Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620

DOI 10.1007/s00126-016-0682-8

ARTICLE

Tectono-metallogenetic evolution of the Fe–Cu deposit

of Dominga, northern Chile
E. Veloso 1,2 & J. Cembrano 1,2 & G. Arancibia 1,2 & G. Heuser 1 & S. Neira 3 & A. Siña 3 &
I. Garrido 3 & P. Vermeesch 4 & D. Selby 5

Received: 12 August 2015 / Accepted: 31 August 2016 / Published online: 5 October 2016
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

Abstract The Dominga district in northern Chile (2082 Mt at
23.3 % Fe, 0.07 % Cu) shows a spatial and genetic affinity
among distinctive structural elements and Fe–Cu-rich parage-
netic mineral assemblages. Deep seated, NE-to-E striking
structural elements form a right-lateral duplex-like structural
system (early structural system, ESS) that cuts a regionally
extensive alteration (stage I) zone. The EES system served
as a locus and as path for the emplacement of biotite–magne-
tite alteration/mineralization (stage IIa) as veins and Fe-
bearing layers following altered volcano sedimentary strata.
NW-striking actinolite–magnetite hydrothermal breccias, coe-
val with and part of the ESS, include apatite (stage IIb) crys-
tallized at 127 ± 15 Ma (U–Pb, 2σ). The ESS was also the
locus of subsequent alteration/mineralization represented by
K-feldspar, epidote, and albite (stage IIIa) and Fe–Cu-rich
(vermiculite–anhydrite–chalcopyrite, stage IIIb) mineral
associations. Shallowly developed, NNE-striking, left-lateral
structural elements defining the El Tofo Structural System
(ETSS)—probably part of the Atacama Fault System—clearly
crosscut the ESS. Minerals associated with alteration/
mineralization stage IIIb also occur as veins and as part of
hydrothermal breccias of the ETSS, marking the transition
from the ESS to ETSS. Molybdenite associated with
alteration/mineralization stage IIIb yielded a Re–Os age of
127.1 ± 0.7 Ma (2σ). Both the ESS and ETSS were cut by
left-lateral, NW- to E-striking shallowly developed structural
elements (Intermediate Structural System, ISS) on which a
hematite–calcite assemblage (stage IV) occurs mostly as infill
material of veins and fault veins. The ISS is cut by N-striking,
left-lateral, and shallowly developed structural elements (Late
Structural System, LSS) showing no evidence of alteration/
mineralization. Estimated strain and stress fields indicate an

Editorial handling: T. Bissig

* E. Veloso P. Vermeesch
anveloso@ing.puc.cl p.vermeesch@ucl.ac.uk
D. Selby
J. Cembrano
david.selby@durham.ac.uk
jcembrano@ing.puc.cl

G. Arancibia 1
Departamento de Ingeniería Estructural y Geotécnica, Pontificia
garancibia@ing.puc.cl Universidad Católica de Chile, Avenida Vicuña Mackenna,
4860 Santiago, Chile
G. Heuser
2
gkheuser@uc.cl Centro de Excelencia en Geotermia de Los Andes (CEGA,
FONDAP-CONICYT), Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
S. Neira 3
sergio.neira@andesiron.com Andes Iron SpA, Avenida Cerro El Plomo 5460, Piso 19, Las
Condes, Santiago, Chile
A. Siña 4
Department of Earth Sciences, University College London, Gower
armando.sina@andesiron.com Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
5
I. Garrido Department of Earth Sciences, University of Durham, Durham DH1
ivan.garrido@andesiron.com 3LE, UK
596
overall NW-trending shortening/compression and NE-
trending stretching/tension strike-slip regime probably due to
oblique subduction during the Mesozoic. However, the orien-
tations of the stress and strain fields calculated for each struc-
tural system suggest a back-and-forth rotation pattern during
transition from one structural system to the other—as they
change between transtension and transpression—and between
alteration/mineralization stages.
Keywords Structural element . Stress . Strain . Mineral
paragenesis . Radiometric dating
Introduction
The Dominga deposit, located ca. 60 km north of La Serena
(Fig. 1), is a Fe–Cu-rich ore deposit emplaced into volcano
sedimentary rocks of the Punta del Cobre Formation (e.g.,
Creixell and Arévalo 2009) and into previously uncharted
subvolcanic bodies of dioritic composition including andesitic
and dioritic porphyries and microdiorites (all together referred
to as the Porphyric Dioritic Complex). Estimated resources are
about 2082 Mt with a total Fe content of ca. 23.3 % and a Cu
content of ca. 0.07 % (Veloso et al. 2015a). Perhaps, due to its
geographic location and mineralogical similarities with other
Fe-rich deposits in the region, Dominga may be included
within the so-called BCretaceous Iron Belt^ (e.g., Geijer
1931; Ruiz et al. 1965; Park 1972; Oyarzún and Frutos
1984; Espinoza 1984, 1990; Ménard, 1986; Ruiz and
Peebles 1988) extending from the localities of Taltal (25° 24′
S, 70° 29′ W) to La Serena (29° 45° S, 71° 15′ W) and sub-
parallel to the actual Coastal Cordillera in northern Chile
(Fig. 1). The belt includes several world class IOCG (Fe–
Cu–Au–Ag–U–Co–REE) deposits of Mesozoic age (e.g.,
Marschik et al. 1997; Marschik and Fontboté 2001; Mathur
et al. 2002; Gelcich et al. 2005; Arévalo et al. 2006),
where mineralization occurs as veins, hydrothermal breccias,
and/or stratiform bodies or, simply, as irregular-shaped bodies
(e.g., Sillitoe 2003; Vivallo et al. 2008; Vivallo 2009).
Several deposits within the belt are spatially and/or tempo-
rally associated with left-lateral NNE- to N-striking and
NNW- to WNW-striking structural elements (e.g., faults,
veins, fault breccias, and fractures in general) as in the de-
posits of Candelaria, Carola, Manto Verde, and Teresa de
Colmo. Due to the orientation and kinematics of these struc-
tural elements, they have been considered genetically linked
and part of the large-scale Atacama Fault System (e.g., Sillitoe
2003). Available geochronological data argue for a temporal
link between the activity of the Atacama Fault System and the
occurrence of several Fe deposits (e.g., Vila et al. 1996;
Sillitoe 2003). Several consistent models that link the activity
of the Atacama Fault System and different alteration/
mineralization stages of these Fe-rich deposits have been
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
proposed (e.g., Marschik et al. 1997; Marschik and Fontboté
2001; Mathur et al. 2002; Gelcich et al. 2005; Arévalo et al.
2006). However, certain deposits within the BCretaceous Iron
Belt^ are instead associated with right-lateral NE- to ENE-
striking structural elements, apparently unrelated and devel-
oped prior to the activity of the Atacama Fault System (e.g.,
Cembrano et al. 2009), for example the deposits of Cerro
Negro, El Salado (Gelcich et al. 2005), Carrizal Alto (Ruiz
et al. 1965), and Mantos de Punitaqui (Ruiz et al. 1965)
(Fig. 1). Some other deposits seem to be partly related to such
NE- to ENE-striking structural elements; for example, at
Candelaria, Bonson et al. (1996) describe a set of NE-
striking right-lateral structural elements that host part of the
mineralization.
Geochronological data for some Fe-rich deposits spatially
within the metallogenic belt argue for a main mineralization
stage in the range of ca. 125–100 Ma, coeval with the left-
lateral activity of the Atacama Fault System (Vila et al. 1996;
Marschik et al. 1997; Arévalo 1999; Ullrich and Clark, 1999;
Scheuber and González 1999; Marschik and Fontboté 2001;
Mathur et al. 2002; Grocott and Taylor 2002; Vivallo et al.
2008; Creixell et al. 2009; Creixell and Arévalo 2009; and
references therein). However, Fe-rich deposits associated with
right-lateral structural elements are older (>125–140 Ma; e.g.,
Gelcich et al. 2005), thus arguing for a possible earlier miner-
alization stage unrelated to the activity of the Atacama Fault
System (Fig. 2).
This opens the possibility that alteration/mineralization as-
sociated with right-lateral NE-striking structural elements may
have been overseen or wrongly assigned to the Atacama Fault
System for some of the Fe-rich deposits in northern Chile. If
so, it implies that (at least part of) the Fe-rich mineralization
could be unrelated to—and older than—the activity of the
Atacama Fault System, i.e., between 125 and 90 Ma (Fig. 2)
(e.g., Scheuber and González 1999; Grocott and Taylor 2002).
It also implies that the traditional view of one N-striking
metallogenic belt may be biased, a concept that may hinder
the understanding of Fe ore formation and mislead mineral
exploration in northern Chile.
In the Dominga district, Fe-rich mineralization occurs
as veins, hydrothermal breccias, and stratiform bodies,
spatially associated with particular structural elements
having defined morphologies and preferential displace-
ment and strike directions. These structural elements
are: (1) NE- to E-striking, right-lateral, commonly foli-
ation ultracataclasites and cataclasites forming duplex
geometries at several scales; (2) NNW- to E-striking
breccia bodies and other shear zones with left-lateral
displacement sense; (3) N- to NE-striking, left-lateral
cataclasites, fault breccias, slip surfaces, and fault veins;
and (4) NW- and NE-striking hydrothermal breccias.
Besides differences in orientation (Fig. 3a–d), structural
elements show marked differences in spatially and/or
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620 597

