Article

School Psychology International

2015, Vol. 36(4) 358–374
Global migration: ! The Author(s) 2015
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DOI: 10.1177/0143034315587011

competent school spi.sagepub.com

psychologists
Desireé Vega
Texas State University, TX, USA

Jon Lasser
Texas State University, TX, USA

Cynthia Plotts
Texas State University, TX, USA

Abstract
Never before have more children lived away from their home countries. Given the
unique social, emotional, and academic needs of children who have migrated, school
psychologists must be well prepared to meet these growing demands. Consequently,
school psychology training programs must invest in the preparation of culturally
competent future school psychologists. In this article, we review relevant literature
regarding children, migration, and school psychology and then describe a model training
program that was developed to prepare school psychologists in Texas, where there are
a significant number of migrant children from Mexico and South America. Broader
implications for training school psychologist in the areas of cultural and linguistic
diversity are discussed.

Keywords
School psychology, migration, immigration, diversity, culture, international

Global migration is steadily increasing as more people than ever are living
abroad. Between 1990 and 2010, there was an increase of over 58 million
migrants1 internationally from 2.9% to 3.1% (United Nations, 2013). In 2013,
approximately 232 million people, or 3.2% of the world’s population, were

Corresponding author:
Desiree Vega, Texas State University, 601 University Drive, San Marcos, TX 78666, USA.
Email: desireevega@txstate.edu
Vega et al. 359

international migrants (International Migration Wallchart, 2013). With migra-

tion comes a host of educational and mental health challenges and school psych-
ologists across the world must be well prepared to serve culturally and
linguistically diverse (CLD) children and families. For example, the American
Psychological Association (APA, 2012) has identified a number of issues related
to immigration and educational settings such as appropriate assessment and place-
ment, mental health needs of learners, and the social-emotional impacts of
discrimination.
The needs of migrant children and children of immigrants are well documented
and significant. For example, children of immigrants are significantly more likely
to live in poverty than children of native-born parents (Dettlaff, Vidal de
Haymes, Velazquez, Mindell, & Bruce, 2009), which may subsequently impact
their health, cognitive and language development, and academic performance
(Capps & Fortuny, 2006). Access to social services may be limited for immigrants
who fear deportation, separation from their children who are citizens, and inter-
ference with the process of becoming a citizen (Velazquez & Dettlaff, 2011).
Relocating to a new country combined with the loss of existing support systems
can make immigrants susceptible to stress, depression, and other mental health
issues (Dettlaff et al., 2009). Refugee youth who flee persecution in their native
countries often experience physical and mental health challenges during displace-
ment and may continue to suffer trauma after resettlement (Fazel, Reed, Panter-
Brick, & Stein, 2012). The educational background of these youth may include a
disrupted education due to migration or minimal schooling in their home coun-
try, which may lead to academic concerns once resettled and placed in school.
These findings underscore the need for school personnel including school psych-
ologists to receive advanced training on issues and policies affecting immigrant
children and families and for schools to hire culturally competent and bilingual
staff (Dettlaff et al., 2009).
In this article, we highlight a grant-funded initiative to address many of these
concerns in Texas. This program may serve as a model for the preparation of
culturally competent school psychologists in countries that demonstrate similar
needs. In order to provide more and better-qualified bilingual school psychologists
to serve the growing population of Spanish-speaking children, Texas State
University in the USA has implemented Project SUPERB (Scholars Using
Psychology and Education to Reach Bilinguals), which adds a new training and
certification track in bilingual school psychology to its existing National
Association of School Psychologists-approved specialist-level program. Project
SUPERB recruits, prepares, and supports graduate students in specialized bilin-
gual-focused coursework, supervised bilingual field experiences (practicum and
internship) at partner sites, and language/cultural immersion experiences to pro-
mote multicultural awareness and build professional Spanish vocabulary in the
area of education and psychology.
360 School Psychology International 36(4)

