UNIT 4: Language Usage (Masule)

4.1. TENSES

Introduction

The Oxford Advanced English Dictionary (1995 p. 1231) defines tense in grammar as

“any of the forms of a verb that may be used to indicate the time of the action or state

expressed by the verb: the present, past or future tense.” Understanding this definition,

one would, therefore, say that a tense is, in fact, a time indicator for actions, events, or

incidences. Under this section of the unit, you will study and revise selected tenses in the

English language.

Section Objectives

At the end of this section students should be able to:

 Identify the different tenses used in the English language;

 Use the tenses correctly both in written and spoken form;

 Analyze and correct errors related to tense.

1. Reading comprehension

Listen to the recording below on TENSES and thereafter work through the tense

in this section.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0wV9EC3t14
Read the text below entitled “Arctic ice may disappear in a decade” and thereafter

complete the activities that follow.

Arctic ice may disappear in a decade

A new report on global warming predicts the frozen Arctic Ocean will soon be like a

normal sea in the summers. There are shocking changes happening in the polar

environment and its fragile eco-systems. For millions of years, the sea around the

North Pole has been frozen all year round. Recent research from the Wildlife Fund

(WWF) and the Catlin Atlantic Survey show things are changing fast. They predict that

within a decade, the Arctic will be largely ice-free in the summer. They base their

prediction on the rate at which the sea ice is currently thinning. The lead researcher,

Professor Peter Wadhams, said: “The area is now more likely to become open water

each summer, bringing forward the potential date when the summer sea ice will be

completely gone.”

An ice-free Arctic will have consequences for the whole world’s weather. The Arctic

sea ice is a key part of the Earth’s climate system. Experts call it Earth’s “refrigerator.”

They say that as it disappears, the world will become a lot warmer. Scientists are still

unclear exactly what changes there will be to our weather. Forecasters predict an

increase in all kinds of disasters and extreme weather events. These include massive

flooding, much more dangerous hurricanes and the spread of the world’s deserts.

These new findings provide an urgent call for world leaders to act. The timing of the

WWF report is a reminder to those attending the UN climate summit in Copenhagen

in December. Rich countries will face pressure to agree to reduce their carbon

emissions by 40 percent by 2020.

Activity 1

Indicate if the statements below are TRUE or FALSE, by encircling T or F.

1. Scientists say all the Arctic ice will be gone within ten years. T F

2. Parts of the Arctic Ocean have been frozen for millions of years. T F

3. There will be more ice from the Arctic for everyone in the summer. T F

4. Scientists based their predictions on how fast the ice is disappearing. T F

5. The disappearing Arctic ice will have little effect on our weather. T F

6. Scientists are confident they know how our weather will change. T F

7. Experts believe there will be more floods and larger deserts. T F

8. All countries face pressure to cut carbon emissions by 40% T F

Activity 2

Match the words with similar meanings to test your vocabulary. The first – (a) is

already done for you as an example.

 Predicts (a) forecasts

 Normal (b) precisely

 Fragile (c) results

 Within (d) usual

 Potential (e) cut

  Consequences (f) range

 Key (g) huge

 Exactly (h) possible

 Massive (i) delicate

 Reduce (j) important

Activity 3

Match the following phrases to test your coherence and sentence structure. Sometimes

more than one choice is possible. The first – (a) is already done for you as an example.

 A new report (a) on global warming

 shocking changes happening (b) world leaders to act

 fragile (c) world’s weather patterns

 the arctic will be largely (d) become open water

 the area is now more likely to (e) an increase

 consequences for the whole (f) in the polar environment

 a key part of (g) ice-free in the summer

 Forecasters predict (h) by 40 percent

 An urgent call for (i) eco-systems

 Reduces their carbon emissions (j) the Earth’s climate

[Note: Taken and adapted from: http:www.BreakingNewsenglish.com/0910/091016-

arcticice.html]
1. The Present simple tense

We use the present simple tense to say or indicate that the process is always true

or happens / takes place repeatedly. This is an everyday speech form as illustrated

in the examples below:

 We need oxygen to stay alive.

 Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen.

 The sun rises in the East.

 (Think of any 3 other examples of your own)

The Present simple tense is also used to express habitual or everyday activities,

as illustrated in the examples below:

 We go to school every day.

 Nurses work in hospitals.

 Ndapewa sings in the Church choir.

 (Think of any 3 other examples of your own)

To sum the present simple tense, we can say that it is a tense that is used in

the expression of general or universal truths. Examples refer to actions that are

universally accepted as true such as “The sun rises in the East”; “Plants require

water to survive”; “The Lord God is Almighty.”

The present simple tense is also known to express everyday events or habitual

activities. In other words, those activities that are of everyday activities such as

commitments: “Ndamona and Manga clean the church every Sunday”; “Attend
 church service every morning in the mission hostel”; “We observe Namibia’s

independence on 21 March”; and also with repeat incidences of habit forming

“The boys milk the cows in the morning”; “The girls fetch water from the well in

the morning.” For the Verb –to be which changes to am, is and are; and also

has and have, look at the section: Concord.

2. The present continuous tense

The present continuous tense is also referred to as the present progressive tense.

As the name suggests, the present continuous tense used to show or indicate an

action that is ongoing, taking place or happening at the time of talking. It is an

action presently happening, for example

 The fire is burning.

 The boys are milking the cows.

 Ndamona and Manga are cleaning the church.

The present continuous tense is formed with the present simple tense of the

verb - to be and the present participle of the other verb. The present participle

is formed by adding the commonly known as the –ing to the verb stem as in

the sentences above. Let use the above sentences as example:

 The fire is burning. (the verb to be = is and the –ing to the verb).

 The boys are milking the cows. (the verb to be = are and the –ing to

the verb).

 Ndamona and Manga are cleaning the church. (the verb to be = are

and the –ing to the verb).

  (Think of any other 3 examples of your own).

We also use the present continuous tense to show or indicate that an activity is of

a general nature. What is meant here is that something generally in progress at

this present time: week, month, and even this year or longer. It may not be

happening at the time of speaking (but the activity is of a long duration such as

building a house or writing a book, studying, etc.). Let us look at the examples

below to clarify the above explanation.

 We are studying Academic Literacy 1 this year.

 Mwangala is writing her fourth novel.

