversity (variety). In simple terms, biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms found within a specified geographic region. It refers to the varieties of plants, animals and micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form. It relates to the variability among living organisms on the earth, including the variability within and between the species and that within and between the ecosystems, Biodiversity is our living ‘wealth, Itis a result of hundreds of millions of years of evolutionary history. + Biodiversity can be discussed at three levels. 1. Genetic diversity; 21 Species diversity, 3. Ecosystem diversity. Genetic Diversity + Genes are the basic building blocks of various life forms. Genetic biodiversity refers to the variation of genes within species. Groups of individual organisms having certain similarities in their physical characteristics are called species. Human beings genetically belong to the homo sapiens group and also differ in their characteristics such as height, colour, physical appearance, etc, considerably. This is due to genetic diversity. This genetic diversity is essential for a healthy breeding of population of species.YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices Species Diversity + This refers to the variety of species. It relates to the number of species in a defined area. The diversity of species can be measured through its richness, abundance and types. Some areas are more rich in species than others. Areas rich in species diversity are called hotspots of diversity, Importance of ‘Biodiversity has contributed in many ways to the development of human culture and, in turn, human communities have played a major role in shaping the diversity of nature at the genetic, species and ecological levels. Biodiversity plays the following roles: ecological, economic and scientific Ecological Role of Biodiversity ‘Species of many kinds perform some function or the other in an ecosystem. Nothing in an ecosystem evolves and sustains without any reason, That means, every organism, besides extracting its needs, also contributes something of useful to other organisms, Can you think of the way we, humans contribute to the sustenance of ecosystems. Species capture and store energy, produce and decompose organic materials, help to cycle water and nutrients throughout the ecosystem, fix atmospheric gases and help regulate the climate. These functions are important for ecosystem function and human survival. The more diverse an ecosystem, better are the chances for the species to survive through adversities and attacks, and consequently, is more productive. Hence, the loss of species would decrease the ability of the system ta maintain itself, Just like a species with a high genetic diversity, an ecosystem with high biodiversity may have a greater chance of adapting to environmental change. In other words, the more the variety of species in an ecosystem, the more stable the ecosystem is likely to be. iversity Economic Role of Biodiversity + For all humans, biodiversity is an important resource in their day-to-day life, One important part of biodiversity is ‘crop diversity’, which is also called agro-biodiversity. Biodiversity is seen a8 a reservoir af resources to be drawn upon for the manufacture of food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic products. This concept of biological resources is responsible for the deterioration of biodiversity, At the same time, itis also the origin of new conflicts dealing with rules of division and appropriation of natural resources. Some of the important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are: food crops, livestock, forests fish, medicinal resources, ete Scientific Role of Biodiversity + Biodiversity is Important because each species can give us some clue as to how life evolved and will continue to evolve. Biodiversity also helps in understanding how life functions and the role of each species in sustaining ecosystems of ‘which we are also a species. Tis fact must be drawn upon every one of us so that we live and let other species also live their lives. Itis our ethical responsibility to consider that each and every species along with us have an intrinsic right to exist. Hence, it is morally wrong to voluntarily cause the extinction of any species. The level of biodiversity is a good indicator ofthe state of our relationships with other living species. In fact, the concept of biodiversity is an integral part fof many human cultures. LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY + Since the last few decades, growth in human population has increased the rate of consumption of natural resources. It has accelerated the loss of species and habitation in different parts ofthe world. ‘Tropical regions which occupy only about one-fourth of the total area of the world, contain about threefourth of the world human population, Overexploltation of resources and deforestation have become rampant to fulfil the needs of large population, As these tropical rain forests contain 50 per cent of the species on the earth, destruction of natural habitats have proved disastrous for the entire biosphere. Natural calamities such as earthquakes, foads, volcanic eruptions, forest fires, droughts, ete. cause damage to the flora and fauna of the earth, bringing change the biodiversity of respective affected regions. + Pesticides and other pollutants such as hydrocarbons and toxic heavy metals destroy the weak and sensitive species Species which are not the natural inhabitants of the local habitat but are introduced into the system, are called exotic species. There are many examples when a natural biotic community of the ecosystem suffered extensive damage because of the introduction of exotic species. + During the last few decades, some animals like Ugers, elephants, rhinoceros, crocodiles, minks and birds were hunted mercilessly by poachers for their horn, tusks, hides, etc. It has resulted in the rendering of certain types of organisms as, endangered category. ‘The International Union of Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) has classified the threatened species of plants and animals into three categories forthe purpose oftheir conservation = + Endangered Species It includes those species which are in danger of extinction. The IUCN publishes information about endangered species world-wide as the Red List of threatened species ‘+ Vutnerable Species This Includes the species which are likely to be in danger of extinction in near future ifthe factors threatening to their extinction continue, Survival of these species is not assured as their population has reduced greatiy. ‘+ Rare Species Population of these species Is very small in the world; they are confined to limited areas or thinly scattered over a wider area,YouU stuay For civil Services SCSGYAN ‘Giall @studyforcivitservices Biodiversity ‘© ‘The terms alpha, beta, and gamma diversity were all introduced by R. H. Whittaker to describe the spatial component of biodiversity, ‘* The diverse range of organisms (plants and animals) found in an ecosystem, is defined as bio-diversity. ‘© The species are organized in different communities which are found in a particular ecosystem, Alpha diversity 4 Ierefers tothe div sity within a particular area or ecosystem and is usually expressed by the number of species (Le, species richness) in that ecosystem, Beta diversity ‘* Itisa comparison of diversity between ecosystems, usually measured as the change in the number of species between the ecosystems. Gamma diversity ‘+ Itis ameasure ofthe overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region, CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY Conservation is the planned management of natural resources, to retain the balance in nature and retain the diversity. It also includes wise use of natural resources in such a way that the needs of present generation are met and atthe same time leaving enough for the future generations. Conservation of biodiversity is important to: ‘+ prevent the loss of genetic diversity ofa species, + save species from becoming extinct, and + protect ecosystems damage and degradation, CONSERVATION STRATEGIES Conservation efforts can be grouped into the following two categories: ‘In-situ (on-site) conservation includes the protection of plants and animals within their natural habitats or in protected areas, Protected areas are land or sea dedicated to protect and maintain biodiversity Example - National parks, wildlife sanctuaries, Biosphere reserves. + Ex-situ (off-site) conservation of plants and animals outside thelr natural habitats, These include botanical gardens, 200, gene banks, seek bank, tissue culture and cryopreservation. Example - Zoos, Cryopreservation (requires Nitrogen) DNA banks, Aquariums, botanical gardens. ae Sta-fafereren

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