Review of the literature

Impact of migration on mental health
When relocating to a new country, whether migrants leave voluntarily or involun-
tarily, they often experience significant stressors that adversely influence their
mental health and well-being. The transition to living in a new country can be
extremely difficult when one does not speak the language, have a job, housing,
and/or a support system. Findings from a meta-analysis conducted by Das-
Munshi, Leavey, Stansfeld, and Prince (2012) suggested that migrants who
struggled financially were more likely to screen positive for mental health disorders
than migrants who maintained a stable socioeconomic position or who were
upwardly mobile. Issues such as one’s professional and/or educational credentials
not transferring to another country and leaving support systems behind in one’s
native country contributed to downward mobility and underemployment.
Additionally, children and adolescents who flee persecution and resettle often
endure great physical and mental challenges during displacement and endure
continuing hardships after arrival (Fazel et al., 2012; Stermac, Elgie, Clarke, &
Dunlap, 2012).
The three stages of migration – pre-migration, migration, and post-migration –
can impact migrant youths’ physical and emotional functioning (Chan, Mercer,
Yue, Wong, & Griffiths, 2009). In the pre-migration stage, children leaving less
developed countries may face health issues due to limited medical care and mal-
nutrition. Exposure to violence and trauma may also predispose them to mental
health problems such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
During the migration process, those entering another country without proper
documentation are vulnerable to physical violence or sexual abuse.
Unfortunately, encounters with violence, robbery, and sexual assault are very
common during migration (Solis, 2003). Chan et al. (2009) reported that,
‘the impact of post-migration on migrant children’s mental health depends on
the reasons for migration and the associated change of socioeconomic status
post-migration’ (p. 47). Factors including depression, grief or anxiety, separation
from support systems, inadequate language proficiency, and disparities in social,
professional, and economic status may place migrant children at-risk for impaired
adjustment to a new country.
Direct experience with traumatic events is associated with an increased likeli-
hood of psychological disturbance in refugee children (Fazel et al., 2012; Geltman
et al., 2005). A longitudinal study of Iranian refugee youth in Sweden (Almqvist &
Broberg, 1999) found that pre-existing factors such as delayed development, long-
term illness, or psychological problems predicted mental health concerns, poor
social adjustment, and low self-worth three and a half years after arrival, although
the absence of these factors was a strong predictor of positive emotional well-being.
This finding highlights the need for mental health services following migration to
Vega et al. 361

prevent further issues from developing and current issues from worsening. With
proper care, it is possible that these refugee youth would not display negative
adjustment and functioning several years after their arrival. Other factors such
as being unaccompanied upon entry to a new country put refugee youth at-risk
for psychological disorders. This finding emerged in several studies in various
countries including the Netherlands, Belgium, and the United Kingdom
(Bean, Derluyn, Eurelings-Bontekoe, Broekaert, & Spinhoven, 2007; Derluyn,
Broekaert, & Schuyten, 2008; Hodes, Jagdev, Chandra, & Cunniff, 2008).
Additionally, accompanied children who were subsequently separated from their
families were also at-risk for poor mental health (Hjern, Angel, & Jeppson, 1998).
With appropriate training, school psychologists are uniquely positioned to address
these pre-existing factors and subsequent trauma to assist immigrant youth in
developing positive coping skills.
The new communities migrant youth enter may also influence their adjustment
and mental health status. A perceived sense of safety at school was associated with
a low risk of PTSD (Geltman et al., 2005) and an increased sense of school belong-
ing served as a protective factor against depression (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007;
Rousseau, Drapeau, & Platt, 2004) and anxiety (Sujoldzic, Peternel, Kulenovic, &
Terzic, 2006). Experiences with discrimination may also influence the mental health
of migrants; perceptions of discrimination among Somali adolescents in the USA
predicted depression and PTSD (Ellis, MacDonald, Lincoln, & Cabral, 2008).
Similarly, bullying and social isolation at school among Iranian refugee youth in
Sweden was associated with difficulties adapting to their new environment
(Almqvist & Brandell-Forsberg, 1997). These are important findings as schools
have the potential to create positive learning environments that welcome migrant
and refugee students and protect against mental health issues.