 The Ashipalas are building their retirement cottage at the coast.

Each of the sentences above does not say that at the moment of speaking “We

are busy studying …”; “Mwangala is sitting at the laptop typing her …” or that “The

Ashipalas are busy mixing mortar and working with bricks to …” All that is said is

that there is that project taking place.

Activity 4

Now read the excerpt from the passage “The Tornado” by Robert Irving below.

Identify and write down the tense and the verbs used in the passage. The first

answer is already provided for you.

The Tornado

By Robert Irving

A tornado begins with a funnel-shaped cloud that forms high up in the air and then

roars down to the ground. In the centre of the funnel, air is moving up at high speed,

sometimes as far as five hundred miles an hour. The suction of this up-ward

rushing air makes the tornado act like a giant vacuum cleaner. It can pick up a

horse or a truck as easily as an ordinary vacuum cleaner picks up pieces pf paper

or dust. Because it sucks up large amounts of dust from the ground it crosses, the

funnel of a tornado is dark and can be seen miles of miles away.

While the air in the funnel rushes up from the ground, the surrounding air near the

ground flows in to take its place. The winds blow in toward the funnel of a tornado

the way winds blow in toward the eye of the hurricane. Because of the rotation of

the earth, they spiral into the funnel. So a tornado, like a hurricane, is a whirlwind.

That’s why it is often called a twister …

[Sourced from Communications and Study Skills Course Guide of 1997]

(make a table below)

Verb used Tense used

Example: begins The present simple tense

 Activity 5

Complete the exercise below by using either the present simple tense or the

present continuous tense.

1. Monde can’t come to the table because she (bath) ___________________

herself.

2. Sarah (wash) __________________________ her hair every other day or

so.

3. Katrina (sit, usually) __________________________________ in the front

row during class, but today she (sit) ________________ in the last row.

4. Please be quiet, I (try) ___________________________ to concentrate.

5. (you, lock, always) ___________________________ the door to your

apartment when you leave?

6. I wrote an application letter to Coca Cola last week. They haven’t answered

my letter yet. I (wait, still) ________________________________ for a

reply.

7. After six days of rain, I’m glad that the sun (shine) ____________________

in my bedroom window and (wake) _____________________ me up.

[Taken and adapted from: Azar, B.S. (2002) Understanding and Using

English Grammar. (Ed. 3). New York: Pearson Longman]

3. The present perfect continuous tense

 The present perfect continuous tense is used to refer to some action, incident or

occurrence that began in the past time and continues to the present moment.

When the tense has this meaning, it is used with time words such as for, since,

all morning, all day, and all week. Below are examples of sentences that indicate

the present perfect continuous tense.

 Right now I’m sitting at my desk typing.

 They have been sitting at the airport lobby since seven o’clock.

 I have studying since seven o’clock.

 The cow has been in labour all day.

 Water supply has been disrupted all morning.

In English language, there is a state where we recognize the presence of stative verbs.

These are verbs that describe a present state rather than an action that started in the past

and continues at the time of speaking. Examples of such are:

 I have kept this photo since I was twelve.

 The two have known each other since their childhood.

When the tense is used without any specific mention of time, it expresses a general

activity that is in progress recently, lately. Examples of such are:

 I have been contemplating to quit university.

 All the students have been studying hard. End of semester exams start next

week.

 My back hurts so I have been sleeping on the floor lately. The bed is too soft.
 Activity 6

Correct the errors in verb tense usage in the following sentences. Which verbs in

these sentences should be in the present perfect continuous tense?

1. The boys are playing soccer right now. They are playing for almost two hours.

2. They must be getting tired.

3. Mbahuma is talking on the phone. He talked on the phone for more than half

an hour.

4. He should hang up soon. Long distance is expensive.

5. I’m trying to study. I try to study for the last hour, but something always seems

to interrupt me. I think I’d better go to the library.

4. The past simple tense

The past simple tense is used to indicate an event or activity that happened in the.

This situation or event stopped happening or taking place sometime in the past

and is no longer active at the time of speaking or reporting. In other words, it refers

to events that took place a minute ago, two weeks ago or longer. Below are

sentences that indicate the past simple tense. The verbs that indicate the past

simple tense are in bold.

 Mwaka went to collect her books from the library.

 John’s letter of appeal made no difference.

 Four of the farmer’s cattle died of poisoning while grazing.

 The students passed the difficult statics examination.

Read the article titled “U.S. woman gives birth to eight babies”. As you read,

notice that the words in italics are verbs that indicate the past simple tense.

U.S. woman gives birth to eight babies

A woman in Southern California gave birth on January 27 to octuplets. It is only

the second time in the US history a mother has delivered eight babies. It is also

only the second time ever for all octuplets to survive their first day. Doctors said

the six tiny boys and two girls were all doing well and breathing on their own.

They all arrived nine weeks early and ranged in weight from 0.68kg to 1.47kg.

The mother believed she was going to have just seven babies (septulets)

before the birth. After the doctors delivered the babies A to G, they discovered

baby H. The mother asked the nurse: “Really? An eight baby? How did we miss

that baby?” There are no pictures of the babies yet. The mother has asked the

hospital to keep her identity a secret. She also does not want the media to find

out whether or not she took fertility drugs before becoming pregnant. Doctor

Richard Paulson of the University of Southern California told reporters that the

octuplets were probably because of fertility drugs. He also spoke about the

risks involved in multiple births: “It’s a risky decision to try to have all eight

babies. I would not recommend it under any circumstances,” he said. He added

that the chances of having eight children naturally, without drugs, were

“unbelievably rare” …

[Taken and adapted from: http/www.breakingnewsenglish.com 2.13/2009]

 Activity 7

Now read the excerpt titled “Africans mark the end of the slave trade” below

and put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense.

Africans mark the end of the slave trade

Two hundred years ago, on March 25th, 1807, Britain (ban) ________________

the trade slaves from Africa. Africans (mark) _______________ this

anniversary on Sunday with a special ceremony in Ghana, from where British

slaves ships (transport) ________________ countless numbers of innocent

black Africans to the USA. Descendants of these slaves (gather) ___________

at one of the most infamous trading posts, Fort Elmina, known as “the door of

no return”. They remembered _________________ the tens of millions who

(cross) _________________ the Atlantic, many perishing, in barbaric

conditions to provide free labour in the New World. Ghana’s President John

Kufor (give) _______________ a speech recalling their suffering …

[Taken and adapted from: http/www.breakingnewsenglish.com]

5. The past continuous tense

The past continuous tense is used to say / indicate that somebody was in the

middle of doing something at a certain time. The action or situation had already

started before this time but had not finished. We form the past continuous tense
with the forms was and were + the past participle as illustrated in the examples

below:

 We were singing all night at the choir practice.