Fig. 1 General location and occurrence of Fe-rich deposits in northern Chile (after Sillitoe 2003) and of the general trace of the Atacama Fault System
(after Cembrano et al. 2009). Cities and major towns in italics

genetically associated mineral assemblages (Fig. 3e),
style of deformation (Fig. 4a–i), and abundance and
average width (Fig. 4j, k).
In this study, we present newly collected, processed, and
integrated structural data, mineral paragenesis and radiometric
ages used to construct a conceptual model that accounts for
the variability of structural elements, their cross-cutting rela-
tionships, relative and absolute timing, kinematics and geo-
metrical arrangement, as well as the particular mineral para-
genetic associations spatially, and/or genetically linked to
these structural elements. The model focuses on the spatial
and temporal relations among and between structural
598 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
ƒFig. 2 Compilation of geochronological data of regional and local tectonic,
magmatic, structural and alteration/mineralization stages identified and de-
fined at Dominga and at other Fe-rich deposits in northern Chile. PDC:
Porphyric Dioritic Complex, TT: Transtensional, TP: Transpressional;
Mineral abbreviations after Whitney and Evans (2010)
elements, structural systems, and alteration/mineralization
stages. Heterogeneous, polyphase, fault slip data were
Fig. 3 Orientation data of structural elements at Dominga. a Contour
density (each 2 %) plot of poles of all measured structural elements at
Dominga and indicating preferential orientations (A to E). Rose diagrams
(petals each 5°) showing: b same data as a as well as identified
preferential strike directions; c the strike orientation of structural
elements with complete fault-slip data; d the strike orientation of
ultracataclasites and cataclasites with S-C textures; e half-rose diagram
(5° petals) showing the preferential strike direction of veins and
associated mineral fillings as outer arcs
599
analyzed to estimate the orientation and characteristics of the
strain and stress fields that controlled the tectonic evolution of
the district. Paragenetic and radiometric data provide relative
and absolute age constrains between and among alteration and
mineralization mineral phases and alteration/mineralization
stages.
Methodology
Within the Dominga district, we measured a total of 962
structural elements including foliated ultracataclasites
and cataclasites, non-foliated cataclasites, fault and hy-
drothermal breccias, gouge bands, slip surfaces, fault
veins, and veins filled with different mineral assem-
blages (Figs. 3 and 4). Also included, yet less exposed,
are mylonites and veins showing evidence of polyphase
deformation. Data logged from each structural element
include: (1) thickness, (2) orientation, (3) orientation of
the slickenline (or any other kinematic indicator; e.g.,
Petit 1987; Doblas 1998), (4) the sense of displacement
(e.g., Petit 1987; Angelier 1994), and (5) associated
mineral occurrences. Only slip surfaces and fault veins
(n = 261) have complete fault slip data suitable for
further strain and stress analyses (Fig. 3c).
We also recorded the orientation of foliation (S) and
shear (C) planes from S-C textures macroscopically ob-
served on ultracataclasites and cataclasites (Fig. 3d) and
used them to calculate the orientation of the slip direc-
tion on the C plane. This corresponds to the vector on
the C plane normal to the intersection of C and S
planes. The sense of displacement was taken from the
angular relationship between the same C and S planes.
We considered this as a second set of fault slip data
(hereafter referred as S-C derived fault-slip data)
suitable for estimation of both strain and stress fields.
Mineral occurrences—spatially and/or locally associated
with a structural element—according to relative abundance,
cross-cutting relationships, crystal morphology, as well as the
relative orientation and location with respect to nearby struc-
tural elements were logged on and locally around each struc-
tural element. These included mineral associations as filling
material of veins, matrix of breccias and of other structural
elements (e.g., cataclasites), and stratiform Fe-mineralized
bodies that roughly follow the westward dipping stratification
attitude of the Punta del Cobre Formation. Logged mineral
grain size was grouped into coarse (>0.5 mm), medium
(0.1–0.5 mm), and fine (<0.1 mm). We also examined under
the optical microscope a total of 58 thin sections (20 of them
oriented), collected both from surface and from drill cores, to
aid identification and definition of mineral paragenetic assem-
blages and their relative temporal and spatial relationships to
structural elements.
600
Fig. 4 Examples of the variety of structural elements at Dominga: a
foliated, right-lateral ultracataclasite with S-C texture; b ultracataclasite
with large magnetite crystals; c NW-ward frontal view of a set of
structural elements (cataclasites, fault breccias) forming the composite
structural element of El Tofo Deformation Band; d) SE-ward frontal
view of hydrothermal breccia with magnetite > actinolite(> > apatite?)
matrix, including large Fe-altered clast of the Punta del Cobre Formation;
e hydrothermal breccia with magnetite-rich matrix and large clast of the
We obtained the orientation of the P and T axes of strain
from measured fault slip data with the aid of the FaultKin v7.0
software. Calculation is simply a transformation of the fault
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
Porphyric Dioritic Complex (andesite); f slickenlines on NW-striking slip
surface hosted on the Porphyric Dioritic Complex; g SE ward frontal view
of slickenfibers of hematite (specular) on an air-exposed fault vein; h
quartz veins with two different textures showing cutting relationship; i
NE-ward frontal view of subvertical, centimeter-wide, magnetite-rich
veins cutting the strata of Punta del Cobre Formation; j histogram of
occurrence; and k box-and-whisker plot of thicknesses of the different
structural elements filtered by preferential strike direction
slip datum into a pair of axes representing the maximum
(shortening, P) and minimum (stretching, T) strain axes
(e.g., Marrett and Allmendinger 1990). Hence, the method
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
transforms each fault slip datum into a pair of orthogonal and
kinematically related axes whose orientation depends on that
of the structural element and of the kinematic indicator. The
averaged orientations of P and T axes could then provide the
overall shortening and stretching orientations at the study area
or at a regional scale.
Stress analyses were conducted using the Multiple
Inverse Method v4.17/6.02 (Yamaji 2000). The method
has been developed to separate homogeneous stress
fields recorded on an heterogeneous fault slip data set
resulted from polyphase deformation, being successfully
used to estimate and separate homogeneous stress fields
from both natural and simulated heterogeneous fault slip
data sets (e.g., Sippel et al. 2009; Veloso et al. 2009,
2015b; Federico et al. 2010; and references therein).
The method estimates a common best-fit stress field
associated with a sub-group of Bk^-number fault slip
data extracted from the entire data set. The orientations
of the calculated principal axes are then plotted on a
couple of stereograms—one for σ1 and the other for
σ3 axes solutions (Yamaji 2000). Each plotted axis sym-
bol includes a tail that points towards the complemen-
tary axis (i.e., tail on σ1 points towards σ3), and it is
color-coded according to its stress ratio (ϕ = (σ2−σ3)/
(σ1−σ3)). The orientation of the best-fit stress field is
then, iteratively, calculated for all possible sub-groups
extracted from the entire fault slip data set. Common
and compatible stress field solutions are seen as clusters
of principal axes with similar colors and with tails
pointing towards a common orientation (e.g., Yamaji
2000; Otsubo and Yamaji 2006).
In order to estimate mineralization ages, we analyzed two
samples, one by means of Re–Os dating on molybdenite at the
Sulfide and Source Rock Geochronology and Geochemistry
Laboratory at Durham University, UK, and the other one by
U–Pb dating on apatite at the University College of London
Labs, UK. Analytical details for Re–Os dating are given by
Selby and Creaser (2001). U–Pb dating was carried out by LA-
ICP-MS using a New Wave NWR 193 excimer laser with a
standard volume cell connected to an Agilent 7700× quadrupole
mass spectrometer. Fourteen 35-μm-diameter spots were ablated
for 30 s at 10 Hz and 2.5 mJ/cm2 fluence preceded by 15 s of
warmup time during which blanks were collected. Madagascar
(MAD) apatite was used as a U/Pb age standard
(486.85 ± 0.85 Ma, Thomson et al. 2012) and NIST SRM612
as a concentration standard (Pearce et al. 1997). Sample standard
bracketing was performed using Glitter 4.4.3 (Griffin et al. 2008).
Mineral identification, textural, and semi-quantitative chemi-
cal data were obtained through optical and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) using an optical microscope and a FEI
Quanta 250 SEM equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spec-
trometry (EDS) detector, respectively, at the Department of
Geology of the Universidad de Chile.
601
Structural elements
To keep identification and classification of geological struc-
tures as simple and descriptive as possible, devoided of any a
priori interpretation, we define a structural element as a phys-
ical planar/tabular object that may contain an infill material
such as hydrothermal crystallized, magmatic, cataclastic, brec-
ciated (sheared and broken), crystal plastically or plastically
deformed materials. Therefore, a structural element is at the
outcrop scale defined by its nature and appearance, with no
assumptions or interpretations involved. At Dominga, several
types of structural elements are present, displaying different
textures and deformation styles, from mylonites to fault sur-
faces (Fig. 4a–i, Table 1).
Ultracataclasites and (foliated and non-foliated) cata-
clasites (Fig. 4a–c) cut (and displaced) the volcaniclastic rocks
of the Punta del Cobre Formation, suggesting that they are, at
least, younger than 140 Ma (e.g., Creixell and Arévalo 2009).
Included into foliated cataclasites, we found large (ca. 5–
10 cm diameter) porphyroclasts of strongly altered
volcaniclastic rocks embedded in a magnetite–actinolite-rich
matrix. These porphyroclasts are similar in texture, clasts, and
matrix content to hydrothermal breccia.
Hydrothermal breccias (Fig. 4d, e), with NW and NE strike,
display a magnetite–actinolite and an apatite-rich matrix, re-
spectively, both including large clasts of strongly altered sed-
imentary and andesitic rocks (Fig. 4d, e), similar to those of
the Punta del Cobre Formation. This suggests that these struc-
tural elements developed after widespread alteration of the
rocks of the Punta del Cobre Formation and of the Porphyric
Dioritic Complex (e.g., Creixell and Arévalo 2009), i.e., after
140 Ma. Embedded within the matrix, we found relicts of
foliated (ultra)cataclasites, similar in texture and morphology
to those with preferential NE-strike and right-lateral displace-
ment. Such double cross-cutting relationship between
(ultra)cataclasites and hydrothermal breccia suggests a coeval
activity of these structural elements.
Slip surfaces and fault veins (Fig. 4f, g) with a NW-strike
display abundant left-lateral kinematic indicators with minor
dip-slip components indicating a downward displacement of
the NE blocks. On the contrary, slip surfaces with NNE-to-
ENE strike display right-lateral kinematic indicators. Slip sur-
faces and fault veins commonly cut and displace the rocks of
the Punta del Cobre Formation, of the Porphyric Dioritic
Complex, as well as mylonites and (ultra)cataclasites.
Veins filled with different mineral associations (and com-
binations of them) crop out all over the Dominga district
(Figs. 3 and 4h, i). Most common mineral fillings include
(either alone or associated) magnetite, apatite, quartz, hematite
(specular), actinolite, calcite, epidote, and, locally, K-feldspar.
We also observed patches of Cu-oxides spatially associated
with calcite. Veins filled with specific paragenetic associations
show clear preferential strike directions; for example: (1)
 602