Impact of migration on achievement

For immigrant children and adolescents, entering a new educational system pre-
sents many challenges. Language barriers, adjusting to a new curriculum, appro-
priate grade placement, and learning the cultural norms of a new school system,
may affect immigrant and refugee students (Stermac et al., 2012). Nonetheless,
existing research, although limited, presents mixed results on the impact of migra-
tion on academic achievement. For instance, among Cambodian and Central
American youth who experienced traumatic events in their home countries,
Rousseau and Drapeau (2000) found an association with greater academic difficul-
ties after resettling. However, in an examination of migrant young adults in
Canada following residence in war-torn areas, Stermac et al. (2012) found com-
parable academic achievement levels between these youth and Canadian-born
students. The migrant youth took longer to complete high school, possibly due
to inappropriate grade placement, language barriers, and adjustment to a new
curriculum. Nonetheless, these students were more academically engaged than
Canadian-born students.
362 School Psychology International 36(4)

Suárez-Orozco et al. (2010) conducted a five-year longitudinal study exploring

the academic trajectories of newcomer immigrant youth to the USA. Academic
success varied among the students; some performed at high or improving rates over
time, although others demonstrated diminishing performance. Therefore, although
immigrant youth may experience similar challenges, their academic trajectories
may differ significantly. It is important that educators understand the factors
that lead to their pathways. Further analysis by Suárez-Orozco et al. (2010)
revealed that high-achieving students tended to come from stable home environ-
ments, attended well-resourced schools, developed more English language skills,
and were documented citizens. Conversely, low-achieving students had been sepa-
rated from their families, experienced limited or poor quality education prior to
migration, attended disadvantaged schools, and had limited English proficiency.
Unfortunately, those students who required increased assistance were placed into
environments unable to meet their needs. Additional factors that played a role in
the academic success of these immigrant youth included the difficulty families
encountered finding stable work and living conditions, immigration policies that
led to family separation, school mobility, and hopelessness about the future due to
undocumented status. Therefore, although education often serves as the main hope
for leaving one’s homeland, aspirations are not always matched by access to good
quality local schools (Crivello, 2011).
Globally, disproportionate representation in special education, both over-repre-
sentation and under-representation of particular groups, has emerged (Gabel,
Curcic, Powell, Khader, & Albee, 2009). Disproportionality has been defined in
the literature as the extent to which membership in a particular group (i.e. gender,
race, ethnicity) affects the probability of being placed in a specific disability cat-
egory (Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999). For over four decades, the over-
representation of African American students in special education in the USA has
been documented (Ford, 2012; MacMillan & Reschly, 1998; Zhang, Katsiyannis,
Ju, & Roberts, 2014). The international literature on disproportionality also finds
ethnic and racial minority groups over-represented in special education. A study
conducted in England by Dyson and Gallannaugh (2008) reported that the prob-
lem with disproportionality lies in the belief that minority groups have special
educational needs, yet the difficulties they experience often manifest due to struc-
tural and systemic problems within society and the education system. Researchers
in New Zealand found that Maori and Pasifika students (indigenous groups) are
disproportionately placed in special education (Matheson, 2006).
Moreover, post-World War II migrant youth including the Italian, Portuguese,
Turkish, Greek, Spanish, and ex-Yugoslavian living in Germany faced higher
probabilities of placement in special schools than native Germans (Powell, 2006).
Linguistic difficulties often encountered by non-German students led to placement
in special schools; however, there is no support for the efficacy of these schools in
supporting language development and enhancing academic performance. It is evi-
dent that disproportionate placement of racial and ethnic groups in special educa-
tion is a global issue. Thus, the field of school psychology must examine factors
Vega et al. 363

contributing to this outcome to better understand how to meet the needs of stu-
dents who are not disabled but have different educational needs. As a result of their
life experiences, immigrant students may be at-risk for disproportionate placement
in special education and therefore would benefit from attention to this issue.

