Chapter 2

Lexical and
Grammatical
Categories
As with morphemes, words can be divided into two
broad categories based on the kind of meaning they
carry.

Lexical categories carry the Grammatical categories are

primary referential meaning of
a sentence.
These are sometimes called
content words.
function words that express
relationships between other words,
create internal structure within a
sentence, or specify the reference
of lexical category words.

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 1.
Lexical Categories
Lexical categories are verbs, nouns, adjectives,
and adverbs.

Think of a burger. Lexical

categories are the key
ingredients in defining a burger
as a burger. What is the one
required part of a burger? The
patty. You can order a “burger”
without the bun (like someone
avoiding carbs), and you may
just end up with a patty and
condiments. But if you ask for a
“burger” without the patty, you
are just getting the bun, which
is not actually a burger at all.
A burger: the patty is the most crucial part of making it a “burger”

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Every sentence in English contains at least one verb. Therefore, every
English sentence contains at least one lexical category word. And the
smallest possible English sentences contain just this one category, a verb:

Go! Dance!

Play! Eat!
These words imply someone doing the action—you—and are
equivalent in meaning to the following:

You go! You dance!

You play! You eat!

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Therefore, not only does every sentence have at least a verb, but most
sentences also contain at least one noun. Consider the following two-
word sentences:

Birds chirp. Mushrooms stink.

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Sheep baa. Syntax rules.

Rock’n’roll lives.

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In contrast, the nouns standing alone in the below
examples are not “sentences”:

Syntax Sheep

Birds Mushrooms

Rock’n’roll
Blue cheese modifies the patty; an adverb modifies
a verb.
Mustard modifies the bun; an adjective modifies a
noun. 9

In other words: the patty and the bun are still the most essential parts
of the burger. The other categories of items are modifying either the
patty or the bun. You can’t have a burger with just blue cheese and
mustard; you can’t have a sentence with just adjectives and adverbs.

Let’s use these lexical categories to build the sentence.

Start with a verb: 10

Dance.
Add a noun:

Ballerinas dance.
Add an adverb, which modifies the verb:
Ballerinas dance beautifully.
Add an adjective, which modifies the noun:

Beautiful ballerinas dance beautifully.

All together, we have the four lexical categories:
Beautiful ballerinas dance beautifully.

ADJECTIVE NOUN VERB ADVERB

Another examples:
Ugly ducklings swim awkwardly.

Genuine diamonds glisten appealingly.

False lashes attach effortlessly.

 2.
Grammatical Categories
Grammatical categories are everything else:
determiners, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs,
conjunctions, and subordinators/complementizers.

A determiner is a word placed in front of a

noun/before a noun give information such as,
quantity, ownership and specificity.

Quantity
She has two dogs and many cats.
Ownership

Our dog annoys her dog.

Specificity

That dog is the dog we saw yesterday.

 Quantity

one, two, twenty-four

• He did not sleep for twenty-four hours.

many, much, some, several, no

• He slept for several hours.

Ownership

my, your, his , her, its, our, their

• For peace, talk to your enemies, not your friends.

• A country can be judged by the quality of its proverbs.

Specificity

a, an, the

a criminal (non-specific)
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the criminal (specific)

 this, that , these, those

Near Far

Singular this shamrock that shamrock

Plural
these shamrock those shamrock

Quantity

She has two dogs and many cats.

numbers Indefinite
determiners
Ownership
Our dog annoys her dog.
Possessive determiners

Specificity

That dog is the dog we saw yesterday.

Demonstrative articles
determiners
 A Preposition sits before a noun to link it to a
nearby word.
Examples:

• the plums on the box.

• the apple behind the cylinder.

• She taught yoga on the beach as

the sun fell below the horizon.

Prepositions are words that tell where or when

something is in relation to something else.
Examples of prepositions are "in," "on", "at,"
"behind," and "with."
Here are some easy examples of prepositions that tell
us where:
• The cat on the table is called Toby.
• Our lorry is stuck at the traffic lights.

Here are some easy examples of prepositions that tell

us when: • The meeting on Saturday.
• The bell will ring at 7 o'clock.
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 A pronoun is a word that
replaces anything functioning
as a noun.
In these examples, the pronouns are highlighted, and the nouns
they replace are in bold.
• Sarah is my sister. She is also my best friend.
• If Martians exist, they are not "little green men" but tiny
microbes.
• Snow is precipitation in the form of ice
crystals. It originates in clouds when temperatures are
below the freezing point.

• A Noun (a single-word noun).

For example:
• Playful and curious, foxes like to play with
balls, and they often steal them from
backyards and golf courses.

• A Noun Phrase (a multi-word noun).

For example:
• The arctic fox handles the cold better than most
animals on Earth. It does not feel the cold until
the temperature drops to –70°C.
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• A Noun Clause (a multi-word noun with its own
subject and verb).
For example:
• We understand why some people dislike
foxes. It is because a fox will decimate a
chicken coop.

An auxiliary verb (or a helping verb as

it's also called) is used with a main verb
to help express the main verb's tense,
mood, or voice.

• The main auxiliary verbs are to be, to have, and to do. They
appear in the following forms:
• To Be: am, is, are, was, were, being, been, will
be
• To Have: has, have, had, having, will have
• To Do: does, do, did, will do
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Auxiliary Verbs Expressing Tense

• She was waiting for an hour.

• She is waiting in the hall.
• She will be waiting outside.
(In each of these examples, the auxiliary verb to be helps to form the
progressive tense, which is the tense used for ongoing actions.)

• She had drunk it before we arrived.

• She has drunk it already.
• She will have drunk it by then.
(In each of these examples, the auxiliary verb to have helps to form the perfect
tense, which is the tense used for expressing an action's completion.)

• She had been studying before the incident.

• She has been studying.
• She will have been studying for a month at
that point.
(In each of these examples, the auxiliary verbs have and been help to form
the perfect progressive tense, which is the tense used for expressing an
ongoing action's completion.)
 Auxiliary Verbs Expressing Voice

• Our dessert was eaten by the dog.

• The geese are driven through the snicket.
• The phone will be disconnected tomorrow.
(In these examples, the auxiliary verb to be helps to form the passive voice. A
verb is said to be in the passive voice when its subject does not perform the action
of the verb but has the action done to it.)

Conjunctions are words used to

connect words, phrases, or
clauses.
Words

There are three common conjunctions, and," “or,"

and “but"

• She likes skiing and rowing.

• You can stay or leave.
• The dog was big but friendly.
Phrases

• Tell me after dinner or in the morning.

• She can sing like a rockstar and dance like
a ballerina.
Clauses
• He stole the painting after John left but before
Susan gave her speech.
• He is planning to steal the painting, and he
intends to sell it in New York.

Coordinating Conjunctions- join like with like.

• Ned is a fast but unmotivated horse.

Joins two adjectives

• He eats apples and grass.

Joins two nouns

• He will win the race, or he will give up quickly.

joins two independent clauses
Subordinating Conjunctions- join subordinate clauses to
main clauses.

after, although, if, since, until, because

Subordinate clause
main clause
• We will wait here until the rain stops.
joins the clauses
• People are more violently opposed to fur than leather
because it is safer to harass rich women then motorcycle
gangs.

Correlative Conjunctions- come in pairs to join

alternatives or equal elements.
either, or, not only, but also, neither, nor

• You can either take it or leave it.

joins two alternatives

• It is not only unfair but also illegal.

joins two equal elements