 They were celebrating yesterday after winning.

 What were the dogs barking at last night?

 Ndamona was crying all day.

We often use the past continuous together with a simple past tense. The past

continuous tense refers to a longer situation; while the simple past tense refers to

a shorter action or event that happened in the middle of the longer action or

something that interrupted it as illustrated in the examples below:

 As I was looking at the stars, I heard the sound of a gunshot.

 The guests arrived while we were having dinner.

 The Presidential motorcade was moving slowly through the crowded

street. The crowds were cheering. The photographers were jostling each

other for the positions. Suddenly a woman screamed.

These are some verbs we do normally use in the continuous tense when they

describe states, conditions, or situations that exist (Azar, 1999, p, 15).

like smell belong deserve be know

dislike see own need have want

think taste owe doubt wish love

hear cost understand hate forgive prefer

look like

[Taken and adapted from: English for General Communication Course Guide:

2012]

Activity 8

Complete the following activity. Use the past simple or the past continuous tense

to complete the following sentences.

1. I don’t want to go to the zoo today because it is raining. The same thing

happened yesterday. I (want, not) ____________________ to go to the zoo

because it (rain) ________________________.

2. I (call) ____________________ Roger at nine last night, but he (be, not)

________________ at home.

3. I (hear, not) _________________________ the thunder during the storm last

night because I (sleep) ___________________.

4. It was beautiful yesterday when we went for a walk in the park. The sun (shine)

______________________. A cool breeze (blow) ___________________.

The birds (sing) _____________________.

5. My brother and sister (argue) _______________________ about something

when I (walk) _________________________ into the room.

6. I got a package in the mail. When I (open) _______________________ it, I

(find) ____________________ a surprise.

 [Source: Azar B.S. (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar. (Ed 3).

New York: Pearson Longman.]

7. The present perfect tense

Study this example situation.

Teteinge is looking for her key. She can’t find it. She has lost her key. The

present perfect tense is formed by have / has + the past participle. The past

participle of the regular verbs end in – ed (finished, decided …). Some of the

irregular past participle verbs are (lost, done, been, written …

Please note that, when we use the present perfect there is always a connection

with now. The action in the past has a result now as indicated in the examples

below.

 They have moved into a new house.

 Have you ever visited Swakopmund?

 I have never seen a desert. Jack hasn’t see it yet.

 Ann started a letter to her parents last week, but she still hasn’t finished

it.

 We have had four tests so far this semester.

 I have been here since seven o’clock.

 We have been here for two weeks.

 I have had this same pair of shoes for three years now.

 I have liked cowboy movies ever since I was a child.

 I have known him for many years.

Notice the adverbs ever, never, already, yet, still, and just are frequently used with the

present perfect. Also so far is frequently used with the present perfect.

The present perfect, when used with for or since, expresses a situation that began in the

past and continues to the present. Notice the difference between since and for:

Since + a particular time

For + a duration of time

[Note: Adapted from: Azar B. S. (2002). Understanding and Using English Grammar. (Ed

3). New York: Pearson Longman]

Activity 9

Read the article “Africa braces itself” and underline all the examples of the present perfect

tense.

Africa braces itself for new plague

Tim Radford, Science correspondent

The rains which have just brought hope to the starving in Africa also triggered a new

menace – the biggest plague of locusts in three decades.

Experts, who have been with the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) in Mali for

years, were amazed by the size of one swarm measuring 75 by 16 miles. Such a swarm

could contain 150 billion insects, between them eating 3000 000 tons of fresh vegetation
every day. And there are other swarms. Giant sarms have also been reported in Cape

Verde and Burkina Faso. In Botswana according to the FAO, locusts have covered

between one and two million acres. There have also been reports of a rapid spread of

desert locusts in Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania, Niger Libya, Egypt and Saudi Arabia.

The last major outbreak of locusts was in 1963. There are areas to which they retreat in

very dry weather, and enough survive so that once it starts raining widely there is

suddenly perhaps a 500 per cent rise in population, through a generation which takes a

month.

Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria have carried out spraying of both juvenile and adult locusts

this year. Other countries are waiting until international meetings have been held in two

months’ time before making definite plans on how to confront the crisis. However,

governments cannot wait until the locust swarms have eaten their crops – that would spell

economic disaster.

[Taken and adapted from The Guardian (n.d.). Source: Communication and Study Skills

in English (CSSE) – Course Guide 1997]

8. The past perfect tense

The past perfect tense is formed by had + verb + -ed (regular verb) or (irregular

verb) in past participle as indicated in the following examples:

 Nangula had already left by the time Chuma got there.

  The thief simply walked in. Someone had forgotten to lock the door.

 Nangula had already left when Chuma got there.

 After the guest had left, we went to bed.

Activity 10

The past perfect tense is formed by had + verb + ed (regular verb) or (irregular verb) in

the past participle as indicated in the following examples:

 Sam had already left by the time Anne got there.

 The thief simply walked in. Someone had forgotten to lock the door.

 Sam had already left when Anne got there.

 After the guest had left, I went to bed.

Activity 11

Use the simple past tense or the past perfect tense to complete the sentences.

1. Sam ____________________ a newspaper reporter before h (become)

_________________________ a businessman.

2. I (feel) ________________________ a little better after I take _____________

Medication.

3. I was late. The teacher (give already) __________________ a quiz when I (get)

__________________ to class.

4. It was raining hard, but by the time class (be) ___________________ over, the

rain (stop) __________________.

5. Millions of years ago, dinosaurs (roam) ________________________ the

Earth, but they (become) ________________________ extinct by the time

Human kind first (appear) _________________________.

6. I (see, never) ____________________________ any of Picasso’s printings

before I (visit) _______________________ the art museum.