A look at Texas public schools

According to the Texas Education Agency’s (TEA) Enrollment in Texas Public
Schools report (2014) for the 2013–2014 school year, Hispanic students accounted
for the largest percentage of total enrollment (51.8%). This represents an almost
10% increase from the 2003–2004 school year where Hispanic students accounted
for 43.8% of the state’s enrollment. Between 2000–2012, the rate of growth in the
overall population in Texas was more than twice the rate in the USA as a whole. In
the fall of 2011, Texas public school enrollment was 12.8% African American,
50.8% Hispanic, and 30.6% White. In comparison, overall USA public school
enrollment was 15.8% African American, 23.7% Hispanic, and 51.7% White. In
2013, 16.5% of the Texas population was foreign-born, with 71.1% of immigrants
born in Latin America. Mexico was the birthplace of 58% of the immigrant popu-
lation living in Texas in 2013 (‘State Immigration Data Profiles’, 2013).
Additionally, the 2014 TEA report showed that the percentage of students
participating in bilingual and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs
increased from 14% in 2003–2004 to 17.1% in 2013–2014; 90% of students receiv-
ing these services are Hispanic. National figures indicate that the percentage of
public school students who participated in programs for students identified as
English Language Learners (ELLs) in 2002–2003 was higher in Texas (14.9%)
than in the USA overall (8.7%). Surprisingly, the percentage of students identified
as immigrants decreased steadily from 2.7% in 2003–2004 to 1.4% in 2011–2012,
where it remained through 2013–2014. This may be due to increased border control
and security efforts. Hispanics represent 60.2% of immigrants in the state; TEA
defines students as immigrants who are between 3- and 21-years-old, have not
attended school in the US for more than three full academic years, and were not
born in any state in the US, Puerto Rico, or the District of Columbia (Texas
Education Agency, 2013). Hispanic representation was smaller in gifted and tal-
ented programs (41%) and larger in Title I programs (62.7%) than their represen-
tation in the overall student population (51.8%) in 2013–2014. Additionally, over
49% of Hispanic students in the state are enrolled in special education.

Need for culturally competent school psychologists

In the USA, public schools face a shortage of school psychologists, and an even
greater shortage of bilingual school psychologists (Lopez, 2008). The distinct needs
of CLD students present new demands for service delivery in today’s
schools (Wright Carroll, 2009). School psychologists must be prepared to address
educational disparities that exist for these students (Huckleberry, 2009).
364 School Psychology International 36(4)

Demographic trends in the field of school psychology have not kept up with the
increasing diversity of the public school system. Nine out of 10 school psycholo-
gists in the USA identified as Caucasian in 2010, a figure that has not changed
significantly over the last 30 years (Curtis, Castillo, & Gelley, 2012). Thus, despite
the need to serve a diverse student population, the field of school psychology
continues to reflect limited racial and ethnic diversity. It is necessary for school
psychology programs to recruit and retain CLD students (Martines, 2008).
Additionally, very few school psychology training programs in the USA offer
bilingual specializations or focus on multiculturalism (‘Programs and
Bilingualism’, n.d.). A lack of awareness of and knowledge about cultural issues
can limit a school psychologist’s ability to effectively serve CLD students, including
immigrants (Martines, 2008).
School psychology training programs must prepare future school psychologists
to meet the needs of CLD students (Lopez & Rogers, 2007). To do this, the school
psychology curriculum must infuse multicultural content into courses and provide
field-based experiences with diverse populations (Rogers, 2005). Increasing the
number of highly qualified bilingual school psychologists may improve teaching
and learning by ensuring that language differences and assessment of the need for
special education services are competently assessed for the purpose of appropriate
educational interventions. Competent bilingual assessment by school psychologists
proficient in Spanish may reduce the likelihood of over-identification and under-
identification for special education, increase the recognition of special needs that
may be masked by language differences, and promote collaboration among families
and educators to maximize intervention effectiveness.
A survey by Jimmerson, Stewart, Skokut, Cardenas, and Malone (2009) exam-
ining school psychologists in various countries showed that the total number of
school psychologists throughout 48 countries is over 76,000. They also found that
for the 1.89 billion school-age children in the world, 379 million children reside in
countries that lack access to a school psychologist. Thirteen of the 48 countries had
school psychologist to student ratios of 1: 2,000, although Namibia had a ratio of
1: 34,712. Tanzania had the highest ratio, 1: 4,368,289, with only three reported
school psychologists in the country. These large ratios have implications for the
lack of much needed services for children globally.