Table 1 Relative abundance, orientation, and kinematics of structural elements at Dominga

Structural Relative abundance Preferential orientation Kinematics Observations

element

Mylonite Scarce ENE (ca. N60-70E) Right-lateral Scarce Fe-rich minerals associated either within or nearby
Rare NW Left-lateral
Ultracataclasite Very common N60E Right-lateral Fe-rich minerals (magnetite) abundant both within and nearby
Cataclasite Very common NE-ENE Right-lateral Fe-rich minerals (magnetite) abundant both within and nearby
Rare N Left-lateral
Rare NNE Left-lateral Fe-rich minerals (magnetite and hematite) abundant both within
and nearby
Fault breccia Common NE ?
Scarce NNW-NNE ?
Rare E ?
Slip surfaces Common NW Left-lateral Abundant hematite or calcite minerals spatially associated
Common E Left-lateral and Abundant hematite or calcite minerals spatially associated. Some
Right-lateral display left-lateral kinematic indicators whereas other display
right-lateral indicators
Scarce NNE-ENE Right-lateral Abundant Fe-oxides (magnetite) spatially associated
Fault vein Common NW Left-lateral Abundant hematite or calcite minerals spatially associated
(small
dip-slip, normal, displacement of
eastern block)
Scarce ENE Left-lateral Magnetite crystals spatially associated or as filling material
(small dip-slip, normal,
displacement of eastern block)
Scarce NNE Left-lateral (small
dip-slip, normal, displacement of
eastern block)
Hydrothermal Scarce (mostly SE part NW (named Dominga Breccia) ? Subvertical tabular-shaped bodies arranged en echelon). Abundant
breccia of the district) cm-size sedimentary clasts (Punta del Cobre Fm?) immersed into a
magnetite-actinolite (−apatite) matrix
Scarce (mostly NE part NE (named Mina Julia) ? Abundant clast of altered andesite immersed into an apatite-rich matrix
of the district)
Gouge Scarce N-NNE ? Relicts of hematite and/or calcite filled veins
Vein Very common Preferential orientation depending on associated Varied Different mineral associations as infilling material (Fig. 3e)
mineral infill (see Fig. 3e)
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
veins with apatite or apatite + actinolite fillings are common in
the N30°–70°E strike range, whereas those with apatite +
magnetite tend to be more common in the N30°–50°W strike
range; (2) veins with hematite (specular) have a strike between
ca. N10°–50°W.
Mapped and measured structural elements, regardless of type
(ultracataclasite, slip surface, vein, etc.), can be arranged into 5
populations based on their preferential orientations. These popu-
lations—with subvertical dips and labeled A to E on Fig. 3a, b—
have strikes in the ranges: (A) N50°–70°E, (B) N30°–60°W, (C)
N80°–100°E, (D) N20°–40°E, and (E) N°0–10°E.
Population A (Fig. 3a, b)—ca. N50°–70°E—includes
mostly ultracataclasites and (foliated and non-foliated)
cataclasites showing right-lateral kinematic indicators and, to
a lesser amount, slip surfaces and fault veins also evidencing
right-lateral displacements (Table 1). Structural elements from
this population are cut and left-laterally displaced by structural
elements (commonly fault veins and slip surfaces) with strikes
between N30°–60°W (Figs. 3a, b and 5).
Iron mineralization spatially related to the structural ele-
ments of population A occurs as veins, massive patches, and
mineral clusters located either within or a few meters away
(<5 m) from structural elements. Also, Fe mineralization oc-
curs as alternation of altered stratiform bodies that roughly
follow the bedding attitude of the sedimentary sequence of
the Punta del Cobre Formation. Interestingly, strongly altered
bodies are connected by subvertical NE-striking magnetite-
rich veins that cut through weakly altered bodies (e.g.,
Fig. 4i). Thin sections of foliated ultracataclasites and
(foliated and non-foliated) cataclasites evidenced two different
occurrences of magnetite, actinolite and biotite crystals, with
different textures, grain sizes, and shapes.
Population B (ca. N30°–60°W) includes mostly slip sur-
faces and fault veins evidencing left-lateral displacements
(Fig. 3a, b). Ultracataclasites and (foliated and non-foliated)
cataclasites are uncommon in this orientation, but when pres-
ent, they show left-lateral displacements. Structural elements
from this population are cut by, but apparently not significant-
ly displaced, fault breccias, slip surfaces, and fault veins, all
with strikes ranging N0°–10°E (Fig. 5b). We observed slip
surfaces and fault veins with strikes between N30° and
60°W cutting a series of tabular en echelon hydrothermal bod-
ies (magnetite–actinolite matrix) of the BDominga Breccia^
(Fig. 5c).
Hematite and calcite (rarely together as vein infill) are spa-
tially and geometrically related to structural elements of pop-
ulation B. In places, calcite-rich veins show evidences of poly-
phase deformation (e.g., hydrothermal or fault-breccia im-
posed over a former vein). Included in calcite-rich veins, we
found chalcopyrite as well as unfilled boxworks of pyrite/
chalcopyrite.
Population C (ca. N80°–100°E) includes foliated ultra-
cataclasites and cataclasites showing right-lateral
603
displacements (S-C texture) as well as slip surfaces and fault
veins with left-lateral kinematic indicators. Commonly, foliat-
ed ultracataclasites and cataclasites included in this population
splay off similar structural elements with strikes between
N50° and 70°E (population A); slip surfaces and fault veins
splay off similar structural elements with strikes between
N30° and 60°W (i.e., population B). This latter spatial ar-
rangement is, however, fairly discontinuous—especially in
the N80°–100°E strike direction—forming a set of subsidiary
structural elements rather than a duplex geometry. Fe-bearing
minerals associated with left-lateral structural elements of
population C are the same as for structural elements of popu-
lation B (i.e., hematite and calcite), whereas minerals associ-
ated with right-lateral structural elements of population C are
the same as those of population A (i.e., magnetite–actinolite-
rich). Cross-cutting relations between (ultra)cataclasites and
fault veins and slip surfaces together with related mineral as-
sociations suggest that population C includes two different
and independent sets of structural elements having N80°–
100°E strikes: one geometrically associated with population
A and another with population B (Fig. 3a, b).
Structural elements defining population D (ca. N20°–
40°E) are common in the western part of Dominga, most-
ly cropping out nearby to an abandoned Au–Cu mine
(Fig. 5d). This population includes foliated ultra-
cataclasites and cataclasites, fault and hydrothermal
breccias and slip surfaces. Among these, a series of
(ultra)cataclasites and fault and hydrothermal breccias
form a continuous ca. 30-m-wide composite structural el-
ement (hereafter referred as the BEl Tofo Deformation
Band^) that evidences polyphase deformation (Fig. 4c).
S-C textures of foliated ultracataclasites and cataclasites
evidence left-lateral displacement. Fault breccias com-
monly contain large clasts and vein relicts with massive
magnetite–actinolite–apatite(?) crystals immersed in a
cataclastic matrix (similar in texture to structural elements
from population A) as well as relicts of K-feldspar-filled
veins. Slip surfaces and fault veins are rarely present
within the band, yet they are common a few tens of me-
ters eastward of the BEl Tofo Deformation Band,^ which
probably corresponds to the damage zone (Fig. 5d).
Population E consists almost solely of slip surfaces and
fault breccias observed mostly in the northern part of
Dominga. Kinematic indicators on slip surfaces (with
strikes between N0° and 10°E) evidence left-lateral dis-
placements. Fault breccias commonly include relicts of
crystals or veins filled with magnetite–hematite, calcite,
or hematite.
Fig. 5 Examples of mapped key locations at Dominga district. a„
Simplified geological map of the Dominga district, showing mapped
areas. b to e inlets showing the detailed mapping of key areas
604 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620 605

Structural systems
A structural system refers to a group of kinematically, tempo-
rally, and genetically related structural elements; thus, different
types of structural elements—such as ultracataclasites,
cataclasites, fault breccias, slip surfaces, etc.—may be part of
the same system. Differences in morphology and deformation
style result from their development at different structural levels
and/or under different strain/stress fields during its history (e.g.,
Sibson 1987; Scholz 2002; Passchier and Trouw 2005).
When considering cross-cutting relationships between
and among different structural elements at Dominga it is
possible to define four independent structural systems
(Table 2). Right-lateral (ultra)cataclasites and fault breccia
with N°50–70°E and N80°–100°E preferential strikes de-
fine the oldest identified structural system (hereafter re-
ferred to as the Early Structural System, ESS) with a con-
sistent right-lateral duplex geometry at several scales.
Field observations argue for a (pene)contemporaneous de-
velopment of these structural elements and the en echelon
tabular-shaped hydrothermal breccias (Dominga Breccia).
Here, geometric and spatial relations suggest that hydro-
thermal breccias with magnetite–actinolite-rich matrix
may have developed on a tensional orientation (BT^ sub-
sidiary structure) with respect to (ultra)cataclasites. The
ESS includes several types of veins with mineral infills
of apatite, actinolite, magnetite, magnetite + quartz, and
epidote + K-feldspar (Fig. 3e).
Structural elements with a N20°–40°E preferential strike
orientation and left-lateral displacements define the El Tofo
Structural System (ETSS). This structural system seems to
have concentrated most of the deformation on the El Tofo
Deformation Band, without the development of other similar
nearby structural elements. The ETSS cut and displaced the
structural elements of the ESS (Fig. 5), yet they are cut and
displaced by fault veins and fault breccia with N30°–50°W
preferential strikes and, locally, by N0°–20°E fault breccia and
slip surfaces. Only veins with quartz + epidote fillings could
be directly related to ETSS. Veins with magnetite + quartz,
magnetite, apatite, and apatite + actinolite fillings (Fig. 3e) are
commonly cut and displaced by or included as relicts on the
structural elements of ETSS, whereas those filled with epi-
dote + K-feldspar are included as relicts or developed subpar-
allel to the structural elements of the ETSS.
Fault breccias, slip surfaces, and fault veins with left-
lateral displacements and with N30°–50°W and N80°–
100°W preferential strike orientations are geometrically
related resembling a discontinuous duplex geometry,
thus defining an Intermediate Structural System (ISS).
Structural elements from this system cut and displaced
structural elements of the EES and the ETSS. Veins
associated to the ISS display quartz, quartz + calcite,
hematite (specular), calcite, and locally magnetite and
epidote (Fig. 3) infills.
The scarce fault breccias and slip surfaces with N0°–
20°E preferential strike that mostly crop out in the
northern part of the Dominga district cut (and
displaced?) structural elements associated to the ESS
and to the ISS (Fig. 5), thus defining the youngest
structural system in the district and referred to as Late
Structural System (LSS). Veins filled with apatite, epi-
dote, and/or epidote + quartz are commonly included as
relicts within the fault breccias of this system.
Strain and stress fields
The different styles of deformation, preferential orienta-
tions, kinematics, and cross-cutting relationships among
the four identified structural systems suggest that these
were active at different times. Hence, to determine the
deformation constraints that controlled the activity of
each structural system, we estimated the orientation