7. Yesterday at a restaurant, I (see) ____________________ Helmine, an old friend

of mine. I (see, not) ___________________ her in years. At first, I (recognize,

Not) ___________________ her because she (lose) ________________ a

great deal of weight.

8. In 1980, my parents (emigrate) _________________ to the United States from

China. They (travel, never) _________________________ outside China and

Were of course excited by the challenge of relocating in a foreign country.

Eventually, they (settle) _________________ in California. My sister and I were

born there and (grow) _________________ up there. Last year, I (go) _________

to China for the first time to study at Beijing University. I (want, always)

______________ to visit China and learn more about my own family background.

My dream was finally realized.

[Note: Taken and adapted from: Azar, B.S. (2002) Understanding and Using

English Grammar. (Ed. 3). New York: Pearson Longman]

9. The past perfect continuous tense

Please study this example situation below:

Yesterday morning, I got up and looked out of the window. The sun was shining

but the ground was very wet. It had been raining. It was not raining when I looked
out of the window; the sun was shining. But it had been raining before. That is why

the ground was wet.

Had been + ing forms the past perfect continuous tense.

Now compare this table.

The present perfect continuous tense The past perfect continuous tense

I have been waiting for 20 minutes I had been waiting for 20 minutes

He is out of breath. He has been running. He is out of breath. He had been

running.

Compare has been doing and was doing (past continuous)

 It wasn’t raining when we went out. The sun was shining. But it had been

raining, so the ground was wet.

 Makando was sitting in an armchair watching television. She was tired

because she’d been working very hard.

Some verb forms (for example, Know and want) are not normally used to in the

continuous.

Look at the examples below.

 We are good friends. We had known each other for years. (not had be

knowing …)

Now, try to do the exercise below.

Activity 12
 Read the situation and make sentences from the words in brackets. The first one

has been done for you.

1. I was very tired when I arrived home. I (work) hard all day.

I had been working hard all day.

2. The two boys came into the house. They had a football and they were very

tired. They (play) football.

_____________________________________________________

3. There was nobody in the room but there was a smell of cigarettes. Somebody

(smoke) in the room.

_____________________________________________________

4. Nangula woke up in the middle of the night. She was frightened and didn’t know

where she was. She (dream).

____________________________________________________

5. When I got home, Simasiku was sitting in front of the TV. He had just turned it

off. He (watched) TV.

____________________________________________________

Activity 13

Read the situations and complete the sentences bellows. See the given example

We played tennis yesterday. Half an hour after we began playing, it started to rain … We

had been playing for half an hour … it started to rain.

 1. I had arranged to meet Xoagub in a restaurant. I arrived and waited for him. After

20 minutes I suddenly realized that I was in the wrong restaurant. I ___________

for 20 minutes when I ______________.

2. Kasiku got a job in a factory. Five years later the factory closed down. At the time

the factory ________________, Kasiku ______________ there for five years.

Activity 14

Put the verb in brackets in the most suitable form, past continuous (I was doing), past

perfect (I had done) or past perfect continuous (I had been doing).

1. It was very noisy next door. Our neighbours ____________ (have) q party.

2. We were good friends. We ___________ (know) each other for a long time.

3. Movirongo and I went for a walk. I had difficulty keeping up with him because he

_______________ (walk) so fast.

4. Kariuki was sitting on the ground. He was out of breath. He _____________ (run).

5. When I arrived, Kwame ___________________ (wait) for a long time.

[Note: Taken and adapted from: English for General Communication course Guide:

2005]

10. The future tense

The future tense refers to what will happen:

Look at the statements below

 We will work in shifts of two hours each.

 I will study very hard to pass my course.

We use ‘shall’ in questions with the pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’. We may use ‘shall’ in

the future tense, but ‘will’ in the future tense, but ‘will’ is much more common.

Statements: I will go and visit him tomorrow.

I am sure it will rain before the end of this week.

Statements with not: I will not see my parents again this week.

My gardener will not plant the seedlings today.

Contracted forms: She won’t buy a new dress until payday.

The train won’t stop at this station.

The following are examples of other forms of the future tense:

 I am going to sell my bicycle soon and buy a new one. (This means I

intend to sell my bicycle sometime in the near future).

 I can’t see you now, I’m about to make a phone call. (This means you

will make a phone call immediately)

Now try to do the activities below. Read the instructions before you

complete the activities.

Activity 15

Complete the sentences with I will + a suitable word. The first one has been

done for you.

1. I am too tired to walk home. I think ____________ a taxi.

I am too tired to walk home. I think I will get a taxi.

2. It’s a bit cold in this room. Is it? I _______________ on the heating

system.

3. We haven’t got any milk. Oh, haven’t we? ____________________ and

get some.

4. Do you want me to do the washing –u? No, it’s all right. She _________

it.

5. I don’t know how to use this computer. Ok, the tutor ___________ you.

6. Would you like tea or coffee? _________________ coffee please.

Activity 16

What is going to happen in these situations? Use the words in brackets.

The first one has been done for you.

1. There are a lot of black clouds in the sky. (rain) It’s going to rain.

2. It is 8:30, Jack is leaving his house. He has to be at work at 8:45 but

the journey takes 30 minutes. (late) He

__________________________.
3. There is a hole in the bottom of the boat. A lot of water is coming in

through the hole. (sink) The boat ___________________________.

4. Emma is driving. There is very little petrol left in the tank. The nearest

petrol station is a long way away. (run out) She

_______________________.

Activity 17

What do you see in these situations? Write questions with shall I _____?

Or shall we _______? The first one has been done for you.

1. You and your friend want to do something this evening, but you don’t

know what. You ask your friend. What shall we do this evening?

2. You try on a jacket in a shop. You are not sure whether to buy it or

not. You ask a friend for advice. ___________________________

it?

3. It’s Naomi’s birthday next week. You want to give her a present but

you don’t know what. You ask a friend for advice. What

___________________________________________?

4. You and a friend are going on a holiday together but you haven’t

decided where. You ask him or her. ________________________?

 5. Your friend wants to phone later. You don’t know what time to

phone. You ask him or her.

____________________________________________________?

References

Azar, B.S. (1999). Understanding and using English grammar. New

York: Longman.

Banville, S. (229). Retrieved February 13, 2009, from

http:www.breakingnewsenglish.com/09010/0901-babies.html

Hornyby, A.S. (Ed.). (1995). Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary.