Project SUPERB
Project SUPERB is an innovative grant-funded training model that provides a
specialty track in bilingual school psychology. The purpose of Project SUPERB
is to address the critical need for more and better-qualified bilingual (Spanish-
English) school psychologists with a new training and certification track in bilin-
gual school psychology at Texas State University, in the USA. Grant funding of
$1.05 million from the US Department of Education, Office of Special Education
Programs, (H325K Personnel Preparation Grant for Related Services) supports the
recruitment, preparation, and financial support of scholars in specialized
Vega et al. 365

coursework, supervised bilingual field experiences, and language/cultural immer-

sion experiences. Project SUPERB was initiated in the fall of 2014, with the grant
funding awarded in September 2014; outcome data will be reported on an annual
basis and at the conclusion of the five-year grant period.
Parallel to the broad training goals described above, Project SUPERB is
designed to achieve several goals related to use of grant funds: Obtain the resources
necessary to recruit and graduate 24 qualified scholars during the five-year grant
period; place all 24 scholars in bilingual school psychology positions in PK-12
settings within one year of graduation; and support program scholars – financially
and professionally – during coursework and the internship to graduation and
licensure and through induction into the profession. During the first year of imple-
mentation, the number of bilingual applicants has increased. Accreditation from
the International School Psychology Association (ISPA, 2014) is a realistic goal as
the project becomes an established component of the Texas State University School
Psychology Program.
Implementation of Project SUPERB began prior to grant funding with national
recruitment and hiring of a bilingual tenure-track faculty member. The Project
SUPERB website was launched, brochures were developed, and development
began on specialized courses and activities. Upon notification of funding from
the US Department of Education (DOE) after the start of the fall 2014 semester,
bilingual graduate students already enrolled in the program were invited to apply
for Project SUPERB as funded scholars. A cohort of six bilingual scholars, each of
whom completed an oral Spanish-language proficiency evaluation, a written state-
ment regarding goals for providing bilingual school psychology services, and an
individual interview, was recruited from the existing student body, with two add-
itional scholars selected from a competitive field of applicants for spring 2015
entry, for a total of eight scholars in the first cohort. A half-time grant coordinator
was hired to maintain budgetary records, coordinate data collection and entry, and
assist with recruitment, field placements, and reporting/evaluation requirements.
Additionally, a part-time consultant was hired to assist with the design and imple-
mentation of the program evaluation component of Project SUPERB. Each
Project SUPERB scholar receives an iPad, a stipend of $24,000 USD over the
three-year full-time program to defray costs of education, and funding for mem-
bership in professional organizations, attendance at one or more professional con-
ferences, and an immersion experience. The $24,000 stipend is distributed across
the three-year program for each scholar (Year 1: $11,750; Year 2: $8,750; Year 3:
$6,000), with the largest stipend in the first year to support expenses of relocation
and purchase of educational materials. In the third year of graduate enrollment
(internship year), the stipend amount is lower since most full-time interns receive a
salary or a stipend. Instructional materials such as assessment kits appropriate for
bilingual populations and books were purchased with grant funds to support
courses for the bilingual track.
Each Project SUPERB scholar is required to complete the same core course-
work as other school psychology graduate students. Although they comprise a
366 School Psychology International 36(4)