Table 2 Variety of structural elements, preferential orientation, and overall kinematics of structural systems at Dominga

Structural Fault slip data Structural elements Preferential Kinematic

system population orientation

Early (ESS) A Ultracataclasites, cataclasites, fault breccia, hydrothermal breccia N50°–70°E Right-
lateral
C Ultracataclasites, cataclasites, fault breccia, hydrothermal breccia N80°–100°E Right-
lateral
B Hydrothermal breccia (Dominga Breccia and Apatite-rich hydrothermal N50°–70°E, N30°– Tension
breccia) 50°W
El Tofo (ETSS) D Cataclasite, fault breccia, fault veins, slip surfaces N20°–40°E Left-lateral
Intermediate B Slip surface, fault veins, fault breccia N30°–50°W Left-lateral
(ISS) A Fault vein, slip surface N50°–70°E Left-lateral
C Fault vein, slip surface N80°–100°E Left-lateral
Late (LSS) E Fault breccia, slip surface N0°–10°E Left-lateral
606 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620

and characteristics of the associated strain and stress

fields.
The orientation of the strain field associated with a single
structural element is uniquely defined by its principal axes (P:
shortening, T: stretching; e.g., Marrett and Allmendinger 1990).
Thus, we calculated the orientations of the strain axes associated
with each fault datum in our entire fault slip data set, since clus-
ters of P and T axes may indicate a common best-fit strain field.
However, estimation of the best-fit strain field for a population of
heterogeneous polyphase fault slip data requires filtering, some-
times subjective, of the data. Prior knowledge about the relative
temporality and/or geometric relations among different structural
elements may help in this (e.g., Sperner and Zweigel 2010).
Accordingly, we calculated the orientations of the strain fields
related to each structural system by using the associated (filtered)
fault slip data and the S-C derived fault slip data set (Fig. 6).
Estimated orientations of P and T axes from the entire fault-
slip data set yielded three concentration maxima (Fig. 6a): P
axes have NNW- to N- and WNW-trending azimuths with
subhorizontal plunges, and T axes have NE- to E- and nearly
N-trending azimuths with subhorizontal plunges, i.e., estimated
strain fields correspond to strike-slip dominated deformation.
Strain fields estimated for each structural system yielded, in
general, similar orientations of their principal axes (Fig. 6b–f):
P axes have NW- to NNW- and nearly E-trending azimuths,
and T axes have NE- to ENE- and nearly N-trending azimuths,
both with subhorizontal plunges. Looking at individual solu-
tions, we observed that the orientations of P and T axes esti-
mated for the EES are similar to those estimated from the S-C-
derived fault slip data and roughly similar to one of the
maxima obtained from the analysis of the entire fault-slip data
(Fig. 6a–f). P and T axes estimated for the other structural
systems also have similar orientations when compared with
the maxima obtained from the entire fault slip data (Fig. 6).
Despite similarities, the (relative) variations on the orientation
of the principal strain axes from one structural system to an-
other are dissimilar, suggesting a clock- and counter-
clockwise rotation pattern.
Estimation of the best-fit stress field using the Multiple
Inverse Method does not need any prior assumption over the
data as in the previous strain analysis. Clustering of principal
stress axes defines a common best-fit stress tensor for a
(sub)population of the fault-slip data (e.g., Yamaji 2000;
Otsubo and Yamaji 2006; Sippel et al. 2009; Veloso et al.
2009, 2015b; Federico et al. 2010). Henceforth, for further
analysis, we used the entire fault slip data set without any
filtering criteria and, given the source, the S-C-derived fault
slip data set.
Analysis of the entire fault slip data set yielded four differ-
ent clusters of principal stress axes (labeled A to D on Fig. 7a).
Fig. 6 Lower hemisphere, equal area projections of density contour plots
Clusters A, B, and C have subhorizontally oriented principal of P (left) and T (right) strain axes from: a entire fault-slip data and from
stress axes, with trends ranging from ca. 100° to ca. 160° for the filtered fault slip data: b ESS, c ETSS, d ISS, e LSS, and f S-C derived
the maximum (σ1) and from ca. 20° to ca. 80° for the fault-slip data
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620 607

minimum (σ3). Cluster D has a moderately plunging σ1 axis regimes, whereas D is a mixture of tensional and strike slip
(azimuth ca. 70°) and a subhorizontal σ3 with ca. 340° azi- regimes. Stress ratio values for each solution suggest that
muth. Thus, solutions A, B, and C correspond to strike slip strike slip regimes are triaxial, varying between
 608 Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620