(5th Ed.) Oxford University Press.

DIRECT AND REPORTED SPEECH

Introduction

When we speak or write we can either state information directly or report what someone

else says or said. When students write assignments they are often required to write about

other knowledgeable people’s opinions regarding a given topic. In such cases, they

should report what these people said, e.g. in interview or in writing. In such cases students

have to use the reported speech, but they may also report the direct words of the speaker.

In this section, you will be introduced to the direct speech and report speech.

Objectives

At the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Use a dictionary to find the meanings of words used in a text;

 Interpret the meanings of phrases from general context;

 Answer questions based on a text;

 Define direct and reported;

 Demonstrate an understanding of verb tense changes when transforming

sentences from direct to reported speech and vice versa;

 Demonstrate an understanding of pronoun changes when transforming sentences

from one speech to the other; and

 Use reporting verbs in different situations (making statements, commenting, and

asking questions).
 Please listen to the recording below and thereafter do the activities that

follow.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhIGjdfhK-o

Activity 1

Read the following article carefully.

HIGH FLIERS by Amanda

In the coming months, frequent fliers will probably experience one or two emotions at

airports: irritation, at long delays due to increased security, or relief, at the efforts to

ensure everyone’s safety. But tighter measures could have spin – offs in the war

against drugs.

Jerry Carstens regrets the day he ever got involved in SA’s club culture. A naïve boy

from a small seaside town in the Cape, Jerry was overwhelmed by the glamour and

fast-paced lifestyle when he moved to Joburg. Before long, he found himself in hock

to the local drug dealer, who provided him and his friends with a steady supply of

ecstasy and cocaine.

Deep in debt and unable to turn to his parents for help, Jerry was surprised when

Craig, his ‘merch’ (dealer) offered him a free flight to South America – all Jerry had to

do was bring back a painting from Sao Polo. In return, Craig would forget about the

money he was owed. It sounded too good to be true … But for someone who’d never
been beyond South Africa’s borders, with a crippling debt hanging over his head, it

was an offer he couldn’t refuse.

On August 24 last year, Jerry got off from a flight from Brazil, carrying a large, sealed

painting tube and his meagre hand luggage. He was tanned and relaxed, looking

forward to starting over. But his holiday rapidly became a distant memory when, going

through customs, airport security seized him and whisked him away to a private

interrogation room. Within seconds they’d opened up the tube. Inside were three

kilograms of pure cocaine. Jerry, who at 20 has his whole life in front of him, is now

facing a minimum of 12 years in a South African prison.

His story isn’t as uncommon as it seems. Southern Africa is one of the biggest

smuggling regions in the world – from drugs to illegal arms, millions of rands of

contraband goods get shipped through airports every day. It’s a growing problem;

African nationals are increasingly being used as ‘mules’ to carry drugs or arms across

borders, and drug abuse rates across the whole continent are increasing at startling

rates. A handful of South Africans have also been arrested for smuggling contraband

goods (mostly drugs) abroad, and are now incarcerated in jails in South America or

Far East. Ironically, the terrifying events that took place in the United States on

September a11 could have one positive effect: it’s now going to become even harder

for would – be – criminals to slip through the net.

South African airports have a good record of cracking down on drug smugglers, but

the heightened threat of terrorism poses a new challenge – and new benefits for crime

fighters. Andre Olivier, a group manager of security at the Airports Company of South
Africa, says all airports throughout the world are regulated by the International Civil

Aviation Organisation (ICAO), an authority that falls under the United Nations.

South Africa, like 182 other countries, is a signatory to ICAO’s Standard and

Recommended Practices, which have been incorporated in SA’s Civil Aviation Act,

which also provide the guidelines for ACSA’s requirements regarding training,

manpower and equipment used for security purposes. One of these requirements is

that all security procedures at airports must be regularly reviewed, and the airports

authorities are able to escalate their security measures.

In South Africa’s case this was demonstrated, Olivier says, by ACSA’s rapid response

to the second World Trade Centre incident, when it became obvious the first crash

was not an accident. Olivier says that under normal security conditions, 100 percent

of all international checked baggage (including carry – on – luggage) is –rayed at out

airports, and 20 percent of passengers and their hand luggage are randomly tested.

Airline crew are checked at all times (not surprising, considering just last year a

cocaine smuggling ring was uncovered in a national airline). After the US attacks, this

was immediately escalated to 100 percent scanning and physical checking of all

passengers and luggage, accounting for the lengthy delays and long queues that have

been experienced ever since.

Under normal security conditions, domestic checked luggage in not X-rayed (although

carry –on luggage is always screened) – but screening of domestic checked luggage

is not a standard requirement anywhere in the world, yet.

After the Lockerbie disaster in 1988, it became mandatory for all international flights

to X-ray checked luggage. The enormity of the task has meant, however, that Europe’s

civil aviation community has still not reached this standard – although South Africa

became compliant two years ago.

ACSA has also spent millions buying some of the most sophisticated security

equipment in the world – like the millions dollar CTX 5500, a machine similar to a

medical CAT scanner. These machines can detect weapon (arms and explosives) as

well as drugs with their organic and inorganic detection facilities.

ACSA has also helped the police (SAPS) to buy mobile scanner equipment to scan

luggage on the airport apron to detect drugs as luggage is being off-loaded from

aircraft. Jerry Casterns fell foul to these scanners, as the hand-held machine

immediately detected a possible illegal substance in the police tube. ACSA and the

SAPS also carefully profile international flights known to be on smuggling routes to

crack down on the illegal narcotics trade. So Jerry never stood a chance.

Airports in SA, according to Olivier, have been classified as ‘national key points’

(meaning they’re of vital importance to our country’s economy). So, it’s no surprise

that the South African National Defence Force as well as ACSA’s security officials

closely monitor them.

Each of the 650 security officers employed by ACSA undergoes a six – week training

programme conducted under the auspices of the SANDF, as well as an additional

week of training in aviation security. The training is computer - based and

 internationally recognized. And each airline typically has its own security guidelines

for cargo and catering, for example, and they’re responsible for checking all their own

facilities and aircraft. Airlines can also elect to place armed air marshals on each flight

– which, in the case of the hijacked American Airlines and United Airlines aircraft, may

have prevented the recent tragedies. But, as Olivier points out, the level of security

has to be commensurate with the threat posed.