distinct cohort, Project SUPERB scholars are also fully integrated with graduate
student peers with respect to major benchmarks such as evaluations by faculty, an
oral examination and portfolio, and culminating case studies completed during the
internship year to demonstrate positive impact on children and schools. Additional
activities for scholars in Project SUPERB include specific course content in the
characteristics and needs of students with cultural/linguistic differences and English
language learning students; methods of assessing oral and written language profi-
ciency; the administration, scoring, and interpretation of standardized measures of
cognitive abilities and academic achievement in Spanish and English; and know-
ledge of laws, regulations, and policies that pertain to the education of bilingual
and English language learning students, including bilingual proficiency in the spe-
cialized vocabulary of education law and psychology (Cummings, 1994; Martines
& Rodriquez-Srednicki, 2007). Course content for scholars includes a core course
in multiculturalism, a more intensive course in the assessment of cultural and
linguistically diverse students, a psycholinguistics course, and instruction from
bilingual faculty in both Spanish and English. As described below, three field
experience courses are required, each of which provides extensive opportunities
to work with CLD populations using bilingual school psychology skills in assess-
ment, school and family consultation, counseling, and systems issues.
Each scholar receives individual supervision from a bilingual field supervisor
across three practicum experiences, two completed in public schools and one com-
pleted in an on-campus clinic setting. Scholars complete a full-time (1,200 hour)
internship during their third and final year in the program, with university and field
supervision provided by licensed and/or certified bilingual school psychologists in
public school districts with high demand for bilingual school psychology services.
Other activities include on-campus symposia, professional development, informal
networking with other bilingual professionals in training, funded opportunities to
present and publish research in professional venues, and as previously noted, an
immersion experience. During this first year of funding, six of the eight current
scholars attended the National Association of School psychology (NASP) conven-
tion, with three scholars participating in presentations on the Project SUPERB
model. Further, project faculty participated in a national symposium on bilingual
issues, a university symposium on graduate training for bilingual professionals
(with Project SUPERB scholars), and several invited regional and state conference
workshops related to the bilingual training model. Because Texas State University
is a Hispanic Serving Institution in a majority Hispanic community, multiple
opportunities exist for collaboration with and service to Spanish-speakers.
Collaboration with other graduate training programs on the university campus,
including the bilingual speech language pathology and bilingual teacher education
programs, has been initiated. Training opportunities involving multidisciplinary
bilingual team assessments in our university clinics and social and professional
networking opportunities are planned components of the training model. Project
SUPERB has also partnered with five regional public school districts with high
need for bilingual school psychology services.
Vega et al. 367

Scholars are required by federal law to complete two years of service for
every year of funding, with two conditions specific to populations served and
time commitment: (1) at least 51% of the infants, toddlers, and children
to whom scholars provide services must be receiving special education, related
services, or early intervention services; and, (2) scholars must spend at least 51%
of their time providing special education, related services, or early intervention
services to infants, toddlers, and children with disabilities.This service requirement
begins upon graduation, and data regarding populations served, services provided,
and outcomes, will be collected and reported for all scholars during their period of
service.

Implications for international school psychology

As school psychology programs across the world strive to prepare culturally com-
petent practitioners, they will invariably need to attend to challenges presented by
local migration patterns. Although some elements of cultural competency training
may be very general and theoretical, future practitioners will likely need specific
knowledge and skills that may be applied to the populations that they will serve.
It behooves training programs to consider migration patterns in their country or
region and adapt the curriculum to incorporate information about the unique
needs of children and adolescents who may immigrate to the area.
Preparation of future school psychologists who serve immigrants must go
beyond linguistic concerns and consider cultural factors, psychosocial implications,
and possible trauma related to immigration. For example, children who have fled
their home country to escape violence are likely to have significant needs beyond
learning a new language and culture (Lasser & Adams, 2007). The economic pres-
sures of poverty and limited employment opportunities may also drive migration.
Preparation and coursework for school psychologists should include content
around the unique educational, social, and emotional needs of immigrant children
and adolescents (Dettlaff et al., 2009). Moreover, future school psychologists
will need to develop the knowledge and skills necessary for collaboration across
systems, as immigrant children and families often can benefit from coordinated
services across schools and communities.
Toward these ends, international school psychology programs may enhance
their capacities by recruiting and retaining faculty who incorporate immigration
issues in their teaching, research, and service. The internationalization of school
psychology has great potential for growth and enhancement of training opportu-
nities. These aspirations may also be advanced via visiting scholars, Fulbright
grants (http://eca.state.gov/fulbright) for international educational exchange, and
faculty-led student learning programs abroad. As an example, the Ecuador
Professional Preparation Program (http://www.ecuadorppp.com), founded by
school psychologists, offers a cultural and language immersion program for
mental health professionals. Additionally, the Sage Handbook of International
Higher Education (Deardorff, de Wit, Heyl, & Adams, 2012) may prove valuable
368 School Psychology International 36(4)