ƒFig. 7 Lower hemisphere, equal area projections with solutions of associations. Main mineral alteration phases correspond to
principal stress axes estimated from a the entire (unfiltered) and b the biotite, actinolite, quartz, epidote, albite, K-feldspar, anhy-
S-C-derived fault slip data; identified clusters of stress axes solutions are
labeled A to F and indicated on both the stereogram and the distribution of
drite, allanite, vermiculite, and calcite, whereas mineralization
ϕ (below the pair of stereograms; see Yamaji 2000, for details about the mineral phases correspond to apatite, magnetite, hematite
output of the method). c Lower hemisphere, equal area projections show- (specular), pyrite, and chalcopyrite (Fig. 8).
ing the expected slip direction (color-coded) of compatible structural The earliest identified mineral paragenetic association cor-
elements activated under each of the different estimated stress fields
(A–F; non-compatible fault slip data not plotted); external arrows indi-
responds to a mixture of disseminated, pervasively distributed
cating the orientation of principal stress axes are color-coded according to fine-grained biotite and magnetite, spatially associated with
the associated ϕ value. Below each stereogram histograms show the pyrite and fine-grained actinolite, and locally with titanite (bi-
distribution of misfit angles between measured and estimated slip direc- otite ≥ magnetite > pyrite > actinolite > titanite association), all
tions (e.g., Angelier 1994; Yamaji 2000)
hosted in the rocks of the Punta del Cobre Formation and the
Porphyric Dioritic Complex (Fig. 8b).
Coarse-grained magnetite and biotite crystallized coeval
transpressional (TP), for solutions A and B, and transtensional
with quartz, actinolite and titanite, and locally with pyrite
(TT), for solution C. Solution D represents a stress state close
(magnetite + biotite + quartz ± actinolite ± titanite> > pyrite
to uniaxial tension.
association), all post-dating fine-grained magnetite and bio-
Estimated stress fields activate particular sets of structural
tite. This association occurs as disseminated or cumulated
elements (Fig. 7c). Solution A activates structural elements with
blobs of crystals (biotite + magnetite-rich), as the matrix of
strikes ranging from ca. N10°E to N60°Was left-lateral and those
hydrothermal breccias, as cataclastically deformed material of
with strikes between N70° and 100°E as right-lateral. This
(ultra)cataclasites, as nearly complete replacement and oblit-
suggests either a set of conjugate structural elements or a non-
eration of volcano sedimentary rocks as stratiform bodies, and
coeval activity of both sets of structural elements resulted from,
as vein-filling material (as biotite + quartz + magnetite + pyrite
roughly, similarly oriented stress fields. Solution B seems to
or quartz + magnetite infills) (Fig. 8c, d). In the groundmass of
activate structural elements with strikes slightly clockwise rotated
andesitic rocks of the Porphyry Dioritic Complex, cross-
with respect to those activated by solution A. However, solution
cutting relationships indicate that coarse-grained magnetite
B also results in normal and reverse displacements of some
and biotite post-date similar fine-grained mineral phases.
structural elements with strikes between ca. N30° and 60°W.
Veins filled with a coarse-grained magnetite–biotite-rich min-
Solution C activates structural elements with strikes between
eral assemblage cut rocks having disseminated fine-grained
N10° and 30°E as left-lateral and those with strikes between
magnetite, biotite, and actinolite.
N70° and 90°W as right-lateral. Solution D, on the contrary,
Medium- to coarse-grained actinolite, apatite, and
activates structural elements with strikes between ca. N30° and
quartz together with medium-grained pyrite and magne-
70°W as left-lateral and, to a lesser degree, those with strikes
tite locally occur as the matrix of hydrothermal breccias
between N70° and 90°E and NW as left-lateral and as normal,
(actinolite + magnetite + pyrite; apatite + actinolite +
respectively.
magnetite + pyrite) and as filling material of centimeter-
Solutions E and F—obtained from the S-C-derived fault slip
wide veins (actinolite + magnetite + quartz; apatite).
data—have subhorizontal σ1 axes with WNW- and NW-trending
Commonly medium-grained magnetite, and in places to-
azimuths, respectively (Fig. 7b). The σ3 axes of solution E are
gether with pyrite, occurs in the cleavage planes of ac-
well clustered on a subhorizontal orientation, with a NE-trending
tinolite crystals (Fig. 8e). Field observations indicate
azimuth, whereas solution F has rather a widespread distribution
that hydrothermal breccias with actinolite + magnetite +
of its σ3 axes, yet these seem to cluster close to those of solution
apatite-rich matrix cut veins filled with and rocks al-
E but with steeper plunging angles. Namely, these solutions rep-
tered by a coarse-grained magnetite + biotite +
resent triaxial strike-slip and tensional/strike slip regimes, respec-
(quartz ± actinolite ± titanite)-rich mineral association.
tively. Structural elements activated either by solutions E or F are
Veins filled with K-feldspar ± epidote ± albite ± magnetite
similar, i.e., structural elements with NE- to ENE-strikes as right-
(from border to center), with quartz + K-feldspar, with quartz +
lateral; differences are given only by a couple of fault slip data,
albite + magnetite and with quartz + epidote (association
which may respond as left-lateral instead of right-lateral depend-
quartz> > epidote = albite> > K-feldspar> > magnetite) com-
ing on which solution is considered.
monly cut the rocks of the Punta del Cobre Formation and the
Porphyric Dioritic Complex, as well as hydrothermal breccias
with biotite + magnetite + apatite matrix. The quartz–epidote-
Paragenetic assemblages albite association also occurs as filling material of voids in
some of the volcanic rocks of the Dominga district. We also
Field data, thin section, and SEM analyses allowed identifica- observed K-feldspar selectively replacing plagioclase crystals
tion of a series of independent mineral paragenetic in andesitic rocks of the Porphyric Dioritic Complex (Fig. 8f).
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
Fig. 8 a Relative chronology among and between key minerals observed
at Dominga together with defined alteration/mineralization stages (I–IV);
width of triangles indicates relative abundance. b to k micro-photographs
with examples of the occurrences and relationships of key minerals: b
pervasive magnetite-biotite alteration (stage I) of strata from Punta del
Cobre Formation; c coarse-grained magnetite-actinolite association (stage
IIa); d magnetite porphyroclast with quartz syntectonic rims (stage IIa) in
a fine-grained magnetite-rich matrix (stage I); e matrix of hydrothermal
breccia from the ESS with magnetite–actinolite–apatite–quartz (stage IIb)
association; f occurrence of albite–epidote–quartz association (stage IIIa)
Hydrothermal breccias, displaying anhydrite >
allanite > chalcopyrite > pyrite ≥ magnetite matrix and relicts
clasts with embedded coarse-grained biotite + magnetite crystals
((anhydrite > allanite) > chalcopyrite > pyrite ≥ magnetite asso-
ciation), commonly cut the massively Fe-altered strata of the
Punta del Cobre Formation. Coarse-grained biotite crystals ex-
hibit reaction borders with anhydrite (which partially obliterates
their hosts), whereas biotite with allanite and chalcopyrite
609
in rocks of the Porphyric Dioritic Complex; g intergrowth of Allanite and
chalcopyrite together with anhydrite (stage IIIb); h veins with infill of
quartz and epidote (stages III–IV) association; i anhedral vermiculite
crystals (stage IIIb) cut by vein of calcite (stage IV); j partial view of a
calcite-rich vein with lattice and banded textures, together with tiny
crystals of chalcopyrite (stage IV); k partial view of a vein with
hematite and quartz association filling (stage IV). b Microphotos taken
under transmitted polarized light and j under reflected polarized light, all
others under transmitted cross-polarized light
displays intergrowth textures (Fig. 8g, h). Also, small veins with
chalcopyrite + pyrite(+anhydrite?) fillings cut coarse-grained ac-
tinolite and apatite crystals.
Veins with vermiculite + quartz + pyrite ≥ chalcopyrite infill
(Fig. 8i) also cut rocks and strata strongly altered by a coarse-
grained biotite + magnetite-rich association. Also, medium- to
coarse-grained magnetite crystals are cut by vermiculite veinlets.
Unfortunately, no other cross-cutting relationships were
610
observed, yet spatial relations among mineral phases and associ-
ations suggest that the vermiculite + quartz + pyrite ≥ chalcopy-
rite paragenesis post-dates or is pene-contemporaneous with the
crystallization of epidote.
Hydrothermal breccias and fault veins exhibiting a
calcite-rich matrix or calcite slickenfibers commonly in-
clude oxidized crystals and relicts of chalcopyrite within
and between calcite crystals (Fig. 8j). These structural ele-
ments commonly cut vermiculite-rich and coarse biotite +
magnetite-rich veins. Similarly, quartz + hematite filled
veins (Fig. 8k) commonly cut pervasively magnetite-rich
altered strata, displaying both fine- and coarse-grained bio-
tite + magnetite crystals together with coarse actinolite +
magnetite crystals. Though rare in the field, we observe
some small veins filled with calcite (center) and hematite
(border).
Identified mineral paragenetic assemblages can be tempo-
rally arranged into four alteration/mineralization stages
(labeled stages I to IV on Fig. 8). Alteration/mineralization
stage I is defined by the widespread occurrence of fine-
grainedmagnetite-actinolite(biotite≥magnetite>pyrite>actin-
olite > titanite association) in the rocks of the Punta del Cobre
Formation and of the Porphyric Dioritic Complex.
Stage II is defined by the occurrence of coarse-
grained magnetite, biotite, and locally actinolite and ap-
atite. During this stage, apatite seems to have crystal-
lized later, as evidence by cross-cutting relations be-
tween veins filled with apatite, apatite + magnetite,
and hydrothermal breccias with an actinolite–apatite-rich
matrix. Accordingly, we prefer to divide stage II into
sub-stages IIa and IIb, defined by the lack and occur-
rence of apatite, respectively (Figs. 2 and 8a).
Cross-cutting mineral relationships indicate that K-feld-
spar, epidote, and coarse- to medium-grained magnetite post-
date alteration/mineralization stage II (Fig. 8a), thus defining
alteration/mineralization stage III. Mineral spatial relation-
ships suggest that the growth of anhydrite–allanite–vermicu-
lite occurred late during this stage, most probably coeval or
pene-contemporaneous with chalcopyrite–pyrite–molybde-
nite crystallization. However, cross-cutting relations between
K-feldspar–epidote and anhydrite–allanite–vermiculite para-
genetic assemblages are in places opposite, yet both are post
coarse-grained actinolite (stage IIa). Hence, we divided
alteration/mineralization stage III into sub-stages IIIa and
IIIb, defined by the occurrences of K-feldspar ± epidote and
of anhydrite–allanite–vermiculite–chalcopyrite–pyrite–mo-
lybdenite, respectively.
Hematite and calcite—together with pyrite and chal-
copyrite and locally epidote and quartz—as mineral
infill of veins, fault veins, and hydrothermal breccias
post-date the anhydrite–allanite–vermiculite paragenetic
assemblage, thus defining alteration/mineralization stage
IV. Cross-cutting relationships suggest that hematite and
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
calcite crystals may have grown at different times, yet it
was not possible to determine a temporal order among
these.
Geochronological constrains
Re–Os dating
Although molybdenite is scarce at Dominga (Table 3; sample
DS11–134A), trace amounts were observed in an anhydrite-
altered matrix breccia from a drill core at 490 m depth. The
breccia consists of angular clasts of host rock (biotite-altered
andesite) and aggregates of actinolite (1.5 mm in size) and
biotite (1.0 mm) in a hydrothermal matrix of coarser chalco-
pyrite (up to 6.0 mm), pyrite (8 mm), and finer anhydrite
(1.5 mm), allanite (1.0 mm), magnetite (0.3 mm), and quartz
(1.0 mm) (Fig. 9a). In this matrix, very fine-grained molybde-
nite (50–150 μm) coexists with anhydrite–allanite–pyrite–
chalcopyrite–quartz indicating that Mo and Cu mineralization
occurred during the same paragenetic stage. Cutting relation-
ships show that the anhydrite–matrix breccia cuts the main
magnetite-rich ore bodies. Pure molybdenite (0.005 mg) was
obtained from the sample by crushing, washing, drying, and
handpicking under a microscope. The molybdenite has
~886 ppm Re and ~1180 ppb 187 Os (Table 3). The
187
Re-187Os age of the molybdenite is 127.09 ± 0.65 Ma (2σ).
U–Pb dating
We collected one sample containing apatite from a drill
core at 170 m depth for U–Pb dating (Table 3; sample
DN11–136). Apatite occurs mainly in the matrix of hy-
drothermal breccias accompanied by magnetite and actin-
olite (Fig. 9b). Three centimeter-sized fragments of apatite
breccia were cut with a rock saw and polished with 4000-
grit grinding paper. About 20 grains/spots were analyzed
by laser ablation ICPMS. Given the low (~1 ppm) U and
Th concentrations and young age of the samples, common
Pb is a real concern. No 204Pb was measured for two
reasons. First, the presence of an isobaric interference
from 204Hg would have compromised any 204Pb correc-
tion. Second, even in the absence of 204Hg, adequately
measuring 204Pb would require most of the analytical time
at the expense of the 206Pb and 207Pb precision. Instead,
the common Pb problem was addressed by plotting all
samples on a Wetherill concordia diagram, which yields
a statistically robust isochron with a lower intercept of
127 ± 15 Ma (95 % confidence interval) and an upper
intercept of meaningless age driven by the common Pb
composition (Fig. 9c). The result of 127 ± 15 Ma is con-
sidered the best crystallization age (500 °C) of the hydro-
thermal apatite.
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620 611