Olivier says that deranged individuals rather than terror groups of fugitive carry out the

majority of hijack incidents. And he personally handled three domestic hijacking

episodes prior to 1994 – a sobering thought. Olivier says ACSA will stay abreast of all

potential threats and the current situation in the US, especially in the light of possible

reprisals by America against the people responsible for the terror attacks.

ACSA is in frequent contact with its counterparts elsewhere in the world. We expect

security to remain at high levels for some time, which will unfortunately result in delays

at the airports. We ask passengers to assist by not taking anything on board that could

be construed as a weapon and to arrive early for flights.’ I am sure you’ll agree, it’s a

small price to pay for peace of mind.

[Note: Taken and adapted from Unit 8 Study Guide for English for General

Communication, 2007, p. 85]

Activity 2

Using a dictionary find the meaning of the following words from the passage:
 Delays: ________________________________________________________

 Naïve: _________________________________________________________

 Crippling: _______________________________________________________

 Meagre: ________________________________________________________

 Contraband: ___________________________________________________

 Incarcerated: __________________________________________________

 Escalate: _____________________________________________________

 Mandatory: ____________________________________________________

 Aviation: ______________________________________________________

 Compliant: ____________________________________________________

 Organic: ______________________________________________________

 Auspices: _____________________________________________________

 Commensurate: ________________________________________________

 Deranged: ____________________________________________________

 Fugitives: ____________________________________________________

 Reprisals: ___________________________________________________

 Construed: ___________________________________________________

b) Explain the following phrases.

 Spin - offs: __________________________________________________

 Fast – paced: ________________________________________________

 In – hoc: ____________________________________________________

 Hanging over the head: ________________________________________

  Used as ‘mules’: ______________________________________________

 Would – be – criminals: ________________________________________

 Cracking down: _____________________________________________

 Fell foul: ___________________________________________________

 Stay abreast: ________________________________________________

 Sobering thought: ____________________________________________

 Peace of mind: ______________________________________________

C. Read the article entitled “High Fliers” again and then answer the following questions

using your own words.

1. Which two emotions might frequent flyers experience in the near future?

________________________________________________________________

3. What would be the result of tighter security measures at airports?

______________________________________________________________

4. Why was Jerry Carstens arrested?

______________________________________________________________

5. Why is Southern Africa regarded as one of the biggest smuggling regions in the

world?

______________________________________________________________

6. Why does the author say the events that took place in the United States are ironic?

______________________________________________________________

7. What was South Africa’s response to the World Trade Centre incident?
 _____________________________________________________________

8. Why are airline crew checked?

_____________________________________________________________

9. List the changes that have been made since the hijacking of aircraft in the United

States.

_______________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

10. What advice is Mr. Olivier giving to frequent flyers?

______________________________________________________________

1. Direct and Reported Speech

We use the direct speech whenever we speak. This happens in everyday

situations. We use the term direct speech to describe the way we represent the

spoken discourse in writing.

Actual spoken statement (everyday speech style)

“I’m waiting”

Direct statement in writing

“I’m waiting.” John said.

We use reported speech (also called indirect speech) when we are telling

someone what another person says or said. The reporting verb (e.g. say, tell) may

be in the present or past tense form.

Actual spoken statement: “I can see him now.”

Direct statement in writing: “I can see him now.” The boss says or said.

Reported statement (present): The boss says that he can see you now.

Reported statement (past): The boss said that he could see you

then.

When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually indirect speech

is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or they said. Using the verb

say in this tense indicates that something was said in the past. In these cases, the

main verb in the reported sentence is put in the past. If the main verb is already in

the past tense, then the tense changes to another past tense, it can almost be

seen as moving even further into the past.

Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect speech. Note

the changes shown in the chart and see the table below for examples. With indirect

speech, the use of that is optional.

(Put in a table form)

Direct Speech Reported Speech

Simple Present Simple Past

He said, “I go to school every day.” He said (that) he went to school

every day.

Simple Past Past Perfect

He said, “I went to school every day.” He said (that) he had gone to

school every day.

Present Perfect Past Perfect

He said, “I have gone to school…” He said (that) he had gone to

School …

Present Progressive Past Progressive

He said, “I am going to school He said (that) he was going to

every day.” school every day.

Past progressive Perfect Progressive

He said, “I was going to school He said (that) he had been going

every day.” to school every day.

Future (will) Would + verb name

He said, “I will go to school He said (that) he would go to

every day.” school every day.

Future (going to) Present Progressive

He said, “I am going to school He said (that) he is going to

every day.” school every day.

Past Progressive

He said (that) he was going to

school every day.

Auxiliary + verb name Simple Past

He said, “Do you go to school He asked me if I went to

every day?” school every day.

He said, “Where do you go to He asked me where I went to

School?” school.

Imperative Infinitive

He said, “Go to school every day.” He said to go to school every day.

*Note that when a Yes /No question is being asked in direct speech, a construction

with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked, use the WH to

introduce the clause. The situation changes if instead of the common said another

part of the very to say is used. In that case the verb tenses usually remain the

same. Some examples of this situation are given below.

Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Simple present + Simple present Simple present + simple presen

He say, “I go to school every day.” He says (that) he goes to school

every day.

Present perfect + Simple present Present perfect + simple

present

He has said, “I go to school every He has said (that) he goes to

day. School every day.

Past progressive + Simple past Past progressive + simple past

He was saying, “I went to school He was saying (that) he went to

every day.” school every day.

Past progressive + Past perfect

He was saying (that) he had gone

to school every day.

Future + simple present Future + simple present

He will say, “I go to school every day.” He will say (that) he goes to

school every day.

Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used. If the verb said
 is used, then the form of the modal or another modal that has a past meaning is

used.

Can Could

He said, “I can go to school He said (that) he could go to

every day,” school every day.

May Might

He said, “I may go to school He said (that) he might go to

every day. school every day.

Might

He said, “I might go to school

every day.”

Must Had to

He said, “I must go to school every He said (that) he had to go to

day.” school every day.

Have to

He said, “I have to go to school

every day.”

Should Should

He said, “I should go to school He said (that) he should go to

every day.” school every day.

Ought to Ought to

He said, “I ought to go to school He said (that) he ought to go to

every day.” school every day.