to programs that are trying to develop a rationale for moving resources in support
of international program development.
A final recommendation to enhance the cultural competencies of future school
psychologists in the context of immigration is for graduate training programs to
work with ISPA to organize information gathering and exchange around this
critical training concern. This collaboration may take the form of a task force,
conference symposium, and/or webinars. Ideally, such collaboration would include
school psychologists representative of several countries and cultures. Project
SUPERB faculty and staff have begun to explore training standards for the
ISPA Accreditation of Professional Training Programs in School Psychology for
the Texas State School Psychology Program (ISPA, 2014).

Discussion
Migrant youth and their families face considerable challenges to positive mental
health functioning and academic success. Thus, considering global migration pat-
terns, the need for culturally competent school psychologists is greater than ever
(Elizalde-Utnick & Guerrero, 2014). In this article, the authors presented as an
example, Project SUPERB, a program developed to provide high-quality training
to future bilingual school psychologists to meet the needs of the growing Spanish-
speaking population in Texas. Increasing not only the quantity, which varies con-
siderably across countries (Jimmerson et al., 2009), but also the quality of school
psychologists globally is necessary. School psychologists must understand the
unique needs of a new generation of youth with racial, ethnic, cultural, and lin-
guistic differences, multiple learning styles, and diverse life experiences (Wright
Carroll, 2009).
Cultural competence encompasses a continual process of growth in three
domains: awareness, knowledge, and skills (Sue, 1998). Culturally competent
school psychologists are aware of their culture, values, and biases; they recognize
how these can impact the provision of services. They are knowledgeable of the
historical treatment of racial and ethnic groups and understand the need to con-
sider this factor in how they provide services and interact with diverse students and
their families. Finally, in the skills domain, culturally competent school psycholo-
gists utilize culturally sensitive and relevant service delivery strategies in the areas
of assessment, consultation, counseling, and intervention.
Positive mental health functioning is essential to the learning and development
of children (Klotz, 2007). Appropriate preventative and intervention services
increase the likelihood of academic success and positive social-emotional well-
being. Culturally competent school psychologists respect the race, ethnicity,
social class, religion, and sexual orientation of children and their families, they
are aware of their assumptions and biases, and they utilize the cultural assets of
families when developing and identifying prevention and intervention programs
(Klotz, 2007). Schools must foster a sense of community that is inclusive of the
cultural values and expectations of diverse groups, which helps promote trust and
Vega et al. 369

respect of family members (Jones, 2010). When linguistic barriers are

present, schools should hire and/or identify liaisons to improve outreach to families
to increase their involvement and communication. Building relationships with
families can help increase access to mental health services, especially when provided
at no cost in the schools. School psychologists are trained to provide social skills
interventions, individual and/or group counseling, consultation, and collaboration
with community mental health providers to help families access necessary services.
To ensure appropriate academic support for migrant youth and to address dis-
proportionality in special education, culturally responsive education practices are
essential. Sullivan et al. (2009) state,

Consideration of diverse needs and perspectives should be inherent in all graduate

training and professional learning opportunities. Furthermore, school psychologists
should seek out training, supervision, and consultation opportunities that develop
cultural responsiveness and increase their effectiveness for work with diverse popula-
tions. (p. 1)

This endeavor requires preparation to address issues of race, culture, and

racism, and to challenge cultural deficit perspectives that blame children for aca-
demic failure without examining the educational context (Sullivan et al., 2009).
Further, school psychologists should become familiar with special education data
to examine potential disproportionality in their region. This helps in identifying
and implementing practices and policies to prevent particular groups from being
over- or under-represented in special education. School psychologists must also be
competent in selecting appropriate assessment tools by considering the influences
of a child’s cultural and linguistic background and life experiences.