Discussion developed at depths between ca. 1 km and the brittle-plastic

Structural levels
The variety of structural elements included on a particular
structural system is a proxy of the structural level at which
they form. In general, the depth of this level depends on sev-
eral factors including temperature, pressure, rock type, strain
rate, and presence of fluids, which in turn control the morphol-
ogy and deformation style (e.g., Sibson 1987; Passchier and
Trouw 2005; Holdsworth et al. 2011). Since we have no inde-
pendent information about temperature, pressure or other fac-
tors, we prefer to discuss our results by referring to three
general structural levels for which controlling factors are ex-
pected to be rather homogeneous: (a) deep, (2) shallow, and
(3) superficial. Appropriately, the brittle-plastic transition lev-
el divides our deep and shallow structural levels; in general, at
about 10 km depth, more or less independent of the rock type
but strongly temperature-dependent (e.g., Scholz 2002;
Passchier and Trouw 2005), yet it can rise up to ca. 3–4 km
depth if fluids are present (Holdsworth et al. 2011). The limit
between shallow and superficial structural levels is related to
the depth at which deformation is not cohesive or focused into
discrete planes (e.g., Sibson 1987). Thus, structural elements
exhibiting no mineral infill or no cohesive material (i.e., slip
surface, cracks, and joints) were considered to have developed
no deeper than ca. 1 km (superficial) depth, whereas those
exhibiting some infilling material (e.g., slickenfibers, matrix)
transition level.
Accordingly, structural elements of the ESS represent the
deepest (and oldest) structural system at Dominga developed
below or close to the brittle-plastic transition level. The spatial
relationship between these structural elements and the pres-
ence of biotite, magnetite and apatite—and other minerals—
suggest a direct link between the ESS and fluid flow and
emplacement of Fe-rich fluids (e.g., Sibson 1987; Caine
et al. 1996; Cox et al. 2001). Similarly, the geometric arrange-
ment of shallow (slip surfaces and fault breccias) with respect
to deep structural elements (ultracataclasites and cataclasites)
suggests either an evolution of the system during exhumation
towards a shallower more brittle structural level, or a deepen-
ing of the brittle-plastic transition level due to temperature or
fluid mobility variations and/or a reactivation of structural
elements under a compatible younger stress field in a structur-
al level closer to the surface.
The variety of left-lateral structural elements of the
ETSS—mostly fault breccias, cataclasites, and other shallow
and superficial structural elements—suggests the system de-
veloped at and above the depth of the brittle-plastic transition
level. Here, the different structural elements most probably
developed sequentially as the system accommodated changes
to the external stress field and/or to the exhumation
conditions.
The ISS most probably developed above the brittle-plastic
transition level; exceptions are given by gouge bands