[Note: Tables taken and adapted from English Grammar in Use, Murphy, 1995, p. 98]

More examples

Statements

 “Life at our school is exciting and interesting.”

He said (that) life at their school was exciting and interesting.

 “I spent three years at that school.”

He had spent three years at that school.

 “We have been in this house for three months.”

She said (that) they had been in that house for three months.

Instructions

 “Don’t steal the books,” the librarian said to the students.

The librarian told the students not to steal the books.

The librarian told the students that they should not steal the books.

Questions

 “Where is the car?” John asked Peter.

John asked Peter where the car was.

 “Have they finished work on your car yet?” John enquired.

John enquired whether they had finished work on his car yet.

2. Reporting verbs
 It is obviously not good style to repeat the verb ‘said’ when you report speech. Different

reporting verbs show slightly different meaning about the speaker’s attitude. Study the

following examples:

 He commented that some people were very fortunate.

 He emphasized that the reading method was the best approach.

 He concluded that on the evidence available there was every possibility of

success.

 He argued that the high accident rate was caused by drunken driving.

 He whispered that he thought we’d better go.

Other common reporting verbs are: promise, propose, suggest, deduce, stress, repeat,

insist, reason, claim, inform, remark, announce, enquire, advice.

Activity 3

Rewrite the following sentences in the Reported Speech.

1. “I have lost my credit”, said the girl.

_______________________________________________________________

2. “We cannot wake up early in the morning”, complained the students.

_______________________________________________________________

3. The small boy shouted: “I’m going home; I will never visit you again!”

________________________________________________________________
4. “We saw the land of the wide open spaces”, remarked the tourist.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________

5. “They can’t swim very well”, I told her.

________________________________________________________________

6. “I’ll phone you later this morning”, Sarah told James.

________________________________________________________________

7. “I have done the shopping, anything else that you’d like?” my dad asked us.

________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________

8. The angry girl yelled: “Get out of my room! I don’t want to see you again!”

________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

9. “ACSA is in frequent contact with its counterparts elsewhere in the world. We

expect security to remain high at high levels for some time, which will unfortunately

result in delays at the airports. We ask passengers to assist by not taking anything

on board that could be construed as a weapon and the arriving early for flights.”

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________
 10. “I am sure you’ll agree, it’s a small price to pay for peace of mind,” says Amanda.

________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

Activity 4

Rewrite the following sentences in the Direct Speech

1. Oliver says that under normal security conditions, 100 percent of all international

checked baggage is X-rayed at or airports, and 20 percent of the passengers and

their hand luggage are randomly tested.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

2. Olivier says that deranged individuals rather than terror groups of fugitives carry

out the majority of hijack incidents.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

3. Olivier says ACSA will stay abreast of all potential threats and the current situation

in the US, especially in the light of possible reprisals by America against the people

for the terror attacks.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________
 ________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

4. But as Olivier points out, the level of security has to be commensurate with the

threat posed.

________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________

References

Murphy, R. (1995). Essential Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Study Guide for English for General Communication: UCG 2110. (2007).

Windhoek: University of Namibia Printers.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

Introduction

The voice of a verb explains whether the subject of the sentence does or receives the

action of the verb. The ACTIVE VOICE is used more often than the PASSIVE VOICE but

sometimes the PASSIVE VOICE is preferred.

Objectives

At the end of the unit the students should be able to:

 Read a text and answer questions based on it;

 Use a dictionary to find the meanings of words;

 Explain phrases used in a text in their own words;

 Distinguish between active and passive voice; Use active and passive voice

appropriately;

 Change sentences from the active to the passive voice and vice versa.

Listen to the recording on Active and Passive Voice and thereafter read through

the notes on the subtopic.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAJnlF8j1ds

Read the passage titled ‘Street Children’ carefully and do the activities that follow.

Street children
Street children is a term used to refer to children who live on the streets. They are

deprived of family care and protection. Most children on the streets are between the ages

of about 5 and 18 years, and their populace between different cities is varied. Street

children are those that are not taken care of by parents or other protective guardians.

Street children live in abandoned buildings, cardboard boxes, parks or on the street itself.

A great deal has been written defining street children, but the primary difficulty is that

there are no precise categories, but rather a continuum, ranging from children who spend

some time in the streets and sleep in a house with ill-prepared adults, to those who live

entirely in the streets and have no adult supervision or care.

Street children exist in many major cities, especially in developing countries, and may be

the subject of abuse, neglect, exploitation, or even in extreme cases murder by “clean up

squads” hired by local businesses. In Latin America, a common cause is abandonment

by poor families unable to feed all their children. In Africa, an increasingly common cause

is AIDS.

Definition

The definition of ‘street children’ is contested, but many

Practitioners and policymakers use UNICEF’s concept of boys and

girls aged under 18 for whom ‘the street’ (including unoccupied

dwellings and wasteland) has become home and / or their source

of livelihood, and who are inadequately protected or supervised.

Children may end up on the streets for several basic reasons: they may have no choice

– they are abandoned, orphaned, or thrown out of their homes. Secondly, they may

choose to live in the streets because of mistreatment or neglect or because their homes

do not or cannot provide them with basic necessities. Many children also work in the

streets because their earnings are needed by their families. But homes and families are

part of the larger society and the underlying reasons for the poverty or breakdown of

homes and families may be social, economic political or environmental or any

combination of these.

In a 1993 report, WHO presented the following causes for the phenomenon: family

breakdown, armed conflict, poverty, natural and man-made disasters, famine, physical

and sexual abuse, exploitation by adults, dislocation through migration, urbanization and

overcrowding and acculturation. The orphaning of children as a result of HIV/AIDS is

another cause that might be added to this list.

Street children in Russia

In Russia, street children usually find a home in underground pipe and cable collectors

during the harsh winter. These underground homes offer space, shelter and most

importantly of all, heat from hot water and central heating pipes. Russia has up to 4 million

street children, and one in four crimes involves underage youths. Officially, the number

of children without supervision is more than 700 000. However, experts believe the real

figure has long been between 2 and 4 million.