Conclusion
Migration to a new country can bring about multiple challenges and stressors that
if left unaddressed, can impact the mental health and academic performance of
migrant youth. Culturally competent school psychologists are needed to address
the diverse needs of these students. School psychologists across the globe must have
an understanding of the policies that affect migrant youth and their families and be
equipped with the skills to effectively serve this population. They must be prepared
to address pre-existing mental health issues and the distress that may occur post-
migration. Project SUPERB serves as an example of a training model that provides
a specialization in bilingual school psychology. Although Project SUPERB cur-
rently receives grant funding to support recruitment and training of bilingual scho-
lars, the program was conceptualized and initiated prior to funding, with support
from the university, department, and School Psychology program. Grant funding
has made the recruitment of Spanish-proficient scholars and the acquisition of
educational materials easier; however, the intent is to continue to deliver the
370 School Psychology International 36(4)

bilingual training program, which seems to be a realistic goal even without grant
funding.
Other school psychology training programs can develop similar specialization to
train their graduate students to meet the unique needs of the migrant populations
in their respective regions. Commitment to (1) recruiting and retaining faculty with
expertise in multiculturalism and migrant youth; (2) developing relationships with
field sites and supervisors who can provide appropriate experiences; and (3) sup-
porting students with relevant instruction, supervision, and professional opportu-
nities, will be necessary to develop this specialization. With appropriate
preparation and training, future school psychologists can have a positive impact
on the academic trajectory and mental health functioning of migrant youth.

Recommended Resources
1. UNICEF and migration: See
http://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/index_48562.html
2. United Nations and Children: See
http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/children/
3. Educational Services for Immigrant Children (United States of America): See
http://www2.ed.gov/policy/rights/guid/unaccompanied-children.html
4. The Young Center for Immigrant Children’s Rights: See
http://theyoungcenter.org
5. Human Rights Watch: See
http://www.hrw.org/topic/childrens-rights/refugees-and-migrants
6. Project SUPERB (Texas, United States of America): See
http://projectsuperb.education.txstate.edu
7. Migration Policy Institute: See
http://www.migrationpolicy.org/data/state-profiles/state/demographics/TX

Note
1. The terms migrant and immigrant are used interchangeably throughout the article to
describe someone who has moved from one country to another. The authors recognize
the various meanings, both definitional and implicit, that language may carry. Moreover,
the authors acknowledge the diversity in experiences among those who are referred to as
migrants. Forced migration differs from voluntary migration, and individuals who relo-
cate frequently (e.g. migrant farm workers) have different lived experiences from those
who relocate once. Given the limited scope and space for this article, we rely on migrant
and immigrant as useful terminology.

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Author biographies
Desireé Vega, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the School Psychology specialist
program at Texas State University. She earned her doctorate in School Psychology
from The Ohio State University. Dr Vega teaches courses in consultation, alterna-
tive assessment, and multicultural issues in school psychology. Her research inter-
ests include the preparation of culturally competent and bilingual school
psychologists, the assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse students, and
multicultural issues in education.

Jon Lasser, PhD, is a Professor and Program Director of the School Psychology
specialist program at Texas State University, where he has developed and taught
graduate level courses for the school psychology program. He co-authored The
School Psychologist as Counselor: A Practitioner’s Handbook (NASP, 2013) and has
published journal articles and chapters on a variety of subjects including ethics,
sexuality, and graduate preparation. His interest in research and ethics intersect in
his role as the chair of the Institutional Review Board at Texas State. Dr Lasser
holds a doctorate in School Psychology from the University of Texas at Austin.

Cynthia Plotts, PhD, is a Licensed Psychologist and Neuropsychologist with a

doctorate in school psychology from the University of Texas at Austin. She is a
Professor of School Psychology at Texas State University, where she teaches
courses in counseling techniques, assessment, and biological bases of behavior.
Dr Plotts’ research interests include traumatic brain injury, neurodevelopmental
disorders, substance abuse, and emotional/behavioral disturbance. Her counseling
and psychotherapy experience includes school-based counseling and crisis interven-
tion and private practice psychotherapy with children, teens, and adults. She
co-wrote The School Psychologist as Counselor: A Practitioner’s Handbook
(NASP, 2013).