Table 3 Geochronology (Re–Os and U–Pb) data of selected samples at Dominga

Re–Os data for molybdenite

187 187
Sample Weight (mg) Re (ppm) ± 2σ Re (ppm) ± 2σ Os (ppb) ± 2σ Age (Ma) ± 2σ
DS11–134 0.005 886.46 8.03 557.16 5.05 1180.92 10.45 127.09 0.65
U/Pb data for apatite
Sample Concentration (ppm) Ratio
U Th Th/U 207
Pb/206Pb 1σ 207
Pb/235U 1σ 206
Pb/238U 1σ
DN11-136-G1-01 0.28 1.39 5.06 0.260 0.026 2.344 0.164 0.065 0.005
DN11-136-G1-02 0.41 1.01 2.49 0.272 0.018 3.499 0.162 0.093 0.005
DN11-136-G1-03 0.51 1.10 2.14 0.222 0.016 2.043 0.110 0.67 0.004
DN11-136-G1-04 0.51 1.13 2.23 0.203 0.021 1.350 0.106 0.048 0.004
DN11-136-G1-05 .42 1.42 3.38 0.155 0.016 0.900 0.075 0.042 0.003
DN11-136-G2-01 1.29 0.38 0.30 0.121 0.013 0.400 0.036 0.024 0.002
DN11-136-G2-02 0.84 0.83 1.00 0.151 0.013 0.850 0.059 0.041 0.002
DN11-136-G2-03 0.54 0.97 1.78 0.179 0.024 0.758 0.077 0.031 0.003
DN11-136-G2-04 0.58 0.79 1.36 0.139 0.015 0.584 0.052 0.031 0.002
DN11-136-G2-05 1.18 0.57 0.48 0.106 0.013 0.339 0.036 0.023 0.002
DN11-136-G3-01 0.37 1.44 3.93 0.281 0.020 2.950 0.143 0.076 0.004
DN11-136-G3-03 0.25 1.15 4.62 0.288 0.020 4.966 0.236 0.125 0.007
DN11-136-G3-04 0.24 0.39 1.58 0.299 0.020 7.051 0.332 0.171 0.009
DN11-136-G3-05 1.19 16.02 13.42 0.237 0.018 1.572 0.081 0.048 0.003
612
Fig. 9 Samples and data used for radiometric dating. a Photo (upper) and
SEM image (lower) of mineral association seen on sample DS11–134
(see Table 3) used for Re–Os radiometric dating. b Same as a but
showing sample DN11–136 used for U–Pb radiometric dating, c
Concordia U–Pb plot with calculated age for the apatite (data-point
error ellipses are 68.3 %)
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
(superficial) which may have developed later in time and at a
shallower structural level. Geometrically, this system seems to
form a discontinuous duplex arrangement, with E-striking
structural elements locally connecting NW-striking ones
(Fig. 5). Interestingly, E-striking structural elements of the
ISS are similarly oriented with some E-striking structural ele-
ments of the ESS, yet these show opposite displacement di-
rections. Thus, it is possible that, at least some, E-striking
structural elements developed at the time—and as part of—
the ESS was reactivated under a different (younger) stress
field and form part of the ISS.
Slip surfaces, fault breccias, fault veins, and gouge bands
partly of the LSS most probably developed between the depth
at where the ISS developed and the surface. Structural ele-
ments of the LSS commonly cut and displace all other popu-
lations of structural elements, indicating that this is the youn-
gest structural system in the district.
Strain and stress fields
Estimated orientations of principal strain axes indicate that the
different structural systems at Dominga are dominated by
strike-slip deformation, with a general NW-shortening and a
NE-stretching (Fig. 10a). Three concentration maxima of the
P and T axes (at ca. 8 and 6 %; Fig. 6) were obtained from the
analysis of the entire fault slip data. The largest maxima indi-
cate NW-shortening and NE-stretching, whereas the others
indicate dissimilar orientations of the principal strain axes:
N-shortening/E-stretching and WNW-shortening/NNE-
stretching, respectively. These differences could be the result
of the fault slip data heterogeneity, which prevents a better
resolution of the method and, therefore, isolation of homoge-
neous, independent, strain fields.
The evolution of the strain field can be deduced through
kinematic analysis of filtered fault slip data (Fig. 10a). The
strain field associated with the ESS was estimated by using
both the fault slip data of this structural system (extracted from
the entire fault-slip data set) and the S-C-derived fault slip data
(Figs. 6b, c and 10c). To estimate the strain field associated
with the other structural systems (ETSS, ISS and LSS), we
used the correspondent fault-slip data extracted from the entire
fault slip data set.
In general, principal strain axes are subhorizontal for each
and all structural systems, thus agreeing with the previous
analysis of the entire fault slip data and supporting the idea
of a strike-slip dominated deformation. Nevertheless, estimat-
ed orientations of the principal strain axes for each structural
system argue for a back-and-forth rotation of the strain field
through time or as structural systems change (Fig. 10d).
Despite better estimation on the orientations of the princi-
pal strain axes from the S-C-derived fault slip data, these are
similarly oriented with respect to those estimated from the
ESS-filtered fault slip data, both indicating WNW-
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
Fig. 10 General estimated directions of principal a strain and b stress
axes for the entire fault slip data (top) and for each of the identified
structural systems (senses and amounts of rotation of principal axes
from one system to the other are indicated). c Relative time trajectory of
the estimated maximum principal strain and stress axes for each structural
system. Sense and amount of rotation plus the main tectonic setting, TP
(transpressive) or TT (transtensive) are indicated
shortening (P axis) and ENE-stretching (T axis). These prin-
cipal strain axes are oriented between two of the maxima
estimated from the analysis of the entire fault slip data, arguing
against the resolution of the method to process heterogeneous,
polyphase fault-slip data, and the need of fault slip data filter-
ing. The strain field estimated for the ESS resulted in right-
613
lateral displacements of NE-striking and nearly pure extension
of NW-striking structural elements. These structural elements
were observed in the field, corresponding to ultracataclasites
and cataclasites and to the Dominga Breccia, respectively.
Orientations of the principal strain axes estimated for ETSS
indicate NNW-shortening and ENE-stretching, which favor
left-lateral displacement of the NNE-striking El Tofo
Deformation Band as well as of structural elements of the
ESS. We did not observe left-lateral displacements associated
with the structural elements of the ESS, suggesting that this
structural system acted passively with respect to the ETSS.
The strain field estimated for ETSS is rotated clockwise about
40° with respect to that of the ESS, a change that most prob-
ably resulted in the abandonment of the right-lateral ESS and
the generation of the left-lateral ETSS.
For the ISS, we estimated a nearly EW-shortening (P axis)
and NS-stretching (T axis) (Fig. 10a) strain field that is rotated
about 70° counter-clockwise with respect to that of the ETSS.
This strain field would have favored left-lateral displacements
on NW- and E-striking structural elements and right-lateral
displacements on NNE- and NE-striking ones. Among these,
only right-lateral displacements on NNE-striking structural
elements are not supported from field data. This suggests that
the strain field associated with the ISS not only generated NW-
and E-striking structural elements on a discontinuous (duplex)
geometry, but also it may have reactivated some of the early
developed E-striking structural elements of the ESS, but with
an opposite (left-lateral) sense of displacement.
From the ISS to the LSS, the strain field rotated about 43°
clockwise, resulting in a NW-shortening and a NE-stretching,
similarly oriented to that estimated for the ESS (Fig. 10a). The
strain field associated with the LSS would have favored: (1)
left-lateral displacements on N-striking; (2) right-lateral dis-
placements on NNE-, NE- or E-striking; and (3) normal dis-
placements on NW-striking, structural elements. However,
field data support left-lateral displacements solely of
N-striking, en echelon, structural elements. Hence, most prob-
ably the strain field associated with the LSS did not re-activate
any of the previously generated structural elements, driving
only a discrete, focused, and not penetrative deformation.
The estimated stress field complements and supports the
deformation history depicted by the strain analysis. In general,
solutions indicate NW-compression and NE-tension (Figs. 7
and 10b), a stress field that is similarly oriented to the strain
field estimated from the entire fault-slip data (Fig. 6). In par-
ticular, we estimated four homogeneous stress field solutions
that differ both in the orientation of their principal axes and in
their associated stress ratios, thus activating different sets of
structural elements. Although none of the estimated solutions
can be directly related to a particular structural system on a
one-to-one basis (Fig. 7b), the structural elements that each
solution activates can be related to particular structural
systems.
614
Generation of the structural elements of the ESS is
compatible with several of the estimated homogeneous stress
fields, yet all these have their principal axes fairly similarly
oriented (Figs. 7 and 10b), suggesting general NW compres-
sion and NE tension under a strike-slip regime (e.g., Ritz
1994). Stress ratio values for individual solutions vary from
transtensional to transpressional, thus generating fault slip
planes with different orientations and behaviors: NE-striking
structural elements behave mostly as transtensional, whereas
those E-striking behave as transpressional.
The orientation of the stress field rotated about 15° clock-
wise, resulting in abandonment of the ESS and in generation
of the ETSS. Stress ratio values associated to the ETSS
(solutions B and C on Fig. 7c) suggest that the system devel-
oped under transtensional conditions during an early stage
(perhaps inherited from the previous stress field) followed
by transpressional conditions (Fig. 2). Deformation was most-
ly concentrated on several subparallel and independent struc-
tural elements that together acted as a composite deformation
band (El Tofo Deformation Band).
Structural elements of the ISS (Fig. 5b–e) developed during
a period of general NW-compression and NNE-tension, with a
significant vertical component of the maximum principal
stress axis (Fig. 10b), given by the contribution of solution
D. The orientation of this stress field is about 25° counter-
clockwise rotated and 30°–40° tilted with respect to the orien-
tation of the stress field estimated for ETSS. Although the
structural elements of the ISS were the result of the new (at
the time) stress field, some E-striking structural elements of
the ESS may have been reactivated as left-lateral fault breccias
and fault veins, opposite to right-lateral (ultra)cataclasites of
the ESS. Stress ratio values associated with the ISS indicate a
transpressional–transtensional behavior of the system. Here,
NW- to NNW-striking structural elements are related to
transtensional stress ratio values, whereas those with NW- to
E-strikes are mostly related to transpressional ones.
The orientation of the stress field associated with the struc-
tural elements of the LSS indicates a strike-slip regime with
NW compression and NE tension. The orientation of this
stress field is rotated about 10° clockwise with respect to that
estimated for the earlier ISS. Stress ratio values for the LSS are
mostly transpressional, yet some few structural elements may
have behaved as transtensional.
Overall, the estimated strain and stress fields indicate a
general NW-SE trending shortening/compression and a NE-
SW trending stretching/tension (Figs. 6, 7, and 10) that expe-
rienced slight changes in orientation and varied between
transtension and transpression. Principal axes of strain and
stress fields estimated for each structural system are not
coaxial, supporting the idea of an overall strike-slip regime,
simple-shear dominated deformation during the activity of all
identified structural systems. Differences in the orientation of
both strain and stress fields among structural systems also
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
argue for a back-and-forth rotation through time; clockwise
rotations are associated with transpressional conditions where-
as counter-clockwise rotations are with transtensional ones
(Fig. 10d). In all cases, it seems that rotation of the strain
and the stress field resulted in the abandonment of a particular
structural system and the development of a new, independent,
one.
Rotation of tectonic blocks has been proposed for the
northern part of the El Salado segment of the Atacama Fault
System (e.g., Taylor et al. 1998; Forsythe and Chisholm 1994;
Rojas et al. 1994; Beck 1998), which may be related to rota-
tions of the orientations of the strain and stress fields estimated
at Dominga. Although not reported as a rotation of tectonic
blocks or of strain/stress fields, Scheuber and González
(1999), argue for relaxation of the overriding (South
American) plate—between ca. 155 and ca. 140 Ma—during
a period of overall SE-trending subduction, prior to the initi-
ation of the Atacama Fault System (e.g., Coira et al. 1982;
Scheuber and González 1999; Grocott and Taylor 2002).
Accordingly, this would have triggered the development of
right-lateral NE-striking structural elements. Given the
probable pre-Atacama Fault System age and the similarities
in orientation between the structural elements of the ESS and
those proposed by Scheuber and González (1999), it is most
probable that these correlate. This idea is supported by
available geochronological constrains. The activity of the
ESS is bracketed by the rocks of the Punta del Cobre
Formation (>140 Ma; Creixell and Arévalo 2009), by our
ca. 127.0 ± 15.0 Ma (U–Pb) age obtained from apatite as well
as by the proposed age for the initiation of the Atacama Fault
System at ca. 125 Ma (Scheuber and González 1999; Grocott
and Taylor 2002). However, and given our Re–Os age on
molybdenite, it is most probable that the ESS ended its activity
at about 127–125 Ma (Fig. 2).
From the ESS to the ETSS, estimated strain/stress fields
rotated clockwise about 40° and 15°, respectively (Fig. 10d).
This could have resulted from either rotation of discrete (fault-
bounded) tectonics blocks—and therefore of the strain/stress
fields that they recorded—or a simple rotation of the overall
stress/strain field most probably controlled by the conver-
gence direction of the subducting plate (e.g., Scheuber and
González 1999; Grocott and Taylor 2002). If rotation of tec-
tonic blocks is the cause, then the ESS would have experi-
enced a clockwise rotation of at least 15°, thus having an
original general NNE-NE orientation. Based on paleomagnet-
ic analyses in the northern part of the El Salado segment of the
Atacama Fault System, Taylor et al. (1998) proposed a ca. 10°
rotation of the Mesozoic arc at ca. 132–125 Ma, an age within
that estimated for the activity of the ESS (Fig. 2). On the
contrary, if rotation of the strain and stress fields resulted from
a rotation of the overall subduction convergence, then the ESS
would have acted as a passive element, ergo being only left-
laterally disrupted and displaced by the ETSS.
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
The overall N20°–40°E trend of the ETSS is roughly sub-
parallel to the trend of the Atacama Fault System (e.g., Brown
et al. 1993) and both show similar displacement (left-lateral)
direction, suggesting a spatial and temporal affinity (e.g.,
Coira et al. 1982; Scheuber and González, 1999; Grocott
and Taylor 2002). Hence, it is probable that the ETSS is part
(local) of the Atacama Fault System, perhaps representing a
splayed off arm of it. This implies that the time of activity of
the ETSS might be bracketed by that of the Atacama Fault
System between ca. 125 and ca. 90 Ma (Scheuber and
González 1999; Grocott and Taylor 2002).
The estimated counter-clockwise rotation of the strain and
stress fields from the ETSS to the ISS could have resulted
from rotation of discrete tectonic blocks or from a shift of
the convergent direction of the subducting plate. Counter-
clockwise rotation of tectonic blocks or of structural elements
of the Atacama Fault System has not been reported for any of
its segments. Thus, the estimated ca. 71° and 25° counter-
clockwise rotation of the strain and stress fields, respectively,
estimated for the change from the ETSS to the ISS is most
probably related to a shift in the convergence direction of the
subducting plate. We agree with the general view that NW-
striking structural elements (ISS) are the result of a change in
the general tectonic configuration of the South American Arc
(e.g., Mpodozis and Ramos 1990; Taylor et al. 1998) rather
than to (a local) rotation of tectonic blocks. The shift from
ETSS to the ISS most probably occurred after the cessation
of the activity of the Atacama Fault System (ca. 90 Ma) and
lasted until reconfiguration ended, i.e., ca. 80 Ma (Fig. 10)
(e.g., Mpodozis and Ramos 1990; Grocott and Taylor 2002).
A further clockwise rotation of 43° and of 10° of the strain
and stress fields, respectively, occurred between the develop-
ment of the ISS and of the LSS (Fig. 10d). Since structural
elements of the ISS are cut and displaced by those of the LSS,
rotation most probably occurred after the cessation of the ISS.
Unfortunately, no geochronological constrains are available,
yet reported Cenozoic clockwise rotations in the forearc (e.g.,
Arriagada et al. 2006; Roperch et al. 2006; Taylor et al. 2007)
could be related to the activity of the LSS. In such case, the
LSS developed sometime after 80–40 Ma.
Alteration/mineralization stages
Paragenetic assemblages described here have also been ob-
served in several other Fe-rich deposits in northern Chile
(e.g., Marschik and Fontboté 2001; Arévalo et al. 2006;
Benavides et al. 2007); however, the alteration/
mineralization stages identified at Dominga and at other Fe-
rich deposits in northern Chile most probably depict similar
processes rather than common regional events.
Mineralogically, alteration/mineralization stage I (Fig. 8a)
is similar to the paragenetic assemblages described, for exam-
ple, from Candelaria (e.g., Arévalo et al. 2006), El Romeral
615
(Bookstrom, 1977), Mantoverde (Benavides et al. 2007), and
in the Candelaria-Punta del Cobre district in general
(Marschik and Fontboté 2001). At a regional scale, this para-
genetic assemblage has been interpreted as a result of wide-
spread metasomatism due to the emplacement of plutonic
bodies during the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (e.g.,
Bookstrom, 1977; Taylor et al. 1998; Marschik and Fontboté
2001; Arévalo et al. 2006; Benavides et al. 2007; Fig. 2).
Alteration/mineralization stage II corresponds to the main
alteration/mineralization at Dominga, spatially associated
with the ESS. Similar paragenetic assemblages, although lack-
ing apatite and of different age, have been described from
Candelaria (Marschik and Fontboté 2001), Cerro Negro
(Vivallo et al. 1995), El Romeral-Algarrobo (Bookstrom
1977; Nyström and Henríquez 1994), Fresia and Carmen
(Bonson et al. 1996), Productora (Ray and Dick 2002), and
Panulcillo (Correa 2000). At Candelaria, the occurrence of
coarse-grained magnetite and biotite has been defined as the
main BIron Oxide Stage,^ representing part of the ore miner-
alization and partly hosted on NE-striking structural elements
(Marschik and Fontboté 2001; Arévalo et al. 2006).
Structural elements displaying an anhydrite–allanite–ver-
miculite-related paragenetic assemblage (stage III) are both
subparallel to the structural elements of the ESS and of the
ETSS; relicts of K-feldspar filled veins are included into some
fault-breccias of the El Tofo Deformation Band. This suggests
that stage III most probably occurred during transition from
the ESS to the ETSS, probably related to the transtensional
activity of both systems.
Cu-related mineralization in Fe-rich deposits in northern
Chile corresponds mostly to the occurrence of chalcopyrite
and is described as accompanied by allanite and light REE
enrichment in the deposits of Productora and Santa Inés
(Ray and Dick 2002). At Productora, Osterman (1997) argues
for a chalcopyrite mineralization stage, coeval (or at least
pene-contemporaneous) with the occurrence of K-feldspar
and epidote. Also, for the deposit of El Romeral, Bookstrom
(1977) associated a pyrite–chalcopyrite–epidote (+tourma-
line) paragenetic assemblage to the observed Cu mineraliza-
tion, whereas at Candelaria, Marschik and Fontboté (2001)
and Marschik et al. (2000) argue that the main Cu mineraliza-
tion is associated with the occurrence of allanite and anhydrite
that grew after the main Fe mineralization stage, i.e., during
the activity of the Atacama Fault System.
The mineral association that defines alteration/minera
lization stage IV (hematite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, oxidized
chalcopyrite, and calcite; Figs. 2 and 8) is similar to mineral
associations described for the deposits of Teresa de Colmo
(Bonson et al. 1996) and Candelaria (Marschik and Fontboté
2001) and interpreted as the end of the hypogene
mineralization.
Alteration/mineralization stages mineralogically similar to
those defined here have been dated using several methods and
616
materials, giving radiometric ages between 131.0 ± 0.1 Ma (at
Carmen Sur; Gelcich et al. 2005) and ca. 111.0 Ma (at
Candelaria; Arévalo et al. 2006) (Fig. 2). At Dominga, para-
genetic assemblage stage I grew onto the rocks of the Punta
del Cobre Formation and of the Porphyric Dioritic Complex,
which are no younger than 140–139 Ma (Creixell and Arévalo
2009) (Fig. 2). The end of stage I is here constrained by the
activity of the ESS, since this structural system shows relicts
of the stage I paragenetic assemblage.
The beginning of stage IIa can be constrained by the end of
stage I, since the minerals identified as part of the stage II cut
those from the stage I mineral association. This implies that
the beginning of stage IIa occurred after 140–139 Ma, an age
similar and which can be correlated with the end of the
relaxation of the upper plate proposed by Scheuber and
González (1999). Stage IIb, marked by the occurrence of
apatite, can be bracketed in time by the end of stage IIa and
the beginning of stage IIIa. Although our U–Pb age obtained
from apatite has a large error (127.0 ± 15.0 Ma), our Re–Os age
in molybdenite indicates that stage IIIa started at about 127 Ma
(Fig. 2), providing the youngest possible age for stage IIb.
Age constrains for stage III are given by our U–Pb (apatite)
and Re–Os (molybdenite) geochronological data (Fig. 2).
Stage IIIa must have started at ca. 127 Ma, slightly after or
shortly overlapping with apatite crystallization, yet this
alteration/mineralization stage probably lasted only a few
million years. The end of stage IIIb may be extended up to
112 Ma when considering the large error associated to our
U–Pb age (Fig. 2). Although such a large time span seems
unlikely, we have no better (direct or indirect) geochronolog-
ical constraints to bracket the duration of this stage.
Alteration/mineralization stage IV is unrelated to the ETSS
(and therefore to the activity of the Atacama Fault System) but
to the ISS. As argued before, the ISS started after the cessation
of the Atacama Fault System, i.e., after ca. 90 Ma (i.e.,
Scheuber and González 1999; Grocott and Taylor 2002),
and lasted until the reconfiguration of the South American
Arc ended at ca. 80 Ma (e.g., Mpodozis and Ramos 1990;
Taylor et al. 1998). Stage IV thus occurred anytime between
ca. 90 to ca. 80 Ma, yet its actual time span could not be
determined (Fig. 2).
Tectono-metallogenic evolution
The alteration/mineralization stage I corresponds to a wide-
spread, regional, metasomatic event, hence unrelated to any
identified structural system at Dominga or elsewhere among
Fe-rich deposits in the region (e.g., Arévalo et al. 2006;
Benavides et al. 2007). On the contrary, the spatial orientation
and locale of magnetite-rich, apatite-rich, and magnetite–ac-
tinolite-rich veins and stratiform bodies, together with similar
mineral occurrences as part of the matrix of (ultra)cataclasites
and hydrothermal breccias indicate a direct link between the
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620
ESS and stage II (Fig. 11a). Hence, we can argue that the
emplacement of the main Fe-rich mineralization at Dominga
was controlled by and occurred during the transtensional ac-
tivity of the ESS.
The occurrence of veins filled with epidote and K-feldspar
subparallel to the structural elements of the ESS, as well as the
presence of epidote as constituent of the matrix of hydrother-
mal breccias suggest that stage IIIa occurred during the (wan-
ing?) activity of the ESS. The occurrence of epidote-related
paragenetic mineral assemblages (such as vermiculite–
allanite–anhydrite) as part of the matrix of hydrothermal brec-
cias of some of the structural elements of the El Tofo
Deformation Band, as well as filling material of veins subpar-
allel to the structural elements of the ESS and of the ETSS,
suggest that stage IIIb was contemporaneous with both struc-
tural systems, possibly marking a transition between them
(Fig. 11a, b). This argues that the main Fe–Cu mineralization
stage (III) is most probably associated with the transtensional
activity of the ESS and with the earliest—most probably also
transtensional—activity of the ETSS.
A late Fe–Cu-rich mineralization, represented by the min-
eral assemblages of stage IV, was emplaced during the activity
of the ISS, after the cessation of ETSS and, regionally, of the
N- to NNE-striking Atacama Fault System (e.g., Taylor et al.
1998; Grocott and Taylor 2002) (Fig. 11c). This is supported
by the occurrence of hematite and calcite, both accompanied
by chalcopyrite, as mineral infill in veins, hydrothermal brec-
cias and composite structural elements with strikes ranging
N30°–60°W.
Field-based observations indicate that the structural ele-
ments of the LSS are unrelated to any alteration/
mineralization observed at Dominga. No veins of specific
alteration/mineral assemblages were found either subparallel
or included into these structural elements. The activity of this
system then only modified the overall geometry of the deposit,
via left-lateral, strike-slip deformation (Fig. 11d).
Conclusions
The Dominga Fe–Cu mineralization is spatially, genetically,
and tectonically associated with four different and indepen-
dent structural systems. Strain and stress analyses performed
on fault-slip data from a variety of structural elements indicate
a rotation of these fields during the deformation and alteration/
mineralization history of the district. The different alteration/
mineralization stages leading to the generation of the
Dominga deposit pre-, syn-, and post-date the activity of the
Atacama Fault System (Figs. 2 and 11). Our results can be
summarized as follows:
& There is a pervasive background alteration/mineralization
of fine-grained biotite–magnetite (–pyrite–actinolite–
Miner Deposita (2017) 52:595–620 617