Street children in India

The Republic of India is the seventh largest and second most populous country in the

world. With acceleration in economic growth, India has become one of the fastest growing

developing countries. This has created a rift between poor and rich; 22 percent of the

population lives below the income poverty line. Due to unemployment, increasing rural-

urban migration, attraction of city life and a lack of political will India now has one of the

largest numbers of child labourers in the world. Street children are subject to malnutrition,

hunger, health problems substance abuse, theft, CSE, harassment by the city police and

railway authorities, as well as physical and sexual abuse, although the Government of

India has taken some corrective measures and declared child labour as illegal.

Government and non-government responses

Responses by governments

Street children have no representation in the governing process because they have not

reached the age of majority. They have no vote themselves nor by proxy through their

parents, from whom they likely are alienated, not do street children have any economic

leverage. Governments, consequently, may pay little attention to them.

The rights of street children are often ignored by governments despite the fact that nearly

all of the world’s governments have ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.

Governments are often embarrassed by street children and may blame parents or

neighbouring countries. Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) may also be blamed

for encouraging children to live in the streets by making street life more bearable or

attractive through the services they provide.

When governments implement programs to deal with street children these generally

involve placing the children in orphanages, juvenile homes or correctional institutes.

However, some children are in the streets because they have fled from such institutions

and some governments prefer to support or work in partnership with NGO programs.

Governments sometimes institute roundups when they remove all the children from city

streets and deposit them elsewhere or incarcerate them.

NGO responses

Non-governmental organizations employ a wide variety of strategies to address the needs

and rights of street children. These may be categorized as follows:

 Advocacy: Through media and government contacts agencies may press for

the rights of street children to be respected.

 Preventive programmes work to prevent children from taking to the streets,

through family and community support and education.

 Institutional

Residential rehabilitation programs entail the provision of an environment isolated

from the streets where activities are focused on assisting children to recover from

drug, physical or sexual abuse. Full-care residential homes are the final stage in

many agencies’ programmes. The child is no longer in the streets but lives in a

home provided by the agency. These programs may put children with foster
 parents while others set up group homes where a small number of children live

together with house parents employed by the agency. Some agencies include a

follow-up programme that monitors and counsels children and families after the

child has left the residential programme.

 Street based programmes work to alleviate the worst aspects of street life for

children by providing services to them in the streets.

Many agencies employ several of these strategies and a child will pass through a

number of stages before he or she “graduates”. First he/she will be contacted by an

outreach programme, thereafter he/she may become involved in drop-in centre

programmes, though still living in the streets. Later the child may be accepted into a

half-way house and finally into residential care where he/she becomes fully divorced

from street life.

[Note: Taken and adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Street_children]

Activity 1

Answer the following questions based on the passage titled ‘Street Children’.

1.1. What is the main idea of the passage? Write one sentence only.

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

1.2. Read the introduction of the passage as well as the definition given by the

author, and then write your own definition of the term Street Children. You

should use your own words.

 _____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

1.3. Why are governments embarrassed by street children?

_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

1.4. In your opinion, what are the TWO major causes of the Street Child

phenomenon in Namibia?

_____________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

1.5. Do you think the Governments’ efforts (as described in the text) to solve the

Street Child problem are effective? Explain your answer.

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

ACTIVE VOICE

In the active voice the subject of the sentence is the person or thing doing the work.

Examples: The students wrote a test yesterday.

Mr Brown marked their work.

In most cases and with most styles of writing, the active voice is preferred to the passive

voice. The active voice is stronger and more direct than the passive voice, and it therefore

produces more powerful sentences. It is also more natural and concise. If one compares

the two sentences below it is obvious that the first one (active voice) works well because

it is more natural.

Active Voice: He loves me.

Passive Voice: I am loved by him.

PASSIVE VOICE

In the passive voice the subject of the sentence is the person or thing receiving the action.

Examples: A test was written by the students yesterday.

Their work was marked by Mr. Brown.

The passive voice is created by writing a form (simple present or simple past) of the verb

“to be” with the past participle form of the verb, e.g. was + written; was + marked. These

forms often include a “by” phrase to indicate who performed the action, e.g. by the

students; by Mr. Brown. Other auxiliary verbs like “can” and “should”, may also be used,

e.g. The weeds should have been removed as soon as they appeared.

The passive voice is only used sometimes, because it is less direct than the active voice.

[Source: Adapted from Essential Grammar in Use. (1995). By Murphy, R.]

USING THE PASSIVE VOICE

The passive voice is preferred for the following reasons:

When the person who acted is unknown.

Example: The package was sent to me last week. (We do not know who sent the

package.)

When the doer of the action is unimportant, sometimes to avoid responsibility.

EXAMPLE: Mistakes were made and people were hurt. (We know who did it, but it’s not

important.)

When one wants the emphasis of the sentence to be on the action, rather than on the

person who performed it.

EXAMPLE: The research was conducted at UNAM. (The research is more important than

the researcher.)

Finally, when you want the doer of the action to remain anonymous.

EXAMPLE: Five thousand Namibian dollars was donated to the orphanage.

(The donor wants to remain anonymous.)

(Cobb, Mawasha & Gilfilan, 1991, p. 202)

Activity 2

Say whether the following sentences based on the passage Street Children are in the

Active or Passive Voice, and in each case give a reason for your answer.

2.1. A great deal has been written about Street Children.

______________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2.2. Their homes do not or cannot provide them with basic needs.

______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

2.3. Earnings of street children are needed by their families.

______________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Activity 3

Change the following sentences from Active to Passive Voice.

1.1. In Russia, street children usually find a home in underground pipes and cable

collectors during the harsh winter.

______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

1.2. These underground homes offer space, shelter, and most important, heat from

hot water and central heating pipes.

 ______________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

1.3. However, experts believe the real figure has long been between 2 and 4 million

children.

______________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

1.4. Governments sometimes institute roundups when they remove all the children

from city streets.

______________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

Activity 4

Change the following sentences based on the passage from Passive to Active Voice.

4.1. The rights of street children are often denied by governments.

______________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

4.2. Governments are often embarrassed by street children.

______________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

4.3. The economic collapse was caused by the socialist economy.

______________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________
References

Cobb, D.J., Mawasha, A.L. & Gilfilan, R.M.E. (1991). Advance with English. Standard Ten

Pupil’s Book. Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman (Pty) Ltd.

Murphy, R. (1995). Essential Grammar in Use. Great Britain: Cambridge University Press.