Fig. 11 Schematic cartoon showing the tectono-metallogenic evolution mineralization stages II and III, b ETSS activity and alteration/
between and among the different structural systems and alteration/ mineralization stage IIIb, c ISS activity and alteration/mineralization
mineralization stages (I to IV). a ESS activity and alteration/ stage IV, d activity of the LSS
618
titanite: stage I) in the rocks of the Punta del Cobre
Formation and the Porphyric Dioritic Complex that pre-
dates the generation of the deposit.
& The main alteration/mineralization corresponds to the oc-
currence of a coarse- to medium-grained magnetite–bio-
tite–actinolite–apatite (sub-stages IIa and IIb) of a K-
feldspar-epidote-rich (sub-stage IIIa) and of an anhy-
drite–allanite–vermiculite–chalcopyrite-rich (sub-stage
IIIb) paragenetic mineral assemblage genetically associat-
ed with the transtensional activity of both the EES (pre-
Atacama Fault System) and the ETSS (part of the
Atacama Fault System; Fig. 11a, b). Sub-stage IIIa oc-
curred at about 127.09 ± 0.65 Ma as indicated by Re–Os
isotope analysis (molybdenite). A clockwise rotation of
the strain and stress fields marks the transition from the
ESS to the ETSS and of the emplacement of the stage IIIb
paragenetic assemblage. However, a subsequent change
from transtension to tranpression, characteristic of the
ETSS (Fig. 11b), marks the end of the main alteration/
mineralization (sub-stage IIIb).
& Further counterclockwise rotation of the strain and stress
fields triggered the abandonment of the ETSS and the
development of the structural elements of the ISS under
transtension (Fig. 11c). The ISS served as the locus for the
emplacement of a hematite-rich and calcite-rich alteration/
mineralization (stage IV).
& During the last part in the evolution of the deposit, a clock-
wise rotation of the strain and stress fields resulted in the
abandonment of the ISS and the development of the LSS.
The LSS is not related to any alteration/mineralization in
the district, and only disrupted the geometry of the
deposit.
Acknowledgments We would like to thank all personnel at Dominga
for their valuable help during field campaigns. Special thanks to M.
Vivanco for his comments and suggestions in the field that helped to
unravel the complex tectono-metallogenic processes at Dominga. Also,
we would like to thank Mr. M. Marquardt, Ms. P. Pérez-Flores and Ms. I.
Santibañez for their help during mapping and to Mr. R. Gomila for his
help during geochronology laboratory procedures. Comments made by
Dr. B. Lehmann, Dr. T. Bissig, Dr. M. Barton, and an anonymous review-
er helped to improve the quality of the manuscript. This work was sup-
ported by a joint project venture between Andes Iron SpA and the
Direction of Research and Science (DICTUC) of the Pontificia
Universidad Católica de Chile, and it is a contribution to the
Millennium Science Initiative (MSI) through Millennium Nucleus for
Metal Tracing along Subduction grant NC130065.
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